The Changing Face of Tunnelling in Greater Toronto

Ivan Corbett, M.Sc., P.Eng.

GeoTerre Limited, 215 Advance Blvd., Unit 5/6, Brampton, Ontario, L6T 4V9, Canada
ABSTRACT: The expanding population of the Greater Toronto Area, and in particular, anticipated population growth within the
Regional Municipality of York (York Region) located directly north of Toronto has resulted in York Region embarking on a
significant expansion of their sanitary sewer network since 1997 beyond that initially constructed in the late 60s and 70s. Based
on experience gained with some 25 km of deep sewer tunnels located within York Region where the author has acted as
geotechnical project manager, this paper presents a summary of the geologic and topographic settings of the latest series of
projects and associated experiences with these major sewer tunnel projects that, taken in combination, have resulted in a profound
change to tunnelling within York Region and the GTA. Specifically, this paper details the experiences of York Region during the
completion of the first of its proposed sewer expansion works and how those experiences, that can be directly related to the
geologic setting of the project, have resulted in a transformation from the traditional GTA tunnelling approach of using open face
Tunnel Boring Machines (TBM) with rib and lagging primary support to a more contemporary EPB TBM in conjunction with precast segmental liners for the more recent sewer tunnel projects.

INTRODUCTION

The expanding population of the Greater Toronto

Area (GTA) and in particular, anticipated population
growth within the Regional Municipalities of Halton,
Peel, York and Durham as indicated on Figure 1,
require a series of significant expansions of the trunk
sanitary sewer network over that initially constructed
between about the late 60s and the 80s.

Fig. 2. York Region 1997 YDSS system.

Fig. 1. General location plan.

However, during the three year period that was

required to complete the construction of the first of
the York Region expansion projects, i.e., the Ninth
Line and 16th Avenue Phase 1 trunk sewers in
Markham as presented on Figure 3, a profound change
in the approach to the design, permitting and
construction methodology for similar projects within
York Region and indeed, the entire GTA has
occurred. Specifically, the combination of soil and
groundwater

A major part of these undertakings is a proposed 25

year plan that was initiated by the Regional
Municipality of York (York Region) in 1997 to
essentially twin and expand the existing York Durham
Sanitary System (YDSS) located within its boundaries
as indicated on Figure 2. In this respect, it should be
noted that the original YDSS system within York
Region was constructed by the province and assumed
by York Region in the 1990s.

1

GEOLOGIC/HYDROGEOLOGIC SETTING

First and foremost in the change in tunnelling

approach over that adopted for most of the initial
York Region trunk sewer development, is a
fundamental change in the geologic setting of the
latest series of trunk sewer expansion works.
Specifically, overburden soils of the GTA, were
deposited during the Quaternary period and consist of
a variety of glacial till, glacio-lacustrine and glaciofluvial sand, silt and clay. Bedrock within most of the
southern portions of York Region consists of shale of
Upper Ordovician age located at least 30 m below the
existing ground surface within the south limits of
York Region and increasing in depth toward the north.
The Quaternary deposits were laid down by two
successive glacial periods (Illinoian and Wisconsinon)
and an interglacial warmer period (Sangamonian).
The major Illinoian deposits starting with the oldest
and extending upward are the Scarborough Formation,
the Sunnybrook Till, which is in turn overlain by the
Thorncliffe Formation of gravel, sand and silt that is
associated with the Sangamonian interglacial period.

Fig. 3. Plan of Ninth Line and 16th Ave trunk sewers.

conditions along the proposed new sewer alignments,
in combination with increased environmental
awareness of both the public and the various
regulatory agencies, has resulted in a change from the
traditional GTA approach to tunnelling of using an
open face Tunnel Boring Machine (TBM) in
conjunction with a two pass tunnel liner system (rib
and lagging plus cast in place concrete) and associated
dewatering of any cohesionless deposits, to an
essentially dewaterless approach to tunnelling as
can be obtained using an Earth Pressure Balance
(EPB) and associated single pass, pre-cast segmental
liner.

