accelerator physics and ion optics

introduction
Sytze Brandenburg

sb/AccPhys2005_1/1

course literature
book used as guideline for the course
An introduction to particle accelerators
Edmund Wilson
Oxford University Press, 2001
ISBN 0 19 850829
selected topics from
proceedings of CERN accelerator school 1992
General accelator physics course
proceedings of CERN accelerator school 1994
Cyclotrons, linacs and their applications

sb/AccPhys2005_1/2

additional literature
alternative book for the course (in German)
Physik der Teilchenbeschleuniger und Ionenoptik
Frank Hinterberger
Springer Verlag, 1997
ISBN 3-540-61238-6
links and references on http:\\www.kvi.nl\~brandenburg
search the web

sb/AccPhys2005_1/3

material on CD-ROM
proceedings CERN Accelerator School 1992
General accelerator physics course
proceedings CERN Accelerator School 1994
Cyclotrons, linacs and their applications
Principles of charged particle acceleration
Stanley Humphries

TRANSPORT code for first and second order ion optics

Acrobat Reader 5.0 for different platforms

sb/AccPhys2005_1/4

prerequisite knowledge
electricity and magnetism
Maxwell equations: differential and integral form
mechanics
pendulum
special relativity
relation velocity vs. energy and momentum
Lorentz transformation

sb/AccPhys2005_1/5

course structure
why build accelerators
physics case
history
accelerator types
how to keep the particles on track
single particle optics
beam optics - transverse
beam optics - longitudinal
matching beam to accelerator
what makes life difficult
imperfections and resonances
special topics
damping, cooling and synchrotron radiation
cyclotrons
RF
injection and extraction
..

sb/AccPhys2005_1/6

goals and objectives

knowledge
principles of acceleration and guiding
function of ion optical elements (first and second order)
behaviour of single particles vs. beam
emittance conservation
orbit stability in circular accelerators
properties matched beam for an accelerator lattice
effects of aberrations, imperfections; resonances
ability
calculate first order beam optics in a lattice
design a beamline in first order

sb/AccPhys2005_1/7

assessment

assignments
presentation of worked out solutions
exam (combination of written and oral)
assignments and presentation are voluntary, contribute each
for up to 20 % to final grade
exam grade is lower limit for final grade

sb/AccPhys2005_1/8

outline todays lecture

historical development
accelerator types
DC-accelerators
RF and pulse accelerators
linear accelerators
circular accelerators
reading:
Wilson; chapter 1
Proceedings CERN accelerator school 1992; chapter 1

sb/AccPhys2005_1/9

particle physics around 1900

charged particles produced in gas discharges
negative: cathode rays electrons (Thomson)
positive: Kanalstrahlen; ~1700 x heavier than electrons
elements
atomic number Z mass, chemical properties
emission spectra
radioactivity
-, - and -radiation: penetration in matter; charge; mass
electromagnetic radiation (radiowaves, light)
X-rays
photo-electric effect (Nobelprize A. Einstein, 1921)
atoms: no clear picture of structure
heavy positively charged particle(s)
electrons
sb/AccPhys2005_1/10

particle physics around 1900

Rutherford et al. (1911): scattering -particles from gold:
comparison with Coulomb-scattering between point particles
2

d Q1Q2 2 sin
=

d 160Ekin,1 sin4
2

conclusions
Q1, Q2 = Z1e, Z2e; -e is electron charge
mass and positive charge in a small nucleus
deviations at small scattering angle
screening by electrons size of atom (~0.1 nm)
deviations at large scattering angle
hard sphere collision size of nucleus (~10 fm)
Rutherfords conjecture: nucleus = protons and electrons
inconsistent with Heisenberg uncertainty relation for electrons
sb/AccPhys2005_1/11

particle physics around 1900

Rutherford (1919): nuclear reaction 14N(, p)17O
prediction of existence neutron
idea: hard sphere collision needed for nuclear reaction
size and charge of nucleus Coulomb barrier
conclusion: energy of several MeV needed for protons and
-particles
acceleration with DC voltage not feasible
production of energetic particles for nuclear reactions:
use Lorentz force F = q(E + v B) to accelerate charged
particles

