Training Material on SPC

TRAINING MATERIAL
ON
STATISTICAL PROCESS CONTROL
(SPC)

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Training Material on SPC

TOOLS FOR PROCESS CONTROL

1.

Detection :- A past oriented strategy that attempts to identify unacceptable output

after it has been produced and then separate it from the good output.

2.

Prevention :- A future oriented strategy that improves quality and productivity by

directing analysis and action toward correcting the process itself so that unacceptable
parts will not be produced.

TECHNIQUES FOR PROCESS CONTROL

1.

Mistake Proofing :- In this technique 100% process control is achieved by

preventing all types of failures by using modern techniques to get defect free product.
Here causes are prevented from making the effect.

2.

100% Inspection : In this technique 100% checking of all the parameters of all
products has been done to get defect free product. Here only defects are detected.

3.

Statistical Process Control : In this Statistical technique such as Control Chart,

Histogram etc. are used so as to analyses the process and achieve and maintain state
of statistical control to get defect free product. Causes are detected and prompting CA
before defect occurs.

WHY S.P.C. IS REQUIRED ?

Effectiveness of any activity in an Organization is measured with respect to time and cost
involved in it.
Mistake Proofing

100% Inspection

Statistical Process Control

In this method more

As it is detection type of

For this technique investment is

advanced and modern

technique it cant avoid

very less and process is controlled

techniques are used

failure but rejects

on each workstation therefore

which require

defective products.

defective components is not

substantial investment Requires more inspectors,

forwarded to next operation.

during its installation

Predictability reduces frequent

more inspection times and

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Training Material on SPC

and maintenance.

in turn more cost.

adjustments & in turn increases

productivity, reduces inspection

cost at station & at final inspection

From above we can observe that S.P.C. is the economical way of controlling the process
in comparison with Mistake Proofing and 100% inspection.
WHAT IS S.P.C. ?
1.

Statistics :- A value calculated from or based upon sample data (e.g. a subgroup
average or range) used to make inferences about the process that produced the output
from which the sample comes.

2.

Statistical Control :- The condition describing a process from which all special
causes of variation have been eliminated and only common causes remain.

3.

Statistical Process Control :- The use of Statistical techniques such as control

charts to analyze a process or its outputs so as to take appropriate actions to achieve
and maintain a state of statistical control and to improve the process capability.

STATISTICAL PROCESS CONTROL

VARIATION: - The inevitable differences among individual outputs of a process; the
sources of variation can be grouped into two major classes: Common Causes and Special
0Causes.
Common Causes: - A source of variation that affect all the individual values of the
process output and inherent in the process itself and can not be eliminated totally.
Special Causes: - A source of variation that is intermittent, unpredictable, unstable; This
causes can be identifiable and can be eliminated permanently.

Random Variation
Only common cause are present
Common causes are more in nos.
Common causes are part of process
Contributes to constant variation

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Non-Random Variation
Common & Assignable cause are

present
Assignable causes are very few in nos.
Visitor to the process
Highly fluctuating variation
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Predictable
Statistics Apply
Management controllable

Unpredictable
Statistics shall not apply
Operating personnel controllable

PROCESS CONTROL :A process is said to be operating instate of statistical control when the only source of
variation is common causes.
PROCESS STABILIITY: The process is said to be stable when the process is in control and variation is constant
with respect to time i.e. Being in statistical control.
PROCESS CAPABILITY: The measure of inherent variation of the process ( i.e Six Sigma (+/- 3 ) when it is in
stable condition is called as process capability.
OVER ADJUSTMENT: It is the practice of adjusting each deviation from the target as if it were due to a special
cause of variation in the process. If stable process is adjusted on the basis of each
measurement made, then adjustment becomes an additional source of variation and inturn
it increases the total variation.