The Wisconsinon glacial period was initiated by ice

advance out of the north during which time a fairly
continuous layer of basal till known as the Newmarket
Till was deposited burying the older deposits
(Thorncliffe Formation and below that, deposits of the
Sunnybrook Till and the Scarborough Formations).
At one time, this initial ice advance included
uninterrupted ice over most of southern Ontario.
However, with time an east-west trending split
occurred between the northern ice sheet and the ice
sheet of the Lake Ontario basin to the south. The
resulting deposition within this split created the Oak
Ridges Moraine, which is a high ridge of land that
extends from the Niagara escarpment eastwards for
approximately 160 km as indicated on Figure 4.
Overburden depths as great as 200 m have been
recorded along the Oak Ridges Moraine [1].

Based on experience gained with some 25 km of deep

sewer tunnels located within York Region where the
author has acted as geotechnical project manager, this
paper presents a summary of the geologic and
topographic settings of the latest series of projects and
associated experiences with these major sewer tunnel
projects that, taken in combination, have resulted in
the aforementioned profound change to tunnelling
within York Region and the GTA.

As the Ontario Ice Lobe melted back, a combination

of deep water ice marginal glacio-lacustrine and
glacial outwash sediments were deposited on top of
the Newmarket Till. However, the final stage of the
Wisconsinon glacial period was characterized by a readvance of the Lake Ontario ice sheet that overrode,
and in some instances totally removed, the interstadial
deposits and deposited a capping layer of glacial till
referred to as the Halton Till over most of the GTA,
although importantly, the final advance did not reach
the crest of the previously deposited Oak Ridges
Moraine.

1 

The Oak Ridges Moraine is a significant

hydrogeologic feature in Southern Ontario and its
high ground forms a regional groundwater divide
between Lake Ontario to the south and Lakes Scugog
and Simcoe to the north. The Oak Ridges Moraine is
an important groundwater recharge area.
The discontinuous granular deposits of the ORMAC
that are sandwiched between the upper Halton Till and
the lower Newmarket Till and the underlying granular
deposits of the Thorncliffe Formation located beneath
the Newmarket Till are both connected to the Oak
Ridges Moraine and act as aquifers that sub-crop
within the lower terrain lands within the more
southerly limits of York Region. The ORMAC varies
in thickness and grades from sand to silts and clays.
The Thorncliffe Formation is generally thicker, more
uniform and coarser grained.

Fig. 4. Outline of Oak Ridges Moraine.

The interstadial deposits between the Halton Till and

the Newmarket Till are a known, sometimes
discontinuous source of groundwater and are referred
to as part of the Oak Ridges Moraine Aquifer
Complex (ORMAC).

Groundwater flow in both aquifer units is generally

toward the south and Lake Ontario. Recharge to both
the ORMAC and the Thorncliffe Formation is
stronger in the upgradient areas to the north within the
Oak Ridges Moraine. However, considerable
recharge is also realized by infiltration through the
overlying glacial till south of the moraine area.

Above the upper Halton Till, generally thin deposits

of lacustrine sand, silt and clay that were deposited in
lakes formed along the face of the receding Lake
Ontario ice front occur at the surface.
The net result of this deposition sequence is
substantial inter-fingering and inter-layering of
deposits along the fringes to the Oak Ridges Moraine
complex, especially in a perpendicular, north/south
direction as indicated on Figure 5. In addition,
downcut river valleys that were ultimately infilled
with predominantly cohesionless granular materials
are also known to have developed within the
Newmarket Till and ORMAC.

South
Slope

Significant yields of good quality drinking water are

usually available from the Thorncliffe Formation,
with discontinuous and sporadic water yields available
from the ORMAC.
The initial series of York Region trunk sewer
development was located within the surficial till
deposits to the south of the Oak Ridges Moraine
whereas the latest series of York Region sewer
expansion work generally extend into and/or are
located within the more southerly limits of the
elevated terrain associated with the Oak Ridges
Moraine as indicated on Figure 5. Importantly, this
resulted in sewer profiles during the initial phase of the
York Region trunk sewer development that were
located almost entirely in the near surface cohesive
Halton Till materials where stable tunnel face
conditions generally prevailed, whereas the later series
of York Region sewer expansions are located within a
geologic setting more prone to encountering
waterbearing cohesionless deposits under high water
pressures and associated unstable tunnel face
conditions.

