SUSTAINABLE URBAN & TRANSPORTATION

PLANNING: ISSUES & MANAGEMENT

SUTRIMS 11

STRATEGIES
(July 08 to 10, 2011)
Organised by
PG SECTION IN URBAN PLANNING
&
PG SECTION IN TRANSPORTATION
ENGINEERING AND PLANNING

Convenors :
Dr. J. E. M. Macwan
Dr. G. J. Joshi

CIVIL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT

SARDAR VALLABHBHAI
NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY,
SURAT 395 007 (GUJARAT)

GOLDEN JUBILEE CELEBRATION

SARDAR VALLABHBHAI NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
SURAT-395007 (GUJARAT), INDIA

NATIONAL CONFERENCE
ON
SUSTAINABLE URBAN&TRANSPORTATION
PLANNING: ISSUES & MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES

(SUTRIMS 11)

Conveners:
Dr. G.J. Joshi
Dr. J.E.M. Macwan

Organized By
P.G. Section in Urban Planning
And
P.G.Section in Transportation Engineering and Planning
Civil Engineering Department
Sadrdar Vallabhbhai National Institute of Technology
Surat 395007

FORWARD

Sardar vallabhbhai National Institute of technology has completed glorious fifty years of its
esteemed history in the current year. As a mark of this memorable year, it is pleasure to note that,
A National Conference on Sustainable Urban and Transportation Planning: Issues &
Management Strategies is organised by The P.G. Sections of urban planning and Transportation
Engineering and Planning of Civil Engineering Department. I deeply acknowledge the tireless
attempt of the organizers. I appreciate an overwhelming response of all the participants of this
conference. The hard work put by the conveners Dr. G.J. Joshi and Dr. J. E. M. Macwan in
bringing out the conference proceedings in the form of soft copy as well as abstract presentation
are worthy to commend. The total collection speaks about the vital issues of soaring urban area
and transportation aspects. I am assured that the write ups and the deliberation will be of high
value to the researchers as well as policy makers.

Dr. P.D. Porey

Director, SVNIT
SURAT.

PREFACE

In the era of 1952 to 1970 the word Planning gained recognition amid Urban Planners as well
as policy makers. Later on the stakeholders were fascinated to the notion of environmental
planning instead of the preceding mind set till 1995. Currently the urbanites are living in such a
situation where the sustainability of man, material, and resources has become the need of the
hour. Therefore the conception of Sustainable Planning has not become only a local but a
global issue.
India has exhibited almost 31 percentage of urbanization rate as recorded by the census
organization. Till 1980, the liberalization policy did not gain much popularity among major
economic drivers. Since last two decades the escalation in business and rivalry among
multinational companies in India is soaring, resulting into higher urban employment creation.
Thus this has given unprecedented rise to the higher rate of urbanization. Apart from this, the
aptitude of general people to reach higher standard of life is also amplified. Therefore, the using
up of resources has gained an impetus which is a threat to urban life and sustainability. Secondly,
the urban boundaries are increasing due to urban sprawl as well as agglomeration, converting
natural elements into manmade elements. This has resulted into elevated trip length as well
burning up of precious fossil fuels. This phenomenon is foreseeable
Looking to the above facts, as academicians, policy makers and researchers, we need to think
about the impacts of urbanization at large. Some new thinking must emerge on the issue based
sustainable urban planning. Land is a precious resource and the use is an art. Therefore the
management has become vital. The demand of urban housing, its location and transport related
issues must be addressed properly. Planning for zero fuel modes of transportation and pedestrian
has become a vital need of newly developed urban areas. Travel demand modeling has played a
vital role in the developed nations; therefore the same should be implemented in the developing
nation of ours too. Intelligent transport systems and integrated planning for metropolitan regions
will prove to be major tools for the future urban scenario.
The organizers have tried to gather the views of the researcher and the stake holders on the above
themes. They are confident that the efforts of the participants and the propagation of the
knowledge will not serve only the present but the future generation also.

Date: 8/07/2011
Dr. J. E. M. Macwan
Dr. G.J. Joshi

ACKNOLEDGEMENT

It

is

pleasure

for

the

conveners

to

extend

gratitude

to

Dr.Narayan

Das,

Chairman,BOG,SVNIT,Surat. Director, SVNIT, Surat. We deeply appreciate the valuable help

and guidance of Dr. P. D. Porey, Director, SVNIT. His Contribution as a patron of the
oraganising committee is really praise worthy. The gratitude is extended to Shri.H.A.
Parmar,Registrar,SVNIT also.
We are indebted to Dr. J.N.Patel, Head of Civil Engineering Department for his inspirable
guidance and leadership as a Chairman of committee. The kind advices of Dr N.C.Shah were
very useful.We are thankful to our Guru and guide Dr. B. K. Katti, who has instilled his
expertise in shaping this conference.
The efforts of junior colleagues Dr Rakesh Kumar, Dr Krupesh, Ashish, Chetan Patel, Ravin
Tailor and others. The hard work exhibited by the P.G.Students is beyond imagination. We
extend our blessings to all.
Over and above all, the conveners are indeed grateful to all eminent experts, invited speakers as
well as authors for their noteworthy contributions presented.

CONVENERS
Dr. J. E. M. Macwan is a senior faculty member of Civil Engineering Department, S. V.
National Institute of Technology, Surat. He did his Masters in Environmental Engineering. He
has completed his Ph.D.under the guidance of Dr. B. K. Katti in Environmental Planning. He has
several publications to his credit in National and International Conferences and Journals. He is
involved in P. G. teaching urban planning. He is P.G. Incharge of Urban Planning too. He has
presented his researches abroad as well as in India too. He is working as a team member of
Environmental Audit Cell. He is a member of many professional bodies. Four students are
pursuing doctoral studies under him.
Dr. G. J. Joshi is an Asso.Prof in Civil Engineering Department, S.V. National institute of
Technology, Surat. He is P.G. In charge of Transportation Planning and Engineering. He is a
Gold Medalist from Gujarat University, Ahmadabad for his Bachelors degree in Civil
Engineering. He has Masters Degree in Water Resource Management from the same institute. He
has publications at National and International levels. Five students are pursuing Doctoral studies
under him.His doctoral work is in the field of Urban Growth and travel demand modeling. He isa
member secretary of Technical Committee on Urban streets, Roads and Transport (H-8) of
Indian Roads Congress.

Special Residential Zone: A solution for Sustainable Urban Planning

in context of Surat - Navsari Twin city
By
Dr. J.E.M.Macwan
PG I/c ,(Urban Planning)
CED, SVNIT,Surat
jemm@ced.svnit.ac.in
ABSTRACT
Fortunately, India has a workable model in place in the form of SEZs albeit not in the housing space,
which can be effectively applied with some modifications to the current situation. There is a huge housing
pressure on housing industry. Special residential zone can be a solution for sustainable urban planning.
SRZ will help to bring in economic prosperity to the region by creating conditions that attract
establishments to set up organized commercial micro markets. These conditions in the form of waiver of
various duties, exemptions from taxes, State and Central levies create the right reward management systems
which motivate Investors, Developers, State and Central Governments as w ell as other beneficiaries to
invest in land-use plans and contribute directly to the economic prosperity of the region.
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Shelter is a basic human need next only to food and clothing. A technical group constituted by the
ministry of urban affairs in 2006 to assess the urban housing shortage has estimated that at the end of the
10th Five Year Plan, the total housing shortage in the country was 24.71 million. Further, an additional
requirement of 1.82 million dwelling units has been projected for the 11th Plan, bringing the total housing
requirement during the 11th Plan Period to 26.53 Million dwelling units.
By 2030 a bout 5 bi llion people are expected to live in urban areas60% of the projected global
population of 8.3 billion. In India, Indias population will reach 1.47 billion with around 40%
urbanization That means close to 590 million people shall be living in cities by the year 2030. It is not
surprising to have higher pace of urbanisation in country like india, which is a developing nation. The sheer
growth of the economy combined with rapid urbanization of the population has created conditions that lead
to a housing price rise, Urbanization of this scale needs to be supported by adequate living conditions for
this newly urbanized segment and going forward quite clearly, the time is right for the government to take
meaningful steps to create a policy which addresses and channels this growth in the right direction.
Urban population is expected to increase manifold in the next two decades. In the absence of proper
homes, people are forced to reside in inhabitable and often unsafe places.
This paper introduces a tool Special Residential Zone to overcome housing shortage and thus help to
release housing pressure from overcrowded city. In such a way, it promotes sustainable urban development
and protects city from urban decay.
The SRZ proposal provides a compelling concrete framework that is both ethically and
economically pleasing to all the participants concerned including the family which receives the benefits of
improved, affordable living conditions. This document introduces and outlines the concept of a Special
Residential Zone (SRZ) as a viable and compelling solution to tackle the compounding problem of
affordable housing.
2.0 SPECIAL RESIDENTIAL ZONES (SRZS)

As of December end 2007, the PAN-INDIA average rate (per sq.mt) for a residential apartment is
around Rs 2,7000/- of which Rs. 7000/- per sq.mt ( little over 25% ) can be directly attributed to
various Local, State and Central Duties and Levies and Direct & Indirect taxes, some of them are
VAT, Service Tax, TDS, Stamp Duty on Sale, Stamp Duty on Land, Income Tax on P rofit of
development , m aterials , s ervices, Municipal premiums and Development charges, Excise on
materials, Octroi, etc.
By any measure, this tax component is prohibitive and acts as a significant barrier for
parties interested in developing large scale housing projects for the cost conscious urbanized mass
market wishing to relocate. Yes, there are large scale housing projects being created but these are

targeted towards the affluent segment which can afford to buy houses at the current market value
which I have already mentioned, are out of reach for a majority of the population.
Any attempt in creating low cost housing projects in the current market situation ultimately
leads to poor construction & infrastructure quality and lowered standard of living for the residents
in question. The result: houses that are little more than concretized ghettos or slums. Clearly, there
is a n eed to create an economic vehicle that supports and receives the demand for good quality
affordable housing generated by the rapid urbanization of India which brings me to the basic
definition and concept of an SRZ.
A Special Residential Zone (SRZ) is a notified geographical region that is free of domestic
taxes, levies and duties (both for the creation of, operation and maintenance of the SRZ) with
special development rules to promote large scale, greenfield, affordable housing projects for
the countrys masses. The SRZ would have a prescribed minimum number of dwelling units
with a maximum prescribed size, and each SRZ would require adequate social infrastructure
including schools, medical facilities etc.
Put simply, a SRZ is a Special Zone which contains catchments of residential properties which
have been accorded fiscal benefits in order to bring down the cost of housing and create a massive
deliberate Urban Agglomeration that services the local commercial activity and vice versa.
The key idea is to create an interdependent living system which is not only self-sufficient
but also has the potential to grow and inject growth into geographical areas around the SRZ.
As the learnings of SEZs notified / functioning in India have already shown us, creating
the right economic and regulatory environment can bring in rapid prosperity on a large scale. After
the SEZ Act, 2005 c ame into force 405 S EZs totaling up t o some 68,000 he ctares (1, 86,320
acres) have been given formal approval. The learnings from the SEZs exercise thus far will be
greatly advantageous to the creation of a SRZ ACT.
The massive growth of SEZs in such a relatively short period is made possible only by altering
specific fiscal policies for the region and by simplifying the approval / sanction processes and in
addition creating Single Window Clearance & Administration systems. In a similar fashion, if the
government creates similar concessions to for specific geographic regions, earmarked for
developing large sustainable developments of small residential units, it would result in a massive
spatial reorganization of the urban population across the country that could be leveraged to
positively grow the economy as a whole, in addition to bringing down the housing prices in the
targeted segment.
3.0 BENEFITS OF SPECIAL RESIDENTIAL ZONES (SRZS):
Though the benefits of having SRZs are many, a few of them are tabled below:a. Decreased Housing Cost | Bringing good quality low cost Greenfield housing to the mass market
supported by a sustainable living infrastructure with integrated schools, medical facilities, play grounds etc.
b. Uniform Infrastructure & Housing Plan | The SRZ would bring housing activities under one umbrella
leading to better organization and implementation of national specifications & policies on a P an-India
bases.
c. Employment & Per Capita Income | Massive employment generation in and around the SRZ leading to
an improvement in the per-capita income and the GDP In addition, various forward and backward linkages,
will create additional employment opportunities.
d. Economic Growth of the region | a large concentration of population would generate allied benefits
with business activity rapidly proliferating around the peripheral areas of the SRZ. It also provides
opportunity for home based activities.
e. Controlling Slum Population | Presenting Slum residents with an option of affordable housing.
f. Planned Urban Development | Systematic Urban Agglomeration instead of an Organic one resulting in
better redistribution of resources and upliftment of living standards.
g. Lesser Time to Development | The time taken for sanctions and approvals can be reduced significantly
by genuine single window clearances leading to a faster rate for project completion.

h. ROI | The time saved on account of faster project completion directly translates into a quicker release of
locked funds that positively impacts the ROI and encourages more investments.
i. Revenue for Government | the revenue generated from duties, taxes and other levies from the resultant
growth in economic activity as a result of the SRZ would ultimately benefit the government at the Centre,
State and local levels.
Furthermore, it is pertinent to note that the concessions of various exemptions of direct & Indirect taxes and
duties will be cost neutral as the needs of this huge section of urban India that needs affordable housing is
currently not being addressed.
4. SOME GUIDELINES| SPECIAL RESIDENTIAL ZONES (SRZS)
Since SRZs are primarily SEZs applied to a different sector, most administrative laws pertaining to the
functioning of SEZs would remain the same.
The variant parameters would relate to the specification of units to be developed along with uniform zoning
rules. Since the theme is to create affordable good quality housing supported by conducive infrastructure, a
typical SRZ would:
a. Contain low sized units (typically in the range of 300 sq.ft to maximum of 750 sq.ft , limited to a
maximum permissible average of 500 sq.ft)
b. Have a minimum threshold on the number of units to be developed ( typically medium scale urban
agglomerations have populations of around 50,000 i.e around 10,000 residential units)
c. The administration of the SEZ would be managed and monitored by the Resident Development
Commissioners, after the approvals are recommended by the respective State and cleared by the Board of
Approvals at the Centre.
d. The funds of JNNURM could be used for connecting the SRZs with the nearest urban agglomeration.
e. The Notification process for the SRZs could be on the same pattern as the current notification process
for SEZs.
f. Could have buildings with an FSI relevant to the infrastructure standards as stipulated and will have
planned support infrastructure (community halls, gardens / play parks, heath centers, education, shopping,
etc).
g. Will have effective measures & rules to prevent malpractices/ misuse of SRZ benefits The following list,
though indicative and not exhaustive, lists some of these measures :i) A person can buy only one unit/ flats
ii) Average size of units should be 500 sq.ft ( Range between 300 sq.ft 750 sq.ft
iii) Combination of two units/flats not be permitted.
iv) Tax/Duty free materials brought for consumption specifically in SRZs should not be diverted to other
Locations for use.

