Applied Energy 75 (2003) 205211

www.elsevier.com/locate/apenergy

Life-cycle assessment in the renewable

energy sector
Magorzata Goralczyk*
Polish Academy of Sciences, Mineral and Energy Economy Research Institute, ul. Wybickiego 7,
31-261 Krakow, Poland
Accepted 5 December 2002

Abstract
The Polish energy industry is facing challenges regarding energetic safety, competitiveness,
improvement of domestic companies and environmental protection. Ecological guidelines
concern the elimination of detrimental solutions, and eective energy management, which will
form the basis for sustainable development. The Polish power industry is required to systematically increase the share of energy taken from renewable sources in the total energy sold to
customers. Besides the economic issues, particular importance is assigned to environmental
factors associated with the choice of energy source. That is where life-cycle assessment (LCA)
is important. The main purpose of LCA is to identify the environmental impacts of goods and
services during the whole life cycle of the product or service. Therefore LCA can be applied to
assess the impact on the environment of electricity generation and will allow producers to
make better decisions pertaining to environmental protection. The renewable energy sources
analysed in this paper include the energy from photovoltaics, wind turbines and hydroelectric
power. The goal and scope of the analysis comprise the assessment of environmental impacts
of production of 1 GJ of energy from the sources mentioned above. The study will cover the
construction, operation and waste disposal at each power plant. Analysis will cover the
impact categories, where the environmental inuence is the most signicant, i.e. resource
depletion, global warmth potential, acidication and eutrophication. The LCA results will be
shown on the basis of European and Australian research. This analysis will be extended with a
comparison between environmental impacts of energy from renewable and conventional
sources. This report will conclude with an analysis of possibilities of application of the existing
research results and LCA rules in the Polish energy industry with a focus on Polands future
accession to the European Union. Denitions of LCA fundamental concepts, its methodology
and application are described in the ISO 14040-14049 series of standards. These standards

* Tel.: +4812-632-33-00x152; fax: +4812-632-22-45.

E-mail address: goralczyk@min-pan.krakow.pl (M. Goralczyk).
0306-2619/03/$ - see front matter # 2003 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/S0306-2619(03)00033-3

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M. Goralczyk / Applied Energy 75 (2003) 205211

have already been introduced in some countries, but in Poland they are still at the stage of
translation into Polish. Nevertheless some companies in Poland try to assess how their products inuence the environment and what are the possibilities of technology improvement in
the existing production process reduce their environmental impact.
# 2003 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.

According to the Assumptions of Energy Policy in Poland to 2010 [1], the ecological guidelines concerning (i) the elimination of detrimental solutions and (ii)
eective energy management will form the basis for sustainable development. The
Polish power industry is required to systematically increase the share of energy from
renewable sources in the total energy sold to customers.
As indicated by the Strategy of Renewable Energy Development by the Ministry of Environment, the rational use of renewable energy is one of the most important components in trying to achieve sustainable development, which is supposed to
bring eective ecological and economic eects. The strategic goal is to increase the
renewable energy share to 7.5% in 2010 and to 14% in 2020. The target for the year
2002 is set at the level of 2.5% and most of the power-distributing companies meet
that level (see Table 1). However they are reluctant to increase that share above the
required level due to high costs of acquiring that energy type.
For now, it is estimated that the share of energy from renewable sources does not
exceed 5% [2] in the total domestic energy balance. Even though the energy from
renewable sources makes a modest share in the Polish energy sector, Poland has a
signicant potential for a greater energy acquisition from renewable sources (see
Table 2).
Considering that the challenge and legal necessity to adjust to the required levels
exist, it is necessary to undertake an ecological and economic analysis of the
renewable-energy acquisition. Besides the economic issues, particular importance is
assigned to environmental factors associated with the choice of the energy source.
The method that has been chosen to perform such an analysis is life-cycle assessment
i.e. to assess the ecological implications of the acquisition of energy from renewable
sources and thereby determine the environmental impact from cradle to grave.
The main purpose of LCA is not only to identify the environmental impact of
goods and services, but also to create the basis for decisions that promote sustainTable 1
The renewable-energy share of the energy sold by selected power-distributing companies
Power-distributing
company

Renewable-energy
share (%)

Power-distributing
company

Renewable-energy
share (%)

ZE Biaystok SA
ZE Czestochowa SA
ZE Jelenia Gora SA
ZE Koszalin SA

2.5
0.50.6
5
2.5

ZE Krakow SA
ZE Legnica SA
ZE odz SA
ZE Pock SA

2.4
2.5
2.5
2.5

Source: Information from power distributing companies.