Peel
Plain

Fig. 5. General soil profile perpendicular to the Oak Ridges

Moraine (after [2]).

1 

In keeping with an overall trend of increased

environmental awareness over the last 25 years, the
initial Ninth Line and 16th Avenue Phase I sewer
projects of the proposed 1997 York Region expansion
works felt the brunt of this increasing awareness and
in particular, the increasing willingness of the general
public to voice concerns against perceived
environmental impacts. Specifically, and as indicated
by the following case histories, soil dewatering to
allow the completion of sewer tunnelling works using
a conventional open face TBM has dramatically
changed from being a routine undertaking during
completion of the initial sewer expansion works to a
major design, permitting and public relations exercise
for the latest phase of trunk sewer expansion work.

PHYSIOGRAPHIC SETTING

In keeping with the fundamental change in the

geologic setting of the latest series of sewer expansion
works within York Region, a similar change has also
occurred in the physiographic and topographic setting
of this latest series of York Region sewer expansion
works. Specifically, based on information presented in
[1], the physiography of the central portions of York
Region (and Peel and Durham Regions) is
characterized by two basic Physiographic Regions as
indicated on Figure 5, i.e., the Peel Plain and the South
Slope of the Oak Ridges Moraine. The Peel Plain
refers to a relatively flat tract of land with an overall
gentle slope to the south that extends from the toe of
the south slope of the Oak Ridges Moraine complex to
just north of the Lake Iroquois shoreline. The South
Slope refers to an area of inclined land that rises from
the relatively flat lying Peel Plain to the Oak Ridges
Moraine in the north. A key feature of the South Slope
physiographic region is a number of deeply incised,
south flowing river valleys.
Most of the original York Region trunk sewer
development works were located within the Peel Plain
physiographic region whereas most of the latest sewer
expansion works are located in the South Slope
physiographic region. Importantly, the flat lying terrain
within the Peel Plain physiographic region resulted in
relatively shallow tunnel depths, whereas the more
elevated terrain within the South Slope physiographic
region and in particular, the frequent presence of deeply
incised south flowing river valleys, have resulted in
significantly deeper tunnel alignments than previously
undertaken. The impact of the south flowing river
valleys on required tunnel profiles is most dramatically
indicated by the alignment of the Ninth Line and 16th
Avenue trunk sewer projects as presented on Figure 6
where tunnel depths of up to 50 m below existing
grades were required to maintain a gravity based sewer
below the Bruce Creek river bed, located some 10 km
upstream from the tunnel downstream terminal outlet.

ENVIRONMENTAL AWARENESS
1 



Fig.6. Ground surface profile along Ninth Line and 16th Avenue trunk sewers.

x Experience during tunnelling suggests that the

foregoing approach had progress and alignment
difficulties when external water pressures were
much above the springline of the tunnel.
x Shafts constructed using a combination of soldier
pile and lagging and steel liner plate temporary
support systems in conjunction with dewatering.
x Dewatering permit took a period of 7 months to
obtain, significantly longer than the 2 to 3 months
originally anticipated by the design-builder. This
and other delays resulted in the need for the terminal
shaft on 16th Avenue Phase 1 to be relocated about
100 m west of its originally proposed location and
into an area where significant shaft dewatering was
required.
x Quite a number of residential well inference claims
were alleged as a result of the dewatering, some as
far as 10 km from the alignment.
x Local conservation authority (Toronto Region
Conservation Authority TRCA) very concerned
about impacts to receiving surface water courses as
a result of the concentrated discharge of high
volumes of dewatering water that was too cold in
summer and too warm in winter.
x Combination of residential well and surface river
impacts resulted in negative public opinion.