5.0 GOVERNMENT ON SRZ:

TCPO (Town and Country Planning Organization) has published a draft: Promoting Greenfield Townships
in November 2010.
This document on promoting Greenfield Township introduces and outlines the policy of developing
a state of art residential zone as a viable solution to tackle the compounding problem of mixed and
affordable housing on Pan-India basis.
6.0 NEED OF SRZ FOR SURAT CITY:

Surat is having good development of trade, commerce and industries. Hajira, Sachin, Olpad, Kamrej
and katargam are industrial area. Surat is famous as silk city and diamond city. Because of industrial
development, people migrate in Surat from whole country.As per census 2011, population growth rate of
Surat city is 76% in last decade. There is housing shortage of 8% of total population every year in Surat.
There is a huge pressure on housing Industry. High land cost in Surat city. And it will be more costly as per
Jantri 2011.
There is a huge pressure on housing industry. There is a high land cost in Surat city. It has been
more costly as per Jantri 2011. To provide housing to all is main challenge for Surat. Land cost of Surat is

increased by leaps and bounce. No scope for horizontal development because land is limited.Vertical
development is restricted because of GDCR ( general development control regulation).
Present infrastructure facilities are unable to sustain high-rise high density development. It will lead
to decline city environment. Housing ownership has been dream for MIG, LIG and EWS. Cheap houses are
available if Special Residential Zone is declared by Government.

Fig 1: SRZ proposal near Surat

7.0 POTENTIAL OF PROPOSED SITE:
Proposed site is located between Maroli village and Umbhrat, in Jalalpore Taluka ( District Navsari ), which
is 32 Km away from Surat. Ubhrat beach is 8 Km away from proposed site. A bridge is proposed on
Mindhola river for twin city connectivity. This bridge will connect vesu and city light ( Surat ) with parsoli
and danti village (Navsari). This bridge will make distance of 12 km between vesu and proposed site.
Overhere, land cost is around 3500 RS/ sqm (govt. jantry rate), which is 10 times lower than that of Surar ie.
25,000 to 50,000 Rs/ sqm(as per Jantry).If s pecial residential zone is proposed on this site, affordable
houses can be provided to Surat people
.

Fig 2: Existing and proposed route between proposed site and Surat
8.0 Benefits of SRZ on housing cost:
As per SRZ policy, units are having benefits on taxes, levies and duties. Here a basic calculation for
Row house for middle income group is given.
Land cost calculation:
Area of plot: 102.55 sqmt.
Cost of plot [as per market rate] : 3500sqmt./per sqmt.
Land cost: 102.55 X 3500/- = 3,58,925.00 SAY 3,60,000/Construction cost:

Net built-up area: 66.29sqmt.

Construction cost per sqmt. = 6500/Development cost per sqmt. = 2500/Total cost per sqmt. = 9000/-SQMT.
Cost of construction = 66.29 X 9000/- = 5,96,610.00 SAY 6,00,000.00
Total unit cost = 3, 60,000.00 + 6, 00,000.00 = 9, 60,000.00 Say 9.6 lacs
CALCULATION OF LEVIES, DUTY AND TAXES
SR
NO.
1

TYPE OF LEVIES
Stamp duty by developer

Stamp duty by purchaser.

Excise duty on material:

cement, steel

4
4

Service tax, labour

Service tax, purchaser

Income tax.

6
7
8
9

Local authority charges ,

Contingency
Total
Percentage of total unit
value

TAXES APPLICABLE
4.95% stamp duty +
1.00% regi. charges
4.95% stamp duty +
1.00% regi. charges
Consumption of cement
and steel = 70% of cons.
cost and vat =4%
10.20 % of labour cost
2.575 % of total cost
30% on profit.
20% of cost.

=mini.

2% ,

CALCULATION

AMOUNT

1.50 lacs x 5.95

8925.00

9.60 lacs x 5.95

57120.00

6 lacs x 0.70x 0.04

16800.00

1.80 lacs x10.20

9.60 x 2.575

18360.00
24720.00

9.60 x 0.2 x 0.3

57600.00
15000.00
12000.00
210525.00
22%

6 lacs x 0.02

210525.00 /- 960000.00=
21.92 %

Final unit value after SRZ benefit = 9, 60,000 2,10,525 = 7,49,475 Say, 7,50,000/UNIT COST IN SURAT
(lacs)

UNIT COST AT
PROPOSED SITE (lacs)

UNIT COST WITH SRZ

BENEFITS (lacs)

31.63

9.60

7.50

CONCLUSION
An SRZ layered with the right economic benefits in the form of specific waivers and exemptions
from Direct & Indirect taxes and duties & levies across the board would create the right environment for
developers and the government to come together and create something special for the urbanized Indian mass
market consumer who needs basic affordable housing.
Special Residential Zone near Surat at proposed site solves all major issues of sustainable urban
development. It is locationally sustainable, having transport sustainability, environment sustainability and
resource sustainability. Thus it will help to release pressure from Surat city.
REFERENCES:
1. Gujarat Urban Development Company (Dec-2006), Gujarat Integrated Township Policy; Draft
Policy document, Urban Development and Housing Department, Government of Gujarat.
2. Kumar Gera (2009), Special residential zones: a viable and compelling solution to indias affordable
housing crisis, Co-Federation of Real Estate developers Of India conference, Dec-2009, chairman
CREDAI and CMID, Gera Developments Pvt. limited
3. Manoj P. K. lopers (2009), Efficacy of Special Residential Zones (SRZs) in Solving the Urban
Housing Problem in India: An Analysis", Indian Development Review (an International Journal of
Development Economics, Special 'SEZ' Issue of the Journal), Vol.7, No.1-2, Jan-Dec. 2009, pg.281298.
4. P. L. Sharma, Regulation for Residential Township - 2009, Urban development and Urban Residence
Department, Government of Gujarat, 1-12-2009.
5. TCPO (2010), Draft: Promoting Greenfield Townships, Town and Country Planning Organization,
Government of India.

SUSTAINABLE URBAN FORM FOR INDIAN CITIES

Srivastava Isha, Satmohini,
Senior Research Fellow
(sray@niua.org)
Vaidya, Chetan,
Director
(cvaidya@niua.org)National Institute of Urban Affairs, Core 4-B, India Habitat Centre, Lodi Road, New Delhi,
110003
BACKGROUND
Indias urban population is now the second largest in the world (McKinsey 2010). With this
rapid urbanization, India has started facing a number of first-time complex issues including
urbanisation of poverty (Government of India, 2009), degradation of natural resource resulting
from extensive land use changes (Government of India, 2008), increased green house gas (GHG)
emissions, to name a few, that threaten sustainability of our cities. These add to the traditional
problems of overstretching of available infrastructure, slum creation, and congestion. Various
sources indicate that urban India presently contributes to around 60% of Indias gross domestic
product (GDP); this is likely to rise to around 70% over the next two decades (FICCI 2009;
McKinsey 2010). It is clear that progress of cities over the next two decades will dominate the
way India progresses as a nation.
India needs to start thinking more pro-actively on sustainable solutions to its cities
problems. Sustainable cities present a challenge that needs to address social, environmental and
economic sustainability concerns, as well as the inter-linkages between these. While
understanding on these challenges is slowly building up, what is woefully lacking is the linkage
of these to sustainable urban form, which in turn derives from lack of sustainable urban planning.
It is widely recognized that combinations of elements of urban form such as infrastructure,
density, land uses, urban layout, building types and transportation have an influence on t he
economic performance, environmental biodiversity, energy use, social life and cultural climate
of a city. However, how urban form influences a city and how exactly this is manifested remains
unclear. To date, even the little empirical research done in this context in India does not taken
into account features of urban form, such as layout and density, in examinations of sustainability.
This has led to significant gaps in knowledge: there is no existing evidence in India that can
explain if tenets of sustainable cities are affected by, for example, residential density, transport
accessibility and layout. Similarly, there has been no examination of existing urban forms (e.g.
sprawling settlements spreading from city centres) to show how they may negatively influence
residents access to facilities and services, which in turn influence energy consumption patterns.
There is, therefore, an urgent need to study these phenomena in India and test findings from
cities of developed nations for congruency in the Indian context. This paper looks towards
fulfilling this gap.
AIM AND SCOPE
This paper looks to determine factors that affect sustainable urban form, and the extent of its
affect, for rapidly growing cities in India. It looks at how urban form - the size, shape, density,
land uses and layouts of a city - influences social, economic and environmental sustainability,
and transport use.

This Study was limited to understanding and evaluating the built environment of selected
sites in two cities and establishing the parameters influencing the same. Other factors influencing
the overall sustainability of the city, such as environmental and economic factors, were not
addressed unless clear physical influences of these were observed on the structure of the city.
CASE STUDIES
For purpose of this study, two cities were selected Rajkot and Faridabad. Rajkot is a historic
city which has grown organically. An important regional trade centre, the city is recorded as the
22nd fastest growing city globally and identified as one of the eight business opportunities cities
of India. Another unique aspect of Rajkot is the land development model used here called Town
Planning Scheme that looks at land pooling. A set of six Schemes are being studied in details for
purpose of this study.
Faridabad in located in the Delhi national capital region and contributes to nearly 60% of
revenues generated by the state (Haryana). It is an industrial hub whose growth has primarily
been in the post-independence era as a resettlement city. It followed the full land acquisition
model of land development. Four case study areas are being studied in this city.
METHOD
A two tier approach was adopted. One, at city level and two, at the case study (or neighbourhood
level). The (generic) city level study looks at overall characteristics of the city including its
social structure, economic structure, overall services and infrastructure availability, overall land
use configuration, overall communication and transportation facilities, demographic trends, city
morphology, and likely areas for city expansion. The (detailed) case studies look at establishing
how elements of urban form impact the sustainability of a neighbourhood. Indicators being
studied at this scale include density, social characteristics, land use, built form, open spaces,
access to services, access to transport facilities, and layout plans.
LITERATURE REVIEW
Urban Form
Urban form can be defined as the spatial pattern of human activities at a certain point in time
(Anderson et al., 1996). Urban form does not simply relate to physical features, but also
encompasses non-physical aspects (Dempsey, et.al., 2005). It can be viewed from various
geographical scales and classified into such levels as metropolitan area, city, city district/zone,
neighbourhood, street, and individual home. To understand sustainable urban form better, it is
necessary first to understand the basic urban form elements that play a significant role in
determining solutions. Brenda and David (2002) list eight widely accepted principles of
sustainable urban form, including density and compactness of form; land use and mix of land
uses; balancing land uses by protection of sensitive uses; preservation of existing built form;
open space availability; land parcel size; size of building; mix of building type, size and age. For
purpose of this study recognizing the need to be relevant to Indian urban form four principles
were identified including density, land use, accessibility and transport infrastructure, and layout.
Density
Density is a multi-faceted concept embroiling a number of inter-related dimensions. Very simply
put, density refers to the number of people (living) in a defined area. Density has been an integral
component of official urban planning policy in most developed countries. Unfortunately, postindependence urban planning in India has either ignored density or deliberately discouraged it.
This has led to sprawls or even worse, densification without the supporting infrastructure (WWF
India, 2009). Delhi and Mumbai provide good examples of both. Density has an important role
to play in terms of land use planning, deciding for type(s) of public transportation and utilities

