Catalogue of Spacetimes

arXiv:0904.4184v1 [gr-qc] 27 Apr 2009

Thomas Muller

and Frank Grave

e2
e1
x1 = 2

x2 = 2
x2

x1 = 1

x2 = 1

x1
x1 = 0

x2 = 0
M

Contact: Visualisierungsinstitut der Universitat Stuttgart

Nobelstrasse 15
70569 Stuttgart, Germany
Thomas.Mueller@vis.uni-stuttgart.de
1. Institut fur
Theoretische Physik
Pfaffenwaldring 57 // VI
70550 Stuttgart, Germany
Frank.Grave@vis.uni-stuttgart.de
URL:

http://www.vis.uni-stuttgart.de/~muelleta/CoS

Date:

27. April 2008

Coauthors
Andreas Lemmer, Institut fur
Theoretische Physik, Universitat Stuttgart
Alcubierre Warp

Contents
1

Introduction and Notation

1.1 General remarks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.2 Natural local tetrad and initial conditions for geodesics . .
1.2.1 Orthonormality condition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.2.2 Null or timelike directions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.2.3 Local tetrad for stationary axisymmetric spacetimes
1.3 Coordinate relations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.3.1 Spherical and cartesian coordinates . . . . . . . . .
1.3.2 Cylindrical and cartesian coordinates . . . . . . . .
1.4 Equations of motion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.4.1 Geodesic equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.4.2 Fermi-Walker transport . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.4.3 Parallel transport . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.5 Tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.5.1 Maple/GRTensorII . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.5.2 Maxima . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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1
1
2
2
2
2
4
4
5
5
5
6
6
6
6
7

Spacetimes
2.1 Minkowski . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.1.1 Cartesian coordinates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.1.2 Cylindrical coordinates . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.1.3 Spherical coordinates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.1.4 Conformal coordinates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.1.5 Rotating coordinates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.1.6 Rindler coordinates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.2 Schwarzschild spacetime . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.2.1 Schwarzschild coordinates . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.2.2 Schwarzschild in pseudo-cartesian coordinates .
2.2.3 Eddington-Finkelstein . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.2.4 Isotropic coordinates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.2.5 Kruskal-Szekeres . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.2.6 Painleve-Gullstrand . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.3 Reissner-Nordstrm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.4 Kerr . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.4.1 Boyer-Lindquist coordinates . . . . . . . . . . .
2.5 Oppenheimer-Snyder collapse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.5.1 Outer metric . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.5.2 Inner metric . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.6 Morris-Thorne . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.7 Alcubierre Warp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.8 Barriola-Vilenkin monopol . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.9 Godel

Universe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.9.1 Cylindrical coordinates . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.10 Kottler spacetime . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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8
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10
11
11
12
12
13
13
14
16
17
17
19
19
19
21
22
23
24
24
26

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Chapter 1

Introduction and Notation

The Catalogue of Spacetimes is a collection of four-dimensional Lorentzian spacetimes in the
context of the General Theory of Relativity (GR). The aim of the catalogue is to give a quick
reference for students who need some basic facts of the most well-known spacetimes in GR. For
a detailed discussion of a metric, the reader is referred to the standard literature or the original
articles.

1.1 General remarks

The Einstein field equation in the most general form reads[21]
G = T g ,

8 G
,
c4

(1.1.1)

with the Einstein tensor G = R 21 Rg , the energy-momentum tensor T , and the cosmological constant . A solution to the field equation is given by the line element
ds2 = g dx dx

(1.1.2)

with the metric tensor g. In this catalogue, we use the convention that the signature of the metric
is +2. We will also keep the physical constants c and G within the metrics.
In principle, we determine the Christoffel symbols, the Riemann and Ricci tensors as well as the
Ricci and Kretschman scalars which are defined as follows:

Christoffel symbols:


1

= g g , + g , g ,
2

(1.1.3)

Riemann tensor:

R = , , +

(1.1.4)

Ricci tensor:
R = R

(1.1.5)

Ricci and Kretschman scalar:

R = R ,

K = R R

(1.1.6)

Weyl tensor:
C = R

1
1
g [ R ] g [ R ] + R g [ g ]
2
3
1

(1.1.7)

CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION AND NOTATION

Symmetriziation and Antisymmetriziation brackets:

a( b ) =

1
a b + a b ,
2

a[ b ] =

Covariant derivative of the vector field :

1
a b a b
2

= ; = +

(1.1.8)

(1.1.9)

1.2 Natural local tetrad and initial conditions for geodesics

We will call a local tetrad natural if it is adapted to the symmetries or the coordinates of the space
time. The four base vectors e(i) = e(i) are given with respect to coordinate directions / x = ,
compare Nakahara[24] for an introduction to the tetrad formalism. The inverse tetrad is given by
(i)
(i) = dx with

e(j) = ( j)
(i)

(i)

and

e(i) = .
(i)

(1.2.1)

Note that we us latin indices for tetrads and greek indices for coordinates.

1.2.1 Orthonormality condition

To be applicable as a local reference frame (Minkowski frame), a local tetrad e(i) has to fulfill the
orthonormality condition

(1.2.2)
e(i) , e( j) g = g e(i) , e( j) = g e(i) e( j) = (i)( j) ,
where (i)( j) = diag(1, 1, 1, 1). Thus, the line element of a metric can be written as
ds2 = (i)( j) (i) ( j) = (i)( j) dx dx .
(i) ( j)

(1.2.3)

To obtain a local tetrad e(i) , we could first determine the dual tetrad (i) via Eq. (1.2.3).

1.2.2 Null or timelike directions

A null or timelike direction = (i) e(i) with respect to a local tetrad e(i) can be written as


= (0) e(0) + sin cos e(1) + sin sin e(2) + cos e(3) = (0) e(0) + n.

(1.2.4)

In the case of a null direction we have = 1 and (0) = 1. A timelike direction can be identified
with an initial four-velocity u = c (e0 + n), where


u2 = hu, uig = c2 2 e(0) + n, e(0) + n = c2 2 1 + 2 = c2 .
(1.2.5)

Thus, = c and 0 = c . The sign of (0) determines the time direction.