CASE HISTORIES

5.1. Ninth Line/16th Avenue Phase 1 Trunk Sewers

The locations of these projects that have a combined
total length 6 km relative to the Oak Ridges Moraine
are indicated on Figure 7, with detailed soil conditions
along these alignments presented on Figure 8.
Relative to the aforementioned geologic and
physiographic project settings, the following key
elements are worthy of note:
x Site location just south of the Oak Ridges Moraine.
x Increasing elevation along Ninth Line as the sewer
alignment climbs up the South Slope, whereas the
elevation within 16th Avenue Phase 1 is quite flat.
x Surface capping layer of glacial till deposits.
x Zone of waterbearing cohesionless materials within
the south limits of the Ninth Line sewer that are
believed to be largely inter-glacial that give way to a
second zone of ORMAC water bearing materials
with significantly higher water heads (up to 45 m
above tunnel invert) within the north limits of the
Ninth Line sewer and along the entire 16th Avenue
Phase 1 limits.

5.2. 16th Avenue Phase 2 Trunk Sewer

The location of this project with a total length of 7.5
km relative to the Oak Ridges Moraine is indicated on
Figure 7, with detailed soil conditions along this
alignment presented on Figure 9. Relative to the
aforementioned geologic and physiographic project
settings, the following key elements are worthy of
note:
x Site location just south of and parallel to the Oak
Ridges Moraine complex.
x Terrain along 16th Avenue that decreases from the
east and west toward the low point created by the
combined floodplains of the Bruce and Berczy
Creeks.
x Surface capping layer of glacial till deposits with
two major interglacial cohesionless deposits
(McCowan Road Sand and Gravel and Warden
Avenue Sand deposits of Figure 8).
x Almost continuous waterbearing cohesionless
ORMAC materials over the easterly 4 km of the 16th
Avenue Phase 2 limits (Robinson Creek Buried
Sand) with initial water heads of up to 45 m above
the tunnel invert. This deposit also includes what is
believed to be an in-filled former eroded channel
directly below the West Robinson Creek that
extends through the ORMAC and into the
underlying Thorncliffe formation.

Ninth Line/16th Avenue Phase 1

16th Avenue Phase 2
Bathurst/Langstaff
Credit Valley

Fig. 7. Location of case histories relative to the Oak Ridges

Moraine.

In terms of construction, the following key elements

are worthy of note:
x Projects completed by joint venture of
McNally/Aecon through a Design/Build process.
x Sewers mined between December 2000 and May
2003 using an open face, 136 inch diameter Lovat
TBM machine with partial EPB capabilities
equipped with rock cutting discs in conjunction with
a two pass lining system and routine dewatering of
waterbearing deposits as required. Partial EPB
achieved by the use of a pressure relieving gate near
the top of the TBM front excavating chamber
(Project initially specified the use of a full EPB
TBM in conjunction with a single pass, pre-cast
segmental liner to avoid the need for dewatering
related to tunnelling).
1 

Fig.8. Soil and groundwater conditions along Ninth Line and 16th Avenue Phase 1 trunk sewers.

Fig.9. Soil and groundwater conditions along 16th Avenue Phase 2 trunk sewer.

Fig.10. Soil and groundwater conditions along Bathurst Collector sewer.

Fig.11. Soil and groundwater conditions along Langstaff Trunk sewer.

Fig.12. Soil and groundwater conditions along Credit Valley trunk sewer extension.