METHODOLOGY TO IDENTIFY ASSIGNABLE CAUSES

This write up is for assignment any one identify Assignable causes. As you are aware the
success of any SPC program is not in our ability to collect data, draw charts etc., but in
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effectively identifying and eliminating assignable causes. Assignable causes are those
causes that do not allow one to predict the behaviour of processes. There is no meaning
in calculating Process Capability without having a predictable process.
Many companies have initiated SPC charts. But the charts do not benefit them. One of
the main reason for this is that they have not stopped the process when an
assignable cause is indicated and eliminated the cause. This is not done because no
body is aware on how to do it. Many experts only say that the cause is to be eliminated
but no one is able to assist a company in doing this. We are sharing with you our
approach for doing this cause elimination.
Before starting the SPC data collection, let us do the following steps:
1. Identify the characteristic for which SPC is to be done.
2. Have a brainstorming to list all the causes that may influence the variation in this
characteristic
3. Prepare a Cause & Effect Diagram
4. Prepare a Master Cause Analysis Table (Annexure 1)
5. Prepare a Why-Why Analysis Table (Annexure 2)
6. Identify factors that may affect Average and those that may affect Range
After completion of the above, plan for data collection, calculation of preliminary limits,
etc. Then use the chart for On -Line control.
When you are routinely using the chart, when ever a point goes beyond the control limits,
using the Master Cause Analysis Table, we can narrow the assignable cause (Based on
our preliminary listing as mentioned in Sl. No.6 above) by verifying the condition of the
cause from the limits specified in the table.

Sl.
No.

Cause

Is there a
specn?

ANNEXURE 1
MASTER CAUSE ANALYSIS TABLE
If so, what
Basis for
Is it
What is
is the
the specn.
checked
the
specn?
and how?
actual?

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Diff. in
Specfn.
Vs
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Action
plan

Training Material on SPC

Actual

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ANNEXURE 2
WHY WHY ANALYSIS TABLE
Sl.
No.

Cause

WHY

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WHY

WHY

WHY

WHY

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GUIDELINES FOR USING ANNEXURE 1

1. Enter a serial number
2. Enter the cause from the cause and effect diagram. All the causes from the cause and
effect diagram must be covered
3. For each cause ask the Question: Is there a Specification? Please note that the
specification is for the cause. The answer can be Yes or No.
4. If there is a Specification, write the actual value of the specification. If there is no
specification, Enter in the Action Plan column Specification is to be established.
5. Give the basis for the specification mentioned in Column No.4. Sometimes the
Specification may be based on the drawing, machine manufacturers catalogue, work
instruction, Past Experience, etc. Do not write your expectations. Only enter what is
actually existing. Remember that there has to be some basis.
6. Is this specification being checked. If yes, write the actual method used for checking.
If it is not being checked, then enter No. It may be possible that there are methods for
checking but not done here, in which case the answer is No. If the answer is No, then
enter in the Action Plan Column Method of checking is to be established.
7. Enter here the actual value of the cause by using the method of checking. Sometimes
it may be the range of variation (Ex: Input material condition) or it may be One Value
(Ex: Taper in the fixture). This is the actual value and not a guess. Time may be
required to complete this column.
8. If there is a difference between the actual value and the specification, then examine
how important based on technical knowledge. If the difference is not major, then
mention No. Otherwise mention Yes. If the answer is Yes, then enter in the Action
Plan Column that further analysis is needed like Why-Why Analysis or correction to
eliminate the variation.
9. Under this column enter the specific Action Plan needed as already mentioned above.
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GUIDELINES FOR USING ANNEXURE 2

This table can be used for all the causes identified in the Cause and Analysis Table with
top priority for the Causes found to have variation from the Master Cause Analysis Table.
1. Enter the running serial number
2. Enter the cause to be studied
3. Enter Why this cause should vary. There may be more than one reason. Enter all the
reasons one below the other.
4. For each of the Why identified in Column 3, write the possible causes. Note that the
cause is to be identified only for column 3 and not backward.
5. Proceed in the same manner as Column 4. Ensure that each time the focus is only on
the previous column.
6. Proceed in the same manner as Column 4. Ensure that each time the focus is only on
the previous column.
7. Proceed in the same manner as Column 4. Ensure that each time the focus is only on
the previous column.
Continue in this manner, till any of the following happen:
a. No further Why can be answered
b. The system cause has been identified (Ex: No system for checking, verification,
control, etc.)
c. The reverse is the solution
Based on the listed why's, develop the action plan for implementation.
Remember:
It is the system, which is at the Root Cause of all problems and not individuals.
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SPC PROCEDURE FLOW CHART

MSA

DATA COLLECTION

Is process
Predictable?
(i.e. In Control )

No

Find out
Assignable causes
and eliminate it.