The transformations between a local direction (i) and its coordinate representation read

= (i) e(i)

and

(i) = .
(i)

(1.2.6)

1.2.3 Local tetrad for stationary axisymmetric spacetimes

The line element of a stationary axisymmetric spacetime is given by
ds2 = gtt dt 2 + 2gt dt d + g d 2 + grr dr2 + g d 2 ,

(1.2.7)

1.2. NATURAL LOCAL TETRAD AND INITIAL CONDITIONS FOR GEODESICS

e3

e2

e1
Figure 1.1: Null or timelike direction with respect to the local tetrad e(i) .
where the metric components are functions of r and only.
The local tetrad for an observer
on a stationary circular orbit, (r = const, = const), with four


velocity u = c t + can be defined as, compare Bini[4],
1
e(2) =
,
g


e(3) = (gt + g )t (gtt + gt ) ,
1
e(1) = r ,
grr

e(0) = t + ,

(1.2.8a)
(1.2.8b)

where

1
= q

,
gtt + 2 gt + 2 g

1
= q
.
gt2 gtt g

r
gtt
min = 2
g

r
gtt
max = + 2
g

(1.2.9)

The angular velocity is limited due to gtt + 2 gt + 2 g < 0

and

(1.2.10)

with = gt /g .
For = 0, the observer is static with respect to spatial infinity. The locally nonrotating frame
(LNRF) has angular velocity = , see also MTW[21], exercise 33.3.
Static limit: min = 0 gtt = 0.
The transformation between the local direction (i) and the coordinate direction reads

(1)
1 = ,
grr



0 = (0) (3) w1 ,

(2)
2 =
,
g



3 = (0) (3)w2 , (1.2.11)

with
w1 = gt + g

w2 = gtt + gt .

and

(1.2.12)

The back transformation reads

(0) =

1 0 w2 + 3 w1
,
w1 + w2

(1) =

grr 1 ,

(2) =

g 2 ,

(3) =

1 0 3
. (1.2.13)
w1 + w2

 

Note, to obtain a right-handed local tetrad, det e(i) > 0, the upper sign has to be used.

CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION AND NOTATION

1.3 Coordinate relations

1.3.1 Spherical and cartesian coordinates
The well-known relation between the spherical coordinates (r, , ) and the cartesian coordinates
(x, y, z), compare Fig. 1.2, are
p
r = x2 + y2 + z2 ,
(1.3.1a)
x = r sin cos ,
p
(1.3.1b)
y = r sin sin ,
and
= arctan 2( x2 + y2 , z),
z = r cos ,

= arctan 2(y, x),

(1.3.1c)

where arctan 2() ensures that [0, 2 ) and (0, ).

z

r
y

x
Figure 1.2: Relation between spherical and cartesian coordinates.
The total differentials of the spherical coordinates read
x dx + y dy + z dz
,
r
xz dx + yz dy (x2 + y2 )dz
p
,
d =
r 2 x2 + y2
y dx + x dy
d =
,
x2 + y2
dr =

(1.3.2a)
(1.3.2b)
(1.3.2c)

whereas the coordinate derivatives read

r =

x
y
z
x + y + z
r
r
r

x
y
z
x +
y +
z = r cos cos x + r cos sin y r sin z ,

(1.3.3b)

x
y
z
x +
y +
z = r sin sin x + r sin cos y ,

(1.3.3c)

x =

cos cos
r

sin
,
r +
+
= sin cos r +

x
x
x
r
r sin

(1.3.4a)

y =

cos sin
r

cos
,
r +
+
= sin sin r +
+
y
y
y
r
r sin

(1.3.4b)

z =

sin
r

r +
+
= cos r
.
z
z
z
r

(1.3.4c)

= sin cos x + sin sin y + cos z ,

(1.3.3a)

and

1.4. EQUATIONS OF MOTION

1.3.2 Cylindrical and cartesian coordinates

The relation between cylindrical coordinates (r, , z) and cartesian coordinates (x, y, z) is given by
p
x = r cos ,
r
= x2 + y2 ,
(1.3.5a)
= arctan 2(y, x),
(1.3.5b)
y = r sin ,
where arctan 2() again ensures that the angle [0, 2 ).
z

z
y

r
x

Figure 1.3: Relation between cylindrical and cartesian coordinates.

The total differentials of the spherical coordinates are given by
x dx + y dy
,
r
y dx + x dy
,
d =
r2
dr =

(1.3.6a)
(1.3.6b)

and
dx = cos dr r sin d ,
dy = sin dr + r cos d .

(1.3.7a)
(1.3.7b)

The coordinate derivatives are

r =

x
y
x + y = cos x + sin y ,
r
r

(1.3.8a)

x
y
x +
y = r sin x + r cos y m

(1.3.8b)

x =

sin
r +
= cos r
y ,
x
x
r

(1.3.9a)

y =

cos
r +
= sin r +
y .
y
y
r

(1.3.9b)

and

1.4 Equations of motion

1.4.1 Geodesic equation
The geodesic equation reads

d 2 x
dx dx
=0
+
2
d
d d

(1.4.1)

CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION AND NOTATION

with the affine parameter . For timelike geodesics, we replace the affine parameter by the proper
time .
The geodesic equation (1.4.1) is a system of ordinary differential equations of second order. Hence,
to solve these differential equations, we need an initial position x ( = 0) as well as an initial
direction (dx /d )( = 0). This initial direction has to fulfill the constraint equation
g

dx dx
= c2 ,
d d

(1.4.2)

where = 0 for lightlike and = 1 for timelike geodesics.

1.4.2 Fermi-Walker transport

The Fermi-Walker transport of a vector X = X along the worldline x ( ) with four-velocity
u ( ) is given by[30]
1
dX

+ u X + 2 (u a a u ) g X = 0.
d
c

(1.4.3)

The four-acceleration follows from the four-velocity via

a =

du

+ u u .
d

(1.4.4)

1.4.3 Parallel transport

If the four-acceleration vanishes, the Fermi-Walker transport simplifies to the parallel transport
dX

+ u X = 0.
d

(1.4.5)

1.5 Tools
1.5.1 Maple/GRTensorII
The Christoffel symbols, the Riemann- and Ricci-tensors as well as the Ricci and Kretschman
scalars in this catalogue were determined by means of the software Maple[18] together with the
GRTensorII package[23] by Musgrave, Pollney, and Lake.
A typical worksheet to enter a new metric may look like this:
> grtw();
> makeg(Schwarzschild);
Makeg 2.0: GRTensor metric/basis entry utility
To quit makeg, type exit at any prompt.
Do you wish to enter a 1) metric [g(dn,dn)],
2) line element [ds],
3) non-holonomic basis [e(1)...e(n)], or
4) NP tetrad [l,n,m,mbar]?
> 2:
Enter coordinates as a LIST (eg. [t,r,theta,phi]):
> [t,r,theta,phi]:
Enter the line element using d[coord] to indicate differentials.
(for example, r2*(d[theta]2 + sin(theta)2*d[phi]2)
[Type exit to quit makeg]

1.5. TOOLS

ds2 =
If there are any complex valued coordinates, constants or functions
for this spacetime, please enter them as a SET ( eg. { z, psi } ).
Complex quantities [default={}]:
> {}:
You may choose to 0)
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
6)
> 0:

Use the metric WITHOUT saving it,

Save the metric as it is,
Correct an element of the metric,
Re-enter the metric,
Add/change constraint equations,
Add a text description, or
Abandon this metric and return to Maple.