In terms of construction, the following key elements

are worthy of note:
x Projects completed by a joint venture of
McNally/Aecon through a Design/Build process.
x Delay in the start of tunnel mining from July 2003
until April 2005 (22 months) until a construction
dewatering permit could be obtained from the
Ontario Ministry of Environment (MOE). Part of
this delay resulted from a critical re-evaluation of
the jurisdictional domains of the various approving
agencies in light of the Ninth Line/16th Avenue
Phase 1 experience(s).
x Based on consultation between York Region and the
various approving agencies, the MOE dewatering
permit
included
a
mutually
acceptable
environmental
management
plan
totaling
approximately $20 million to address potential
impacts to the environment. Notable portions of the
environmental management plan was a commitment
by York Region to establish a peer review board for
all similar tunnel projects, extensive network of
distribution pipes to help avoid the impacts of
concentrated discharge of dewatering water into the
surface receiving streams that was too cold in
summer and too warm in winter and improved
municipal servicing and/or advance water well
replacement prior to initiating the dewatering
system to lessen impacts within the estimated cone
of drawdown.
x Easterly 4 km of sewer mined between May 2005
and June 2006 using an open face, 136 inch
diameter Lovat TBM machine with partial EPB
capabilities equipped with rock cutting discs in
conjunction with a two pass lining system and
dewatering of the Robinson Creek Buried Sand.
Tunnel construction delayed for 7 months while
mining shaft was relocated from original terminal
shaft of 16th Avenue Phase 1 to lessen dewatering.
x Westerly 3.5 km of sewer mined between May 2005
and June 2006 using an open face, 112 inch
diameter Lovat TBM machine with partial EPB
capabilities as previously described in conjunction
with a two pass lining system and no dewatering.
x Shafts constructed using a combination of soldier
pile and lagging and steel liner plate temporary
support systems in conjunction with dewatering.

5.3. Bathurst Collector and Langstaff Trunk Sewers

The location of these projects with a combined total
length of just under 9 km relative to the prevalent
geology of the area is indicated on Figure 7, with
detailed soil conditions along these alignments
presented on Figure 10 and 11. Relative to the
aforementioned geologic and physiographic setting of
these projects, the following key elements are worthy
of note:
x Site location just south of a southerly projection
(Maple Spur) of the Oak Ridges Moraine.
x Increasing elevation along Bathurst Street as the
sewer alignment climbs up the South Slope, whereas
the elevation along Langstaff Road is quite flat.
x Surface capping layer of glacial till deposits that
encompass the proposed south tunnel zone but
generally located well above the more northerly
tunnel zones.
x Series of waterbearing cohesionless materials within
the south limits of the Bathurst Collector sewer that
are largely below the proposed tunnel invert that
give way to a series of waterbearing cohesionless
ORMAC materials that encompass the proposed
tunnel zones within the north limits of the Bathurst
Collector sewer and most of the proposed Langstaff
Trunk sewer.
In summary, conditions within the south limits of the
Bathurst Collector sewer are very favorable and very
similar to those of the original York Region sewer
system development, whereas conditions within the
north limits of the Bathurst Collector sewer and entire
Langstaff Trunk sewer are less favorable and very
similar to conditions being more routinely
encountered in the latest series of York Region sewer
expansion works.
In terms of design and construction, the following key
elements are worthy of note:
x Contract for delivery of sewers through a
Design/Build process signed in May 2006 with the
joint venture of McNally/Aecon.
x Design-build tender documents delayed from
release in spring 2003 to summer 2005 while
dewatering permitting issues were evaluated and
approving agency jurisdictional issues that arose as
part of the 16th Avenue Phase 2 dewatering works
were resolved.
x Key component of the project specifications is the
requirement to undertake all works without
installing any active dewatering system, i.e.,
essentially dewaterless construction for shafts and
tunnels although dewatering on a contingency basis
will be permitted under special circumstances.
1 1

x Environmental and ecological impact assessment

more extensive and time consuming than the
geotechnical investigations.
x Sewers anticipated to be mined commencing in
January 2007 using a 129 inch diameter, Lovat EPB
TBM in conjunction with single pass pre-cast
segmental liner.

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

The most recent series of major trunk sewer

expansions works within York Region have
experienced a significant change in face conditions
over those encountered during the development of its
initial trunk sewer system, i.e., predominantly stable
cohesive face conditions with occasional unstable
waterbearing cohesionless zones under moderate
water pressures to more frequent and extensive
unstable waterbearing cohesionless zones under high
water pressure.