Yes

Is process
Capable?

No
Improve the process

Yes
Establish the
Control Limits

Prepare
Reaction Plan

On going
Process Control

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PREDICTABLE PROCESS :- Process free from Assignable causes.

CAPABILITY :- Measure of inherent variation.
CAPABLE PROCESS : Cp & Cpk > 1.33
1.MEASUREMENT SYSTEM ANALYSIS :
Measurement System Analysis measures the contamination of the variation due to
measurement system in the total variation of characteristic. In this technique both
variable and attribute data measurement systems are verified.
Following types of variations are observed in M.S.A.
1.

Equipment Variation :- Variation of measuring instrument.

2.

Appraiser Variation :- Variation between measuring persons.

3.

Combine Variation :- Variation of both instruments and person.

4.

Part to Part Variation :- Variation comes when measuring two different parts.

5.

Within Part Variation :- Variation comes when measuring same part at different
places.

Resultant of all these variation is called as Total Variation in the measuring system.
Reproducing and Repeatability Study are conducted to evaluate Equipment Variation and
Appraiser Variation.
This R & R value should be less than 10% when it is between 10 to 30%, then measuring
system requires improvement. But if this variation is more than 30% then measurement
system required to be changed.
2. DATA COLLECTION :Data is available in two types :
1.

Variable data : Data which is available in numerical form.

2.

Attribute Data :- Data which is in term of decision and not in numerical terms. e.g. Data form Go-No go gauges.

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3. CHECKING FOR PROCESS PREDICTION :Process is said to be predictable when it is in control and stable i.e. when all Special
causes are removed from the process. The process can be checked from Control Chart
and Histogram.
Control Chart: - When all points are within control limits or there is no obvious run or
non-random pattern of points with in the control limits.
Histogram: - When bell shape is observed on Histogram.
REMOVING ASSIGNABLE CAUSES:
When process is fail to satisfy above requirements then existence of special causes may
be there. In this cause find special causes and remove.
4. CALCULATING PROCESS CAPABILITY: After removing all special causes from the process calculate the capability indices Cp and
Cpk.
If Cp and Cpk is greater than 1.33 then process is said to be within acceptable capability.
Based on the priority make improvement plan for the process.
If Cp and Cpk is less than 1.33, then find out major common causes and remove it.
5. ESTABLISHING CONTROL LIMITS: When Cp and Cpk is greater than 1.33 , Then , Establish UCL/LCL and CL marked on
control chart and Issued to Operators for ongoing control.
6. PREPARE REACTION PLAN: After deciding control limits, Corrective and disposition actions to be given to the
operators for any special causes expected to occur during the process. These corrective
and disposition actions can be documented in Reaction Plan.

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7. ON GOING PROCESS CONTROL :Continuous Periodical review of control chart and recorded process events to identify the
preventive action and revise the control limits.
OPERATOR'S ROLE IN SPC FOR INDIVIDUAL SUB-GROUP.

Data Collection

Plot On Chart

Yes
Is process
in Control ?
i.e. no special cause
No
Refer Reaction
Plan
Take Corrective
Action

Take Disposition
Action ( If Reqd.)
NOTE :
1.After Corrective action taken, the Immediate subgroup shall be measured and
plotted.
2.Record in detail the causes, corrective action and disposition action taken for
every out of control condition.
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FACTORS FOR COMPUTING LIMITS

n
2
3
4
5
6

d2
1.128
1.693
2.059
2.326
2.534

A2
1.880
1.023
0.729
0.577
0.483

D3
0
0
0
0
0

D4
3.268
2.574
2.282
2.114
2.004

E2
2.66
1.77
1.46
1.29
1.18

CONTROL CHART INTERPRETATION AND DISPOSITION ACTION

The

MOST

RECENT

POINT indicates that the

ACTIONS ON THE PROCESS OUTPUT

Based on the Ongoing process capability (Cpk)

process
Is in Control

1.33 - 1.67

Greater than 1.67

Accept product Continue to reduce

Has gone out of control in
an
adverse direction. All
individuals in the sample
are within specification
Has gone out of control in
an

product variation
IDENTIFY & CORRECT SPECIAL CAUSE
Inspect 100%
Accept product
since the last in-