provision, which leads to deciding on the ecological footprint of a city. There is no one size fits
all for density different Indian cities will need to look at their unique opportunities and
problems to decide on this. Socio-economic characteristics of density also have an important role
to play in decision making. Lastly, while most Indian state/city planning norms do not
incorporate density as an integral tool to promote sustainability, various national efforts such as
JNNURM and satellite development for metros are promoting densification of both inner and
outer-city limits resulting in policy gaps that need to be effectively bridged.
Land Use
Land use is an equally important tool that determines the nature of urban form. It has been
defined as the total of arrangements, activities and inputs that people undertake in a certain land
cover type (IPCC, 2000). Land use is an important determinant of public transportation and
sustainable urban form and plays at city, zonal and neighbourhood scales. Effective land use
planning in India suffers from incongruous regulatory structures at the three levels of
government, as well as from other critiques of Master Plan preparation. There is lack of clarity
on which services and facilities are to be provided at what scale, and this requires further
elaborate exercises. Many cities in India are now formally moving towards mixed land use and
implications of this on sustainable urban form are still unknown. Most cities (mainly metros) fail
to take into account the possibility of providing services/facilities to residents vertically thereby
leading to more horizontal sprawl. Decision makers need to understand that solutions for
promoting sustainable form through land use mechanisms are likely to be unique to each city and
cannot be replicated; however, common basic principals can be laid down for all cities as
successfully demonstrated in the UK.
Accessibility and Transport Infrastructure
Access and transportation infrastructure are closely associated with density and land use and
layout characteristics; this determines the ease with which spaces and places can be reached.
Accessibility levels are defined on ability of users to reach their destinations (work areas, market
places, recreational places, etc.), as well as extent to which they have the means to access places,
services and facilities outside their local area (OBU 2007). While guidelines exist in India on
what should be accessible to residents (for example, access to primary school, local shopping
centre, primary health facility, etc.), there exist no nor ms on ho w accessible these should be.
More critically, where such norms are available, lack of oversight mechanisms and external
market factors ensure that the purpose of such norms is defeated (for example, children travelling
long distances to access good schools). There is an increasing realization that transport links
are becoming almost a precursor to land development in cities today. It is important for cities to
ensure that transportation planning and land use planning derive from the same long-term plan.
Layout
Layout describes the spatial arrangement and configuration of elements at the street scale, such
as grid or cul-de-sac street patterns. The layout of a neighbourhood determines its accessibility
and influences pedestrian movement accordingly. More importantly, layout directly affects the
social and cultural vibrancy of a neighbourhood. Streets which are well-connected to services
and facilities and support pedestrian access (taking lighting, paving, safety, etc. into account) are
generally more frequently accessed, leading to greater concentration of multiple uses on t hese.
This holds true at all three scales neighbourhood, zonal and city-level. Layouts in Indian cities
are largely a legacy of past development, and planning and building regulations. As indicated
earlier, the configuration of the street network, in terms of its urban block sizes, their overall
location within the city, pedestrian and vehicular connectivity, can affect the functioning of a

city by, for example, influencing the location intensity of activities (Penn et al., 1998; Porta et
al., 2008).
Inter-Relation of the Four Principles
Each of the above four elements are inter-related. For example, accessibility to any space within
the city is dependent on i ts density and transport linkages, which in turn are dependent on t he
land use. Layouts in Greenfield sites are dependent on the land use and the proposed density that
would determine the extent of open land, recreational, commercial or other alternate uses, and
residential use. Land use, in turn, is dependent on t ransport linkages and the density to be
achieved. While it is understood that these elements of urban form are dependent on each other,
the extent to which they are dependent, and the compatibility each of these have with others are
not known. This raises two issues; firstly, the need for a common understanding based on which
of these elements can be measured, and secondly, the need to have statistically significant
analyses to determine how these four elements inter-play in the Indian context, as well as to
understand how they contribute to achievement of a sustainable urban form in conjunction.
Types of Urban Form
Given the distinct recognition of the extensive influence of urban form on wider sustainability
issues, a number of concepts and models related to sustainable urban forms have been identified
worldwide. Broadly four types of urban forms have been identified and advocated as sustainable
urban forms, namely (i) new urbanism, (ii) urban containment, (iii) compact city, and (iv) ecocity.
New Urbanism. The new urbanism (neo-traditional development) is centered on r edesigning
cities so that people would rather walk, cycle or take the bus, rather than drive (OToole) this
differs from new town development by focusing only on Brownfield development. This concept
focuses on regional planning approaches towards developing open space usage, contextappropriate architecture and planning, and the balanced development of jobs and housing by
addressing issues such as historic preservation, safe streets, green building, and the
redevelopment of Brownfield land. However, there are strong critiques of new urbanism,
primarily based around two themes first that it promotes elitism (as real estate prices tend to be
very high) and second that forces the society to behave in a certain fashion that is against selfindependence.
Urban Containment. This approach is centered on t he principle of limiting the outward
expansion of urban development through urban containment policies, with the underlying
assumption that if new territory is no longer available to the development market, the market will
look inward and seize bypassed opportunities. Consequently, central cities would not need to
expand their boundaries outward but merely wait for and facilitate the back-wave of
development after it hits the containment boundary (Nelson and Duncan 1995). A key advantage
of this technique is that costs of water, waste-water and public utilities provision can be kept
low. The critiques of this approach include (i) elevated real estate values resulting from
restricting potentially developable land limits, in turn leading to increase in property tax rates
that eventually hurt the low-income population the most; and (ii) incentives to create high-rise
high-density buildings everywhere rather than in select locations.
Smart Growth. Primarily an urban planning and transportation theory, Smart Growth is based on
the primary goals of (i) concentrating growth in the center of a city to avoid urban sprawl; and
(ii) advocating compact, transit-oriented, walkable, bicycle-friendly land-use, including
neighbourhood schools, complete streets, and mixed-use development with a range of housing
choices.

Compact City. The compact city looks to address economic, social and environmental problems
that result from suburbia and the proliferation of urban sprawl by propagating principles of (i) a
revitalized core/central city area; (ii) high intensity development; (iii) mixed-use development;
and (iv) easily accessible services and facilities such as hospitals, parks, schools and
entertainment.
Gaps in Effective Sustainable Urban Development in India.
While gaps in the sustainable urban development context in India contains a plethora of issues,
this section tries to focus primarily on t he urban planning context. The first is ambiguous
policy, regulatory and institutional environment key critiques includes lack of complete
devolution to local governments, regulatory systems that are ambiguous and non-inclusive, and
perception of regulation as a limiting tool rather than as a development tool. Planning systems
should recognize and give attention to identifying investment and livelihoods opportunities that
can be built on, and play an important role in overcoming governance fragmentation (reducing
gap between planners and implementers). There is a need to strengthen regulatory systems that
must adhere to the principles of equity and must be broadly perceived as doing so. Lastly, the
protective and developmental roles of planning regulations must be recognized in redesigning
urban planning systems.
The second is a non-inclusive planning approach which is further accentuated by the straightjacketed Master Plan approach that fails to take on-board ownership from political powers and
other non-state actors. While the recently-initiated city development plan (CDP) preparation
process under JNNURM do look at taking a more inclusive approach to urban planning, but is
limited on count of three factors its short-term vision period (5 years), weak local government
autonomy that leads to restricted decision-making, and weak state and local level capacity
leading to dependence on consultants. It is important for urban planners to find alternate
planning solutions to the Master Plan approach wherein city managers have the flexibility of
preparing short-term plans within an ambit of a long-term vision for the city a structure plan
approach needs to be considered.
The third is linking the green and the brown agenda. Urban planning is probably one of the
most straight-forward means through which the green agenda (i.e. protecting the natural
environment) and the brown agenda (i.e. protecting human growth) can be effectively linked.
Unfortunately, this linkage has been hitherto missing in the Indian urban planning systems.
Urban planning systems need to focus on how human and economic opportunities that fuel
growth of cities sustainably align with issues of energy, land degradation and resources. A
number of ongoing and proposed national programmes are taking positive steps in this direction,
but parallel efforts relating to amendment of byelaws, zoning regulations, development controls,
etc., also need to be put in place to ensure a more holistic outcome.
The fourth is the lack of integration of utilities and spatial planning: trunk infrastructure
(water, sewerage, roads, electricity and telecommunications) largely determine the spatial outline
of any city. This needs to be recognized and tapped towards creating integrated spatial-utilities
city plans, complemented by regional governance structures that overcome traditional
administrative constraints.
CASE STUDY FINDINGS
A study of two case study cities at regional, city and neighbourhood (10 studied in details)
levels led to a set of observations; only those observations that are not well explored in Indian

literature are presented here. 1 On density, it was determined that quality of living improves with
increase in density till a tipping point; after this, quality of living deteriorates with increase in
density. It was also seen that residents living in moderate to high density neighbourhoods are
more likely to have better access to services and facilities; they are also more likely to feel more
secure. It was further determined that density patterns have strong linkage to income distribution.
Higher income category populations prefer to stay away from city centre in low to moderate
density areas. On land use, it was determined that mixed land use increases sustainability and
growth of neighbourhoods, but also ensures that informal developments can be adequately
checked. It was also observed that promoting mixed land use through controlled development
allows greater economic sustainability of neighbourhoods - however, development of mixed use
should be supplemented by ease of access and ease of parking. On accessibility, it w as
determined that neighbourhoods designed for primarily high and middle-income households
should be located close to regional access points (e.g. major arterials, highways, etc.) away from
the city centre, while neighbourhoods near city centre should focus more on m aking public
transport accessible to commuters - this considerably reduces use of private vehicles. On layout,
it was determined that cultural dimensions have an important role in designing sustainable
layouts - these vary across regions and should be recognised before planning a layout of a
neighbourhood. It was also determined that private green spaces contribute to a sense of greater
perceived ownership neighbourhoods with high private greens had greater proportion of
owners residing. Access to public green space varies by socioeconomic group; it is usually the
low- to middle-income groups who prefer public greens, while middle- to high-income group
prefer private green spaces. An important conclusion was that maintenance and supervision of
green spaces (and other public spaces also) are more important than design for usage. Another
interesting finding was that urban form is strongly influenced by market forces and
transportation infrastructure in India differing from findings of similar international studies, it
was observed that utilities availability does not play a strong role in this.
RECOMMENDATIONS
Draft recommendations focus on t he need to coordinate city level strategic planning and
investment planning exercises, guided by a single city- or regional-level vision for growth. The
reform process would require strengthening the legal and regulatory structure, especially
focusing on l and availability and building regulations, and improve enforcement. At the city
level, it is critical to engage with key stakeholders towards a common planning and development
approach. The importance of integrated land use and transportation planning is highlighted as is
the need to move towards more sustainable city form following the compact city approach. An
evolving city structure approach, integrating the green and the brown agenda, and the importance
of density and land use in determining the urban form is also highlighted. The report classifies
recommendations into three groups; highlights are outlined below:
1.
Regulatory and Institutional Structures: targeting issues around development
regulations, land availability, role of the informal market, among others.
a) coordinating spatial planning and investment planning exercises;
b) need for transparent land management and acquisition model;
c) amendment of development regulations (density, floor area ratio, height, land use,
building codes);
d) strengthen enforcement;
1

For detailed findings and data presentation, please refer to NIUA, 2011, Sustainable Urban Form for
Indian Cities.

e) move to improved governance and management including inclusive planning;

f)

clarifying role of stakeholders; and

g) ensuring political buy-in and leadership.

