ISSUE 05

MAY/JUNE 2005

$5.00

KIWI PRAWNS

a tourism success

Green is
the colour
of success
Fish welfare a view from the
United Kingdom

CONTENTS

EDITORIAL
Bureaucracy and costs are stifling aquaculture development

NEWS
A look at whats happening in the industry

BOLD VISION FOR AQUACULTURE CENTRE

Centre will include aquaculture displays and a working hatchery

KIWI PRAWNS: A TOURISM SUCCESS

The Prawn Farm is a tasty addition to Taupos attractions

CLEAN WATER FOR BREAM BAY

A case study of a customised water filtration system

12

10 THE COLOUR OF SUCCESS

Greenshell Mussels win top spot in worldwide seafood guide
12 IS FISH WELFARE IN THE UK
RELEVANT TO NEW ZEALAND
Dr Scott Peddie reviews a major Scottish seminar
14 HANDS-ON APPROACH PAYS OFF
FOR HATCHERY DESIGN
Dr Andrew Morgan highlights some innovative ideas

EDITOR: Keith Ingram

MANAGER: Vivienne Ingram
ISSN 1176-5402 ISSN 1176-8657 (web)

An informative journal
for the aquaculture industry
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ASSISTANT EDITOR:
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CONTRIBUTORS:
Andrew Morgan, Ian Horne,
Peter Stevens, Shelley Doherty,
Scott Peddie, David Cooper

ISSUE 05

MAY/JUN
E 2005

KIWI

$5.00

a tourIisPmRAWNS
success

ON THE COVER:
Kiwi Prawns are
a tourism success
at the Taupo
Prawn Farm
Photo by
Keith Ingram

Green
the co is
lou
of succ r
ess
Fish we
a view lfare United from the
Kingdo
m

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acknowledged. However, all photographic material is copyright and written permission to reproduce in any shape or form is required. Contributions of a nature
relevant to the aquaculture industry are welcomed and industry participants are especially encouraged to contribute. Articles and information printed in
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NZ AQUACULTURE MAY/JUNE 05

EDITORIAL
BY KEITH INGRAM

INDUSTRY NEEDS POSITIVE

GOVERNMENT LEADERSHIP

are I say it.The policy people have once again

appeared to have got it wrong.While the industry
has waited for some positive reforms in the
Aquaculture Law Reform Act, this wait now appears to have
been wasted. Granted, the new act has conferred some
security for existing leaseholders. But for new developments,
the processes under the Resource Management Act and local
authorities now appear to be much more difficult.
Nowhere else in the modern world is the opportunity for
establishing an aquaculture venture wrought with so much
bureaucracy and costs. Its just plain too hard.
Which is a pity. Because in New Zealand we have a pristine
coastline that is ripe for the development of aquaculture to
become one of the fishing industrys leading earners. Now
maybe herein is where the problem lies.At present the
aquaculture industry is tucked under the Ministry of Fisheries,
with the RMA and its associated ministeries having an equal
dabble. Maybe if aquaculture had its own ministry or minister
even if he or she was outside of Cabinet, this industry would
have a greater opportunity to develop.
Meanwhile, we are seeing a brain drain of expertise as
aquaculture industry participants from New Zealand venture
overseas.And when we look at South Australia and other
states where Kiwis are moving to, the first thing we see is the
willingness of the state governments to facilitate aquaculture
development opportunities.
I spoke to one ex-pat Kiwi who spent five years trying to
develop his Greenshell mussel farms in New Zealand. He
achieved the desired result in less than six months in South
Australia, where he is now using New Zealand technology to
cultivate and grow Blueshell mussels.
Sure, you might say, they dont taste the same as the New
Zealand greenlipped mussel. But mark my words, when you
have chefs in Sydney restaurants offering molluscs, and you can
get a dozen Greenshell mussels for A$20, or a bowl of 50 of
the other variety for the same price, it is easy to see where
the competition will come from.
Our market opportunities offshore are only constrained by

our ability to produce to meet the demand.The sooner this

government and local authorities recognise this restraint, and do
something about it, the sooner the industry will start to grow.
In other areas of the aquaculture industry, business is quietly
ticking over. Unfortunately, the threat of urban run-off and
marine pollution from sewage is still impacting on the future
viability of some of our oyster farm developments.
Once again, this is a problem not of the industrys making,
but one where councils or local authorities have failed to step
up to the mark, and are allowing our pristine waters to
continue to be polluted by urban waste.
In this issue, we visit the Prawn Farm in Taupo. Here is a
fantastic example of where the owners have created a niche
market to capitalise on the maximum return of a tourism
opportunity.There is a message here, and maybe its not viable
to duplicate this operation in other areas, because of the lack
of an economical heat source, but there have to be
opportunities with other species, including salmon.
Finally, we read in the media of the discovery of a pond of
marron that escaped from the now-destroyed marron farm in
Warkworth. Sadly, this is a much-reported loss of an excellent
aquaculture opportunity. In speaking with the professionals in
this field, they are unanimous in their view that marron were
never a threat to our native koura, or freshwater crayfish,
because experience has demonstrated that when marron and
koura compete in the same water space, the much more
aggressive koura has always remained the winner. It is a pity
that we didnt have a win-win in this situation, but maybe there
is an opportunity to farm koura. If I was a betting man, I
wouldnt be holding my breath.
On the bright side, we have in the development stages a
New Zealand Aquaculture Centre soon to be established in
Warkworth.The foundations for this centre are already well
established as scientists work on grass carp, silver carp, and
several of our native freshwater species, such as short-finned
eels. Out in the marine field, they are on the verge of breaking
new ground in breeding grey mullet for future marine
farming opportunities.