Continue to reduce

control point.

product variation

IDENTIFY & CORRECT SPECIAL CAUSE

100% inspect product produced since
the last in-control sample.

and one or more

individuals in the sample
are outside specification

CONTROL CHART METHODOLOGY

INTRODUCTION:
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It is a technique, which builds quality into the process. SPC is most effective
when problems are resolved as soon as identified. Control charts are mainly to increase
productivity, improve quality and reduce cost. Process variation can be easily analysed by
control charts. Objective of control chart analysis is to identify any evidence that through
process variability or the process averages are not operating at a constant level.
The goal of the process control chart is not perfection, but a reasonable and
economical state of control.
CONTROL CHARTS FOR VARIABLES
X BAR R chart is developed from measurements of a particular characteristic of a
process output. This chart is pertaining to variables. Control charts for variables are
powerful tools that can be used when measurements from a process are available.
With variable data performance of a process can be analysed and improvement can be
qualified even if all individual values are within the specification limits.
Basically fewer pieces need to be checked before making reliable decisions. So the time
gap between production of parts and corrective action often cab be shortened.
1. DATA COLLECTION
X bar -R CHART:
X bar -R chart is developed from measurements of a particular characteristic of a
process output. X bar-R chart explains process data in terms of both its spread (piece to
piece variability) and its location (process average).
DATA COLLECTION:
X Measure of Location
R Measure of Spread

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To analyze the particular characteristics of a process or process output, data are

collected in small subgroups of constant size (2 to 5 consecutive pieces). Subgroups are
taken periodically. Sample size should remain constant for all subgroups.
SUBGROUP SIZE:
Subgroup size should be chosen so that opportunities for variation among the
units within a subgroup are small. If the variation within the subgroup represents the
piece to piece variability over a very short period of time, then any unusual variation
between subgroups would reflect changes in process that should be investigated for
appropriate action.
Pieces within each subgroup would all be produced under very similar production
condition over a very short time. So the variation within each subgroup would primarily
reflect common causes.
SUBGROUP FREQUENCY:
Purpose of selecting subgroup is to detect changes in the process over time.
During an initial process study, the subgroups are often taken consecutively or at
short intervals, to detect whether the process can shift to show other instability over brief
time periods. As the process demonstrates stability, the frequency of subgroups can be
increased.
NUMBER OF SUBGROUPS:
From a process standpoint, enough subgroups should be gathered to assure that
the major sources of variation have had an opportunity to appear. Generally 25 or more
subgroups containing 100 or more individual readings give a good test for stability.
Plot the averages and Ranges on the Control Charts:
Plot the averages and ranges on their respective charts. This should be done as
soon as possible after scaling has been decided. Connect the points with lines to help
visualize patterns and trends.