2.
City and Regional Planning Aspects: looking at issues relating to present practices in
spatial and investment planning, integrated land use and transportation planning, city form
structures.
a) strengthen linkage between city planning and multi-sectoral development activities;
b) adopt an integrated planning approach (setting a common regional or city vision; city
spatial plan and city investment plan to draw from this common vision; prepare a set of
supporting city infrastructure plans);
c) integrate land use planning and public transportation systems move towards transitoriented development and smart growth;
d) adopt a structural planning approach Master Plan approach is outdated;
e) promote sustainable city form different approaches required in different sized urban
centres; and
f) adopt the compact city approach recommendations on de nsity, local economic
development, public transportation options, utilities options, urban containment options,
mixed land use environment, and city structure presented categorised into three groups:
(i) cities with population >5 million, (ii) cities with population between 2-5 million, and
(iii) cities with population between 0.25-2 million.
3.
Micro-Level Interventions or Neighbourhood-Level Interventions: provide
recommendations on d ensity, land use typology, layout and built form, accessibility and
transportation options, and integrating the green and the brown agenda.
a) Density: medium-to-high density (200-250 PPH) with options proposed taking into view
cost for providing and maintaining utilities, and reducing energy consumption Urban
blocks (1-2 sq.km. area) of about 4 to 7-storey with density around 4000-8000 people per
sq.km. is recommended at the neighbourhood level.
b) Land use: promote mixed land use (and mixed income use): options include promoting
mixed land use vertically (in central business district areas), promoting social housing in
private sector developed area, etc.
c) Accessibility and transport: pedestrian focused within the neighbourhood supported by
linked public spaces; strong (public) transport access on edges; restricting motorised
vehicular movement within neighbourhoods (this is against the current thinking on smart
cities in Europe and USA).
d) Layout: conical massing promoted (high density high rise in the centre - be it
neighbourhood or district or city - tapering out towards the edges); provide play areas and
public spaces next to taller building to ensure natural sun protection; horizontal and
vertical randomisation of buildings coupled with low coverage (higher FAR).
e) Integrating green and brown agenda: numerous proposals including move to prefabrication, green roofing, solar panelling, energy efficient building codes, unpaved areas
development, insulation, etc.
Selected References

1. Bertaud Alain, 2004, The Spatial Organization of Cities: Deliberate Outcome or

Unforeseen Consequence?. Insitute of Urban and Regional Development, University of
California, Working Paper No. 2004-01, revised May 2004.
2. Census of India, Registrar General of India, Governemtn of India, 1991, 2001.
3. Churchman A., 1999, Disentangling the Concept of Density, Journal of Planning
Literature, Vol.13, No. 4, pp 389-411.
4. City Development Plans under JNNURM, Rajkot and Faridabad.
5. Dempsey N., Bramley G., Power S. and Brown C., The Social Dimension of Sustainable
Development: Defining Urban Social Sustainability,2009.
6. Economic Intelligence Unit (London), 2008, S ustainable Urban Infrastructure: London
Edition a view to 2025, Siemens, London.
7. Environmental and Social Management Framework, Ministry of Urban Development,
GoI, September, 2008.
8. Frey Hildebrand, Bagaeen Samer, 2005, Plus Project: Urbanising Suburbia, Urban
Design Studies Unit, Department of Architecture, University of Strathclyde.
9. Gabrielson Susie, Yorg Jeff and Keith Richard, 1998, U rban Containment Principles:
Services, Growth Boundaries and Zoning, Internet resources.
10. Giddings B, Hopwood B, O'Brien G, 2002, Environment, Economy and Society: Fitting
Them Together into Sustainable Development, Sustainable Development, Vol. 10,
pp.187-196.
11. Governemnt of India, Thirteen Finance Commission Report, 2010.
12. Government of India, 2009, State of Urban Poverty Report, Ministry of Housing and
Urban Poverty Alleviation, New Delhi.
13. Handbook on Primers, Ministry of Urban Development, 2010.
14. Harris Jonathan M., 2000, Basic Principles of Sustainable Development, Working Paper
00-04, Global Development and Environment Institute.
15. Haughton, G., 1997, Developing Sustainable Urban Development Models, Cities, Vol.
14, No. 4, pp.189-195.
16. Hong Kong 2030: Planning Vision and Strategy, Executive Summary, Hong Kong
Special Administrative Region, Governemnt 2007.
17. IPCC, 2000, IPCC Special Report on Land Use, Land Use Change and Forestry.
18. Jenks M, Dempsey N (eds.), 2005, Future Forms and Design for Sustainable Cities,
Architectural Press, Oxford.
19. Jenks, M. and Dempsey, N., The Language and Meaning of Density in Jenks, M. and
Dempsey, N., eds., 2005, Future Forms and Design for Sustainable Cities, Architectural
Press, Oxford.
20. Jenks, M., and Jones, C. (Eds.), 2008, Dimensions of the Sustainable City, Springer.
21. Jenks, M., Burton, E., and Williams, K., eds., 1996, The Compact City: A Sustainable
Urban Form? E&FN Spoon, London.
22. Mahadevia, D., 2001, Sustainable Urban Development in India: an Inclusive
Perspective, Development in Practice, Vol.11 No. 2, pp. 242-259.
23. Mc Kinsey Global Institute, India, 2010, Indias Urban Awakening: Building Inclusive
Cities, Sustaining Economic Growth.
24. Ministry of Urban Development, Government of India, Annual Report, 2006-07.
25. Nallathinga R., 2010, Low Carbon Intensity Urban Planning Strategies for India, Part 1
The Growing Cities of India: Towards Sustainability and Emission Reduction in India
Infrastructure Report 2010: Infrastructure Development in a Low Carbon Economy,
Oxford University Press, New Delhi.
26. Nelson, Arthur C. and Duncan, James B., 1995, Growth Management Principles and
Practices. Planners Press, American Planning Association.

27. O'Toole Randal, A Critique of Neotraditionalism, Internet resources.

28. Rajya Sabha Secretariat, 2008, Climate Change: Challenges to Sustainable Development
in India, Government of India, New Delhi.
29. Registrar General of India, 2006, Population Projections for India and States 2001-2026,
Office of the Registrar General and Census Commissioner, New Delhi, India.
30. Satterthwaite, D., 1998, Environmental Problems in Cities in the South: Sharing my
Confusions, in E. Fernandes, ed., Environmental Strategies for Sustainable Development
in Urban Areas - Lessons from Africa and Latin America, Ashgate, Aldershot.
31. Sivaramakrishnan, K.C., Amitabh Kundu and B.N.Singh, A Handbook of Urbanization in
India, Oxford UnioversityPress, 2007.
32. UN-Habitat, 2009, Global Report on Sustainable Cities, Earthscan, London.
33. Urbanization in India: Creating Places for People, India Habitat Centre, April, 2008.
34. Vaidya C., 2009, U rban Issues, Reforms and Way Forward In India, Working Paper
No.4/2009-DEA, Ministry of Finance, Governent of India, Delhi.
35. Williams K, Burton E, Jenks M (eds.), 2000, Achieving Sustainable Urban Form, E&FN
Spon, London.
36. World Commission on Environment and Development, 1987, O ur Common Future,
Oxford University Press, Oxford.
37. World Health Organization, World Summit Outcome Document, 15 September 2005.
38. World Wildlife Fund (WWF) India, 2009, T he Alternative Urban Futures Report
Urbanization and Sustainability in India: an Interdependent Agenda, New Delhi.

SUSTAINABLE URBAN DEVELOPMENT PERSPECTIVE

Basak Debasish N.
Research student,
Department of Civil Engineering,
S. V. National Institute of Technology, Surat.
basak.debasish@gmail.com
Dr. Joshi Gaurang. J.
Associate Professor,
Department of Civil Engineering,
S. V. National Institute of Technology, Surat.
gj@ced.svnit.ac.in
ABSTRACT
Development signifies welfare of society. Growth and development are different perspectives on
the same paradigm. Growth may or may not lead to development. Quality of life (QOL) is the
product of development through socio-economic and physical infrastructure planning. Quality of
life and development are measured at international, national and state level. Human development
index (HDI) is a known instrument to measure development of various nations by UNDP
(United Nation Development Program). This paper attempts to highlight some of the concepts
and techniques of measurement of HDI.
1. INTRODUCTION
1.1 General
Urban Development is a result of planning by the various stake holders including government
and market initiatives. The process to reach the desired objective is called planning. Planning
takes place at various levels National, State, Regional and Local level. The Planning
Commission of India is an apex body which makes planning for the nation for every five years.
It takes into all the sectors of development. These sectors include agriculture, industries,
education, employment, environment and forests, health, mineral, infrastructure, rural
development, science and technology, social justice, etc. Broadly all these sectors form Social,
Economic and Environmental realms of the nation. However it is imperative that the
development takes place in sustainable way. In sustainable development, the social realm was
originally included because of concerns about the equity issues raised by the differences between
wealthy developed countries and poor less developed countries. It was recognized that inequities
are not limited to wealth and income and more importantly that human well-being is heavily
dependent on s ocial relationships and social services. Therefore it is required to treat the
economic, environmental, and social realms in an even handed and logically consistent fashion.
Sustainability is a dynamic condition in which the combined economic, environmental, and
social systems meet the needs and wants of the current human population while maintaining or
increasing the resources and productive capacities that are passed along to future generations.

Higher growth initiatives lead to development. The accelerated development needs to be

guided properly by accurate mechanisms. If not checked properly it brings in Socio Economic
inequity. Often its said that Development is for rich only. Rich becomes richer and the gap
between the rich and the poor increases. Development needs to be balanced, sustainable and
inclusive. The aspirations and the concerns of the society are to be included and these sections of
society also need to be included in decision making.
The key word today for any region, state or country as a whole is focused on t he
Development. Our democracy and the political system have also shown a great amount of
maturity towards development as a political issue. People of this country have started to get the
fruits of the development in their personal life and hence they have become more aware of
development of their region and the nation as a whole. History of other parts of European
countries has shown that urbanization and development go hand in hand. In India the attention of
policy makers has taken a shift from rural development economy to urban development. Cities
are engines of economic and social growth; they are crucibles of intellectual and technological
advancement; they are places where human needs and aspirations are fulfilled. Cities are
barometers of our progress over time.
Planning can be broadly divided into two major category based on i ts area of working,
Socio-Economic and Physical Planning. Socio economic planning is done more at the National
level, while Physical planning is done more or less at the regional or local level. These are done
by the local agencies like urban local body, development authorities, etc. When any physical
planning is done for the urban area at a l ocal area/level is termed as urban, city and town
planning.
1.2 Development and Growth:
Though Growth of an area defines the development, the two terms signifies different aspects.
Growth is more oriented towards the physical expansion of an area, while the development
signifies quality of growth of an area. Guided growth with proper planning may lead to
development. Urbanization is a process towards growth of urban areas and this Growth leads to
Development. Development encompasses the socio economic development of an area and the
enhancement of the quality of life.
1.3 Urban growth:
Urban growth is best understood as growth of the physical area of an urbanized area along with
population and built form. While comparing various development standards, it is required to go
into detail of urban growth. Following text gives an insight of the process of urban growth,
significance on u rban quality of life, urban sprawl and the tools for controlling and managing
this growth.

Fig 1: Growth and Development Process

Fig 2: Financial and Administration Flow

1.4 Urban Development:

Before describing the process, let us understand that growth is something which is more oriented
towards physical expansion. This growth may or may not lead to development. Various inputs of
growth and development are shown in the first box. It may be noted there are many other such
inputs which can be added to it. These inputs are Policy interventions, Project implementation,
planning both physical and socio-economic and reforms. These inputs give us various products
like physical and socio economic infrastructure. These infrastructures are schools, colleges,
hospitals, dispensaries, water supply, drainage services, housing, roads, etc. These efforts
through the infrastructure, brings the improvement of Quality Of Life, of the human being.
The state government becomes more active at the physical planning then center. It
formulates regional planning strategies of the urban area. Moreover State finance commission
decides upon the allocation of resources. The state governments through the urban development
authorities are playing active role for the urban development. The township policy of the Gujarat
government is one such policy and the Gujarat Town Planning and Urban Development Act is an
example of the policy instrument which has resulted into the State pioneering in urban
development. The local body plays a proactive role in physical planning of the city. These ULBs
formulates and implements Center and State government guided projects. The ULBs also
formulate its own plans and projects. Preparation of Development Plan, Master Plan and Town
planning schemes are some such examples. Success of town planning schemes in some states has
led to a considerable improvement of urban area.
1.5 Sustainable development and sustainability
Sustainable development and sustainability have become important concepts in today's urban
planning field, with the recognition that current consumption and living habits may lead to
problems such as the overuse of natural resources, ecosystem destruction, urban heat islands,
pollution, growing social inequality and large-scale climate change. Many urban planners have,
as a result, begun to advocate for the development of sustainable cities. The use of resources
shall be such that it takes care of the future generation.

2.0 Development: Concept

Development is an ongoing process and can be broadly classified into Social, Economic and
Physical Development with regard to a suitable Environment paradigm. Any development can
never sustain if it lacks the concern of the environment. There can be many numbers of
terminologies for the development like cultural, environmental, commercial, etc. All these are
included into a broad umbrella of Social, Economic and Physical development.
2.1 Meaning
A lot of effort has been taken to understand, what development is. The meaning of Development
though very common word and in use, it is difficult to understand. It took some efforts to
understand. Development when used in common means to develop. Development includes
growth and improvement in any sector towards better direction.
2.2 Development Indicators:
The instruments that are available to measure development are called Development Indicators.
Indicators perform many functions. They can lead to better decisions and more effective actions
by simplifying, clarifying and making aggregated information available to policy makers. They
can help incorporate physical and social science knowledge into decision-making, and they can
help measure and calibrate progress toward sustainable development goals. They can provide an
early warning to prevent economic, social and environmental setbacks. They are also useful tools
to communicate ideas, thoughts and values. Development Indicators are developed at the
International, National level prominently. However these development indicators are also
worked out for the State as well as regional level to some extent. Based on t he category of
subject, the indicators are also classified in to Economic, Social and Environmental indicators.
2.3 Integrating Economic, Social and Environmental Indicators
It is often felt that the indicators framed and measured are done in the isolation. The economic
estimates and the projections are done with little regard to the Environmental repercussions. In
real world all the economic decisions are going to have a large impact on t he environment
factors. Perhaps Economic and Social sectors work more cohesively to some extent in deciding
policy of the nation. It is imperative that the administrative frame work at the national and state
level is such that all the sectors of importance like Economic, Social and Environment factors are
well taken into account while formulation of policies and strategies.
2.4 Indicators of Sustainable Development
The United Nations Conference on E nvironment and Development in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
develop a new agenda for the twenty-first century, known as Agenda 21, and encouraged an
expanded view of national well-being. The indicators so developed are listed below for
reference:
Table 1 Indicators of Sustainable Development
SOCIAL
Theme
Equity

Sub-theme
Poverty

Indicator
Percent of Population Living below Poverty Line
Index of Income Inequality

Gender Equality
Nutritional Status
Health

Mortality

Unemployment Rate
Ratio of Average Female Wage to Male Wage
Nutritional Status of Children