ac

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MAY/JUNE 05 NZ AQUACULTURE

NEWS

MUSSEL FARMS CAN

FINALLY EXPAND
The way was cleared on February 18 for
mussel farms to expand in Golden and
Tasman Bays in Nelson.
The Tasman District Councils resource
management policy committee signed an
agreement that initially provides for additions
of 50ha to up to 14 aquaculture management
areas. Hurley says the extended area could
reach 700ha, with subsequent additions
eventually reaching 2000ha, subject to
resource consents.
The mayor of the Tasman District, John
Hurley, said it was a very positive step after
five years of appeals from other fishing
interests and environmental groups, followed
by a government moratorium. He says the
agreement is subject only to final agreement
from the Ministers of Conservation and
Fisheries.
BUTTERFISH
BUCK THE SYSTEM
The feeding and nutrient intake of wild and
captive butterfish is to be closely studied by
two scientists at the University of Auckland.
Dr David Raubenheimer, a nutritional

ecologist, and Dr Kendall Clements, an

expert on marine herbivorous fishes aim to
find out how butterfish, also known as
green-bone, defy conventional thinking that
cold-blooded, herbivorous fish only thrive
in warm, ocean environments. Like cows,
many seaweed-eating fishes employ
symbioses with micro-organisms in the gut
to ferment plant foods and extract the
nutrients.
Butterfish are cold-blooded, live in cold
water and feed mainly on kelp, says Dr
Raubenheimer.Theres the general belief that
these animals should not be able to meet
their nutritional needs from these plants
because the microbes needed to break them
down require a relatively high temperature to
function.We aim to find out how they buck
the system.
Butterfish are found in shallow water
around the coasts of New Zealand and its
offshore islands.They are caught in small
commercial quantities by set net, mainly in
Cook Strait.
The two scientists at the School of
Biological Sciences in the Faculty of Science
say that while the project is primarily aimed
at better understanding the nutritional
biology of butterfish and furthering
knowledge about biological systems, there
are potential implications for commercial
fish farming.
The problem with most fish
aquaculture is that carnivorous
fish are farmed, which means
they are fed basically on fish meal,

LESS IS MORE
FOR BLUFF OYSTERS
A survey of the Bluff oyster fishery
carried out in February has revealed little
sign of bonamia, the disease which has
decimated the oyster beds, although the
number of mature oysters remains low,
says Fisheries Minister David BensonPope.
The commercial oyster season opened
on March 27 with the same catch limit applying as last season,
which the minister believes will help ensure the fishery rapidly
rebuilds.
Oyster quota holders have decided to maintain the reduced
limit of 7.5 million oysters, down from the 14.95 million taken
before bonamia killed around one billion oysters between
2000 and 2003.
We are confident the fishery should rebuild rapidly over
the next few years if the disease has run its course, due to the
large number of juvenile oysters, Benson-Pope said.But for
oyster lovers this year will have to be another where less is more.

NZ AQUACULTURE MAY/JUNE 05

Dredging for oyster

samples to survey the
effects of bonamia

These oysters show

no sign of the
dreaded disease

further depleting the oceans resources,

Dr Raubenheimer said.
But butterfish are an edible, herbivorous
fish which could be farmed much more
efficiently and sustainably. It would be
hopelessly inefficient for our pastoral farmers
to farm carnivores, but we do it all the time
with fish.
INNOVATIONS TO DRIVE
EXPORT GROWTH
A new joint venture company has been
launched to help grow New Zealands
exports of seafood and marine products by
developing and commercialising innovative
and appealing products.
The new company, Seafood Innovations
Ltd, is 80 percent owned by SeaFIC (the
New Zealand Seafood Industry Council
Ltd), with Crop and Food Research
holding the other 20 percent of the
shares.The government-funded
Foundation for Research, Science and
Technology is providing significant financial
backing.
We see a world of opportunity opening
for us, the chief executive of SeaFIC, Owen
Symmans, said at the launch of the company
on February 16.
Innovation was one of the keys to building
exports and developing a wider range of
premium products to please consumers and
encourage repeat purchases.
There were huge opportunities to
accelerate growth by adding value, rather
than by increasing volume, Symmans said.
The chief executive of Crop & Food
Research, Paul Tocker, said that there would
also be investment in more research into
understanding the natural properties of
seafood.
Projects will include novel food flavourings,
upgrading lower-valued species, improving the
genetic stock of farmed species, improving
the product quality of existing species, and
handling, processing and packaging
innovations.
He said a major spin-off would be the
transfer of knowledge, and practical industry
implementation of the innovations.
BIOSECURITY
THREATS DISCOVERED
Biosecurity New Zealand has destroyed a
number of freshwater marron crayfish and
gudgeon fish, following their discovery in
West Auckland.
CONTINUED ON PAGE 15

BOLD VISION FOR AQUACULTURE CENTRE

BY DAVID COOPER

bold new venture in

aquaculture is about
to begin construction
in Warkworth, a 35-minute drive
north of Auckland.The New
Zealand National Aquaculture
Centre Ltd will begin construction
in approximately August.
This state-of-the-art facility is the
vision of Paul Decker, the director of the Mahurangi Technical
Institute in Warkworth and a long-time leader in the
aquaculture industry in New Zealand and Australia.The first
drawings for the venture were produced in 1989 so this is
certainly no flash-in-the-pan idea.
The concept is to provide a public facility that tells the story
of aquaculture in New Zealand in the past, present and future.
There will be extensive displays of live fish, with the emphasis
on freshwater species and a strong conservation message.
There will also be a working fish hatchery on the site
providing fingerlings to the small to medium-scale aquaculture
industry, which is a significant sector overseas and looks set to
grow in New Zealand as well.
At present a prospective small-scale fish farmer must
produce his or her own fingerlings, and this can be a stumbling
block to entry in to the industry. It is believed that a reliable
supply of fingerlings will foster and encourage this potential
aquaculture sector.
The centre also intends to breed a range of New Zealand
native freshwater fish to re-introduce into depleted habitats,
and to use as insect control in farm ponds and the like.All too
often these are currently the domain of mosquito fish and
other pest fish species.
Decker currently breeds grass carp and silver carp and is
conducting research into breeding New Zealand shortfin eels in
leased premises within the Mahurangi Technical Institute. He has
assembled a small team of private investors and a nucleus of a
professional staff who are currently building a collection of
species in preparation for stocking the new facility.
Resource consent is being finalised and the Rodney District
Council, which has a policy of encouraging aquaculture with its
boundaries, has been very supportive.
A site on the corner of State Highway 1 and Perry Road, two
minutes north of Warkworth, has been leased. It already has a
small lake on the site for which permits have been granted to
operate a fish-out facility. It will be stocked with perch for this
purpose.A Honey Centre and restaurant is already on the site,
and the surrounding grounds will be landscaped using New
Zealand native edible and medicinal plants.
The landscaping will include a major waterfall that will have
an artificial whitebait spawning site to tell the story of the
spawning of these iconic native fish and to highlight threats to
their conservation.A culvert on the waterfall will include a fish
pass to illustrate how barriers to migration threaten native and
introduced species of fish.

