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Journal of Business Research

Redening social marketing with contemporary commercial marketing denitions

Stephen Dann
School of Management, Marketing & International Business, ANU College of Business & Economics, LF Crisp Building, 26, Room 1070, The Australian National University,
Canberra ACT 0200, Australia

a r t i c l e

i n f o

Article history:
Received 1 January 2009
Received in revised form 1 January 2009
Accepted 1 February 2009
Keywords:
Social marketing denition
Marketing denition
Leximancer

a b s t r a c t
Social marketing is based on the adaptation of the contemporary commercial marketing theory and practice as
a means of guiding and aiding social change campaigns. This paper draws on recent developments in
commercial marketing theory and prior work in social marketing denitions to create a new denition of social
marketing which integrates the commercial denitions of the American Marketing Association (AMA) and
Chartered Instituted of Marketing (CIM) with established social marketing denitions from the past thirty
years of social marketing conceptual development. The development of the denition is supported through the
use of qualitative research technique of text mining which uncovered a core series of principles consistent to
the historical denitions of social marketing. Finally, the new denition also introduces clarication of several
key subcomponent elements as part of an expanded denition of social marketing.
2009 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction
The paper introduces the new denition of social marketing which
recognizes the core objective of social marketing is to facilitate social
change through increasing the adoption of a positive behavior (exercise)
or decreasing the use of a negative behavior (over nutrition), and attempts to facilitate the change by moving the individual's preference
away from the negative actions (under exercising, over eating) towards
the more positive outcomes (exercise, diet change) for the benet of
the individual, group or society. The rationale for a new denition is
based on the release of the American Marketing Association (2008)
denition of commercial marketing providing an opportunity to return
to the core principle of adapting marketing for social change. As a
discipline grounded in social change and marketing theory, changes in
either parent discipline offer the opportunity for exploration, adaptation
and eventual adoption of the new concepts. The paper overviews the
philosophy underpinning the development of a new social marketing
denition, followed by an exploration of the key inuences that underpin the new denition. First, the paper examines the two core commercial marketing denitions presented by the American Marketing
Association (AMA) and Chartered Institute of Marketing (CIM) in their
capacities as world business thought leaders. Second, the paper compares the CIM and AMA denitions to the peak social marketing
denitions of Kotler and Lee (2008) and the National Social Marketing
Centre (2006). Third, the paper uses an unstructured ontological discover process through the Leximancer software to develop guiding
parameters from the history social marketing denitions. Finally, the

E-mail address: stephen.dann@anu.edu.au.

0148-2963/$ see front matter 2009 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.jbusres.2009.02.013

paper presents the new denition of social marketing accompanied by a

set of explanatory notes to guide future interpretations.
1.1. A(nother) new denition of social marketing
The presentation of yet another new denition of social marketing
into a crowded eld of existing denitions is not without controversy.
Forty years of social marketing has produced more than forty ve peer
reviewed academic denitions of social marketing. The proliferation
of denitions prompted Andreasen (2006) raise the lack of consensus
as a possible barrier for social marketing's future development. However, Stead et al. (2007) offers a counterpoint by viewing social marketing not as a single theory, but rather as a structural framework,
much in the same light as Burton (2001) described critical marketing
as a conceptual cluster rather than centrally dened concept.
To that end, the paper draws on commercial marketing thinking to
present social marketing as a generic product class whereby the breadth
of customized social marketing denition is an illustration of the product portfolio concept applied to theory rather than in theory. Drawing
on an analogy from commercial marketing practice, most marketers
would recognize the generic product of cola although few would agree
on the exact composition of cola as a drink, and even fewer would agree
that Coca Cola and Pepsi should produce identical products. If social
marketing is regarded as the generic term for marketing's involvement
in a social and behavioral change, then the diverse range of denitions
represent the extensions and product variations designed to meet the
differing needs of a range of target markets from journal editors, conference reviewers through to government agencies or change campaigns. On the basis of customized ongoing product development, the
denition presented in the paper is aimed at a target market of social

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S. Dann / Journal of Business Research 63 (2010) 147153

Table 1
Comparison of CIM and AMA.
Denition

Mechanism

How

Why

Whom

CIM (2005)