Education

Education Level

Housing

Literacy
Living Conditions

Mortality Rate Under 5 Years Old

Life Expectancy at Birth
Percent of Population with Adequate Sewage Disposal
Facilities
Population with Access to Safe Drinking Water
Percent of Population with Access to Primary Health Care
Facilities
Immunization Against Infectious Childhood Diseases
Contraceptive Prevalence Rate
Children Reaching Grade 5 of Primary Education
Adult Secondary Education Achievement Level
Adult Literacy Rate
Floor Area per Person

Security

Crime

Number of Recorded Crimes per 100,000 Population

Population

Population Change

Population Growth Rate

Sanitation
Drinking Water
Healthcare Delivery

Population of Urban Formal and Informal Settlements

ENVIRONMENTAL
Theme
Atmosphere

Land

Sub-theme
Climate Change
Ozone
Layer
Depletion
Air Quality
Agriculture
Forests

Desertification
Urbanization
Oceans, Seas Coastal Zone
and Coasts
Fisheries
Fresh Water
Water Quantity
Water Quality
Biodiversity

Ecosystem
Species

Indicator
Emissions of Greenhouse Gases
Consumption of Ozone Depleting Substances
Ambient Concentration of Air Pollutants in Urban Areas
Arable and Permanent Crop Land Area
Use of Fertilizers
Use of Agricultural Pesticides
Forest Area as a Percent of Land Area
Wood Harvesting Intensity
Land Affected by Desertification
Area of Urban Formal and Informal Settlements
Algae Concentration in Coastal Waters
Percent of Total Population Living in Coastal Areas
Annual Catch by Major Species
Annual Withdrawal of Ground and Surface Water as a
Percent of Total Available Water
BOD in Water Bodies
Concentration of Faecal Coliform in Freshwater
Area of Selected Key Ecosystems
Protected Area as a % of Total Area
Abundance of Selected Key Species

ECONOMIC
Theme

Economic
Structure

Sub-theme
Economic
Performance
Trade
Financial Status

Material
Consumption
Consumption and Energy Use
Production
Patterns
Waste Generation
and Management
Transportation
Theme
Institutional
Framework

Institutional
Capacity

Sub-theme
Strategic
Implementation
of SD
International
Cooperation
Information
Access
Communication
Infrastructure
Science
and
Technology
Disaster
Preparedness and
Response

Indicator
GDP per Capita
Investment Share in GDP
Balance of Trade in Goods and Services
Debt to GNP Ratio
Total ODA Given or Received as a Percent of GNP
Intensity of Material Use
Annual Energy Consumption per Capita
Share of Consumption of Renewable Energy Resources
Intensity of Energy Use
Generation of Industrial and Municipal Solid Waste
Generation of Hazardous Waste
Management of Radioactive Waste
Waste Recycling and Reuse
Distance Traveled per Capita by Mode of Transport
INSTITUTIONAL
Indicator
National Sustainable Development Strategy
Implementation of Ratified Global Agreements
Number of Internet Subscribers per 1000 Inhabitants
Main Telephone Lines per 1000 Inhabitants
Expenditure on Research and Development as a P ercent of
GDP
Economic and Human Loss Due to Natural Disasters

Source: United Nation Department of Economic and Social Affairs

3.0 Measurement of development
The terms like Quality of Life (QOL), Development, Growth, Sustainable Development,
Indicators of Development, Socio Economic Indicators, etc are needed to be understood
thoroughly. These terms are topics of interests and subjects by themselves. Effort has been made
to understand what the significances of these terms are and the work that has been done in the
past in these areas. Urban growth is a complex phenomenon. The broader concept of urban
development implies change, growth or decline. The term includes physical, socio economic and
environmental dimensions. Physically and functionally urban development includes both new
development and urban development. In contrast to decline, growth involves the transition of
non urban activities or space into urban.

3.1 Human Development Index (HDI)

It is an index used to rank countries by level of human development. This also implies whether a
country is developed, developing or underdeveloped. HDI is specifically mentioned in length as
it is the correct indicator of QOL. The HDI combines normalized measures of life expectancy,
literacy, education attainment and GDP per capita for countries world wide. It is claimed as a
standard means of measuring human development- a concept that, according to the United
Nations Development Program (UNDP), refers to process of widening the options of persons,
giving them opportunities for education, health care, income, employment, etc. The basic use is
to measure a countrys development.
The index was developed in 1990 by Pakistani economist Mahbub ul Haq, Sir Richard
Jolly, with help from Gustav Ranis of Yale University and Lord Meghnad Desai of the London
School of Economics. It has been used since then by UNDP in its annual Human Development
Report. It is claimed that ideas of Indian Nobel Prize winner Amartya Sen were influential in the
development of HDI. The HDI now serves as a path towards a variety of more detailed measures
contained in the Human Development Reports.
The HDI combines three basic dimensions:
Life expectancy at birth, as an index of population health and longevity
Knowledge and education, as measured by the adult literacy rate (with two third weighting)
and the combined primary, secondary and tertiary gross enrollment ratio (with one third
weighting)
Standard of living, as measured by the natural logarithm of gross domestic product
In general, to transform a raw variable, say x, into a unit-free index between 0 and 1 (which
allows different indices to be added together), the following formula is used:

X-index = x min(x) / max(x) - min(x)

Where min(x) and max(x) are the lowest and the highest values of x respectively
The Human Development Index (HDI) then represents the average of the following three general
indices:
Life Expectancy Index = (LE 25)/(85- 25)
Education Index = 2/3 X (ALI) + 1/3 X (GEI)
Adult Literacy Index (ALI) = (ALR-0)/(100-0)
Gross Enrollment Index (GEI) = (CGER-0)/(100-0)
GDP = (log(GDPpc)-log(100))/(log(40000)-log(100))
3.2 Limitations
The Human Development Index has been criticized on a number of grounds, including failure to
include any ecological considerations, focusing exclusively on n ational performance and
ranking, and not paying much attention to development from a global perspective. The index has
also been criticized as "redundant" and a "reinvention of the wheel", measuring aspects of
development that have already been exhaustively studied. The index has further been criticized
for having an inappropriate treatment of income, lacking year-to-year comparability, and
assessing development differently in different groups of countries.

The HDI has been criticized as a redundant measure that adds little to the value of the
individual measures composing it; as a means to provide legitimacy to arbitrary weightings of a
few aspects of social development; as a number producing a relative ranking which is useless for
inter-temporal comparisons, and difficult to compare a country's progress or regression because
the HDI for a country in a given year depends on the levels of, say, life expectancy or GDP per
capita of other countries in that year.
However, each year, UN member states are listed and ranked according to the computed
HDI. If high, the rank in the list can be easily used as a means of national aggrandizement;
alternatively, if low, it can be used to highlight national insufficiencies. Using the HDI as an
absolute index of social welfare, some authors have used panel HDI data to measure the impact
of economic policies on quality of life.
4.0 Conclusions
A small effort has been made to understand the growth, development and indicators.
Some broad conclusions after the entire study of Development and Quality of life Indicators are
summarized as below:
a. The Growth and the Development in an urban paradigm leads to welfare. The term welfare is
referred to as quality of life.
b. Growth means more of physical expansion of an urban area due to urbanization, urban sprawl
and population pressure.
c. Development reflects comprehensive improvement in socio-economic and physical services
with regard to the environment.
d. Human Development Index (HDI) is one of the indicators developed used at various places
and agencies to measure the welfare. However there are criticisms of the indices so developed
because of their intrinsic nature.
5.0 REFERENCES:
Ariasingam, D. (1998): Empowering Civil Society To Monitor The Environment Education
for Students, Awareness for the Public, and Functional Literacy for Targeted Groups, World
Bank Report.
Cheng, J. (2003): Modeling Spatial and Temporal Urban Growth, International Institute
for Geo-Information Science and Earth Observation (ITC), Netherlands, 1-2.
DiSano J. (1995): Indicators of Sustainable Development: Guidelines and Methodologies,
Work programme on I ndicators of sustainable development by the Commission on
Sustainable Development at its Third Session in 1995.
Flynn P, Berry D and Heintz T: (2002) Sustainability & Quality of life Indicators: Towards
the Integration of Economic, Social and Environmental Measures, Flynn Research, Journal
of Social Health, 1-11.
Human Development Report, 2007-08: Fighting climate change: Human solidarity in a
divided world, UNDP.
Iihamdaniah. (2005): The planning for social infrastructure, case study of Ahmedabad,
International Institute for Geo-Information Science and Earth Observation (ITC),
Netherlands, 1-2.
Joshi, G.J. and Katti, B. K. (2007): Urbanisation Impact on Sustainable Development with
reference to South Gujarat Region, Synergic Solutions for Sustainable Development, 83-89.

Sustainable City Population for Housing Development: A Case

Study
Ar. Leena Garg
Research Scholar at S.V.N.I.T. Surat,
and Faculty Member,
Faculty of Architecture,
S.C.E.T. Surat.

Dr. B.K.Katti
Professor Emeritus
S.V.N.I.T. Surat

E-mail: gargleenaa@yahoo.com

Abstract
With the latest census (2011), the high rate of urbanization in most of the states of
India is very much evident. As India makes an impressive economic growth, further
continued influx of population in the cities can be foreseen in the coming years. At the
same time most of our cities are ill-equipped to handle this kind of population growth.
Today a huge opportunity shall be lost if we do not plan the growing cities in
sustainable terms in order to meet the requirement of today as well as of coming times.
NCU i.e. National Commission for Urbanization has come up with optimum density
norms in order to maintain optimum environment quality, energy consumption and
overall livability in our cities. Surat city of South Gujarat state in India has recorded
highest decadal population growth rate in the entire state as per the latest census-2011.
Also Surat city has undergone major expansion in the last few years, thereby opening
up new areas for the fast population growth. As the core city areas are getting too
overpopulated, the higher density is pushing the people outside into expanded areas
around the cities for better living conditions. Besides the natural growth of these areas,
inter zonal population movement shall also play a big role in defining the population
scenario of the expanded areas. The push and pull of population from the city zones to
expanded area are subjected to number of factors. The rate of this process in
expansion area is mainly dependent upon growth and development policies adopted by
the local governments as well as the attraction features of the expanded zones.
The optimum density for the upcoming residential zones in the new areas of our cities
is the subject of interest in this paper. With the changing building form, our skylines
are changing, besides the changing lifestyles are also reflected in the high-rise compact
houses with modern facilities like club, community hall etc. How many more can still
be accommodated in the coming years? Is the housing development policy designed to
meet the requirements of all different classes of people? UDPFI guidelines and TCPO
information have been used to assess the existing density of population as well as to
foresee the future capacity of the expansion areas to absorb the growing population
without compromising upon the overall sustainability. NCU norms can further be used
to devise the appropriate residential density.

INTRODUCTION
According Urban Poverty Report 2009, fifty per cent of Indias population is expected to be
urban-based by 2030. This projection is based on the assumption that growth rate of 8 and 9 per
cent of the urban population over the next decade and also anticipated shifts from agro-based to
non-agricultural jobs and from rural to non-rural employment. Today when India has made an
impressive mark on t he global economic scenario, a huge opportunity may be lost if we fail to
plan and prepare our cities to meet the heavy demands of rapid urbanization. In order to sustain
the growth and development of our economic engines i.e. the cities, it is pertinent that the basic
infrastructure and housing is planned to meet this upsurge.
Rising incomes generally signify prosperity, but that is not visible profoundly in India. The
islands of prosperity in the sea of poverty are quite visible in urban areas because of social and
demographic stratification everywhere. On one side of road we can see sprawling malls with all
major brands trying to make their mark and on the other side one can see rows of unauthorized
crammed structures with the people living sub-humanly. The urban poor are trapped in urban
poverty due to irregular income, deplorable housing conditions and absence of social security
which has resulted in mismanagement of slums. The Ministry of Housing and Poverty Alleviation
has estimated that total housing requirement during the 11th Plan period (2007-2012) stands at
26.53 million. Out of this shortage of dwelling units, 21.78 million pertains to EWS and 2.89
million to LIG. Collectively, these two groups accounted for 99% of the deficit.
Recent census (2011) for the state of Gujarat, confirms the phenomenon of rapid urbanization
with 42.5% urban population, 2,57,12,811 in absolute terms. The city of Surat has once again
recorded the highest decadal growth rate of 58.68%, with population growing from 28.12 lakh in
2001 to 44.62 lakh in 2011. Whereas Surat District population is 60.79 L akhs, the population
density in the city comes to 1,376 persons per sq. km. Comparatively the decadal growth rates of
Ahmedabad and Rajkot are 23.12 and 28.21 respectively during 2001-11.
URBAN SUSTAINABILITY: A VISION
Most definitions of urban sustainability reflect the need for progress on the economic, social and
environmental conditions in urban areas. Urban sustainability also implies an orientation towards
the future, reflecting the importance of inter-generational equity. Urban sustainability implies a
balanced integration of environmental, economic and social considerations. However striking
balance here is not simple task, rather it involves the complex and difficult task of finding
balances among social, economic and environmental pluses and minuses, between short- and

long-term considerations, and between the immediate interests of a part of the population and the
more diffuse interests of everyone.
Urban Density and Sustainability