A wetland site will be

constructed on one side of the
waterfall as a tool to teach the
importance of wetlands to the
environment. It will double as a
filter for the fish-out lake.This
wetland, which is designed to
have a sub-surface water flow,
will act as a bio-security feature.
The overflow water from the building and any escaped fish that
it may contain will be directed through the wetland and so
simply become plant fertiliser.
The building containing the live fish displays and hatchery is
to be 1200sq m plus outbuildings. It will be constructed using a
grass roof and innovative design and ventilation features that
the architects promise will give an internal temperature around
18 degrees Celsius even on the hottest day without the use of
airconditioning.This of course will suit the fish just fine,
although one or two systems will need water chillers as well.
The filtration for the hatchery and live displays is to be
supplied from TMC in England through their New Zealand
agents Scanz Technologies, who have been very helpful and
encouraging during the design phase of this project.
The filtration incorporates mechanical filters, bio-towers,
fluidised beds and ultra-violet, supplemented by ozone where
required.Although not strictly fish farming units, these filters
are perfect for the relatively low loads they will be used for.
They are flexible enough to be used in a range of small-scale
intensive systems if required.The filtration will be exposed and
form an integral part of the centres storytelling.
Interest from within the aquaculture industry has been
strong, and the centre already holds a number of orders for
fingerlings from existing and potential fish farmers.They include
some from within the ornamental fish industry, and one for
breeding the native freshwater giant kokopu, Galaxias
argenteus, for conservation purposes.
Contact the NZ National Aquaculture Centre on
09 425 8493 or 021 256 0073 or email david@mti.net.nz

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MAY/JUNE 05 NZ AQUACULTURE

KIWI PRAWNS a tourism success

BY KEITH INGRAM

The entrance to the farm beckons tourists

with a tasty treat to follow

A
Once the baby
prawns are
transferred from
salt water into
fresh, they grow
quickly. Note the
prawn food pellet
in the hand

s wild stocks caught from the ocean floor are being

depleted, there is an ever-increasing worldwide
demand for aquaculture-raised seafood, including
fresh and frozen prawns.
Aquatech Farms Ltd founded New Zealands only geothermal
prawn farm at Wairakei in 1987.Wairakei Prawn Farm has
successfully researched and developed the ability to breed and
grow tropical prawns in captivity in New Zealand using
geothermal heat.The constant 130 degree Celsius heat source is
available nearby from the waste water of the Wairakei
geothermal bore field.
Contact Energy,Wairakeis geothermal power station, utilises
steam and water from the bores to generate electricity.The
heated water is separated and discharged into the Waikato
River via the prawn farm, thus providing the stable 28 degree
Celsius water temperature for breeding Macrobrachium
rosembergii (the Malaysian giant river prawn).
There are over 100 species of Macrobrachium,
but the rosembergii is the best for commercial
production.
They are able to grow very fast and large, with
the prawn farms largest prawn growing to an
amazing 680mm. Females can spawn up to five
times per year with a 50 gramme female
producing up to 50,000 eggs.
Originally set up under a development
programme, the first earthworks began in June

Richard Klein beside the

saltwater spawn tanks

NZ AQUACULTURE MAY/JUNE 05

of 1987. In the first year, a 370sq m hatchery was designed and

built, along with an associated pump house, a heat exchange
installation, a laboratory, prawn storage and packing areas, plus
an administration area and a workshop.
The outside ponds range in depth from 1m at the shallow end
to 1.2m at the deep end.The ponds, once dug, were coated in a
200mm layer of compacted volcanic ash to form a natural base
for the new aquaculture environment.
Plastic structures were made and placed throughout the ponds.
These early structures, or habitats, as they are known, were
initially made from discarded plastic bread crates. But by good
fortune, a large number of plastic gratings measuring about 1m by
800mm were surplus to requirements at the power station, but
were ideal for building the habitat structures on the farm.
About a third of the pond floor area is covered in these
habitats, which the prawns, being nocturnal grazers and
opportunistic cannibals, use for shelter and safety.
Broodstocks from Malaysia were imported in December
1987, and by December 1988 all the developed ponds were
filled with about 150,000 New Zealand prawns. But all was not
going well for the developing venture.As the price of imported
prawns maintained a competitive edge, the prawn farm began to
struggle.And while the company had developed the skills and
expertise to be able to grow and raise prawns in captivity, the
economics were being viewed as marginal.
In 1990,Aquatech Farms Ltd sold the Wairakei prawn farm to
a new partnership made up of Richard Klein and Terry Toomey.
They formed the privately owned company Prawn Farm and
remain today as its only shareholders.
Richard Klein, the principal on-site partner, started off after
leaving school by doing a trade apprenticeship as a diesel
mechanic (heavy equipment). He had in his mind a wish to go
dry stock farming, and with the North Sea oil exploration being
in full swing in the mid-1980s, he decided to join the oil industry
as a qualified diesel mechanic to build a bankroll so that he
could purchase his dream farm.
Six years later, in 1990, he returned to New Zealand to find
that the beef farm industry was depressed, but tourism was on
the up. In looking around, he stumbled across the experimental
prawn farm which had been going for three years and was really
struggling and heading nowhere.