The worksheets for the metrics in this catalogue can be found on the authors homepage.

1.5.2 Maxima
Instead of using the commercial software Maple, Maxima also offers a tensor package that helps
to calculate the Christoffel symbols etc. The above example for the Schwarzschild metric can be
written as a maxima worksheet as follows:
/* load ctensor package */
load(ctensor);
/* define coordinates to use */
ct_coords:[t,r,theta,phi];
/* start with the identity metric */
lg:ident(4);
lg[1,1]:c2*(1-rs/r);
lg[2,2]:-1/(1-rs/r);
lg[3,3]:-r2;
lg[4,4]:-r2*sin(theta)2;
cmetric();
/* calculate the christoffel symbols of the second kind */
christof(mcs);
/* calculate the riemann tensor */
lriemann(mcs);
/* calculate the ricci tensor */
ricci(mcs);
/* calculate the ricci scalar */
scurvature();
/* calculate the Kretschman scalar */
uriemann(mcs);
rinvariant();
ratsimp(%);
As you may have noticed, the Schwarzschild metric must be given with negative signature.

Chapter 2

Spacetimes
2.1 Minkowski
2.1.1 Cartesian coordinates
The Minkowski metric in cartesian coordinates reads
ds2 = c2 dt 2 + dx2 + dy2 + dz2 .

(2.1.1)

All Christoffel symbols as well as the Riemann- and Ricci-tensor vanish identically. The natural
local tetrad is trivial,
1
e(t) = t ,
c

e(x) = x ,

e(y) = y ,

e(z) = z .

(2.1.2)

2.1.2 Cylindrical coordinates

The Minkowski metric in cylindrical coordinates
ds2 = c2 dt 2 + dr2 + r2 d 2 + dz2

(2.1.3)

has the natural local tetrad

1
e(t) = t ,
c

e(r) = r ,

1
e( ) = ,
r

e(z) = z .

(2.1.4)

The Christoffel symbols:

r = r,

r = .
r

(2.1.5)

2.1.3 Spherical coordinates

In spherical coordinates, the Minkowski metric reads


ds2 = c2 dt 2 + dr2 + r2 d 2 + sin2 d 2 ,

(2.1.6)

The natural local tetrad is given by

1
e(t) = t ,
c

e(r) = r ,

1
e( ) = ,
r

e ( ) =

1
.
r sin

(2.1.7)

The Christoffel symbols:

r = r,

r = r sin2 ,

1
r = ,
r

= sin cos ,

r = ,
r

= cot .

(2.1.8a)
(2.1.8b)

2.1. MINKOWSKI

2.1.4 Conformal coordinates

The coordinate transformation
ct + r = tan

+
,
2

ct r = tan

(2.1.9)

of the spherical Minkowski metric (2.1.6) leads to the line element

ds2 =

d 2 + d 2

4 cos2 +
2

cos2
2

sin2

4 cos2 +
2

d 2 + sin2 d 2 .

cos2
2

(2.1.10)

2 yields the conformal

The conformal transformation d 2 = 2 ds2 with 2 = 4 cos2 +
2 cos
2
Minkowski metric


(2.1.11)
d 2 = d 2 + d 2 + sin2 d 2 + sin2 d 2 ,

where [ , ] and [0, ].

The Christoffel symbols:

= cot ,

= cot ,

= cot ,

= sin cos ,

= sin cos .

= sin cos sin2 ,

(2.1.12a)
(2.1.12b)

The Riemann-Tensor:
R = sin2 ,

R = sin2 sin2 ,

R = sin4 sin2 .

(2.1.13)

The Ricci-Tensor:
R = 2,

R = 2 sin2 ,

R = 2 sin2 sin2 .

(2.1.14)

The Ricci- and Kretschman-scalars:

R = 6,

(2.1.15)

K = 12.

2.1.5 Rotating coordinates

The transformation d 7 d + dt brings the Minkowski metric (2.1.3) into the rotating form[26]


2 r2
r2
2
ds = 1 2
(2.1.16)
[c dt (r)d ]2 + dr2 +
d 2 + dz2
c
1 2r2 /c2
with (r) = (r2 /c)/(1 2r2 /c2 ).
The local tetrad of the comoving observer is
1

e(t) = t ,
c
c

e(r) = r ,

1
e( ) = ,
r

e(z) = z ,

(2.1.17)

whereas the static observer has the local tetrad

1
t ,
e(t) = p
c 1 2r2 /c2

r
e ( ) = p
t +
c2 1 2r2 /c2

e(r) = r ,

e(z) = z ,

(2.1.18a)

p
1 2r2 /c2
.
r

(2.1.18b)

The Christoffel symbols:

ttr = 2 r,

tr =

,
r

tr = r,

r = ,
r

r = r.

(2.1.19)

10

CHAPTER 2. SPACETIMES

2.1.6 Rindler coordinates

The worldline of an observer in the Minkowski spacetime who moves with constant proper acceleration along the x direction reads
x=

c2
t
,
cosh

ct =

c2
t
,
sinh

(2.1.20)

where t is the observers proper time. The observer starts at x = 1 with zero velocity.
However, such an observer could also be described with Rindler coordinates. With the coordinate
transformation
(ct, x) 7 ( , ) :

ct =

1
sinh ,

x=

1
cosh ,

(2.1.21)

the Rindler metric reads

ds2 =

1 2 1
d + 4 d 2 + dy2 + dz2 .
2

(2.1.22)

The Christoffel symbols:

= ,

= ,

= .

(2.1.23)

The Riemann and Ricci tensors as well as the Ricci and Kretschman scalar vanish identically. The
natural local tetrad is given by
e( ) = ,

e( ) = 2 ,

e(y) = y ,

e(z) = z .

(2.1.24)

2.2. SCHWARZSCHILD SPACETIME

11

2.2 Schwarzschild spacetime

2.2.1 Schwarzschild coordinates
The Schwarzschild metric represented by Schwarzschild coordinates reads



1
rs  2 2
c dt +
dr2 + r2 d 2 + sin2 d 2 ,
ds2 = 1
r
1 rs /r

(2.2.1)

where rs = 2GM/c2 is the Schwarzschild radius, G is Newtons constant, c is the speed of light,
and M is the mass of the black hole. The critical point r = 0 is a real curvature singularity while
the event horizon, r = rs , is only a coordinate singularity, compare e.g. the Kretschman scalar.
The Christoffel symbols:
c2 rs (r rs )
,
2r3
1
= ,
r
= cot ,

ttr =
r

rs
,
2r(r rs )
1
= ,
r
= (r rs ) sin2 ,

ttr =

r
r

rrr =

rs
,
2r(r rs )

(2.2.2a)

r = (r rs ),

(2.2.2b)

= sin cos .