India is the second largest populous nation. Our metropolitan cities are among the densest
cities in the world. The optimum density where the quality of life is balanced with
appropriate density is a debatable issue. It needs deeper probing to quantify the
qualitative aspect of high density living. The two important issues about high-density cities
are the costs and benefits of the form and how dense should it be and higher than what? The
two main benefits of compact city are reduced dependency on private cars and preservation of
greenery while the main costs are towards more air pollution, noise, crime a nd overcrowding
(Chen, Jia & Lau, 2008). Major social and environmental benefits of compactness of a city are,
protection of the countryside, green space and

biodiversity;

reduction of travel distance,

emission, greenhouse gases and thus global warming; reduction of materials for construction of
infrastructure; have economies of scale in providing social institutional services like hospitals,
banks and i n having a b etter interactive community life. T he various costs on other hand are
exploiting open and green urban spaces; overcrowding; traffic congestion; ill health; crime and
high-energy demand in compact high-rise buildings. But the relationship is not so simple. The
concept has been developed in relation to developed economies with sprawling areas but it has
not been tested adequately on hi gh-density developing countries. The tradeoffs thus have to be
critically maintained.
Optimum Density of Cities for Sustainable Development
Cities are growing endlessly all over the world. In India where urbanization is still an ongoing
process, the forms of our cities in the times to come are an important subject to explore. The
density norms as per UDPFI (Urban Development Plan Formulation and Implementations)
guidelines state that the average density of Metro cities in plain areas should range from
125-175 ppHa. In fact that is the highest density as proposed for all categories of cities.
Population is growing and land is the finite resource. Do we need to rethink the density
norms as established earlier? The problem is how best or optimal the urban areas can be
planned so that the urban form can be sustainable. National Commission on Urbanisation (NCU)
of India (1988) recommended low-rise high density (LRHD) built-form for Indian cities. It
explains that such form is less expensive to maintain and has the advantages of security of
neighbourhood protection. Most important of all is that it satisfies the criteria of equity. It says:

Income profile and affordability considerations suggest that a range of small and medium plot
sizes, between 25 sq m to 100 sq m (with some plots perhaps up to 200 sq m) can satisfy the
needs of over 95 per cent of the urban population. The Commission explains that this typology is
more economical than apartments because no space is required for public circulation and lifts and
also it provides much better living conditions. It would also reduce the disparities in our urban
areas. According to this form, a 50 sq m plot per family with five members will generate a net
density of 1000 persons per hectare (i.e. a gross residential density of 500 persons per hectare).
Similarly, a 100 sq m plot would generate a gross residential density of 250 persons per hectare.
It also states that high gross densities found in inner city can be tackled by interventions in city
structure and by adjusting land use allocation in within the city itself to create spaces for social
overheads. Its recommendations for built form specifies that residential sites should be provided
so that 50 per cent of the lands are in plots between 25 to 100 sq m, 25 per cent of the land are in
the plots between 100 to 200 sq m and 3) 25 per cent of the land are in these or any other sizes.
The Commission also recommended that, these plots should be leased out not to individual
buyers, but to co-operative societies. Should the members of a cooperative society decide to pool
their land and build group housing or apartments, they should be free to do so, provided the total
number of dwelling units remains the same. This maintains the principle of urban equity and, at
the same time, allows the construction of apartment buildings at higher FARs. The report also
says that, as long as our cities remain within density thresholds (i.e. neighbourhood densities of
250 to 1,000 persons /ha) there are efficient and cost effective solutions within our resources.
Density assumptions play an important part in estimating the development land requirements
arising from new dwelling requirements. Indeed without an assumption about how many units
can be accommodated in a given area, it would be impossible to move from forecast demand to
an estimate of how much land will be needed. While the principle of the approach is
straightforward in estimate of site capacity, the practical application is rather complicated on
using the correct density measure.
Where nonresidential uses, such as main roads, retail, employment and major open spaces are
being planned in conjunction with housing, an allowance needs to be made in the density
assumption for the land that will be occupied by these non-residential uses which may be
upwards of 25% at the neighbourhood or district scale. At the site-specific level, if density
controls are to produce the expected results, a density standard must be carefully related to the
area accommodating the development. At different stages in the planning of a new development
area, standards and measurement can be refined from an overall density which embraces the full

range of urban uses down to one which includes only the residential component of an individual
site. As the focus narrows and the area becomes smaller, the residential density assumption in
terms of the number of dwellings per hectare will rise. The residential density thus established as
(i.e. neighbourhood densities of 250 to 1,000 persons /ha) and with upwards of 25% for nonresidential uses, one can safely propose the overall density to range from 150 to 400 ppha for our
cities, provided that the adequate reservations are done for the low income class as well.
SURAT CITY: POPULATION APPRAISAL WITH REFERENCE TO NORMS &
GUIDELINES
In the last decade the area of Surat city increased by almost three times to an area of 326.51 sq.
kms from 112.27 sq. kms. Subsequently the seven zones of the city too underwent expansion in
their areas. Except for the central zone, New villages were added in all other zones, resulting in
the increased area and increased population. City which is in a state of fast growth at this point of
time experiences several push-pull dynamics due to the infrastructure development and various
other factors including environmental quality and vicinity to transportation nodes/business
districts. Accordingly the population from the highly congested and dense central areas tends to
move out towards the peripheral suburbs, and new growths. As seen earlier, as per UDPFI
(Urban Development Plan Formulation and Implementations) guidelines, the average
density of the developed area average densities of Metro cities in plain areas should range
from 125-175 ppHa. Currently the average density of the city as per 2011 census is around
136 ppHa for the entire area of 326.51 Sq.Km, which was about 88ppHa in census 2001.
This clearly suggests that keeping the higher limit as suggested by UDPFI, still around 1516 lacs of people can be accommodated.
Considering the existing growth rate and density pattern in the city zones (pre-expansion) a
higher bench mark i.e about 250ppha, and 400ppha for the pre-expansion core zones, and 250
ppha for the expanded areas, could be taken for working out the population prediction for coming
years. The expansion areas shall grow as per the natural growth and the movement of population
from across the congested city core zones. The movement of population is often based on t he
environmental quality, infrastructure provision and other such factors. In order to foresee the
population growth in these areas, gravity modeling can be used, whereby the attraction potential
of each expansion zone can be taken into consideration.

Following framework of methodology can be adapted.

Assessment of overall
sustainable population for the
unexpanded city

Zonal population density

assessment as per the
sustainable benchmark density
Calculating the spill over
population from each zone over
the above assessed figure
Allotment of the spill over population to
the expanded zone by gravity logic and
adding to the natural growth to assess the
post expansion scenario

As per the UDPFI guidelines,

prescribing the livability population
density standards for these expansion
zones

Calculating the population absorbing capacity for

each zone, suggesting appropriate housing form
and development as per NCU observations

Figure-1 Methodology Framework

6

The population for the target years 2011, 2016, 2021, 2026 ha s been calculated as per
past growth rate trends. Projected population for the years 2016, 2021 and 2026 has been
provide in Table-1, the Desired AGR Table-2 for the city is derived with Compound
Interest formula, and is progressively decreasing as per the observed trends. Population
projection has been carried at the city level at 112 Sq km area on presumption of no spill
over takes place.
Table: 1 Projected city Population
S No

City Population (lacs)

Projected City Population (lacs)

1991

2001

2006

2011

2016

2021

2026

14.9

24.33

30.32

39.63

49.39

61.54

74.87

Table: 2 Desired AGR for the city

Annual Growth Rate
1991-2001

2001-2011

2011-2021

2021-2026

4.96%

5%

4.5%

4%

62.89%

55.29%

Decadal Growth Rate

63.29%

Table: 3 Population distributions for different city zones (unexpanded)

Source: SMC Surat

S.No Zone

Population
(1991)

Population Area
(2001)
(Ha)

Annual
Growth
Rate

Decadal
Growth
Rate
%age

1
2
3
4
5
6
7

Central
North Zone
East Zone
South-East Zone
South Zone
South-West Zone
West Zone

436776
171969
309920
180611
170990
102525
126769

413641
335291
580107
335558
319090
199668
250480

818
2054
1386
910
2608
1496
1963

-0.50%
6.90%
6.50%
6.40%
6.40%
6.90%
7%

-5.3
95.0
87.2
85.8
86.6
94.8
97.6

Total

1499560

2433835

11235

4.96%

62.3

Density
(ppHa)
2001
505
163
418
368
122
133
127
262
(avg)

As can be seen from the table above the Zone-1-Central zone, Zone-3 East zone and
Zone-4 South-East Zone have high density as per 2001 census. In order to work out the
desirable density for entire city, a benchmark for these highly dense areas have been set
up to 400 ppH a, and for the remaining zones, 250 ppH a has been set. Based on t hat
following table has been worked out:
Table: 4 Permissible Density and Desirable population Surat City( Unexpanded)

S.No

Zone

Population
2001

Area (Ha)

2001
Density
(ppHa)

Central

413641.0

818.0

505

400

Population
calculations
(BM*Area)
(lacs)
Permissible
Population
3.272

North
Zone

335291.0

2054.0

163

250

5.135

East
Zone

580107.0

1386.0

418

400

5.544

SouthEast
Zone

335558.0

910.0

368

400

3.64

South
Zone

319090.0

2608.0

122

250

6.52

SouthWest
Zone

199668.0

1496.0

133

250

3.74

West
Zone

250480.0

1963.0

127

250

4.9075

Total

2433835.0

11235.0

262

Assumed
BenchMark

32.7585

As is apparent from the above table, the desirable population is 32.7 lacs for the
entire city. With this as a bench mark a spill over for different years has been
attempted as shown below:

Table: 5 Spill Over Calculation Table

S.No
1
2
3
4
Total

Year
2011
2016
2021
2026

Population (lacs)
39.63
49.39
61.54
74.87

Subtraction factor
39.60-32.7
49.39-39.63
61.54-49.39
74.87-61.54

Spillover lacs
6.84
9.76
12.15
13.33
42.18

As is evident, by 2026 a bout 42.18 l acs of people shall need to be spilled out from the
unexpanded area, in order to maintain the desirable density set as before. It could be
checked by subtracting the figure 32.7, from 74.87(Pop- 2026) to get 42.18 a gain.
However as stated earlier as per UDPFI norms about 16 l akhs more people can be
accommodated in the present area with 136 ppHa density and 44.6 lakhs of population,
meaning that considering todays growth rate pattern a total population of about 60 lakhs
(expected till 2 021), can still be accommodated, but beyond that we shall be
compromising with the density morms.
Comments and Conclusions:
The newly expanded areas trigger off urban growth. The fast growing metropolitan cities
are bound to expand with reference to the rapid urbanization process taking place. The
dimensions of urban growth of these new expansion areas and their growth rates depend
upon number of zonal attributes. Land values, accessibilities, provision of infrastructure
are some of the important attributes, to provide pace for the growth. Above computations
give an approximate picture of differential population growth scenario in the expansion
areas of Surat City. For the equitable distribution additional boost in infrastructure and
the likes has to be given in the less preferred areas. The residential development in the
expansion areas should confirm to around 250 to 1000 ppha at neighborhood level, with a
hierarchy for the different income levels. The city with present area limits can absorb 1520 lacs more people, and thus the economic thrust should be given to the neighboring
towns like Navsari, Valsad so that population migaration can be diverted to other
magnets.
9

Density is just one of the parameter that upholds the criterion for sustainable living.
Optimum land use, efficient transportation, coupled with proper management of natural
resources like water needs to be understood in addition to the density for sustainable
planning for tomorrow.
References:

Arentze, T.A. and H.J.P. Timmermans (2003) Modeling agglomeration forces in

urban dynamics: a multi- agent system approach, International Journal of Urban
Sciences, 7: 1-13

Batty, M., Couclelis, H. and M. Eichen (1997) Urban systems as cellular

automata, Environment and Planning B: Planning and Design, 24: 159- 164.

Breheney, M. J. (Ed.) (1992). Sustainable Development and Urban Form, Pion,

London.

Census of India (2001). Analytical Report on Housing Amenities, Series 1, India.

Dempsey, N. and M. Jenks (2005). Future forms for city living? In Future Forms and
Design for Sustainable Cities, M. Jenks And N. Dempsey eds. Elsevier, Oxford, U.K.

Govt. of India, Ministry of Environment and Forests, White Paper on P ollution in

Delhi with an Action Plan. http://envfor.nic.in/

Govt. of India, Planning Commission (2008). Eleventh Five Year Plan, 2007-2012
vol. III. Oxford, India.

Kundu A. and S. Thakur (2006). A ccess to drinking water in urban India: An

Analysis of emerging spatial pattern in the context of new system of governance In
Managing Water Resources: Policies, Institutions and Technologies, V. Ratna Reddy
and S. Mahendra Dev eds. Oxford, New Delhi.

National Commission on Urbanisation, (1988). Report of the National Commission

on Urbanisation , Vol. II.

Opp. Susan M. (2008). Roles and realities. In Local Sustainable Urban Development
in a Globalised World, Lauren C. H eberle and Susan M. Opp eds. Hampshire,
Ashgate Publishing Limited, England.

List of Referred Websites

The web site of Surat Municipal Corporation, www.suratmunicipal.com.