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Scan the plot points, confirm that the calculations and plots are correct. Make sure
that the plot points for the corresponding X and R is vertically in line.
Initial study charts used for first time capability or for studies after process
improvements/changes should be the only process control charts allowed on the
production floor which do not have control limits placed on them.
2. CALCULATE CONTROL LIMITS :
R = ( R1 + R2 + + RK ) / K
X = ( X1 + X2 + + XK ) / K
Where
K is the number of subgroups.
R1 is the range of the first subgroup.
X1 is the average of the first subgroup.
Setup control charts :
X and R charts are normally drawn with the X chart above the R chart, and a data
block. The values of X and R will be the vertical scales.
Data block should include spare for each individual reading, average ( X ), Range
( R ) and the date/time or other identification of the subgroup.
Characteristics to be plotted are the sample average ( X ) and the sample size ( R )
for each subgroup, collectively these reflect the overall process average and its
variability.
Average ( X ) = ( X1 + X2 + . +Rn ) / n
Where n subgroup sample size.
Range ( R ) = Highest Lowest
Select the Scales for control charts :
Some general guidelines for determining the scales may be helpful, although they
may have to be modified in particular circumstances.
For X Chart :
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The difference between the highest and the lowest values on the scale
should be atleast two times the difference between the highest and the lowest of the
subgroup averages
( X ).
For R Chart :
Value extends from zero to an upper value about two times the largest
range.
For R Chart :
UCLR = D4 R
LCLR = D3 R
For X Chart :
UCLx = X + A2 R
LCLx = X - A2 R
Where D4, D3, A2 are constants varying by sample size with values from sample sizes from
2 to 10.
Draw the average ( R ) and process average ( X ) as solid horizontal lines.
Control limits ( UCLR , LCLR,UCLx, LCLx ) as dashed horizontal lines. Label the lines.
3.INTERPRETATION FOR PROCESS CONTROL
Since the ability to interpret either the subgroup ranges or subgroup
averages depends on the estimate of piece to piece variability, the R chart is analysed
first. The data points are compared with the control limits, for points out of control or for
unusual patterns or trends.
For Range Chart :
(a) Points beyond the control limits are primary evidence of non-control of that
point. Any point beyond a control limit is the signal for immediate analysis of the
operation for the special cause.
A point above the control limit is generally due to
(1) Plot point may be miscalculated.
(2) Piece to piece variations has increased.
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(3) Measurement system has changed.

A point below the control limit is generally due to
(1) Plot point is in error.
(2) Piece to piece variation has decreased.
(3) Measurement system has changed.
(b) Presence of unusual patterns or trends even when all ranges are within control
limits, can be evidence of change of process spread, also indicates some special causes.
(c) Runs
(1) 7 points in a row on one side of the average indicate that the process is
not normally distributed and there is shift in the process average.
(2) 7 points in a row that are consistently increasing or decreasing.
(d) Presence of cycles in the chart indicates that special causes due to machine set
up, non-uniformity in the material wear of machine.
Find and Address Special Causes
For each indication of special cause in the range data, conduct an analysis of the
operation of the process to determine the cause and to improve the process.
A process log may also be a helpful source of information in terms of identifying
special causes of variation. Single point out of control is reason to begin an immediate
analysis of the process.
Recalculate Control Limits
When conducting an initial process study or a reassessment of process capability,
the control limits should be recalculated to exclude the effects of control periods for
which process causes have been clearly identified and removed.

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Analyze the data on the AVERAGE CHART

When the ranges are in statistical control, the process spread the within subgroup
variation is considered to be stable. The averages can then be analysed to see if the
process location is changing over time.
Control limits for X Bar are based upon the variation in the ranges. Then if the
averages are in statistical control, their variation is related to the amount of variation seen
in the ranges (common cause variation of the system). If the averages are not in control,
some special causes of variation are making the process location unstable.
Points beyond control limits indicates that there is
(1) shift in process
(2) Plot points are in error.
Find and address the special causes and then recalculate the control limits after
eliminating the special causes.
4. INTERPRET FOR PROCESS CAPABILITY
Interpretation process capability is to be carried out only under the following
assumptions:
(1) Process is statistically stable.
(2) Individual measurements from the process conform to normal distribution.
(3) Design target is in the center of the specification width.
(4) Measurement variation is small.
Having determined that a process is in statistical control, the question still
remains whether the process is capable of meeting customer needs. To understand and
improve the capability of a process, one should understand that capability reflects
variation from common causes and management action on the system is required for
capability improvement.