M. Goralczyk / Applied Energy 75 (2003) 205211

207

Table 2
The renewable-energy sources annual potential in Poland [PJ]
Energy source

EC Baltic Renewable
Energy Centre
(EC BREC 2000)

Strategy of reduction of
greenhouse gasses

Report for
World Bank

Biomass
Hydro power
Geothermal resources
Wind power
Solar power
Total
Total use of energy from primary
sources in Poland in 1998

895
43
200
36
1340
2514
4069.6

128
50
100
4
55
337

810
30
200
4-5
370
1414

Source: [6].

able development [3]. That impact is analysed during the whole life cycle of the product
or service. LCA can be applied to assess the impact on the environment of energy production and will allow energy producers to make better decisions pertaining to environmental protection. LCA can be used for the following purposes [4]:








Development of business strategy purchasing decisions

Product and process design
Product and process improvement
Setting eco-labelling criteria
Communication about environmental aspects of products
Comparison between dierent goods and services
Identication of places where the environmental impact is the most signicant

The eects on the environment are assessed by the LCA analysis, which encompasses all the phases of delivery of said good or service. The rst phase of the LCA is
goal and scope denition. The aim of this study is to assess the environmental
impact of the production of 1 GJ of energy. The scope will cover the construction,
operation and waste disposal at analysed power plants. To allow the comparison
between dierent ways of energy production, the allocation of every recognised
impact will be made against a functional unit dened for the purposes of this analysis as 1 GJ of energy produced. Next in the LCA is the development of a LCIlife
cycle inventory. This inventory consists of all recognised inputs and outputs to/from
the functional unit. To translate the results achieved in the LCI into the LCIAlifecycle impact assessmentthe impact categories will be used. Analysis will cover the
impact categories where the environmental inuence is the most signicant i.e. global warmth potential, acidication and eutrophication. In Table 3, the description of
considered impact categories, geographical range and way of measuring are presented. The impacts of the particular inventory elements in each impact category are
calculated by respective factors. Therefore the emission of CO2 impacts upon the
green-house eect, but the emission of freons aects both the green-house eect and

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M. Goralczyk / Applied Energy 75 (2003) 205211

Table 3
Impact categories
Category

Measure

Geographical
scope

Eect

Resource depletion

Global

Greenhouse eect
Acidication

1/static reserve life

of substance (years)
1 kg CO2
1 kg SO2

Eutrophication

1 kg PO4

Local

Depletion of
non-renewable resources
Implicated in climate change
Acid rain, destruction of
forests and sh life
Algal blooms in aquatic ecosystems

Global
Regional

Source: [7].

ozone depletion. The emissions of SO2 and NOx are qualied to acidication. In
every case described, the maximum possible eect of the dened factor is taken into
account. On the basis of the data gathered in the inventory phase, the potential
impact on the environment is examined. The LCA results will be shown on the basis
of European and Australian research and will cover hydropower plant, photovoltaic
and wind turbines as well as conventional sources of energy.
The main conclusion from the comparison of the dierent energy-sources is that
the energy from a hydroelectric power station is a very ecient energy generation
technology. In this case, the greenhouse-gas emissions (GGE) have been estimated
to be approximately 40% of the conventional coal-red generation while others
emissions are insignicant [5]. The analysis of energy acquisition from photovoltaics
is based on a large solar farm. The emissions generatedmainly greenhouse gasses
and wastesare the highest among the renewable sources, but relatively low in
comparison with conventional sources. Electricity from wind turbines is positioned
between the hydro and solar power with respect to the amounts of emissions of
NOx, SOx and greenhouse gasses.
To extend this analysis, a comparison between the environmental impacts of
energy from renewable and conventional sources is presented in Table 4 and Fig. 1.
Taking into consideration only the emissions of greenhouse gasses, NOx, SOx and
wastes, the most favourable way of acquisition of energy from fossil fuels is by the
use of natural gas. The oil-red generation of electricity is situated in the middle,
whereas the coal-red power station has the biggest environmental impact, especially due to the amount of generated wastes. Generation of energy from fossil fuels
contributes particularly to greenhouse gas emissions.
Analysing the full LCA performed for conventional energy carriers (Fig. 2), it
turns out that the most burdensome for the environment, is oil-red electricity-generation. The acquisition of energy from coal has the greatest impact in the category
of greenhouse eect and eutrophication. In comparison with crude oil and natural
gas, the generation of energy from coal has a relatively small eect on resource
depletion due to the fact that even if more coal is needed to produce 1GJ of
energythis amount is small in comparison to existing resources. Crude oil has the
biggest impact in the categories of eutrophication, acidication and resource deple-

Data source
Net energy (GJ)
Net GGE (kg CO2)
NOx (g)
SOx (g)
Fresh water (m3)
Waste (g)
Source: [5,7].