The Web site of SUDA online, www.sudaonline.com.

www.mhupa.gov.in/w_new/SummaryUDPFI.pdf

www.itpi.org.in

10

T.P.S. T.D.R. MODEL FOR LAND MANAGEMENT IN GUJARAT

PATEL J.K., ICECREAMWALA M.R.
Students, S.V.N.I.T, SURAT, GUJARAT,INDIA
ABSTRACT
Creating Urban Branding in state like Gujarat requires a few ideological and methodological
modifications in the "TPS". In this paper one of the innovative technique is discussed to
practice Town Planning Schemes that could be considered as one of the primary steps towards
Creating Urban Branding.
INTRODUCTION
India faces a truly formidable challenge in managing the rapid process of urbanization and the
growth of its cities. It is the second-most-populous country in the world, with a population of
1.028 billion and, of this, 285 million (27.8 percent) live in its 5,161 cities and towns.
To effectively manage the new growth implies that the agricultural land at the periphery of the
cities and towns or smaller settlements that are not yet Urban is transformed to be made
suitable for urban or nonagricultural uses.
LAND POOLING AND REDISTRIBUTION SCHEME
Land Pooling/Readjustment (LP/R) Technique of managing new growth , is a simpler version of
PR technique used in many Asian countries in which neither compensation nor
incremental charges are paid. The authority in charge of urban development selects land in the
fringe area which is suitable for development. The public agency then envages land owners in
a compulsory partnership for preparing a comprehensive plan. The agency implementing the
scheme then raises a short-term loan to provide working capital, and carries out development
as envisaged in the scheme. It sells some of the redeveloped plots to recover the expenditure
and passes on the rest of the plots to land owners in proportion to the original size of the land
holdings. The land owners, thus, become partners in the urban development process.
TOWN PLANNING SCHEME
The Gujarat Town Planning and Urban Development Act, 1976 too provides an alternative to
compulsory acquisition of land by way of preparing and implementing Town Planning Schemes
(TPS). The basic concept of TPS is pooling together of all the land under different ownerships
and redistributing it is a reconstituted form after making provision for open spaces, social

infrastructure, services, housing for the economically weaker sections, and road network. This
process enables the local authority to develop lands without fully acquiring them, and control
the design and timing of the urban growth. Town Planning Schemes thus are conceptualized as
a joint venture between the local authorities and the owners of the plots who voluntarily agree
to pool their lands, redistribute the lands, and share the development costs. Generally, TPS is
prepared .for areas about 100 hectares. The scheme provides for smooth vesting of lands for
public purposes with the local authorities. The usual opposition to land acquisition from owners
is almost non-existing. This is why TPS is rightly called 'land acquisition with tears'.
Land pooling and redistribution scheme has been in vogue in many Asian countries. Under this
scheme, the urban development authority selects land in the fringe area earmarked for
development. The agency implementing the scheme then raises a short-term loan to provide
working capital and carries out development as envisaged in the scheme. It sells some of the
redeveloped plots to land owners in proportion to the original size of the land holdings. The
land owners thus become partner in the urban development process. The National Urban
Housing and Habitat Policy, 2007 too encourages development of land assembly and
development both by the public and private sectors.
INNOVATIVE "TPS" PRACTICE
Town Planning schemes majorly seem to be Monotonous everywhere. Majorly we see lack of
Urban Squares (City Centers), Narrow Roads with encroached illegal parking and multi utility
buildings that are never a success and create chaos instead. Even at Planning, The Town Planner
feels a lack of free hand to use space for providing better Infrastructure and Public Services.
This research tries to give the planner a little extra space and a free hand towards provision of
better urban furnishing and infrastructure facilities of a particular "TPS" by making minute
modifications in TPS Methodology and Acts.
TPS - T.D.R. MODEL (INFRASTRUCTURE MODEL)
The Mumbai TDR (Transfer of Development Right) Model is a very useful tool to satisfy Land
Owners by giving them advantage of Transfer of Rights whenever space is required for
Infrastructure Development.
TDR is a tool to make F.S.I./F.A.R. Dynamically Marketable and thus TPS carved dynamically
gives more Space and a free Hand to the Planner.
This study tries to find out deficiencies in the TPS modeling and providing scientific Solutions.
The basic aspect of the solution is to have a higher ratio of urban land allocated towards the
Infrastructural Development within the TPS boundary at the disbursal of the Town Planner.

The basic deficiency of this aspect is that the ratio is already fixed by the Local Governance. As
more deduction in urban land would dissatisfy the land owners of the TPS that would
eventually lead to legal conflicts between the land owners and the local governance.
The most logical solution to this deficiency is to allocate higher F.S.I. against the land deducted.
This would make the F.S.I. or F.A.R. dynamically marketable and eventually satisfy all, the Land
Owners, The Developers and the local governance.
F.S.I. FACTOR F.F
In this model, planner adding one more column which is called as F.S.I. factor.
Definition of F.S.I FACTOR [F.F.]: F.S.I. Factor is ratios of plot area as per norms to the actual
area allotted by the planner.
Plot area allotment as per norms
F.S.I. FACTOR =
____________________________
Actual area allotted by planner
Sample calculation of F.S.I. FACTOR :
Original area of plot: 5000 sqmt.
Deduction as per TPS norms = 35%
Plot area require to allot = 3250sqmt F.S.I as per D.C.R.= 1.8 =5850sqmt.
Actual plot area allotted by planner = 2600 sqmt.
F.S.I. factor = 3250/2600 = 1.25.
Actual F.S.I. = F.S.I. as per D.C.R X F.S.I. factor =1.8 x 1.25 =2.25.
Dynamic F.S.I/ D.R.C = 1170 sqmt.
PLOT
NO.

O.P.
AREA

DED.
PER.

F.P. AREA

A. F. P.
AREA

5000

35

12500

40

24000

F.F.

F.S.I. AS
PER D.C.R.

T.D.R./
D.R.C

TOTAL
F.S.I.

3250

2600

1.25

1.8

1170

2.25

7500

5500

1.36

1.8

3600

2.45

2700

2.02

40
14400
12900
1.12
1.8
Where 1170, 3600, 2700 area dynamic F.S.I., T.D.R., OR D.R.C.

The D.R.C. [Development rights certificate] is given to the particular land owners.

There are some important regulations which are required to impose on land owners for use of
D.R.C.

It can be used with in T.P.S. boundary only.

It can be sold/buy with in T.P.S. boundary only.
Land owner should follow G.D.C.R. other than height and F.S.I. regulations.
No government intervention for D.R.C. price.
It can be sold/buy to single land owner and once.
Rights are transfer by willing seller and willing Byers by agreement with prior application
and permission with local authority.
This model gives more space or land to planner for better infrastructure management and
satisfies land owner/ Developer too. Big parking plots, green gardens, wider roads of different
road patterns added in beautification of city. Provision for urban square with commercial
reservation in center creates urban feelings in TPS area which one is most lacking part of TPS.
CONCLUSION
Practicing new innovative model TDR/F.F ..
Make TPS more marketable and dynamic.
More wider roads and sufficient infrastructure space make TPS sustainable.
Long vision for infrastructure facility can be calculated.
Addition of Aeshthetic in TPS attract tourisum and promote multinational companies
for business.
Concept of CBD crated urban feeling in TPS area.
More Greenfield make city sustainable.
Finally it creates Urban branding which more important part to make city live.
REFERENCES
1. A.Ravindra, 1996 Urban Land Policy A Metropolitan Perspective , , Concept
Publications, Delhi.
2. Ravi Kalia , 1987 In Serch Of Identity, , University Press, Carbondale.
3. Shirey Ballaney And Bimal Patel, 2003 Using The Development Plan Town
Planning Scheme To Appropriate Land And Build Infrastructure, Ahemdabad.
4. Shirley , 2003 Town Planning Mechanisum In Gujrat , India , , World Bank Institute.
5. Dr. S.K.kulshrestha, 2011, Process of transfprmation of virgin land into resource for
urban development, ITPI, 59th congress, panchkula.
6. Prof. utpal Sharma, ashima banker, 2011, sustainable Urban Forms ITPI, 59th
congress, panchkula.
7. J.B. Kshirasagar, A.K.Lal, 2011 ,Urban Land Scenario
8. Land Pooling Technique: A Tool For Plan Implementation, Praja.

SAFE PEDESTRIAN CULTURE ON URBAN ROADS: A NEED OF TIME

Asst. Professor. Rikta Desai,
Faculty of Architecture,
Sarvajanik College of Engineering & Technology, Surat
Email: riktadesai@rediffmail.com
Asst. Professor. Alpa Pandya
Faculty of Architecture,
Sarvajanik College of Engineering & Technology, Surat
Email: alpapandya_24@yahoo.com
ABSTRACT
The cities of present time run on widely spread and ever busy transportation network. In other
words, transportation system has become the nerve of any city, where maze of roads;
overpopulated with motorized vehicles, dominate the human life. The paradox here is that
though meant for human travel, these roads hardly provide any quality space for those who are
without vehicles i.e. the pedestrians. Urban transportation planning barely concerns for the fact
that cities breathe through pedestrian activities and these pedestrian activities demand for
qualitative urban public space. The non-conducive environment for pedestrians and nonmotorized vehicles in turn encourages the use of motorized vehicles even for short distance trips,
hence increasing burden on urban roads. Hence it becomes important to understand the need of
spatial planning for pedestrians on urban roads. This paper, based on literature review and case
studies, attempts to put forward the issues related to pedestrian culture and conditions of nonmotorized transport on urban roads, especially in Indian context, and establishes guidelines and
metaphors to promote safe pedestrian environment, while creating an enjoyable public realm.
1.

INTRODUCTION:

People are important in cities, as they are the foundation of the social and economic processes
that drive the urban system and sustain the urban fabric. While people spend much of their time
inside buildings at home, at work, and at play it is the movement of people, whether in
vehicles or on foot, that is indicative of the vibrancy of the city . This vibrancy is usually most
evident in the central area of the City that is the CBD area. In urban space; the central area is
often associated with vibrant movement, intensive commercial use and a wide variety of leisure
activity. Understanding the movement of people in city centers is an important factor in
understanding how they function.
From Urban Design point of view, there is an incredible beauty, enjoyment, and convenience in
connecting pedestrian streets and squares which provides the residents a safe and secure walking
environment. Being able to walk to a mix of shops, restaurants, newsstands, coffeehouses and
open-air markets within car-free neighborhoods and work centers delivers the highest quality of
life, and adds great variety and vitality to an area. So, a major goal in contemporary urban design
is to encourage pedestrian activity on urban roads, though pedestrian movement is more complex
than vehicular flow for the reason that people are more flexible than cars.
1

2. GENERATORS OF PEDESTRIAN MOVEMENT

Pedestrian activity can be considered to be the product of following distinct components:
The location and distribution of particular attractions (shops, offices, public buildings etc.) on
the street/road network i.e. land use-transport relationship and the trip length between origin
and destination.
The configuration of the street/road network that in turn generates the pedestrian movement.
For example, non-availability of parking lot near a commercial street or use of public
transport to reach to a place nearby to destination.
The daily/weekly/monthly a ctivities like Fairs (handloom fair, book f air, amusement fair
etc.), exhibitions, special shopping areas, vegetable markets and the commercials edges that
occupy high rate of pedestrians moving here and there for their purpose of work.
The very peculiar characteristic of the place that encourages pedestrian activities and
movement for example; pilgrimage centers (Dwarka, Dakor, Haridwar, Vaishnav Devi,
Mecca and Madina, etc.), tourist centers, or celebration of community festivals (Ganesh
Chaturthi,Moharam,Easter etc.)
Unfortunately, in typical Indian situation, pedestrians are highly mixed with the motorized
vehicles, generating a scene of chaos and unsafe environment.

3.

PEDESTRIAN BEHAVIOUR PATTERN:

3.1

Physical Behavior Pattern:

The pedestrian prefer to walk on the right-hand side of the road in international countries where
as in India people prefer to walk on t o the left hand side of the road as the Indian cars are
designed with left hand drive.
3.2

Psychological Behavioral Pattern:

Human behavior often seems to be chaotic, irregular, and unpredictable.

People are getting nervous, resulting in a higher level of actuations.
They are trying to escape from the source of panic, which can be reacted by a significantly
higher desired velocity.
Individuals in complex situations, who do not know what the right thing to do is, orient at the
actions of their neighbours, i.e. they tend to do what other people do.
Then finally the pedestrians tend to jam up a t one of the exits instead of equally using all
available exits, if the nervousness is large.
Children and teens
Walking is a major form of transportation for children.
Children frequently dont pay attention to traffic conditions.
Childrens height makes them difficult to see.

On an ordinary street, cars make pedestrians feel small and vulnerable because the sidewalks are
too narrow and too low. When the side walk is too narrow, you feel you are going to fall off, or
get pushed off and there is always a chance that you will step off just in front of passing car.
When the sidewalk is too low, you feel that cars can easily mount the sidewalk, if they go out of
control, and crush you. It is clear, then, that pedestrians will feel comfortable, powerful safe, and
2

free in their movements when

the walks they walk on are both
wide enough to keep the people
well away from the cars and
high enough.
Pedestrian walkway

4.
ISSUES
RELATED
TO
PEDESTRIANS
IN
CITIES:

Motorized vehicle track

KEEP THE CARS BELOW A PERSONS LINE OF SIGHT

4.1 Encroachment on footpath

The most obvious problem faced by the pedestrians is the encroachments of the footpaths
Unlawful street-vending by
-

Hawkers
Shop fronts
Eateries
Vehicles getting repaired
Parking of vehicles
Temporary structure
Utility structure (electricity cabinet etc.)
Construction Debris.