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Calculate Process Standard Deviation:

Since within subgroup process variability is reflected in the subgroup averages,
the estimate of the process standard deviation can be based on the average range (R).
= R / d2
Where
R the average of the subgroup ranges.
d2 the constant varying by sample size.
Capability can be described in terms of the distance of the process average
from the specification limits in standard deviation units, Z.
For unilateral tolerance
Z = ( USL Xbar) /

(or)

Z = ( Xbar LSL ) /

(or)

ZLSL =( X - LSL) /

For bilateral tolerance

ZUSL =( USL X ) /
Where
USL Upper specification limit
LSL Lower specification limit
Z Negative value of Z indicates the process average is out of specification.
ZMIN Minimum of ZUSL and ZLSL
Z values can be used with the table of the standard normal distribution (appendix Fin
SPC manual) to estimate the proportion of output that will be beyond any specification.
The value of ZMIN can also be converted to a capability index, CPK
CPK = ZMIN / 3
= Min [ (USL Xbar) / 3

or

(Xbar LSL) / 3 ]

A process of ZMIN = 3 would have a capability index of CPK = 1.00

If ZMIN = 4, the process would have a capability index of CPK = 1.33
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Evaluate process capability

It is necessary to evaluate the process capability in terms of meeting customer
requirements.
Fundamental goal is never ending improvement in process performance.
Improve the process performance by reducing the variation that comes from
common causes, or shift the process average close to the target. This generally means
taking management action to improve the system.
Improve Process Capability
To improve process capability, there must be increased attention on reducing the
common causes. Accounts must be directed towards the system namely, the underlying
process factors which account for the process variability such as
(1) Machine performance.
(2) Consistency of input materials.
(3) Basic methods by which process operates.
(4) Training methods.
(5) Working environment.
As a general rule these system-related causes for unacceptable process capability may be
beyond the abilities of the operator or their local supervisor to correct. Instead they may
require management intervention to make basic changes, allocate resources and provide
the co ordination needed to improve the overall process performance.
X S (Average and Standard Deviation charts)
Range charts were developed as measures of process variation because the range
is easy to calculate and is relatively efficient for small subgroup sample sizes. Sample
standard deviation S is more efficient indicator of process variability especially with
larger sample sizes. It is sensitive in detecting special causes of variation.
Gather Data
(1) If raw data are voluminous, they are often recorded on a separate data sheet.
(2) calculate subgroup sample standard deviation
S = { (XI X )2 / ( n 1) }1/2
Where XI Individual values
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X Average
n Sample size.
Note: (Do not round off X values).
Calculate Control Limits
UCLS = B4 S
LCLS = B3 S
UCLX = X + A3 S
LCLX = X - A3 S
Where
S Average of individual subgroup samples standard deviation.
B4, B3, A3 Constants varying by sample sizes.
Interpret for Process Control
Refer X R charts Interpretations for process control.
Interpret for Process Capability
Refer X R charts Interpretations for process capability.
Process Standard deviation,
O = S / C4
where
S Average of sample standard deviation.
C4 Constant varying by sample size.
MEDIAN CHARTS
Median charts are alternatives to X and R charts for control of processes with
measured data.
(1) easy to use

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(2) Since a single chart shows both the median and spread, it can be used to
compare the output of several processes.
Gather data
(1) Median charts are used with subgroup sample size of 10 or less. Odd sample
sizes are more convinient.
(2) If using even size subgroups, the median is the average of middle two units.
(3) Enter the subgroups median

( X ) and range ( R ) in the table. It is

recommended to also plot the range chart to observe trends or runs in range.
Control Limits
UCLR = D4 R
LCLR = D3 R
UCLX = X + A2 R
LCLX = X - A2 R
where
D4 ,D3 ,A2 are constants varying by sample sizes.
Interpret for process control and process capability is same as that of X R charts (refer
back ).
CHARTS FOR INDIVIDUAL AND MOVING RANGE ( X - MR )
It is necessary for process control to be based on individual readings rather than
subgroups. Control chart for individuals can be constructed as described below.
In such cases the within subgroup variation is effectively zero.
(1) Charts for individuals are not sensitive in detecting process changes as X and
R charts.
(2) Since there is only one individual item per subgroup, values of X and O can
have substantial variability (even though the ptocess is stable) untill the
number of subgroups is 100 or more.
Gather Data
(1) Individual readings (X) are recorded.