sb/AccPhys2005_1/12

electrostatic accelerator: Cockroft-Walton

1928: tunneling hypothesis
lower energy needed
acceleration with DC feasible
1932: first nuclear reaction with
accelerated protons
7Li + p 2
7Li + p 7Be + n
Ep= 400 keV
discovery neutron
Rutherford laboratory
http://www.isis.rl.ac.uk/accelerator

sb/AccPhys2005_1/13

electromagnetic force
production of energetic particles for nuclear reactions:
use Lorentz force F = q(E + v B) to accelerate charged
particles
magnetic force q(v B) perpendicular to velocity
does not contribute to acceleration
can be used for focussing and guiding
mv
B determines curvature of trajectory
B =
q
electric force qE
component parallel to velocity: acceleration
component perpendicular to velocity: focussing and
guiding
mv 2
E determines curvature of trajectory
E =
q
sb/AccPhys2005_1/14

acceleration techniques
linear accelerators
electrostatic
radio-frequency (RF) electric field
induction
particles focussed by accelerating field or separate
magnetic and electric fields
circular accelators
RF electric field
induction
particles guided and focussed by magnetic fields

sb/AccPhys2005_1/15

electrostatic accelerator: principle

electrons emitted by a
hot filament
cathode: negative high
voltage (~10 kV)
anode : grounded
steering plates
timebase
signal
simplest example: oscilloscope

CRT of J.J. Thomson (1897)

sb/AccPhys2005_1/16

electrostatic accelerator: focussing

acceleration in gaps E = qV sin
shielding by drift tubes during polarity reversal (1/2 T RF )
i RF RF iqV sin
length
of
drift
tube
(v <<c)
l
=
=

i
2
c
2m
phase (axial) focussing by proper choice of
additional transverse focussing needed (in drifttubes)

sb/AccPhys2005_1/17

electrostatic accelerator: Cockroft-Walton

G re in a ch e r casca d e

vo lta g e d istrib u te d o ve r
m a n y e lectro d e s to co n trol
fo cussin g

h ig h cu rre n t I = 1 0 0 m A

V m ax 2 M V

in jecto r fo r h ig h en e rg y,
h ig h inte n sity a cce le rators

lo ad e ffects
vo lta g e d ro p n 3 I/ C
vo lta g e rip p le n 2 I/ C
la rge C ; h ig h U 0 a n d

crea te d
m od ified

1 3/1 1 /05 1 8:1 9

1 3/1 1 /05 1 8:1 9

sb/AccPhys2005_1/18

1 /1

Greinacher cascade

combination of two circuits is a voltage doubler + rectifier

stacking n circuits leads voltage multiplication with factor n

sb/AccPhys2005_1/19

electrostatic accelerator: van de Graaff

insulating conveyor belt: transport charge to HV-dome
motor power: V I + friction
voltage divider column
potential definition
focussing

sb/AccPhys2005_1/20

electrostatic accelerator: van de Graaff

HMI van de Graaff

http://www.hmi.de/isl/

sb/AccPhys2005_1/21

electrostatic accelerator: tandem van de Graaff

accelerate negative ions to HV-dome (OK for many elements)

pass ions through a foil or high pressure region to remove a
number of electrons: positive ions in chargestate Q+
accelerate positive ions to ground
E = (Q + 1) V

sb/AccPhys2005_1/22

electrostatic accelerator: tandem van de Graaff

Oak Ridge tandem

http://www.phy.ornl.gov/hribf
sb/AccPhys2005_1/23

electrostatic accelerator: tandem van de Graaff

installed at Center for Isotopereseach (CIO) for 14C dating:
count the number of 14C-atoms relative to 12C
age of material

sb/AccPhys2005_1/24

electrostatic accelerator: limitations

corona discharge
is also used to stabilize
voltage
surface currents on
insulators of acceleration
column
discharge in insulation gas
discharge on surfaces
(surface roughness)
air insulation : 2 MV
high pressure N 2 and SF 6 :
up to 25 MV

sb/AccPhys2005_1/25

RF linear accelerator
RF electric field parallel to velocity
particles in phase with RF field (polarity): bunched beam
RF
length bunches lb
2
spacing bunches db = nRF

sb/AccPhys2005_1/26

Wider linear accelerator (1928)