Hydroelectric
power station

Electricity from
photovoltaics

Electricity from
wind turbines

Oil-red electricity
generation

Coal red
power station

Natural gas
red power stations

ACARP
Australia
0.012
1.27
10.4
1.8
0.002
0.8

ACARP
Australia
0.28
29
0.36
0.09
0.05
6.4

ACARP
Australia
0.02
1.69
8.6
9.1
0.002
1.75

RCEP
Great Britain

261
575
2690

2359

RCEP
Great Britain

316
513
1210

74823

RCEP
Great Britain

278
464
66

5710

M. Goralczyk / Applied Energy 75 (2003) 205211

Table 4
Energy acquisition from renewable and conventional sources - selected outputs

209

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M. Goralczyk / Applied Energy 75 (2003) 205211

Fig. 1. Energy acquisition from renewable and conventional sourcesselected outputs.

Fig. 2. Environmental impacts of fossil fuels.

tion and also the biggest impact in comparison with other conventional energy carriers. The most environmently-friendly energy carrier is natural gas, with the biggest
environmental impact in the categories of greenhouse eect and resource depletion.
These dierent outcomes reveal the very important issue of data quality and
range. Initially LCA can be performed on approximate data, but to achieve accurate
conclusions, analysis with more detailed data is needed.
Since the presented examples concern non-Polish situations, to achieve a satisfactory analysis for domestic conditions additional analysis will be needed. Nonetheless, the presented research outcomes allow for initial indications of the regions in
Poland suering the biggest environmental danger as a result of the process of

M. Goralczyk / Applied Energy 75 (2003) 205211

211

acquisition of energy. Therefore LCA methodology can be successfully adapted for

Poland. There is a need in Poland for eective environmental management: the
minimisation of the pollution of the environment is one of the most important goals
for the industry, as it aects the companys image and competitiveness in the world
market.
This trend in Poland is supported by studies of the implementation of ISO 14000
family norms, which are currently under verication. Denitions of LCA fundamental concepts, its methodology and application are described in the ISO 1404014049 series of standards. These have already been introduced in some countries,
but not as yet in Poland. Performing a LCA analysis is time and money expensive,
however it can be assumed that due to new regulations in environmental reporting,
the amount and quality of data will increase and will lead to lowering the costs of
performing the LCA.
The subject of energy is a basic aspect in life. Therefore, the eective management
of available resources and minimisation of environmental impact due to consumption of these resources are essential. LCA due to its complex character allows one to
determine how to eectively manage resources both economically and ecologically.
Therefore it is a powerful tool for working out the ways of reducing naturalresources consumption and maintaining a sucient level of these at the same time.
The future application of LCA is seen as a tool supporting decision making where
environmental issues are of the utmost importance.

References
.
[1] Zaozenia polityki energetycznej Polski do 2020 roku [Assumptions of Energy Policy in Poland to
2010], Ministerstwo Gospodarki, Warszawa 2001 [in Polish].
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[2] Kuagowski W. Mozliwos ci wzrostu wykorzystania energii ze zrode odnawialnych w Polsce
intencje a rzeczywistos c. Rynek Energii nr 3/2000 [in Polish].
[3] Udo de Haes HA et al. LCANET Denition document. Leiden 1996. Available from: www.
leidenuniv.nl.
[4] What is LCA? The global compact. United Nations; 2001. Available from: www.unglobalcompact.
org.
[5] Wibberley L, et al. LCA of steel and electricity production. BHP Research 1999. Available from:
www.sustainabletechnology.com.au.
[6] Strategia rozwoju energetyki odnawialnej [Strategy of Renewable Energy Development]. Ministerstwo Srodowiska 2000 [in Polish].
[7] Michaelis P. Life-cycle assessment of energy systems. University of Surrey; 1998.