(2.2.2c)

The Riemann-Tensor:
c2 rs
,
r3
1 rs
=
,
2 r rs

Rtrtr =
Rr r

1 c2 (r rs ) rs
,
2
r2
1 rs sin2
=
,
2 r rs

Rt t =
Rr r

Rt t =

1 c2 (r rs ) rs sin2
,
2
r2

R = rrs sin2 .

(2.2.3a)
(2.2.3b)

As aspected, the Ricci tensor as well as the Ricci scalar vanish identically because the Schwarzschild
spacetime is a vacuum solution of the field equations. The Kretschman scalar reads
K = 12

rs2
.
r6

Here, it becomes clear that at r = rs there is no real singularity.

Local tetrad:
r
1
1
rs
e(r) = 1 r ,
e( ) = ,
e(t) = p
t ,
r
r
c 1 rs /r

(2.2.4)

e ( ) =

1
.
r sin

(2.2.5)

The embedding function reads

z = 2 rs r rs .

(2.2.6)

The Euler-Lagrangian formalism[26] yields the effective potential



1
rs  h2
2
Veff =
1
c
2
r
r2

(2.2.7)

with the constants of motion k = (1 rs /r)c2t, h = r2 , and as in Eq. (1.4.2). For timelike
geodesics, the effective potential has the extremal points
p
h2 h h2 3c2rs
,
r =
c2 rs

(2.2.8)

where r+ is a maximum and r is a minimum. Null geodesics, however, have only a maximum
at r = 23 rs . The corresponding circular orbit is called photon orbit.

12

CHAPTER 2. SPACETIMES

2.2.2 Schwarzschild in pseudo-cartesian coordinates

The Schwarzschild spacetime in pseudo-cartesian coordinates

 2 
 2

x2
y2
rs  2 2
2
2
2 dx
2 dy
2
c dt +
+ x +
+y +z
+z
ds = 1
r
1 rs /r
r2
1 rs/r
r2


2
2
dz
z
2rs
+ x2 + y2 +
+ 2
(xy dxdy + xz dxdz + yz dydz).
1 rs /r r2
r (r rs )

(2.2.9a)
(2.2.9b)

ansatz for a local tetrad

1
e(0) = p
t ,
c 1 rs /r
1
A= ,
gxx
D=

gxy gyz gxz gyy

,
NW

e(1) = Ax ,

B=

E=

e(2) = Bx + Cy ,

gxy
q
,
gxx g2xy /gxx + gyy

gxz gxy gxx gyz

,
NW

e(3) = Dx + E y + F z . (2.2.10)

1
C= q
,
2
gxy /gxx + gyy

N
F= .
W

(2.2.11a)

(2.2.11b)

with
N = gxx gyy g2xy ,

(2.2.12a)

W = gxx gyy gzz gxz gxz gyy + 2gxzgxy gyz gxy gxy gzz gxx gyz gyz .

(2.2.12b)

2.2.3 Eddington-Finkelstein
The transformation of the Schwarzschild metric (2.2.1) from the usual Schwarzschild time coordinate t to the advanced null coordinate v with
cv = ct + r + rs ln(r rs )

(2.2.13)

leads to the ingoing Eddington-Finkelstein[9, 12] metric


rs  2 2
c dv + 2c dv dr + r2 d2 .
ds2 = 1
r

(2.2.14)

The Christoffel symbols:

c2 rs (r rs )
crs
crs
1
,
rvv =
,
rvr = 2 ,
r = ,
2
2r
2r3
2r
r
1
r

v
r
= ,
= cot ,
= ,
= (r rs ),
r
c
r sin2

=
= sin cos .
, r = (r rs ) sin2 ,
c

vvv =

r
v

(2.2.15a)
(2.2.15b)
(2.2.15c)

The Riemann-Tensor:
c2 rs
,
r3
c2 rs (r rs ) sin2
=
,
2r2

Rvrvr =
Rv v

c2 rs (r rs )
,
2r2
crs sin2
=
,
2r

Rv v =
Rv r

Rv r =

crs
,
2r

R = rrs sin2 .

(2.2.16a)
(2.2.16b)

While the Ricci tensor and the Ricci scalar vanish identically, the Kretschman scalar is K =
12rs2 /r6 . The natural local tetrad of a static observer reads
r
1
1
1
rs
1
. (2.2.17)
v , e(r) = p
v + 1 r , e( ) = , e( ) =
e(v) = p
r
r
r sin
c 1 rs/r
c 1 rs/r

2.2. SCHWARZSCHILD SPACETIME

13

2.2.4 Isotropic coordinates

The Schwarzschild metric (2.2.1) in isotropic coordinates (t, , , ) reads, compare MTW[21]
page 840,
ds2 =
where






rs 4  2
1 rs/(4 ) 2 2
d + 2 d 2 + sin2 d 2 ,
c dt + 1 +
1 + rs/(4 )
4



rs 2
r = 1+
4

(2.2.18)

(2.2.19)

is the coordinate transformation between the Schwarzschild radial coordinate r and the isotropic
radial coordinate .
The Christoffel symbols:

(4 rs ) 4 rs c2 t
8rs
, t =
,
(4 + rs )7
16 2 rs2
4 rs
4 rs

=
,
=
,
(4 + rs )
(4 + rs )

= cot ,

2rs
,
(4 + rs )
4 rs
=
,
4 + rs

tt = 2048

(4 rs ) sin2

,
= sin cos .
4 + rs

(2.2.20a)
(2.2.20b)
(2.2.20c)

The Riemann-Tensor:
Rt t = 16
Rt t = 8

(4 rs )2 rs c2
,
(4 + rs )4

Rt t = 8

(4 rs )2 rs c2
,
(4 + rs )4

(2.2.21a)

(4 + rs )2 rs
,
32 3

(2.2.21b)

(4 rs )2 c2 rs sin2
,
(4 + rs )4

R =

(4 + rs )2 rs sin2
,
32 3

R =

R =

(4 + rs )2 rs sin2
.
16

(2.2.21c)

The Ricci tensor and the Ricci scalar vanish identically. However, the Kretschman scalar reads
K = 3 413

6 rs2
.
(4 + rs )12

(2.2.22)

The natural local tetrad is given by

e(t) =
e ( ) =

1 + rs/(4 ) t
,
1 rs/(4 ) c
1

[1 + rs /(4 )]2

e(r) =

e ( ) =

1
[1 + rs/(4 )]2
1

(2.2.23a)

[1 + rs/(4 )]2 sin2

(2.2.23b)

2.2.5 Kruskal-Szekeres
The Schwarzschild metric in Kruskal-Szekeres[17] coordinates (T, X, , ) reads
ds2 =
where r


4rs3 r/rs
e
dT 2 + dX 2 + r2 d2 ,
r

(2.2.24)

R+ \ {0} is given by means of the LambertW-function W ,


r
1 er/rs = X 2 T 2
rs

or

r = rs W

X2 T2
e

+1 .