Management
Process

Identify

Satisfy

AMA (2008)

Activity
Processes
Institution

Anticipate
Create
Communicate
Deliver
Exchange

(Prot)
Offerings
that have
value

Customer
requirements
(Prot)
Client
Customer
Partner
Society

marketers who wish to draw of the application of the CIM and AMA
denitions of marketing for use in theory or practice.
1.2. (Re)dening social marketing
Three inuences guide the new denition of social marketing
AMA (2008) and CIM (2005) commercial marketing denitions, two
peak contemporary social marketing denitions, and the results of the
textual analysis of forty ve historical denitions of social marketing.
The selection of these three inuences has been designed to develop
a social marketing denition that incorporates the work of social
marketing from the North American, European, Australasian and sub
continental Asian regions. To that end though, the current work is
designed to produce a Westernized denition for the purposes of
addressing social marketing in English as rst language nations. Consequently, the research draws heavily on English language based publications and prior studies. Future research by non-English language
communities is needed to develop this work into a global denition
rather than its current multi-national format.
1.3. Inuence 1: commercial marketing AMA (2008) and CIM (2005)
The paper draws on both American and British denitions of commercial marketing in an effort to develop a cross regional social marketing denition. The Chartered Institute of Marketing (2005) denes
marketing as the management process responsible for identifying,
anticipating and satisfying customer requirements protably which
represents a marketing management view of the discipline with the
customer orientation coupled with satisfaction metric and protability
focus. The CIM's denition has been inuential in the development of
the British social marketing frameworks that have the central requirement that interventions must begin with the target customer (French
and Blair-Stevens, 2006). The American Marketing Association (2008)
launched denes marketing as the activity, set of institutions, and
processes for creating, communicating, delivering, and exchanging offerings
that have value for customers, clients, partners, and society at large. The
AMA (2008) offers a value development framework which recognises
that marketing is a social and societal process (Dann, 2008). Notably,
clients is an explicit recognition of the inuence of social marketing
practice on the role of contemporary marketing. Further exploration of
the AMA (2008) and its impact for social marketing can be found in
Dann (2008) and Andreasen et al. (2008).

and CIM denitions represent different functional applications, whereas combined, they represent coverage of the key issues of commercial marketing the need for a customer orientated approach to value
generation, and the fullment of the long term goals of the organisation through cost recovery and prot. A comparison of the key
areas is listed in Table 1.
Shared areas between the two denitions include the overlap between the procedural mechanisms of marketing, motivation for marketing and targets of the marketing activity. For the purpose of the
paper, the minimum elements of commercial marketing that should be
incorporated into a social marketing adaptation consist of the shared
customer orientation and the recognition of the marketing tool kit in
the form of marketing processes shared by the CIM and AMA. However,
future researchers will be needed to further examine if the prot
orientation of the CIM and the value creation orientation of the AMA
are conceptually and practically aligned. However, such an exploration
is beyond the scope of the current paper.
1.5. Inuence 2: dominant denitions of social marketing
Kotler and Zaltman (1971) rst coined the term social marketing to
describe an expanded role for marketing practice in the business of idea
and behavioral change. As a key gure in the ongoing development of
social marketing, Kotler's work has inuenced large portions of the US
social marketing community, and for that reason, his recent denition of
social marketing was selected as a key platform for the development of
the denition in the paper. Kotler and Lee (2008) dene social
marketing as process that applies marketing principles and techniques
to create, communicate, and deliver value in order to inuence target
audience behaviors that benet society (public health, safety, the
environment and communities) as well as the target audience. The
denition of social marketing published in Kotler and Lee (2008) is
credited interpersonal correspondence between Phillip Kotler, Nancy
Lee and Michael Rothschild in 2006. For the purpose of this paper, text
book version is cited here as the denitive reference.
The second denition selected was the British National Social Marketing Centre's (NSMC) ofcial denition of social marketing as the
systematic application of marketing concepts and techniques to achieve
specic behavioral goals relevant to a social good(French and BlairStevens, 2006). Although the National Social Marketing Centre denition
was rst published in Social Marketing Quarterly by French and BlairStevens (2006). It is more commonly known as the NSMC (2006)
denition. The NSMC denition represents a normative inuence over
the current practice and future development of the British social
marketing sector and was therefore the selected definition. Further,
although Kotler and Lee are social marketing academics and practitioners,
the NSMC denition was introduced to provide a centralized framework
for recognizing social marketing in practice in the United Kingdom. As