An example of the habitat

placed in the tank and ponds
for prawns and shellfish

Lines in the Water

a History of Greenshell
Mussel Farming in New Zealand

Richard could see the potential of adding value to the farm by

bringing in tourists.With this in mind, he brought the complex
with his financial partner,Terry, and immediately developed a
restaurant on the site.This early restaurant consisted of a large
tent on the bank of the Waikato River, with barbecue tables and
chairs, a food preparation area and a separate small toilet facility.
The idea of tourists calling in and having a tour to see how
New Zealand prawns were bred and grown to harvest size and
finally tasting them in the restaurant tent had considerable
appeal, and the prawn farm soon became a popular destination.
In 1991 the complex expanded by another four ponds to
bring the total to 19, covering 6ha, and a hatchery that was
producing from 300,000 to 500,000 larvae a month. Each pond
contains 60,000cu m of water.
The site was ideal for tourism development, as it was close to
clean, fresh water at the head of the Waikato River, just below
the Huka Falls, with a nearby geothermal heat source, and it
enjoyed Contact Energys willing support of the project.This in
turn demonstrated the power companys clean, green New
Zealand image of utilising a renewable resource to generate
power with no negative discharges into the river.
The prawn farm is essentially in three stages.The prawn
hatchery operates with such efficiency that the staff only need
to cycle the broodstock through the hatchery twice out of five
cycles a year.The hatchery contains a base broodstock of 600
prawns, with seven females to each male prawn. Prawns live for
18 months to two years, and replacement broodstock is
selected from the main stock in an ongoing programme.
When the hatchery wants to cycle the prawns for breeding,
the female prawns in berry are introduced to salt water.This is
part of their natural lifecycle, as the freshwater prawns leave the
rivers in their natural Malaysian habitat to breed in the saltwater
estuaries.
Once they have hatched, the larvae are raised on artemia
(brine shrimp) for one month.They then become post-larvae
and are introduced into the freshwater environment and go into
the nursery.They live there for two to three months and grow
to between 0.5g and 1g before being introduced to the large,
on-growing ponds.
The farm has two hatchery tanks, with the saltwater
CONTINUED ON NEXT PAGE

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MAY/JUNE 05 NZ AQUACULTURE

CONTINUED FROM PREVIOUS PAGE

Female prawns
in berry prior
to release

system totalling 20cu m, and 27 nursery tanks totalling

1700cu m of water.
From hatching to a commercial harvesting weight of 25g to
35g takes 10 months.
During this time it takes two tonnes of prawn feed to
produce one tonne of prawns.The feed is imported from Asia,
as they have developed the best prawn feed technology.
The problem is that prawns are nocturnal scavengers, and
the very small feed pellets need to remain stable in the water
on the bottom for at least three hours before breaking down to
pulp, says Richard.
By comparison, other fish farms use New Zealand-produced
fish feed, where the fish feed on the pellets as they drop
through the water column.
The main feeding time takes place in late afternoon, with many
of the prawns only leaving the safety of their habitat to feed as
darkness falls. So it is important that the food has soluble
stability, something that the New Zealand suppliers have not yet
fully developed.
The ponds are very efficient and develop their own ecology,
which is important for prawn growth.This biodiversity, made up
of photoplankton, algae and other natural greeblies, darkens the
water and thus protects the prawns from sunlight and external
predators, including birds.
Nothing from the ponds enters the Waikato River.All the
ponds drain naturally down to a lower catchment settlement
pond, where the water is pumped through filters and the heat
exchanger before being recirculated around the pond
network.A biologist on the site monitors the prawns growth
rates, and works out the waste averages for feeding to ensure
that food is not wasted and fouls the bottom of the ponds.
This feed is spread over the pond daily using a converted bulk
fertiliser spreader.
Every three to five years, depending on how the pond
management has been going, a pond is taken out of production,
drained, and left to dry.There are normally one or two ponds in
the drying stage at any time.
Once the sediment, which contains natural runoff dirt,
excrement and excess food, has dried into pancakes, a Bobcat is
used to scrape the pond clean, and the material is carted away
for dumping. More clean, compacted ash is then applied, and the
ponds are refilled and allowed to stabilise before being restocked.
The farm produces up to 32 tonnes of prawns per annum,
with 24 tonnes being sold through the farm restaurant as a
value-added product.The balance, which is surplus to the

NZ AQUACULTURE MAY/JUNE 05

restaurants needs, is sold to Solander Fisheries in Nelson, where

it is destined for New Zealands restaurant tables.
But its the manner in which the owners have developed the
farm as a value-added tourist attraction that is the success story.
The farm employs 60 staff and 55 restaurant and hospitality
staff.They also look after the 30-minute guided tours that
operate on the hour from 11am until 4pm daily.The restaurant
is open every day.
The on-site activities include prawn fishing and a Killer Prawn
golf driving range.Also on site, as a separate identity, is Huka Jet,
which offers jetboat rides to the base of the Huka Falls.The
activities of Huka Jet are complementary to the overall tourism
destination the farm is trying to create.
The farm and the restaurant now attract over 200,000 visitors
a year. In 2001 and 2002 the complex saw a major upgrade of the
restaurant and the opening of a retail shop, selling branded Prawn
Farm products. In December 2002 the prawn farm built its new
kitchen and toilets, and extended the restaurant to provide room
for a comfortable lounge.The restaurant and outside dining area
can now cater for over 400 seated diners at any time.
In April 2002, the final nine 2020sq m (half-acre) ponds were
built, giving a total of 19 ponds.When fully stocked they can
potentially produce 32 tonnes of New Zealand prawns per year.
Tour coaches now make the Huka Falls area a regular drop-off
with visits to the prawn farm.The complex is geared to cater
for coachloads of tourists, and the staff have them through the
30-minute guided tour, seated, fed and away in just over an hour.
I had to ask the obvious question.What do they pay to attract
the coach tour operators business. I got a very prompt
response from Richard.Nothing!
We are happy to give the driver a free lunch, but thats where
it stops. It is up to the tour operators to make a commercial
decision as to whether they think the prawn farm is a
worthwhile destination for their clients. Not us!
The restaurant menu, while focussing around prawns, is varied,
and also offers non-prawn dishes. But we were there to taste
Kiwi prawns.And we were not disappointed when the platter
was placed before us.While a choice of dips was available, I
chose the traditional seafood dip, with the prawns being
supported by a hot and flavoursome cumin seed bun, and a light
green salad.To ensure the busy traveller remains clean, small
galvanised buckets of warm water and large disposable napkins
arrive just ahead of the meal.
Dishes and buckets of prawn bits are taken away promptly so
that there is no lingering after-smell.
When asked where to next, Richard says,Iceland! We are
running a 50:50 joint venture between New Zealand Prawns
and the Icelandic government with a programme that has been
going for nearly five years. It is just about to go into commercial
production.
Our future growth lies in exporting New Zealand prawn
breeding stock and technology.We would also look at any
suitable New Zealand enterprise that might wish to develop ongoing prawns from nursery to adult, as our hatchery is totally
under-utilised.
In closing, clearly the success of this venture has been the
ability of the two partners to look outside the square and
develop tourism opportunities to add value to growing
New Zealand prawns.