(2.2.25)

14

CHAPTER 2. SPACETIMES

The Schwarzschild coordinate time t in terms of the Kruskal coordinates T and X reads
T
t = 2rs arctanh ,
X
X
t = 2rs arctanh ,
T
t = ,

r > rs ,

(2.2.26a)

r < rs ,

(2.2.26b)

r = rs .

(2.2.26c)

The transformations between Kruskal- and Schwarzschild coordinates read

r
r
r r/(2rs )
r
ct
ct
sinh
, T = 1 er/(2rs ) cosh
,
0 < r < r2 ,
X = 1 e
rs
2rs
rs
2rs
r
r
r
r
ct
ct
X=
1er/(2rs ) cosh
, T=
1er/(2rs ) sinh
,
r rs .
rs
2rs
rs
2rs

(2.2.27a)
(2.2.27b)

The Christoffel symbols:

Trs (r + rs ) r/rs
e
,
r2
Xrs (r + rs ) r/rs
e
,
=
r2

TT T = XT X = TXX =

(2.2.28a)

XT T = TT X = XXX

(2.2.28b)

2rs2 T r/rs
e
,
r2
r
= T,
2rs
r
= T sin2 ,
2rs
= cot ,

2rs2 X r/rs
e
,
r2
r
X,
=
2rs
r
X sin2 ,
=
2rs
= sin cos .

T =

X =

(2.2.28c)

(2.2.28d)

(2.2.28e)
(2.2.28f)

The Riemann-Tensor:
RT XT X = 16

rs7 2r/rs
e
,
r5

2rs4 r/rs
e
,
r2
2r4
= 2s er/rs ,
r

RT T =

(2.2.29a)

RT T =

RX X

(2.2.29b)

RX X

R = rrs sin2 .

2rs4 r/rs 2
e
sin ,
r2
2r4
= 2s er/rs sin2 ,
r

(2.2.29c)

The Ricci-Tensor as well as the Ricci-scalar vanish identically.

The Kretschman- scalar:
K =

12rs2
.
r6

The natural local tetrad reads

r r/(2rs )
r
e(T ) =
T , e(X) =
e
er/(2rs ) X ,
2rs rs
2rs rs

(2.2.30)

1
e( ) = ,
r

e ( ) =

r sin

(2.2.31)

2.2.6 Painleve-Gullstrand
The Schwarzschild metric expressed in Painleve-Gullstrand coordinates[19] reads
r
2



rs
c dT + r2 d 2 + sin2 d 2 ,
ds2 = c2 dT 2 + dr +
r

(2.2.32)

where the new time coordinate T follows from the Schwarzschild time t in the following way:
!
p
r
r 1  r/rs 1 
.
(2.2.33)
+ ln p
cT = ct + 2rs
rs 2  r/rs + 1 

2.2. SCHWARZSCHILD SPACETIME

The Christoffel symbols:
r
crs rs
T
T T = 2
,
2r
r
r
crs rs
rTr = 2
,
2r
r

c2 rs (r rs )
,
2r3
r
rs
r
,
Trr =
2
2cr
rs

rT T =

1
r = ,
r

r = ,
r

r = (r rs ),

= cot ,

r = (r rs ) sin2 ,

= sin cos .

15

rs
,
2r2
rs
rrr = 2 ,
2r
r
r rs
T
=
,
c r
r
r rs 2
T
sin ,

=
c r
TTr =

(2.2.34a)
(2.2.34b)
(2.2.34c)
(2.2.34d)
(2.2.34e)

The Riemann-Tensor:
RTrTr
RT T

r
c2 rs
c2 rs (r rs )
crs rs
= 3 ,
RT T =
,
RT r =
,
r
2r2
2r
r
r
c2 rs (r rs ) sin2
crs rs 2
rs
, RT r =
sin , Rr r = ,
=
2
2r
2r
r
2r

Rr r =

rs sin2
,
2r

R = rrs sin2 .

(2.2.35a)
(2.2.35b)
(2.2.35c)

The Ricci tensor and the Ricci scalar vanish identically while the Kretschman scalar reads K =
12rs2 /r6 .
For the Painleve-Gullstrand coordinates, we can define two natural local tetrads. The static tetrads
reads
r

rs
1
1
1
rs
T , e (r) =
T + 1 r , e ( ) = , e ( ) =
e (T ) = p
, (2.2.36)
c r rs
r
r
r sin
c 1 rs/r
whereas the tetrad for the freely falling observer reads
r
1
rs
1
e(T ) = T
r ,
e(r) = r ,
e( ) = ,
c
r
r

e ( ) =

1
.
r sin

(2.2.37)

16

CHAPTER 2. SPACETIMES

2.3 Reissner-Nordstrm
The metric of the Reissner-Nordstrm black hole reads[21]


2
2
2
2
2
ds2 = ARN c2 dt 2 + A1
RN dr + r d + sin d ,

(2.3.1)

where

ARN = 1

rs Q2
+ 2
r
r

(2.3.2)

with rs = 2GM/c2 , the charge Q, and = G/(0 c4 ) 9.33 1034 . As in the Schwarzschild case,
there is a true curvature singularity at r = 0. However, for Q2 < rs2 /(4 ) there are also two critical
points at
s
rs rs
4 Q2
r=
1 2 .
(2.3.3)
2
2
rs
The Christoffel symbols:
ARN c2 (rs r 2 Q2 )
,
2r3
1
= ,
r
= cot ,

ttr =
r

rs r 2 Q2
,
2r3 ARN
1
= ,
r
= rARN sin2 ,

ttr =

r
r

rrr =

rs r 2 Q2
,
2r3 ARN

r = rARN ,

= sin cos .

(2.3.4a)
(2.3.4b)
(2.3.4c)

The Riemann-Tensor:
c2 (rs r 3 Q2)
,
r4
ARN c2 (rs r 2 Q2 ) sin2
,
=
2r2
(rs r 2 Q2) sin2
,
=
2r2 ARN

Rtrtr =
Rt t
Rr r

ARN c2 (rsr 2 Q2)

,
2r2
rs r 2 Q2
,
=
2r2 ARN

Rt t =

(2.3.5a)

Rr r

(2.3.5b)

R = (rs r Q2 ) sin2 .