acceleration in gaps E = qV sin
shielding by drift tubes during polarity reversal (1/2 T RF)
i RF RF iqV sin
(v <<c)
length of drift tube li =
=
2
c
2m
phase (axial) focussing by proper choice of
additional transverse focussing needed (in drifttubes)

sb/AccPhys2005_1/27

RF linear accelerator: further developments

development of accelerating
cavities based on waveguide
principle
higher energygain, higher
frequency
superconducting cavities
also used in large
synchrotrons
mainly injectors for
synchrotrons
largest linac: 3 km electron
LINAC Stanford (USA)
http://www2.slac.stanford.edu/vvc/

sb/AccPhys2005_1/28

induction linear accelerator

current pulse in winding around ferromagnetic core
B
d
E =
E id l =
B id s

t
dt S
C
pulses in phase with beam

sb/AccPhys2005_1/29

pulse generator

capacitors charged in parallel

triggering spark gaps: all capacitors in series U out = n U in
state of the art performance
n = 100
U out = 6 MV
I out = 500 kA
pulse duration 40 ns

sb/AccPhys2005_1/30

circular accelerators
betatron
cyclotron
synchro-cyclotron
isochronous cyclotron
synchrotron
storage ring

sb/AccPhys2005_1/31

betatron (1923)
Wider design ray transformer
beam secondary winding of transformer
beam guided in circular orbit with separate magnet
B
d
Eidl = Bids
E =

t C
dt S
stable orbit

sb/AccPhys2005_1/32

d Bguide
dt

1 d Bacc da
=
2 dt r 2

betatron (1940)
Kerst : working prototype
breakthrough: orbit stabilisation with non-homogeneous field
only used for electrons

sb/AccPhys2005_1/33

orbit stabilisation
F = qvB Fz = q(vrB-vBr)
homogeneous field: Br = B = 0 Fz = 0
vz 0 spiral motion around z-axis, no stability
azimuthally symmetric field: B = 0
Bz decreases with radius Br towards center
Fz towards midplane particle oscillates around midplane
vertical stability, weak focussing

sb/AccPhys2005_1/34

betatron

Kerst with first and largest betatron

sb/AccPhys2005_1/35

cyclotron (1931)
Lawrence and Livingston
inspired by Wider linac: wound-up linac

sb/AccPhys2005_1/36

cyclotron
vacuum chamber first cyclotron
10 cm

sb/AccPhys2005_1/37

cyclotron
homogenous magnetic field isochronous (non-relativistic)
mv 2
mv
Bq
= qvB R =
orb =
R
Bq
2m
accelerate with RF electric field with RF = orb
theory: homogeneous field no vertical orbit stability
large beamlosses
pratice: due to fringefield effects Bz decreases with radius
marginal vertical orbit stability
gradual loss of synchronism: energy limit

sb/AccPhys2005_1/38

cyclotron
mv 2
relativistic effects
= qvB
R

mv
R=
Bq

orb

Bq
=
= f(R)
2m

rapid loss of synchronism: energy limit ~ 20 MeV protons

only useful for ions (mp/me = 1836)
two solutions
vary RF periodically: pulsed acceleration, synchro-cyclotron
requires phase focussing (McMillan, Veksler; 1945)
restore isochronism Bz(r) = (r) Bz(0): isochronous cyclotron
Bz increases with radius no vertical stabililty
introduce sectors in magnetic field (Thomas; 1938):
strong focussing

sb/AccPhys2005_1/39

cyclotron
modern isochronous cyclotron at KVI
superconducting coils high field, compact machine
200 MeV protons

sb/AccPhys2005_1/40

particle physics around 1935

atomic model complete:
nucleus consists of protons and neutrons
electrons bound in Coulomb-field nucleus

sb/AccPhys2005_1/41

particle physics around 1935

atomic model complete:
nucleus consists of protons and neutrons
electrons bound in Coulomb-field nucleus

sb/AccPhys2005_1/41

particle physics around 1935

atomic model complete:
nucleus consists of protons and neutrons
electrons bound in Coulomb-field nucleus
basic theory for -, - and -emission by nuclei
strong nucleon - nucleon interaction established
quantum physics: interaction via particle exchange
EM-interaction: infinite range massless photons
strong interaction: short range massive particle
Heisenberg uncertainty principle: mc2 100 MeV
high energy accelerator needed for production