ac

CLEAN WATER FOR BREAM BAY

In the early 1980s, a water filtration method using a stack of
grooved polypropylene discs was introduced into the New
Zealand water supply industry.The special Arkal filtration method
is said to especially suit applications where organic material
needs to be removed incorporating a self-cleaning function.
This is true in the growing application of aquaculture, which
also has the added complication of being a highly corrosive
environment.The disc filtration method was introduced in
1986 for aquaculture on Stewart Island, but the latest
application at Bream Bay is said to show how the
filtration method can be customised for demanding
applications.
When the New Zealand government decided to
make the transition to more environmentally friendly
geothermic hydraulic power production technology,
the old Marsden Point plant at Bream Bay, which ran
on fuel oil, was subsequently closed down.
Meanwhile, the National Institute of Water and
Atmospheric Research was seeking a warm water
aquaculture site. It had to be close to a main centre and
to a supply of good quality seawater, be flat, low-lying
and with road access, and have electricity and adequate
fresh water to hand. It was a demanding set of criteria.
The Bream Bay site fulfilled all these requirements, and
more.The disused Marsden Point power station site could be
fully utilised again, as it already had a seawater intake system in
the form of four 2m diameter pipes, as well as buildings,
storage sheds and a surrounding buffer zone.
The site was adopted for the development of an
environmentally friendly, profitable hatchery for selling fish to
onshore saltwater fisheries throughout New Zealand.
FILTRATION ROLE
Very clean water is required during spawning and immediately
after hatching.The seawater supply is pumped through the old
power station seawater intake system from a depth of about a
kilometre and a distance of a few hundred metres from the
shore.Although these conditions provide a fairly clean water
supply, it does contain high levels of organic matter, particles of
fine sand, and other pollutants found in the sea.
Deeco Services designed and supplied an Arkal Filtration
customised integrated system to supply the water filtration
required to meet the water quality needs of the site.
Two applications had to be catered for, one with a fine filtration
grade and a low flow rate, and the other with a high flow rate.
APPLICATION 1 STAGE 1:
Water is pumped directly through to the all-plastic Arkal Spin
Klin automatic disc filtration system.The system comprises 18
2in units for 150m3/h; 55 micron filtration grade, and an
external source automatic backwash.
It is constructed entirely of corrosion-free plastic, and is said
to provide efficient and precise particle separation, low energy
and water consumption.
The grooved disc filtration technology provides precise
filtration with minimum backwash water consumption, while
the plastic material resists corrosion from the seawater.

Galaxy Spin
Klin filtration

Two stages of
filtration

This system has proven to be an excellent solution for this

particularly demanding niche.
STAGE 2:
Nine x 48in plastic Arkal granular filter battery at 10 micron
filtration grade. In order to achieve low energy consumption
during filtration, backwash is performed using an external clean
water supply.This battery filters water to the quality required
by the hatchery.
APPLICATION 2
Water is pumped directly to a 10-unit Galaxy battery for
filtration to 55 microns.
The system comprises 15 Spin Klin Galaxy units for higher
flow rates; 55 micron filtration grade and an external
automatic backwash.
Water is filtered to the quality required for more
developed fry before they are transferred to on-growers.

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VIP.AC01

MAY/JUNE 05 NZ AQUACULTURE

THE COLOUR OF SUCCESS

BY SHELLEY DOHERTY MARKET PROMOTIONS MANAGER
FOR THE NEW ZEALAND MUSSEL INDUSTRY COUNCIL

After thinning,
the recovered
mussels are
re-seeded onto
new ropes.
The stocking
mesh is
biodegradable

hen the American company Blue Ocean Institute

listed New Zealand GreenshellTM mussels at the
top of their ocean-friendly seafood guide last
September, it underscored the growing importance of sustainable
seafood to New Zealands export markets.
The Greenshell mussels rating of 3.45 out of a possible four
was the highest rating for any seafood listed in the guide.This is
not a small accomplishment, given the level of scrutiny required
to achieve such a score. Five key criteria were used to
determine Greenshell mussels top rating, including operational
risks, the ecological footprint of feed, pollution, risk to other
species and the effects on sensitive coastal habitats.
Several other major environmental agencies, including the
National Audubon Society, Environmental Defence, and the
United Kingdom Marine Conservation Society continue to
rank farmed mussels as one of the most eco-friendly
seafood species.
Are eco-friendly foods that important? Who really cares? As a
growing trend, sustainable seafood choices continue to influence
buying decisions in major seafood markets like the United States
and Europe.According to Lisa Duchene in a recent SeaFood
Business article, market demand for sustainable eco-friendly fish
is now crossing over from niche markets to the mainstream.
More environmental agencies are using species score cards to
influence what seafood consumers buy, based on how well the
species is managed under environmentally sustainable conditions.
Seafood eco-labels can now readily identify a growing following,
and represent a differentiation for which people are prepared to
pay a premium - essentially a definition of environmentally
responsible and sustainable
seafood purchasing.
Whether at a retailer or a
restaurant, a new policy of
corporate ethics is driving
demand for a responsible
supply of seafood. In 2004,
shoppers dont have to go
very far to find examples of

A close-up view of a re-seeded rope

this new ethos in purchasing departments around the world.