(2.3.5c)

The Ricci-Tensor:
Rtt =

c2 Q2 ARN
,
r4

Rrr =

Q2
,
r4 ARN

R =

Q2
,
r2

R =

Q2 sin2
.
r2

(2.3.6)

While the Ricci scalar vanishes identically, the Kretschman scalar reads
K =4

3rs2 r2 12rs r Q2 + 14 2Q4

.
r8

(2.3.7)

The Euler-Lagrangian formalism[26] yields the effective potential

Veff =


 2

rs Q2
h
1
2
1 + 2

c
2
r
r
r2

For null geodesics, = 0, there are two extremal points

s
!
32 Q2
3
,
r = rs 1 1
4
9rs2
where r+ is a maximum and r a minimum.

(2.3.8)

(2.3.9)

2.4. KERR

17

2.4 Kerr
The Kerr spacetime, found by Roy Kerr in 1963[16], describes a rotating black hole. Further reading: Boyer and Lindquist[5], Wilkins[33], Brill[6].

2.4.1 Boyer-Lindquist coordinates

The Kerr metric in Boyer-Lindquist coordinates


rs r  2 2 2rs ar sin2
c dt
c dt d + dr2 + d 2
ds2 = 1



rs a2 r sin2
2
2
sin2 d 2 ,
+ r +a +

(2.4.1a)
(2.4.1b)

with = r2 + a2 cos2 , = r2 rs r + a2 , and rs = 2GM/c2 , is taken from Bardeen[2]. M is the mass

and a is the angular momentum per unit mass of the black hole. The contravariant form of the
metric reads

s2 =

A 2

c2 t

a2 sin2 2
2rs ar
1
,
t + r2 + 2 +
c

sin2

(2.4.2)

2


where A = r2 + a2 a2 sin2 = r2 + a2 + rs a2 r sin2 .
The Christoffel symbols:
c2 rs (r2 a2 cos2 )
,
23
rs (r2 + a2 )(r2 a2 cos2 )
,
ttr =
22
rs a2 r sin cos
tt =
,
2
crs a sin2 (r2 a2 cos2 )
tr =
,
23
2ra2 sin2 rs (r2 a2 cos2 )
rrr =
,
2
a2 sin cos
,
rr =


rs a sin2 a2 cos2 (a2 r2 ) r2(a2 + 3r2)
t
r =
,
22


2r2 + rs a4 sin2 cos2 r2 ( + r2 + a2 )

r =
,
22

cot 

= 2 2 + rs a2 r sin2 ,

sin2 
r =
2r2 + rs a2 sin2 (r2 a2 cos2 ,
3
2



sin cos 

A + r2 + a2 rs a2 r sin2 ,
=
3

ttr =

c2 rs a2 r sin cos
,
3
crs a(r2 a2 cos2 )

tr =
,
22
crs ar cot

t =
,
2
crs ar(r2 + a2) sin cos
t =
,
3
a2 sin cos
rr =
,

r
r = ,

r
r = ,

2 sin cos
a
=
,

rs a3 r sin3 cos
,
t =
2
tt =

(2.4.3a)
(2.4.3b)
(2.4.3c)
(2.4.3d)
(2.4.3e)
(2.4.3f)
(2.4.3g)
(2.4.3h)
(2.4.3i)
(2.4.3j)
(2.4.3k)

Local tetrad:

e(0) = t + ,
1
e(2) = ,

r ,



gtt + gt
gt + g
t
,
e(3) =
sin
sin

e(1) =

(2.4.4a)
(2.4.4b)

18

CHAPTER 2. SPACETIMES

where



rs a2 r sin2
rs r  2rs ar sin2
r 2 + a2 +
+
sin2 2
2 = 1

gt
rs ar
=
.
2
2
g
(r + a ) + rs a2 r sin2

Local tetrad (LNRF):

r
rs ar 
A 
e(0) =
t +
,

A
1
e(2) = ,

(2.4.6)

r ,

r
1
e(3) =
,
A sin
e(1) =

(2.4.5)

(2.4.7a)
(2.4.7b)

The relation between the constants of motion E, L, Q, and (defined in Bardeen[2]) and the initial
direction , compare Sec. (1.2.2), with respect to the LNRF reads
r
r
A

rs ra
(0)
(1)
L,
=
=
E
pr ,
(2.4.8a)

A
s
r


L2
1
L
(2)
(3)
2
2
2
2
,
=
Q cos a ( E ) + 2
=
(2.4.8b)
A sin
sin

2.5. OPPENHEIMER-SNYDER COLLAPSE

19

2.5 Oppenheimer-Snyder collapse

2.5.1 Outer metric
The metric of the outer spacetime (R > Rb ) in comoving coordinates ( , R, , ) is given by
4/3



3
R
2
2
3/2
2
ds = d +
d 2 + sin2 d 2 .
dR + R
rs
(2.5.1)

2/3
2
R3/2 32 rs

The Christoffel symbols:

rs
1
R R =
,
3/2
2 R 32 rs

rs

= 3/2 3 ,
R 2 rs

3 rs
RRR =

,
4 R3/2 23 rs R

R = 3/2 3 ,
R 2 rs

R3/2 23 rs

R =
,
R

1/3

3/2
rs
sin2 ,
= rs R
2


R3/2 23 rs sin2
R

.
=
R

rs
,
3/2
R 32 rs

R rs

RR =

5/3 ,
2 R3/2 32 rs

R = 3/2 3 ,
R 2 rs

1/3

3
3/2

,
= rs R
rs
2
=

(2.5.2a)
(2.5.2b)
(2.5.2c)
(2.5.2d)

= cot ,

(2.5.2e)

= sin cos ,

(2.5.2f)
(2.5.2g)

The Riemann-Tensor:
R R R =
R =

Rrs

8/3 ,
R3/2 32 rs

1
rs sin2
,
2 R3/2 3 r
2/3
s
2

RR R =

1
Rrs sin2
,
2 R3/2 3 r
4/3
s
2

R =

1
rs
,
2 R3/2 3 r
2/3
s
2

1
Rrs
,
2 R3/2 3 r
4/3
s
2

2/3
3
= R3/2
rs
rs sin2 .
2

(2.5.3a)

RR R =

(2.5.3b)

(2.5.3c)

The Ricci tensor and the Ricci scalar vanish identically. However, the Kretschman scalar reads
K = 12

rs2

4 .
R3/2 32 rs

(2.5.4)

The natural local tetrad is given by

e( ) = ,
e ( ) =

R3/2

2/3 ,
3
2 rs

2.5.2 Inner metric

1/3
R3/2 23 rs

e(R) =
R ,
R
1
e ( ) =

2/3 2 .