Table 2
Contemporary social and commercial marketing.
Denition

Mechanism

Method

Purpose

Market

CIM (2005)

Management
Process

Identify

Satisfy

AMA (2008)

Activity
Processes
Institution

Anticipate
Create
Communicate
Deliver
Exchange
Create
Communicate
Deliver value
Marketing

(Prot)
offerings that
have value

Customer
requirements
(Prot)
Client
Customer
Partner
Society
Society
Target audience

1.4. Unication and reconciliation of commercial marketing

Although both denitions represent their respective peak associations view of marketing, the differences between the two needs to
be reconciled before adaptation or adoption by social marketers. The
following section examines the areas of conceptual overlap between
the denitions, and how these shared frames of reference can be used
as the foundation for a social marketing denition. The AMA (2008)
denition is focused on orientating marketing to customer needs as a
form of value creation and exchange, whilst the CIM (2005) denition
addresses meeting the long term survival requirements of the organisation through customer need fullment. In isolation, both AMA

Kotler and Lee Process

(2008)
NSMC (2006)a Systematic
application

Cited as French and Blair Stevens (2006).

Inuence
behaviors
Achieve
behavioral goals
Achieve social
good

Targeted
audience

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S. Dann / Journal of Business Research 63 (2010) 147153

with the commercial denitions of marketing, NSMC and the Kotler and
Lee frameworks must be recoiled. Both social marketing denitions share
a common ground in the systematic application of marketing principles,
and the targeting of audience behavior. However, the NSMC (2006)
denition does not have an easily identiable connection to the voluntary
change element present in Kotler and Lee (2008). Further, these
frameworks also need to be reconciled with the AMA and CIM denitions
given social marketing is an applied adaptation of commercial marketing
which is outlined in Table 2.
The denitions are compared on four areas mechanism is the
means by which marketing is applied, method is the techniques used
in marketing, purpose is the reason for the marketing activities being
conducted, and nally, market is the recipients of the marketing efforts. All four commercial and social marketing denitions can be seen
to demonstrate overlap between method, mechanism and market, and
the disciplinary distinct purposes of behavior inuence, prot and exchanges of value. Space constraints restrict the depth of analysis possible for, and future research opportunity exists for social marketers
to apply more robust theoretical and conceptual analytic tests to the
cross-compatibility of the core denitions of commercial marketing and
social marketing.
Whilst the four denitions are relatively cross-compatible, the new
elements of the AMA (2008) are reected in the pseudo marketing mix
of create, communicate, deliver and exchange that are absent from the
predecessor denitions. Further, the CIM's prot orientation provides an
unusual element for social marketers to consider the role and value of
costbenet tradeoff as a central element of a future social marketing
denition. Prior literature in marketing has examined the expansion of
the value concept from the monetary to the non-monetary aspects for
commercial marketing. If a similar line of thought to the intangible value
creation which moves costbenet equations from purely nancial into
a more holistic view of the marketing exchange, the CIM prot
orientation can be adapted to the social marketing exchange process
as a costbenet scenario. Rewards to the individuals and to the broader
society should be considered on the extent to which they exceed the
costs incurred by the behavior change. The applications of these
opportunities are examined later in the paper.
1.6. Inuence 3: social marketing historical development
The third part of the development of the social marketing denition was the use of unstructured machine learning text analysis to
test for the existence of any underlying trends and thematic struc-