Ahold USA, which is owned by the worlds second-largest
food retailer, has worked on sourcing sustainable seafood for the
last five years.The worlds largest casual dining restaurant
company, Darden Restaurants, is two years into a sustainable
seafood purchasing effort, and Sysco, the largest distributor in
the United States, is doing the same for its branded seafood line.
Third party assurances such as that given by the Blue Ocean
Institute to our Greenshell mussels is in marketing terms an
extremely valuable recognition.
The executive officer of the New Zealand Mussel Industry
Council, Lorna Holton, sees great benefits for the Greenshell
mussel industry.Internationally, the New Zealand seafood
industry is well recognised as being at the forefront of
sustainable fisheries management.The rigours of the Resource
Management Act, and regulatory controls on this industry,
ensures that New Zealand Greenshell mussels are grown to
the highest environmental standards.To have this recognised
worldwide is a real boost for this industry.
The mussel industry invests heavily in scientific research to
better understand the impacts of mussel farming operations on
the marine environment. Long before mussels can be grown in
New Zealand coastal waters, a whole raft of regulatory
requirements must be met across a number of central and local
government agencies, Holton said.
The Greenshell mussel industry has developed an
internationally recognised voluntary environmental code of
practice which ensures all activities from handling seed mussels
through to harvesting and processing of the finished product
are measured against a set of government and
industry-agreed best management practices.
Each year since 2000 the participating farmers
actively monitor their activities against these
standards and look for better ways to improve
their performance.
The industry has seen it as a deliberate
strategy to promote environmentally
sustainable practices within the industry.
Environmental responsibility is just a smarter
way of doing business in todays changing
world. Mussel farming in New Zealand is
recognised as a low-impact marine activity.The Environmental
Code of Practice is about enhancing this activity so that it
continuously delivers on its promises of preserving the marine
environment within which we work.
The Blue Ocean Institutes top pass mark is really a positive
recognition of a solid industry that walks the talk on
environmental issues.
She says the industry is gaining more recognition as a source
of environmentally sustainable seafood. Mussel exporters were
now able to gain real leverage from that, with a product
name set apart from other seafood species.

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10

NZ AQUACULTURE MAY/JUNE 05

 All Polymeric Construction

Modular Systems
Three Stage Filtration:
Hydrocyclone
Disc Filtration
Sand Media

ARKAL FILTRATION SYSTEMS

Kibbutz Bet Zera, Jordan Valley, Israel
Tel: (972)-4-6775140, Fax: (972)-4-6775476
E-mail: filters@arkal.com

DEECO SERVICES LIMITED

PO Box 33-226, Petone, Wellington, NZ
Tel: (64)-4-568-5293, Fax: (64)-4-568-5273
E-mail: service@deeco.co.nz
VIP.AC05

IS FISH WELFARE IN THE UK

relevant to New Zealand
BY DR SCOTT PEDDIE

Figure 1. Skeletal
deformities such
as these are an
issue in both
farmed and wild
fish. (Images
courtesy of
Gordon Ritchie
and Laura Gill,
Nutreco ARC,
Norway)

12

ish welfare was the subject of a two-day seminar

organised and chaired by Edward Branson, the senior
vice-president of the United Kingdoms Fish Veterinary
Society.The Edinburgh event held late last year attracted a wide
range of delegates from diverse backgrounds.
The programme of events discussed the current status of fish
welfare research in general before focussing on the welfare of
cultured fish in particular. Due to the generic nature of many of
the points raised and debated, the seminar is of interest to the
fish farming industry in New Zealand as a whole, and salmon
farmers in particular.As a result, this article focusses on the key
points raised, and their relevance to aquaculture in New Zealand.
Professor Alistair Lawrence of the Scottish Agricultural College
started the event by asking, what is welfare? He outlined the
history of animal welfare research in broad terms, highlighting the
divergent approaches of economists and biologists to the welfare
question. Professor Lawrence also briefly discussed an area of
concern to most food producers, namely, that there is often a
difference between what consumers want in a welfare context,
and what theyre actually willing to pay for.
Dr Victoria Braithwaite of the University of Edinburgh then
focussed on fish specifically, by providing an overview of the
behavioural research work being carried out with fish to
demonstrate their impressive cognitive abilities.
Later in the session, Dr Lynne Sneddon, of the University of
Liverpool, summarised the evidence available in the scientific
literature to indicate not only that fish can detect painful stimuli,
but also to suggest that they are indeed able to feel pain and
experience fear.These two factors together mean that the
welfare question is a legitimate one from a scientific perspective.
The presence of a stress response in fish was discussed in an
interesting presentation by Dr Tom Pottinger of the NERC
Centre for Ecology and Hydrology. If a fish is exposed to a
stressful experience over a prolonged period, it can ultimately
result in a decrease in immune function, growth rate and
reproductive output.That said, the link between the stress
response and fish welfare is not a simple one, and long-term
stress and its effects are more likely to indicate poor welfare
than short-lived transient occurrences.

NZ AQUACULTURE MAY/JUNE 05

On a practical note, Dr Pottinger explained that the stress

response could be reduced via optimised husbandry practices,
therapeutic intervention where disease is an issue, and selective
breeding where appropriate.
Professor Felicity Huntingford of the University of Glasgow
outlined the basic indices, such as colouration and fin condition,
which researchers and fish farmers typically employ to assess the
welfare status of fish. She also remarked that although
aquaculture is the main focus of attention for those concerned
with fish welfare,wild fish also encounter natural stressors
which can potentially threaten their welfare.These include the
presence of predators, lack of food, disease, and sub-optimal
environmental conditions, among others.
FISH WELFARE
Nick Lymbery presented the position of the World Society for
the Protection of Animals on cultured salmonid welfare. He
outlined the organisations perspective on stocking densities,
disease and its treatment, grading, transport, breeding protocols,
feed withdrawal and harvesting techniques.
In the open discussion that followed, numerous delegates
contested Lymberys assertions, questioning the accuracy and
relevance of many of the comments he made. Nevertheless, the
presentation gave an interesting insight into the perceptions of
special interest groups opposed to salmonid culture.
Although infectious diseases and some of the other issues
raised by the society are not relevant to New Zealand farmers,
the tenor of the comments will be familiar to those involved in
New Zealand salmon farming.
A fish farmers perspective on the fish welfare issue was
provided by Nick Read of Alderly Trout Farm.After highlighting the
divergence in the publics perception of welfare and the reality
experienced by the farmer, he called for a more realistic and
constructive dialogue between special interest groups and farmers.
Dr Dave Robb of EWOS Innovation presented an overview
of issues relating to feed withdrawal, pre-harvest handling and
harvesting technique in farmed fish. Pete Southgate of the Fish
Vet Group followed with a presentation on fish
transportation systems, their impact on welfare and strategies
to minimise any impact.
Pete Southgate emphasised that there was little research on
transport-related welfare. Nevertheless, he pointed out that the
degree of impact varied according to the species of fish
concerned, their life cycle stage, water quality and the duration of
the transport. He said that farmers could optimise the fishs
welfare by adding salt and biocides/ammonia absorbers to the
water during transportation. However, more definitive guidelines
were required to assist fish farmers in conducting pre-transport
checks and monitoring, both during and after transportation.
Dr Jimmy Turnbull of the Institute of Aquaculture at the