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(2) Calculate the moving range (MR) between the individuals. It is generally best
to record the difference between each successive pair of readings (eg:
difference between first and second reading , the second and third etc.).
(3) There will be one less such moving range than there are individual readings.
Control Limits
UCLMR = D4

LCLMR = D3 R
UCLX = X + E2 R
LCLX = X - E2 R
where
R

is the average moving range.

is the process average.

D4 , D3 and E2 are constantsthat vary according to the sample size n.

Interpret for process control and process capability is same as that of X R chart
(refer back).
P CHART
P chart measures the proportion of non conforming items in a group of items being
inspected.
eg: 7 pieces are defective out of 70 pieces.
Before P chart can be used several preparatory steps must be taken :
(1) Establish an environment suitable for action.
(2) Process must be understood in terms of its relationship to other
operations/users

and

in

terms

of

the

process

elements

(people,equipment,material,methods,environment). Technique such as cause

and effect diagram help make these relationships visible.
Subgroup Size :
Charts for attributes require large subgroup sizes to be able to detect moderate
shift in performance.
eg: nP > 5

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Subgroup Frequency :
Subgroup frequency should make sense in terms of production periods.
short time intervals allow faster feedback.
Subgroup Number :
It must vbe large enough to capture all the likely sources of variation affecting the
process. Generally 25 or more subgroups.
Proportion Non Conforming :
Number of items inspected n
Number of non conforming items found nP
Proportion Non Conforming, P = nP / n
Process Average Proportion Non Conforming,
P = ( n1 P1 + n2 P2 + . + nK PK ) / ( n1 + n1 + .. + n1 )
Control Limits :
UCLP = P + 3 { P (1 P) / n}1/2
LCLP = P - 3 { P (1 P) / n}1/2
where n is the constant sample size.
Suppose if the sample size varies then take average of sample size ( n ).
Then
UCLP = P + 3 { P (1 P) / n}1/2
LCLP = P - 3 { P (1 P) / n}1/2
Interpret for Process Control :
Points above upper and lower control limit is generally sign of higher proportion
non conforming.
Average number of non conforming items per subgroup (nP) is large ( 9 or more),
the distribution of the subgroup is nearly normal and trend analysis can be used. When nP
becomes small, trend and run analysis is not applicable.

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Interpret For Process Capability :

For a P chart, process capability is reflected by the process average non
conforming p.
eg: If P = 0.0312
Process capability currently is 3.12% failures of the functional check (96.88%
ok).
Evaluate the Process Capability :
Process capability as just calculated reflects the ongoing level of performance that
the process of generating and can be expected to generate as long as it remains in control.
nP CHART
nP chart measures the number of non conforming items in an inspection. It proves
the actual numberof non conforming items rather than proportion of the sample.
Gather Data :
Sample sizes must be equal.
Samples should large enough to allow several non conformingitems to appear in
each subgroup.
Control Limits :
Process Average Non Conforming is nP
UCLnP = nP + 3 {nP (1-P)}1/2
LCLnP = nP - 3 {nP (1-P)}1/2
Process Capability :
Note that the process capability for an nP chart is still P.

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C CHART
C-Chart is used when number of defects are found in single unit or product.
Data Collection :
Sample size must be constant. It is applied to
(1) Non conformities are scattered through a continous flow of product.
eg: flaws in a bolt of vinyl, bubbles in glam.
Calculate Control Limits :
Process average number of non conformities
C = (C1 + C2 + CK ) / K
UCLC = C + 3 ( C )1/2
LCLC = C - 3 ( C )1/2
Process Capability :
Process Capability is C.
U CHART
U Chart measures the number of non conformities per inspection reporting unit
in subgroups which can have varying sample sizes.
It is similar to C-Chart except that the number of non conformities is expressed on
a per unit basis.
Control Limits :
U=C/n
where C number of non conformities found.
n sample size of the subgroup.
Calculate process average non conformities ( U ).
UCLU = U + 3( U / n)1/2
LCLU = U - 3( U / n)1/2

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Process capability is U, the average number of non conformities per reporting unit.

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