5.4. Credit Valley Trunk Sewer Extension

The location of this 3.2 km long tunnel project relative
to the prevalent geology of the area is indicated on
Figure 7, with detailed soil conditions along the
alignment presented on Figure 12. Relative to the
aforementioned geologic and physiographic setting of
this project, the following key elements are worthy of
note:
x Site location well south of the Oak Ridges Moraine
complex and within the Peel Plain physiographic
region.
x Existing terrain along the tunnel alignment with a
very gentle rise to the north in keeping with the
characteristics of the Peel Plain physiographic
region, with associated moderate tunnel depths
relative to those of York Region.
x Relatively thin series of overburden deposits with
an associated simple stratigraphy, i.e., some thin
surface ice marginal glacio-lacustrine deposits
overlying predominantly cohesive clayey silt
(Halton Till) with occasional water bearing sand
pockets overlying shale bedrock.

The transformation in tunnel face conditions within

the latest series of York Region trunk sewer
expansions is a direct reflection of differing geologic,
physiographic and topographic settings versus those
of the original development of the trunk sewer system.
The soil and groundwater conditions along the
alignment of the various recent York Region sewer
expansions are consistent with the geological setting
of these projects. In fact, the extensive sub-surface
investigations completed for these projects have
assisted greatly with the confirmation and refinement
of the prevalent geology within the south slope of the
Oak Ridges Moraine.
The combination of differing geology, project
duration, magnitude of dewatering and regulatory and
public environmental awareness coalesced in the first
of the most recent York Region sewer expansion
projects, i.e., Ninth Line and 16th Avenue Phase 1 to
create a vastly different, more challenging and more
time consuming design and permitting regime for
similar trunk sewer projects both in York Region and
within the GTA in general. Simply stated, conditions
on the Ninth Line and 16th Avenue Phase 1 sewer
project have coalesced into the Perfect GTA
Tunnelling Storm.

In terms of design and construction, the following key

elements are worthy of note:
x Hydro-geological assessment of route more
extensive and time consuming than geotechnical
investigations, even though very limited water
bearing units along the alignment.
x Contract for construction of projects awarded to
Technicore in January 2006.
x Sewers to be mined between July 2006 and June
2007 using a Technicore manufactured TBM with
full EPB front chamber capabilities in conjunction
with a rib and primary temporary support system.
x Shafts to be constructed using a combination of
soldier pile and lagging and steel liner plate
temporary support.

Project scheduling concerns and a need to reduce

dewatering impacts during the completion of proposed
sewer projects that are similar to those of Ninth Line
and 16th Avenue Phase 1, have led to the adoption of
shaft and tunnelling construction methods that can be
completed in the absence of planned dewatering
where major deposits of waterbearing cohesionless
materials are present. Hence, York Region and the
GTA in general are poised to witness their first major
trunk sewers to be constructed using an EPB Tunnel
Boring Machine in conjunction with a single pass precast segmental liner.

1

With respect to design, the recent experience with the

York Region projects suggests that future similar
major trunk sewer projects in the GTA will be
required to spend much more effort to evaluate the
sub-surface conditions along proposed alternative
alignments, including proposed shaft locations, during
the environmental assessment and route selection
phase of the project.
With respect to construction, items like shaft
construction, production of pre-cast segments,
retraining of mining personnel, tunnel progress,
management of boulders in waterbearing cohesionless
ground and overall project costs remain a work in
progress within the current dewaterless era of
tunnelling within the GTA.
With respect to cost, the current dewaterless era of
tunnelling in the GTA must focus more on total
project costs and not just tunnel construction cost,
with particular emphasis being given to required
environmental assessment, mitigation and monitoring
should major dewatering be contemplated.

REFERENCES
1.

2.

Chapman, L.J., and K.F. Putnam 1984.

The
Physiography of Southern Ontario. Ontario Geological
Survey, Special Volume 2, 170 pp. Accompanied by
Map P.2715 (coloured), scale 1:600,000.
Sharp, D. R., P. J. Barnett, P.A. Brennand, B. Finley,
G. Gorell, H.A.J. Russell, and P. Stacey 1997.
Surficial Geology of the Greater Toronto and Oak
Ridges Moraine Area, Southern Ontario. Geological
Survey of Canada, Open File 3062 Scale 1:200,000.

1