149

tures in the existing social marketing denitions. Forty ve denitions of social marketing were selected based from a range of peer
reviewed social marketing papers over the past three decades (The
full list of denitions used in the analysis is available from the author
on request.). Unstructured ontological discovery was performed using
Leximancer as the software package is designed to engage in facilitated knowledge discovery through ascertaining underlying themes in
texts through semantic information extraction (Smith and Humphreys, 2006).
Leximancer is a specialist purpose content analysis emulator which
replicates the manual coding procedures through the use of algorithms,
machine learning and statistical processes (Smith et al., 2002). This
process allows for the development of thematic clusters and grouping
of related concepts either manually, or through the automated discovery processes (Young and Denize, 2008; Smith, 2000). For further details of the Leximancer process, Grech et al. (2002) and Smith and
Humphreys (2006) detail both underlying method and statistical structure. Leximancer provides a means of unsupervised ontology discovery which can uncover core associations within a body of text whilst
reducing expectation biases which may arise in manual coded analysis (Isakhan, 2005; Michael et al., 2008; Smith, 2003; McKenna and
Waddell, 2007). Lastly, Leximancer capacity for discovering unexpected
meaningful connections through its automated objective analysis process is central to the current task of ascertaining if existing social marketing denitions have an underlying consistent framework or structure
(Petchkovsky et al., 2007).
The analysis process consists of a three stages from the exploration of the dominant thematic group through to the discovery of related
concept groups within the textual data (Smith, 2000). The initial exploration determined the presence of dominant thematic clusters which
was used as the parameters for the subsequent textual analysis. Three
visualization maps have been provided to illustrate the phases of the
analysis. Analysis 1 resulted in a conrmation of the apparently self
evident the dominant theme of the denitions is the application of
marketing. Fig. 1 represents the initial analysis to ascertain the primary
conceptual domain(s) of the social marketing denitions.
Two items of note emerged from the conceptual clusters rst, the
analysis detected the systematic use of marketing in the form of change
programs; and, second, the inuence was a signicant factor which
connects to the previously stated assumption of social marketing as a
form of voluntary change regime (Andreasen, 1995; Rothschild, 1999).
Analysis 2 involved a level of manual intervention with the Leximancer software instructed to ignore the concept marketing in order

Fig. 1. Analysis 1 primary domain discovery.

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S. Dann / Journal of Business Research 63 (2010) 147153

Fig. 2. Secondary thematic groups.

to explore the interactions within the top level domain. This approach, in conjunction with the machine learning technique of the
Leximancer software allowed the system to extract the major thematic groups within the denitions primary domain of marketing. The
Behavior cluster encompasses the majority of the identied outcomes of social marketing with concepts such as society, change,
and voluntary. The behavioral orientation of social marketing is also
supported throughout the social marketing literature as behaviors are
easier to measure, observe and change than internal attitudes and
belief (Almendarez et al., 2004). Behavior can also be used as a learning tool to assist attitude change and value development through
the dofeellearn model espoused by Kotler and Roberto (1989). The

small cluster of activities represented the mechanisms of marketing

used to effect social change, and emphasizes the need to include the
recognition of the social marketing tool kit in any description of the
discipline such as the use of the marketing mix (Cohen et al., 1999)
services delivery theory and practice (Bryant et al., 1998, 2007), or the
techniques of internet marketing (Dann and Dann, 1999; Brace-Govan
and Harrick, 2006) or mobile marketing (Lefebvre, 2007). These are
illustrated in Fig. 2.
The third and nal analysis was undertaken to further explore the
thematic clusters within the marketing domain. The technique approach relies reducing the size of the thematic clusters reported by the
Leximancer analysis until an overlap occurs in the report results, thus
effectively generating a two set Venn diagram. The resultant thematic
cluster of behavior and voluntary reinforce social marketing as a
non-coercive means of social change which rejects the Donovan and
Henley (2003) inspired involuntary change categorization. The
intersection set includes the voluntary exchange aspect of commercial
marketing, alongside the role of social marketing as an inuencer in
society rather than a mandatory behavior outcome. Within voluntary,
Rothschild's (2002) self interest through the location of benecial
and improve the voluntary set is supported. In addition, designed
as part of the intersecting set represents the consistent theme of social
marketing as a planned activity that is based on analysis, research
and designed behavior interventions (Kotler and Zaltman, 1971;
Andreasen, 1995; Kotler and Lee, 2008). These results are illustrated
in the nal Leximancer diagram in Fig. 3.
2. Constructing the denition
The following section outlines how the bounding expectations
derived from the three analyses detailed above will be used as guide
parameters for the new denition of social marketing. First, the definition will follow the pedigree of social marketing as part of the
broader marketing discipline. Second, the denition will represent the
means and mechanism for behavioral change using marketing concepts and practice which acknowledges that behaviors are embedded
in the individual, consumer, and societal level behavioral change occurs through mass adoption of individual level behavior. Third, voluntary change is included in based on the results of the Leximancer

Fig. 3. Two set Venn diagram of principle social marketing components.