University of Stirling discussed the results of studies

investigating the link between stocking density and welfare.
Dr Turnbull concluded that on-farm welfare could neither be
accurately predicted nor controlled by stocking density.Too
many other factors, such as water quality, made a simple link
impossible to infer.
Using the stocking density issue as an example, he also made
the general point that extrapolation of data from terrestrial
systems was fraught with difficulties. He also contested that it
was better for farmers and other interested parties to aim for
realistic, incremental improvements in welfare, rather than
focussing on unachievable goals.
Dr Tim Ellis followed with a discussion of fin erosion, a
condition seen in some fish species, but not in others.Although
there was no direct evidence linking fin erosion and welfare in
fish, there was a theoretical link, Dr Ellis said.
The factors causing fin erosion were still poorly understood,
although researchers in the United Kingdom were now
investigating this.The results of this research, although not
involving chinook salmon, will no doubt be of interest to New
Zealand salmon farmers.
Tom Turnbull of Scottish Seafarms gave an interesting
presentation on skeletal deformities in salmon (See figure 1) and
their potential impact on stress tolerance and overall welfare.A
phenomenon actively under investigation in Scotland and
Norway, skeletal malformation is seen in both wild and farmed
fish, he said.The results of this research, undertaken by Dr
Gordon Ritchie and Laura Gill of the Nutreco Aquaculture

Research Centre, will be published shortly and should make for

interesting reading.
Dr Sunil Kadri of Aquaculture Innovation and the University of
Glasgow briefly outlined the current research on the welfare of
new species, including Arctic char and carp. He concluded with
the observations that different species reacted differently to
identical situations, therefore generalisations should be avoided in
the welfare debate.
After formal presentations ended the delegates were split into
four focus groups and asked to consider which key parameters,
in their opinion, should be included in on-farm welfare
assessment protocols.
CONCLUSION
The fish welfare debate engages key stakeholders in the
aquaculture industry worldwide, and is therefore of key
importance to fish farmers in New Zealand.That the UK
conference focussed primarily on Atlantic salmon and trout
should not take away its relevance to chinook salmon farmers
operating in the southern hemisphere.
The meeting highlighted the need for further research on the
optimal conditions for rearing stock. New Zealand farmers face
added difficulties, given the paucity of research published
concerning chinook salmon. Nevertheless, the gap between the
public perception of fish welfare and reality requires the
attention of all those involved in aquaculture. Finally, the
organisers intend to publish the proceedings of the
meeting in book form.

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VIP.AC04

MAY/JUNE 05 NZ AQUACULTURE

13

HANDS-ON APPROACH

pays off for hatchery design

BY DR ANDREW MORGAN

n the 10 years that I have been involved with hatcheries, I

have seen some really innovative ideas used to solve
problems associated with breeding and rearing marine
organisms. My experience has given me real insight into some of
the problems associated with running and maintaining these
facilities.*
Some of these are highlighted here and outlined for discussion
in the future.
SEAWATER INTAKE
I think the most impressive seawater intake design I have seen
would have been at a hatchery located on Bribie Island, just
north of Brisbane,Australia.This intake system took seawater
through a pipe about 100m offshore, through the sand dunes and
pumped it up to the top of a 30m water tower.The whole
station was gravity fed from this tower.

The pumping
station at the
Bribie Island
Aquaculture
Research
Centre filters
seawater and
sends it to
the top of a
water tower.
The building
houses all the
electronics
and the air
blowers

14

Originally seawater was sucked through the sand at the

entrance to the pipe offshore, but this proved ineffective and was
changed to a huge, land-based sand filter, which worked much
better.The use of submersible pumps or any stainless steel was
avoided, as these can be the bane of intake systems, as has
proven the case elsewhere.
In large hatcheries such as at Bribie Island, or even smaller,
commercial-scale hatcheries and ongrowing systems used for
abalone, for example, I have seen a good old common swimming
pool sand filter being used to pump seawater around a hatchery
after it has been taken from the coast through an inlet and landbased pumping system.
The common drinking water filter cartridges found in houses
were plumbed in line with sand filters, and various micron
cartridges placed inside.These seemed to work effectively, but
the systems were backwashed periodically to keep things
running.
I remember that backwashing was a big deal at Bribie Island, as
we would have to shut the main line in the hatchery off and flush

NZ AQUACULTURE MAY/JUNE 05

it with chlorine - no small task for such a big facility.All the

plumbing was plastic, and PVC ball valves were used on all the
outlets.
From what I remember, there was not one piece of stainless
steel anywhere.This was a huge hatchery that worked very
effectively, thanks to good design.
BUILDING DESIGN
Building design needs to complement good seawater intake
design, otherwise it is pointless designing a wonderful intake
system that is then serviced by inadequate space and water
utilisation.
At Bribie Island the pump room was a separate, closed-off
room with proper ventilation, and all the electronics were in
sealed cabinets.As the room was located a few hundred metres
back from the beach, it was critical that everything was sealed to
prevent rust and corrosion.
We had some really good temperature-controlled wet and dry
laboratories in the complex.These were ideal for growing algae,
running experiments and maintaining sensitive equipment. Good
extractor fans were designed to handle the salt-laden air and
high humidity.The wet and wet/dry laboratories were straight off
the main tank rooms, and were perfectly placed for working with
the animals.
The plumbing in the actual buildings was great.All the floor
areas were concrete. Drainage and harvest pits sunk in at regular
intervals fed a large, central drain running through the middle of
the complex and outside to a central sump. From there it was
pumped back out to sea.
The open space and drainage, together with all the overhead
seawater supply just above head height, made for a perfect
integration of working space and equipment. Mind you, if you
were exceptionally tall you had to watch your head.
BIOFILTERS AND RECIRCULATION
I have seen some innovative designs for biofiltration used for
various tank systems. In particular, during my time at Bribie Island
these systems were used for maintaining mud crab broodstock,
Moreton Bay bugs and even ongrowing glass eels.These homemade biofilters were used in combination with either partial or
full recirculation of seawater through the system.
For example, a small, 200 litre tank containing Moreton Bay
bugs had the two conical-shaped tanks next to them filled with
crushed shell.
A pipe through which air was supplied created an airlift to
circulate the seawater through the filter and back into the tank.
For mud crab broodstock, a cloth similar to weed mat was
placed over the top of crushed shell in a header tank, through
which seawater was pumped from the broodstock tank. In this
case partial recirculation was used, as there was still a steady