sb/AccPhys2005_1/41

synchrotron (1950)
higher energy: larger radius
200 MeV proton
B = 2.2 Tm
1000 MeV proton
B = 5.7 Tm
for synchro-cyclotron-like accelerators huge magnets
alternative approach
acceleration in several
stages
constant radius orbit
magnetic field and RF
vary during acceleration;
pulsed operation
(cf. synchro-cyclotron)

sb/AccPhys2005_1/42

synchrotron
requires phase focussing
transverse focussing
weak focussing: dipole magnets with radially decreasing Bz
needs large magnet gaps
strong focussing
combined function
dipole magnets with alternating strong radial fieldgradient
no possibility for fine-tuning
separated function
homogeneous dipole magnets for bending
quadrupole magnets for focussing

sb/AccPhys2005_1/43

storage / collider ring

development Standard Model: zoo of particles up to Higgs

very heavy, exotic particles (e.g. mass W, Z0 ~ 80 - 90 GeV)
fixed target: energy available for reaction Ecm = 2 Ebeammc 2 +m2c 4
investment explodes

colliding beams Ecm = 2 (Ebeam + mc2)

low density compared to fixed target low event rate

sb/AccPhys2005_1/44

collider ring
two beams in opposite direction
electrons + positrons (LEP)
protons + protons (LHC, under construction at CERN)
experiment performed in ring
interaction zones with very small beamsize
colliding protons with Ekin = 100 GeV:
Ecm = 200 GeV
fixed target
Ecm = 200 GeV:
Ekin = 20000 GeV

sb/AccPhys2005_1/45

storage ring / collider ring

http://hands-on-cern.physto.se
sb/AccPhys2005_1/46

LHC: largest storage/collider ring

circumference 27 km
proton energy 7000 GeV
http://lhc-machine-outreach.web.cern.ch/lhc-machine-outreach/

sb/AccPhys2005_1/47

Livingston chart: equivalent energy vs. time

sb/AccPhys2005_1/48

essential technological developments

superconductivity
increase in energy (LHC)
ultra high vacuum (<10-12 mbar = 3 x104 atoms/cm3)
storage rings
computation
detailed understanding: maximize intensity
optimization mechanical and (electro-)magnetic design
high precision machining

sb/AccPhys2005_1/49

presentations and excercises

presentations and excercises available in PDF-format on
http:\\www.kvi.nl\~brandenburg

sb/AccPhys2005_1/50

next lecture
reading
Wilson: chapter 2 Transverse motion
CERN Accelerator School 1992, CERN report 94-01
chapter 2 Basic course on accelerator optics

sb/AccPhys2005_1/51

orbit stability (Wider 1928, Steenbeck 1935, Kerst 1941)

field in vicinity of reference orbit at radius R
mv 2
restoring force Fr ( r ) =
qvB y ( r )
r
x

orbit deviation x : r = R + x = R 1 +
R
Taylor expansion in first order
1 1
x

= 1
r R R

B y (R )
R B y (R ) x
x = B y (R ) 1 +
B y ( r ) = B y (R ) +

x
B y (R ) x R

B y ( r ) = B y (R ) 1 + n
R

mv 2
x
x

Fr ( r ) =
1
qvB
R
1
n

y ( )

R R
R

sb/AccPhys2005_1/52

orbit stability
m v 2
at reference orbit F r(R) = 0 :
= evB y (R )
R
d2 x
m v 2 x
Fr ( x ) =
(1 n ) = m 2
R R
dt
particle oscillates around reference orbit with x = 0 1 n
for n > 1 particle orbit becomes unstable (imaginary x)
nomenclature
oscillation around reference orbit: betatron oscillations
Q x , x = x orb : betatron frequency, number of betatron
period per turn

sb/AccPhys2005_1/53

orbit stability
for vertical stability similar reasoning
Fy ( z ) = qvB x
B x B y
=
B = 0
y
x
y
v2 y
in first order B x ( y ) = nB y (R )
Fy ( y ) = m n
R
R R
particle oscillates around reference orbit with y = 0 n
for n< 0 particle orbit becomes unstable (imaginary y)
simultaneous radial and axial stability 0 < n < 1:

weak focussing

sb/AccPhys2005_1/54