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S. Dann / Journal of Business Research 63 (2010) 147153

analysis, and marketing's pedigree as a contractual and exchange

based social mechanism. Finally, benet is recognized through AMA
(2008) exchange, NSMC 2007's social good, and the CIM (2005) focus
on protability which has been converted into the costbenet tradeoff. These four elements are represented in Fig. 4.
Based on these parts, and drawing on the inuence of the prior
denitions, the paper denes social marketing as:
the adaptation and adoption of commercial marketing activities,
institutions and processes as a means to induce behavioral change in
a targeted audience on a temporary or permanent basis to achieve
a social goal.
Additional sub denitions have been included in the paper. This
inclusion is designed to address one of the weaknesses of marketing
denitions typied by the AMA (2004) denition of commercial marketing which have required signicant levels of inclusion by interpretation and assumptions as to the meaning, intent and translation
of key sections (Dann, 2005; Gundlach, 2007; Dann and Dann, 2007).

151

As the inclusion by implication approach to interpreting a denition

is problematic with its reliance on shared frames of reference for
similar interpretations, the paper offers further denitions of key sub
components to provide greater depth for interpreting and applying
the core denition.
The denition uses induce rather than inuence in order to
frame social marketing as a social leadership approach which involves
the deliberate use of inuence and persuasion to move a target market
towards a specic course of action. An important semantic difference exists between the more passive approach of inuencing behavior
change and active leadership orientation of inducing behavior change.
In the context of the denition, behavioral change is the process of
altering, maintaining or encouraging the cessation of a specic activity
undertaken by the targeted audience. Behavioral change is achieved
through the creation, communication, delivery and exchange of a
competitive social marketing offer that induces voluntary change in the
targeted audience, and which results in benet to the social change
campaign's recipients, partners and the broader society at large.

Fig. 4. Core principles and inuences on the new denition of social marketing.

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A competitive social marketing offer is an alternative product offering

that has been developed through the identication or anticipation of
a market need for a socially benecial alternative behavior that satises the same needs an individual in the targeted audience is currently
meeting through the consumption or use of less socially desirable
products. Product offering draws on the broadest understanding of
the product concept in commercial marketing to include, but not be
limited to, physical goods which incorporates both the service dominant logic construct of embedded co-created services and the goodsdominant logic of value in ownership; service which can be administered by third party delivery, co-created through participation in the
service delivery and/or self service activity; ideas which including
knowledge of how to perform a self-service behavior; attitudes towards the benecial social outcome which incorporates the newly
developed elds of emotional and experiential marketing; and, the
specic behavior that is undertaken by the recipient in the course of
acting upon the competitive social marketing offer.
Benet is where the return on social investment through actual
or perceived returns exceeds the nancial and non nancial costs of
the social marketing activity. The approach draws on the work of
Rothschild's (2002) self interest motivation as the consumer-side
framework for determining value, and includes the Joyce and Morris
(1990) total price concept which recognizes the nancial costs of
adoption, and the associated non-nancial costs such as time, effort
and prestige. Simultaneously, benet also engages Bright's (2000)
observations of the need for cost effectiveness in social marketing for
the supplier side equation which has been reected in the practice of
reporting societal costsavings per dollar of intervention spent (Lee,
2008; Starinchak, 2008). The construction of benet is dual focused on
downstream benet with an emphasis on the return to the adopter
exceeding the total cost of adoption, and upstream benet with the
return to the society at large and partners exceeding the societal level
investment in the social change activity.
Targeted audience reects the use of the customer orientation by
targeting social marketing activity on specic, identiable and reachable market segmentation within a broader community population.
This sub denition incorporates the Kohli and Jaworski (1990) market
orientation alongside the CIM (2005) customer requirements, AMA
(2008) clients/customers framework, Kotler and Lee (2008) target
audience and the NSMC (2006) targeted audiences. Social marketing
campaigns must have an identiable target audience in order to meet
the key criteria of providing a competitive social marketing offer based
on altering, maintaining or ceasing an identied behavior amongst in
an individual member of a larger population group.
Finally, social goal represents the objective of the campaign to
change or maintain society in accordance with the long term objectives
of the campaign's organizers. Whilst social marketing is an inherently
neutral toolkit, the goals of a social marketing campaign are inherently
subjective and political in nature (Dann, 2007). The complex nature
of social goal has been incorporated to recognize that social marketing
is a purpose driven platform which is implemented for the improvement of society as dened by the driving forces behind the campaign.
Change requires the presumption that the current behavior of the
target market can be replaced with a more benecial set of activities
which will lead to positive societal outcomes. Similarly, maintenance
of behavior assumes the current behavior is benecial for society, and
needs to be defended against less benecial alternative behaviors. The
concept of social goal is also connected to the use of the term induce to
indicate the implicit assumption of planned objectives with marketing
based metrics to determine success by the creation or prevention of
observable and measurable change within the targeted population.