3
sin
R3/2 2 rs

The metric of the inside (R Rb ) reads





3 3/2 4/3  2
2
2
ds = d + 1
rs Rb
dR + R2 d 2 + sin2 d 2 .
2

(2.5.5a)
(2.5.5b)

(2.5.6)

20

CHAPTER 2. SPACETIMES

The Christoffel symbols:

3/2
rs Rb
,
3/2
3
1 2 rs Rb
3/2
rs Rb
=
,

3/2
1 32 rs Rb
1
= ,
R

R R =

R = R,

3/2
rs Rb
,
3/2
3
1 2 rs Rb


3 3/2 1/3 3/2
RR = 1
rs Rb
rs Rb ,
2

1
,
R


3 3/2 1/3 3/2 2
= 1
rs Rb
rs Rb R ,
2


3 3/2 1/3 3/2 2 2
= 1
rs Rb
rs Rb R sin ,
2

(2.5.7a)

(2.5.7b)

R =

(2.5.7c)

(2.5.7d)

= cot ,

R
= R sin2 ,

= sin cos .

(2.5.7e)
(2.5.7f)

The Riemann-Tensor:
R R R =

R3b

rs
,
3/2 2/3
1 23 rs Rb

R =

rs R2 sin2
2/3 ,

3/2
3
3
Rb 1 2 rs Rb


rs R2
3 3/2 2/3
= 3 1
rs Rb
,
2
Rb
1
2

R =

RR R

1
2

1
rs R2
,

2 R3 1 3 rs R3/2
2/3
b
2

(2.5.8a)

RR R =

rs R2 sin2
R3b



3 3/2 2/3
1
,
rs Rb
2

(2.5.8b)

R =

rs R4 sin2
R3b



3 3/2 2/3
rs Rb
1
.
2

(2.5.8c)

The Ricci-Tensor:
R =

R =

3
2
3
2

rs
2 ,


3/2
R3b 1 23 rs Rb

rs R2
,

3/2 2/3
R3b 1 23 rs Rb

RRR =

R =

The Ricci- and Kretschman- scalars read:

R=

3
2

R3b

rs
2 ,

3/2
1 23 rs Rb

K = 15

3
2
3
2

R3b

R3b

rs
2/3 ,

3/2
1 32 rs Rb
rs R2 sin2
,
3/2 2/3
1 32 rs Rb

rs2
.

3/2 4
R6b 1 32 rs Rb

(2.5.9a)

(2.5.9b)

(2.5.10)

2.6. MORRIS-THORNE

21

2.6 Morris-Thorne
The most simple wormhole geometry is represented by the metric[11, 22, 31]


ds2 = c2 dt 2 + dl 2 + (b20 + l 2 ) d 2 + sin2 d 2 ,

(2.6.1)

where b0 is the throat radius and l is the proper radial coordinate.

The Christoffel symbols:
l =

l
b20 + l 2

l =

= cot ,

l
b20 + l 2
2

l = l sin ,

l = l,

(2.6.2a)

= sin cos .

(2.6.2b)

R = b20 sin2 .

(2.6.3)

The Riemann-Tensor:
Rl l =

b20
,
b20 + l 2

Rl l =

b20 sin2
,
b20 + l 2

Ricci tensor, Ricci and Kretschman scalar:

Rll = 2

b20
b20 + l 2

Local tetrad:
1
e(t) = t ,
c

2 ,

e(l) = l ,

R = 2

b20
b20 + l 2

1
,
e ( ) = q
2
b0 + l 2

The embedding function reads

s
 2
r
r
z(r) = b0 ln +
1
b0
b0
with r2 = b20 + l 2 .

2 ,

K =

12b40
b20 + l 2

4 .

1
e ( ) = q
.
2
b0 + l 2 sin

(2.6.4)

(2.6.5)

(2.6.6)

22

CHAPTER 2. SPACETIMES

2.7 Alcubierre Warp

The Warp metric given by Miguel Alcubierre[1] reads
ds2 = c2 dt 2 + (dx vs f (rs )dt)2 + d 2 + dy2 + dz2

(2.7.1)

where
vs =
rs (t) =
f (rs ) =

dxs (t)
,
qdt

(2.7.2a)

(x xs(t))2 + y2 + z2 ,

(2.7.2b)

tanh( (rs + R)) tanh( (rs R))

.
2 tanh( R)

(2.7.2c)

The parameter R > 0 defines the radius of the warp bubble and the parameter > 0 its thickness.
The Christoffel symbols:
f 2 fx v3s
,
c2
f 3 fx v4s c2 f fx v2s c2 ft vs
,
ttx =
c2
f y vs
y
,
tx
=
2
f 2 fy v3s + c2 fy vs
x
ty
=
,
2c2
f x vs
txx = 2 ,
c
f fy v2s
x
xy =
,
2c2
ttt =

ttz = f fz v2s ,

tty = f fy v2s ,

f fx v2s
,
c2
f z vs
z
tx
=
,
2
f f z v2
ttz = 2 s ,
2c
2
f
f
xv
xxx = 2 s ,
c
f z vs
t
xz = 2 ,
2c

f 2 fx v3s
,
c2
f fy v2s
,
tty =
2c2
f 2 fz v3s + c2 fz vs
x
tz
=
,
2c2
f y vs
txy = 2 ,
2c
f fz v2s
x
xz =
,
2c2

ttx =

(2.7.3a)

x
tx
=

(2.7.3b)
(2.7.3c)
(2.7.3d)
(2.7.3e)
(2.7.3f)

with derivatives
d f (rs )
dt
d f (rs )
fx =
dx
d f (rs )
fy =
dy
d f (rs )
fz =
dz
ft =

i
vs (x xs(t)) h
sech2 ( (rs + R)) sech2 ( (rs R))
2rs tanh( R)
i
(x xs(t)) h
sech2 ( (rs + R)) sech2 ( (rs R))
=
2rs tanh( R)
i
h
y
sech2 ( (rs + R)) sech2 ( (rs R))
=
2rs tanh( R)
i
h
z
sech2 ( (rs + R)) sech2 ( (rs R))
=
2rs tanh( R)

(2.7.4a)

(2.7.4b)
(2.7.4c)
(2.7.4d)

Riemann- and Ricci-tensor as well as Ricci- and Kretschman-scalar are shown only in the Maple
worksheet.
Comoving local tetrad:
e(0) =

1
(t + vs f x ) ,
c

e(1) = x ,

e(2) = y ,

e(3) = z .