NEWS continued

supply of new seawater that ran through an ultraviolet filter.

I remember using a 16 tonne tank for holding sea cucumbers
in which a biofilter was placed underneath a cloth and sand
substrate. Hundreds of plastic balls were placed on the bottom
of the tank. Four sections of pipe bisected the tank floor and
ended in airlifts on the inside of the tank.This circulated the
seawater through the cloth, sand and plastic balls, and then along
the pipes and to the surface of the seawater above.
In the case of eels, a large header tank was set up with a cloth
to act as a trickle filter for water going into the header tank.
Hundreds of plastic balls in the tank were placed to act as a
biofilter.These were just some of the examples of do-it-yourself
biofiltration used at the research centre.
TANK DESIGN
I have seen many and varied tank designs used in my time, from
batch exchange setups with airlifts, to large, flow-through setups
and continuous flow-feeding with various species of algae.
At Bribie Island, oval-shaped tanks were used to rear Moreton
Bay bugs in a similar way to how atremia tanks would be used
for rearing and breeding.A central divider was used to create an
oval raceway.Air lifts were placed around the outside, along with
a jet of seawater.This created a continuous current and, along
with being fed chopped up pipis, for which they had an insatiable
appetite, worked quite well.
Mud crab larvae were usually reared in large, five tonne flatbottomed tanks, which was nothing unusual. But the way they
settled crab larvae was interesting.They would hang large
numbers of thread in the water with hundreds of pieces of shade
cloth cut up and threaded onto them.Again, airlifts circulated
seawater for batch exchange culture.
In fact I have not often seen others using the airlift design in
batch exchange culture for tank design. Usually standard aeration
is provided using air stones.At Bribie Island, however, it was
common to plumb airlifts in separate tanks adjacent to the main
tank and circulate the water through some sort of home-made
biofilter.
Examples abound in my experiences with working in and
visiting hatcheries, including an extensive amount of experience in
setting up and culturing algae. Placement of air stones, circulation
of water in tanks, completely closed barrel-shaped tanks - the list
goes on. I suppose the point is that there are a lot of simple,
cost-effective methods that can be employed in hatchery design
and technology that are just as effective commercially as they are
experimentally.
A good old do-it-yourself nature and some hands-on
experience goes a long way in looking after animals for research
and commercial-scale culture.The tendency to over-engineer
commercial hatcheries, or the use of contractors with limited
practical experience in working with seawater, can result in
budget blowouts and ongoing problems with seawater supply.
The animals being looked after may limit investment of resources
in equipment and human resources.
* Dr Morgan spent several years with the Queensland Department of
Primary Industries Bribie Island Aquaculture Research Centre. He also
spent several years designing, rebuilding and running the Leigh Marine
Laboratory Hatchery, and has visited numerous other
hatcheries in New Zealand and overseas.

ac

They were found at a disused service

station and at a pond at South Head,
Kaipara, said Ron Thornton of Biosecurity
New Zealand.
The ponds were drained and the
gudgeon and marron were destroyed.
Marron (Cherax tenuimanus) and
Marron (Cherax tenuimanus)
gudgeon (Gobio gobio) are considered to
pose a significant threat to native freshwater species and
are classified as unwanted organisms under the
Biosecurity Act 1993. Marron is a freshwater crayfish
native to Australia. It is considered to be a delicacy.
Gudgeon are a small bait fish popular with coarse
fishermen in Great Britain. It is a voracious carnivore.
Thornton said the marron may have originated from a
marron farm at Warkworth which was closed down in
1993 after DoC expressed concerns about the impact
these crayfish could have on native fauna, including koura.
All the marron on the farm at the time were destroyed,
but some may have been removed before the then
Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries took over
management of the farm.The gudgeon are thought to have
been smuggled into New Zealand to provide bait for
coarse fishing enthusiasts. Coarse fishing is the name given
to fishing in still or slow waters for inferior eating fish
such as tench, carp and catfish caught using worms and
bread as bait.They must not be removed alive from the
pond or waterway where they are caught.
Anyone who discovers unusual fish or crayfish should
call 0800 80 99 66.
RESEEDING TRIALS BOOSTED
Trials to reseed cockles at Takahiwai near Whangarei
have received a boost of almost $37,500 from an annual
fund designed to improve the health of Whangarei
Harbour.
The cash comes from funds provided by Northport Ltd
as part of the resource consent conditions for its
deepwater port at Marsden Point.
The port company agreed on February 17 to put up
$500,000 over 10 years for improvements to the health of
the harbour and to study the effects of port development
on significant Maori sites.
Northland Regional Council coastal monitoring team
leader Bruce Howse - who administers the fund on behalf
of the NRC - says two projects put forward by the
National Institute of Water and Atmospheric Research
had secured this years funding.
NIWA had sought $37,446 for the third stage of
ongoing work to monitor existing cockle reseeding trials
at Takahiwai.This proposal involves the expansion of
these trials and/or the establishment of new reseeding
trials, and the monitoring of these through to February,
2006.
NIWA had also sought up to $46,220 for seagrass
restoration trials in Whangarei Harbour, but regional
councillors agreed to grant $5000, dependent on
NIWA successfully locating other sources of funding for
the work.
MAY/JUNE 05 NZ AQUACULTURE

15

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