analysis excluded any website based denitions, blogs, trade press or

government periodicals, and instead focused on the academic papers
where social marketing was given a specic meaning for the context of
the paper. This restriction ensured that the concepts presented in the
analysis had been subjected to peer-review prior to publication, and
the exposure to peer review is utilized as a proxy minimum quality
standard measure. Further, the range of arbitrary lines drawn in the
sand to determine key foundations of the denition do limit the global
application of the research. Arguments as to the inuence of the AMA
and CIM can, and should, be made by future researchers who wish to
raise alternative foundations for their own denitional work. Similarly, the English language bias of the denitions is a further limitation of the research alongside the Anglo-American focus of the
denitional dataset, even with the inclusion of Australasian researchers and papers. However, with the continued absence of an identiable Australasian academy denition of commercial marketing,
researchers in the geographic area are still adapting either the AMA or
CIM as their ofcially sanctioned denition. Further, at the time of
publication, the Chartered Institute of Marketing had commissioned a
review into its ofcial denition with the intention to develop a new
conceptual framework which would differ from the denition used in
the paper.
Finally, Lazer and Kelley's (1973) work was excluded from inclusion
in the paper as, although the work contains both social marketing
and critical marketing elements, the paper is the foundation of critical
marketing rather than a social marketing denition. To that end, the
paper does not presume to merge Lazer and Kelley's (1973) critical
marketing into the social marketing research. Rather, the critical marketing eld is respected and recognized as a related but independent area of study that has equal application in commercial and noncommercial marketing.
4. Further research
The denition represents approximately one-third of the possible
means of inducing social change through social marketing activity as
a deliberately constructed piece to represent a downstream view of
social marketing, and not inclusive of the Goldberg (1995) upstream
approach, or Kotler's (2008) mid-stream marketing concept. The
strength of the denition is the clarity of focus on individual and group
level behavior for systematic social change, yet the weakness is the
limited application in the upstream environment. To that end, future
research into the denition of social marketing needs to explore the
adaptation of business to business marketing into the social marketing environment. Current denitions have focused on consumer level
interventions based on individual behavioral change. Future research
should examine the application of an upstream social marketing process through the adaptation and adoption of business to business and
business to government marketing insight.
The denition of social marketing presented in the paper is a
snapshot of a denition that will need to evolve when the underlying
conceptual commercial marketing frameworks adapt and change.
Specic challenges for the denition, and all social marketing denitional research, come from the stated intention of the American
Marketing Association to review the 2007 denition in 2012, and the
Chartered Institute of Marketing's intention to release a revised
denition by 2010. Given the paper originated from the changes in
AMA (2008) and CIM (2005), further research will be needed to
update and patch the current work to meet the challenges of the future
understanding of marketing.
Acknowledgements

3. Limitations
The paper does not claim to contain a denitive list of social
marketing denitions due to limitations on the selection process. The

Thanks to Alan Andreasen, Nedra Weinreich and Susan Dann for

their feedback on the paper. Thanks also to the National Centre for
Social Marketing and the participants at the World Social Marketing

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S. Dann / Journal of Business Research 63 (2010) 147153

Conference 2008 for insights and discussions that guided the nal
version of the social marketing denition.
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