(2.7.5)

Static local tetrad:

1
e(0) = p
t ,
2
c v2s f 2

vs f
e(1) = p
t +
2
c c v2s f 2

p
c2 v2s f 2
x ,
c

e(2) = y ,

e(3) = z .

(2.7.6)

2.8. BARRIOLA-VILENKIN MONOPOL

23

2.8 Barriola-Vilenkin monopol

The Barriola Vilenkin metric reads[3]


ds2 = c2 dt 2 + dr2 + k2 r2 d 2 + sin2 d 2 ,

(2.8.1)

where k is the scaling factor.

The Christoffel symbols:
r = k2 r,

= k2 r sin2 ,

1
r = ,
r

= sin cos ,

r = ,
r

= cot .

(2.8.2a)
(2.8.2b)

The Riemann-Tensor:
R = (1 k2)k2 r2 sin2 .

(2.8.3)

Ricci tensor and Ricci scalar:

R = (1 k2),

R = (1 k2 ) sin2 ,

R=2

1 k2
.
k2 r 2

(2.8.4)

Kretschman scalar:
K =4

(1 k2)2
.
k4 r 4

(2.8.5)

Local tetrad:
1
e(t) = t ,
c

e(r) = r ,

e ( ) =

1
,
kr

e ( ) =

1
.
kr sin

(2.8.6)

24

CHAPTER 2. SPACETIMES

2.9 Godel

Universe
Godel

introduced a homogeneous and rotating universe model in [14]. We follow the notation of
[15]

2.9.1 Cylindrical coordinates

The Godel

metric in cylindrical coordinates is


 r 2 
dr2
c
2
ds = c dt +
d 2 + dz2 2r2 dtd ,
+r 1
2
1 + [r/(2a)]
2a
2a
2

(2.9.1)

where 2a is the Godel

radius.
The Christoffel symbols:
r
1
,
2a2 1 + [r/(2a)]2
 r i2
cr h
=
1+
,
2a
2a

1
c

tr =
2
1
+
[r/(2a)]
2ar
r
1
rrr = 2
4a 1 + [r/(2a)]2

ttr =
tr

1
r3
,
tr =
4 2ca3 1 + [r/(2a)]2


 r 2  
1  r 2
r = r 1 +
1
2a
2 a

r =

1
1
r 1 + [r/(2a)]2

(2.9.2a)
(2.9.2b)
(2.9.2c)
(2.9.2d)

The Riemann-Tensor:
1
cr2
Rtrr =
3
2 2a 1 + [r/(2a)]2
c2 r 2
r2 1 + 3[r/(2a)]2
1
= 2
, Rr r = 2
2
2a 1 + [r/(2a)]
2a 1 + [r/(2a)]2

Rtrtr =
Rt t

1
c2
,
2
2a 1 + [r/(2a)]2

(2.9.3a)
(2.9.3b)

The Ricci-Tensor:
Rtt =

c2
,
a2

r2 c
,
Rt =
2a3

R =

r4
2a4

(2.9.4)

The Ricci scalar and the Kretschman scalar read

R=

1
,
a2

K =

3
.
a4

(2.9.5)

The cosmological constant:

=

R
2

(2.9.6)

Killing Vectors:
An infinitesimal isometric transformation x = x + (x ) leaves the metric unchanged, that


2.9. GODEL
UNIVERSE

25

is g (x ) = g (x ). A killing vector field is solution to the killing equation ; + ; = 0.

There exist five killing vector fields in Godels

spacetime:

r cos
1
2c
a 1 + [r/(2a)]2
sin
0
1

= , = p
a
0
a
1 + [r/(2a)]2 r 1 + 2[r/(2a)]2 cos
b
0
0

sin
0
2c
a 1 + [r/(2a)]2
cos
0
1

=
0 , e = p1 + [r/(2a)]2 a 1 + 2[r/(2a)]2
sin
d
r
1
0

0
0

=
1
c
0

(2.9.7a)

(2.9.7b)

An arbitrary linear combination of killing vector fields is again a killing vector field.

Local tetrad:
For the local tetrad in Godels

spacetime an ansatz similar to the local tetrad of a rotating spacetime in spherical coordinates (Sec. 1.2.3) can be used. After substituting z and swapping base
vectors e(2) and e(3) an orthonormalized and right-handed local tetrad is obtained.


e(0) = t + ,

e(1) =

where

q
1 + [r/(2a)]2r ,

rc
A = + r2 1 [r/(2a)]2 ,
2a
1
= q
,

c2 + r2 c 2/a 2r2 (1 [r/(2a)]2)

e(2) = At + B ,

r2 c
B = c2 + ,
2a
1
.
= p
rc 1 + [r/(2a)]2

Transformation between local direction y(i) and coordinate direction y :

q
y0 = y(0) + y(2)A, y1 = y(1) 1 + [r/(2a)]2, y2 = y(0) + y(2)B,

with the above abbreviations.

e(3) = z ,

(2.9.8a)

(2.9.9a)
(2.9.9b)

y3 = y(3)

(2.9.10)

26

CHAPTER 2. SPACETIMES

2.10 Kottler spacetime

The Kottler spacetime is represented by the line element


1
rs r2 2 2
dr2 + r2 d2 ,
c dt +
ds2 = 1
r
3
1 rs/r r2 /3

(2.10.1)

where rs = 2GM/c2 is the Schwarzschild radius, G is Newtons constant, c is the speed of light, M
is the mass of the black hole, and is the cosmological constant.
For the following, we define the two abbreviations

= 1

rs r2

r
r

and

rs 2 2

r .
r
3

(2.10.2)

The Christoffel symbols:

c2
,
2r
1
= ,
r
= cot ,

,
2r
1
= ,
r
= r sin2 ,

ttr =

ttr =

r
r

rrr =

,
2r )

(2.10.3a)

r = r,

(2.10.3b)

= sin cos .

(2.10.3c)

The Riemann-Tensor:


c2 3rs + r3
,
3r3

= ,
2

Rtrtr =
Rr r

1
Rt t = c2 ,
2

Rr r =
sin2 ,
2

1
Rt t = c2 sin2 ,
2


r3
R = r rs +
sin2 .
3

The Ricci-Tensor:
Rtt = c2 ,

Rrr =

R = r2 ,

R = r2 sin2 .

(2.10.5)

The Ricci scalar and the Kretschman scalar read

R = 4,

K = 12

rs2
.
r6

(2.10.6)

Local tetrad:
1
e(t) = t ,
c

e(r) =

r ,

1
e( ) = ,
r

e ( ) =

1
.
r sin

(2.10.7)

(2.10

(2.10

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