4.2 Stipulation of footpath

Poor conditions of sidewalks
absence of sidewalks in certain areas
Capacity of sidewalks
No consideration for people with limited mobility physically challenged and handicapped
People with occupational risks (police, garbage box, vendors etc.)
Parking areas near shopping centers and no facility for road side parking
Nuisance of Street repair and construction sites.
5. INDIAN SCENARIO FOR PEDESTRIANS
Indian driving is known for disrespect of the traffic rules. Worse still, drivers show no respect to
a fellow human - the pedestrian. Most driver's fail to stop at the zebra crossings for the
pedestrians. While disrespect for the pedestrians rights is one reason, the other is complete lack
of awareness that Indian traffic rules clearly state that all vehicles must give way to pedestrians
at zebra crossings. Sadly its not just the drivers who disrespect the needs of the pedestrians. The
town planners, civic officials, politicians & citizens are all to blame.
Cities like Pune have over 40% of their roads without footpaths. And where they exist they are
encroached not by hawkers or slums, rather by toilet blocks, badly designed bus stops, poorly
placed electricity boxes and last but not least garbage skips.
Sadly, most city authorities in India are spending money on d eveloping / widening roads and
forgetting that a road is never complete without a pavement / footpath. The Indian Road
Congress clearly recommends that the minimum width of a footpath should be 1.5 meters. Yet,

many roads are either without one, or where they exist made of varying heights or as narrow as
one foot wide! Further our footpaths tend to lose their identity and disappear at turns of bends. In
reality, a footpath never loses its identity. Also, there is nothing stopping our authorities from
implementing a simple parking policy on roads wide enough to ensure that pavements are never
encroached on. Our dictum should be - 'First Footpaths, Then Roads'.
Thus Walking is an important mode of transport. Significant trips up to 2 km are on foot and
every journey starts / ends with a walk. Requirements partly also covered in IRC:70-1977
Guideline on regulation and control of mixed traffic in urban areas and IRC 86-1983 Geometric
design standards for urban roads in plains.
6. GUIDELINES:
6.1 General Principles:
Pedestrian facilities should be planned in an integrated manner to ensure continuous flow.
Reduce conflict between pedestrians and vehicles.
Convenience is paramount.
6.2 Footpath / sidewalk:

7.

Should be on both sides

Minimum width 1.5 meters
There are criteria based on pedestrians per hour and width of footpath may have to be as
much as 4 meters
In shopping areas, width should be increased by 1 meter (to be treated as dead width)
When adjacent to building, fences - dead width has to be 0.5 meters.
Pedestrian Crossings should be integrated well and also there should be a provision of
subways / foot over bridges - 2.5 meter width and height, but 4-6 meters width is
advisable (there are criteria based on capacity considerations)
Crossings at intersections and mid-block, can be controlled / uncontrolled by signals.
Zebra crossing width - 2 to 4 meters
Median strip should be adequate width (this is the only reference to pedestrian refuges)
Mid-block crossings should be provided when distance between two consecutive
intersections is more than 300 meters
Controlled crossings - warranted when one or more of following apply - peak pedestrian
volume per hour (P) and vehicles are such that PV (V is squared) more or equal to 10 to the
power of 8, a pproach speeds 65kph, w ait times for pedestrians are too long (time not
specified) and finally accidents records indicate 5 or more pedestrian injuries a year (not
deaths, so threshold is low)
Control measure could be a push button pelican signal when pedestrians are fewer.
PEDESTRIAN CITIES EXAMPLES:

Pedestrian cities are growing in popularity in many top regions around the world. The incredible
beauty, enjoyment, and convenience a network of connected pedestrian streets and squares
provides to the residents on a daily basis is unsurpassed. Being able to walk to a mix of shops,
restaurants, newsstands, coffeehouses and open-air markets within car-free neighborhoods and
4

work centers delivers the highest quality of life, and adds great variety and vitality to an area.
Pedestrain culture is "an intricate and close-grained diversity of uses that give each other
constant mutual support, both economically and socially."
Venice: One of the best examples of a pedestrian city is Venice. Venice, Italy is considered the
greatest pedestrian city in the world because it contains the largest pedestrian street network
completely free of cars. The entire city has no cars operating on its streets. The city is quite
dense, yet the most relaxing and pleasant city in the world.
Copenhagen Denmark is another of the worlds great pedestrian cities. Although its blessed
with certain inherited characteristics - such as a narrow medieval street grid - the city has worked
steadily to improve the quality of its street life. In the 40 years since Copenhagens main street
was turned into a pedestrian thoroughfare, city planners have taken numerous small steps to
transform the city from a ca r-oriented place to a people-friendly one. In Copenhagen, has
pioneered a method of systematically studying and recording people in the city, says Jan Gehl, a
Danish architect and co-author of Public Spaces-Public Life, a study on what makes the citys
urban spaces work. After twenty years of research, it has been able to prove that these steps
have created four times more public life.
8.

CONCLUSIONS:
Given appropriate land use conditions, pedestrian facility improvement programs in suburban
areas can support pedestrian travel and have a significant influence on mode choice.
An improved understanding would also greatly assist in setting clearer policies and priorities
for the provision of pedestrian crossing facilities.
At high pedestrian densities, the lanes of uniform walking direction tend to disturb each
other: Impatient pedestrians try to use any gap for overtaking, which Often leads to
subsequent obstructions of the opposite walking directions. The lanes can be stabilized by
series of trees or columns in the middle of the road which, in walking direction, looks similar
to a wall. Also, it takes some detour to reach the other side of the permeable wall, which
makes it less attractive to use gaps occurring in the opposite pedestrian stream.
An environment offering a high quality of life is a place free from noise, pollution, toxins,
radiation, and danger. This includes safe streets everyone can walk along, clean air to
breathe, clean and healthy water and food.
Finally if we relate the pedestrian movement with India, in the existing scenario lots of
market places are pedestrian but they are not safer as they are not segregated with motorized
vehicles which create un-safety for pedestrian moving in vegetable markets, hang out areas,
window shopping areas, weekend markets and even the seasonal markets.
India lack a traffic culture that is sensitive to millions of pedestrians, rickshaw drivers and
riders of two-wheelers who form a majority of road users in the country
While pedestrians accounted for over 50 p er cent of road deaths in the city in 2007, road
planners have to pay scant attention to their plight
Pedestrian facilities should be planned in an integrated manner to ensure continuous flow.
Walking is the social glue that holds public environments together.
5

9. REFERENCES:

Christopher Alexander, A Pattern language, New York Oxford University press

Edward T. Hall, The Hidden Dimension, Anchor Books.
Edward T. Hall, Beyond Culture, Anchor Books.
Edward T. Hall, The Silent Language.
Edward T. Hall with Mildred Reed Hall, The Fourth Dimension in Architecture, Sunstone
Press, New Mexico.
Pedestrian Simulation John Ward Cr Advanced Spatialalysis Department of geography.
University College London 4th Mo.Ve International Forum Venice, September 29th and
30th 2005
Hotel Monaco & Gran Canal.
DESIGN FOR HEALTH University of Minnesota | August 2007 P lanning Information
Sheet:
Considering Safety through Comprehensive Planning and Ordinances.
ZEBRA CROSSING AND PEDESTRIAN SAFETY Management in road traffic
environment in Metropolitan lagos, Nigeria Joshua adetunji odeleye
The Dutch model for Making Walking and Cycling Safer By Alan A Parker Secretary,
Town and Country Planning Association,

SPILLOVER POPULATION MODELLING FOR NEWLY EXPANDED

AREAS OF SURAT CITY
Mrs. Avni D. Katariwala
Lecturer
Civil Engineering Department,
S.T.B.S College of Diploma Engg,
Surat

Dr. B.K.Katti,
Professor Emeritus
Civil Engineering Department,
S.V. National Institute of Technology,
Surat

ABSTRACT
Surat has expanded recently in 2006 and the city area has gone up from 112 Sq.Km to 326 Sq.Km of area.
The extended areas are merged with the seven city zones covering 35 villages. Urbanisation impact on the
expanded area would be quite significant. The newly added area having rural environment in back ground is
bound to transform in urban by addition of population from city zones in form of Spill over Population,
demanding necessary infrastructure facilities and amenities. P aper here attempts to develop spill over
population model to understand the future demographic profiles. The Spill over Population Estimation of
Extended areas of the city is possible through the developed SPILPOP Model to compute the Spill over
Population from the seven city zones. Gravity model base has been considered by accounting attraction
factors of extended zones and the accessibility in terms of zonal centroid distances. Delphi technique has
been employed to decide the attraction factors. Attributes such as land value, Environment, Housing
Potential, Amenities, Accessibility, Infrastructure potential and distance from CBD are used in rating of
attraction factors. FORTRAN programming is carried in development of the word SPILPOP.
1.0 INTRODUCTION
By 2030 about 5 billion people are expected to live in urban areas60% of the projected global population
of 8.3 billion. In India, Indias population will reach 1.47 billion with around 40% urbanization That
means close to 590 million people shall be living in cities by the year 2030. Over the next 30 years virtually
all population growth will take place in urban areas of developing countries. The urban population of
developing countries is projected to grow at an average annual rate of 2.4%, twice the overall annual
population growth rate of 1.2% in the developing world. Although the urban population of developed
countries also will grow faster than their total population, and the developed world will remain far more
urbanized than the developing world. As such urban growth in developing countries is more rapid and, in
absolute numbers, much greater.
It is not surprising to have higher pace of urbanisation in country like india, which is a developing nation.
The impact can be seen in growth of metropolitan cities in numbers and population magnitude. Surat city in
Gujarat state is the second metropolitan after Ahmedabad and has rapid urbanisation, which is a vital issue
in planning of the city. Nearly 60 % plus decadal growth here reflects its dynamic nature. The city has been
expanded recently in 2006 and the city area has gone up f rom 112 S q.Km to 326 S q.Km of area and
population is up t o 30 lac. The extended areas are merged with the city zones. 35 v illages have been
clubbed with the city through new areas Urbanisation impact on the new area would be quite significant.
Even at consideration of 5 % annual growth, the city is to touch nearly 40 lac in 2011.
2.0 CITY EXPANSIONS AND SPILLOVER PHENOMENON
The direct implication of such urban sprawl is the change in land use and land cover of the region. This
growth in population ultimately has to be provided with the basic infrastructure services, as the area comes
within the purview of local government. This development in the periphery of the cities often has a
differential set of attributes like land- cost, industrial development, natural environment, distances from
convenience amenities like schools, entertainment, railway station etc. The residential choice behaviour of
the moving populace is influenced by the set of such attributes of a given area. The suburbs of a city can be
studied as differential magnets for the spilling out population from the core areas, and can be ranked
accordingly. Present paper attempts to explore this preferential movement pattern of people as discussed
above in the process of suburbanization.
The unplanned developments can often lead to burdening of road capacities, congestions, intermittent water
supply, pressure on sewerage system etc power lines etc. In developing countries like India, the
consequences can be much serious like development of slums & squatters, sub standard living conditions,
lack of hygiene and sanitation. Therefore it is always desirable that the growth potential of an area is
assessed for adequate infrastructure planning. On the contrary, as the public infrastructure costs increases
for suburbs, it becomes difficult to justify the costs of big investments for low density population. This
often results in problem to attract government funding for amenities and the residents are often deprived of
the essential services.

If the attraction potential of each expansion zone of the growing city could be ascertained in advance, the
population growth of projected years can be found, which in turn can help in planning the infrastructure
services in more justified manner.
3.0 ZONAL ATTRACTION POTENTION: EVALUATION

The attraction factor is the parameter to pull the population which is carried out by Delphi
technique from different experts of the field. Experts gave the rating for the attributes which based
on interviewers compared the attraction factor parameters like land value, infrastructure,
accessibility, amenity, environment, housing growth, distance from CBD for each zone. Rating of
attributes is assessed by the experts in planning to overcome bias regarding evaluating the
importance and also who are familiar with the study zones. In view of these were asked to rate the
factors in linguistic pattern from very poor to excellent. The intra zonal attraction factors are
subsequently computed between seven city zones to extended zones and presented in Table
1.Detatails of attraction factor is given in Reference 1.

Extended
Zones

Table 1: Attraction Factors for Macro level Distribution

City Zones (Pre Expansion zones)
Zones
1
2
3
4
5
6
1
0.134
0.109
0.117
0.106
0.161
0.302
2
0.178
0.140
0.116
0.080
0.140
0.278
3
0.138
0.129
0.142
0.115
0.147
0.276
4
0.117
0.098
0.123
0.172
0.159
0.281
5
0.106
0.082
0.104
0.138
0.210
0.310
6
0.113
0.085
0.100
0.093
0.192
0.347
7
0.144
0.099
0.098
0.068
0.141
0.297

7
0.072
0.690
0.053
0.050
0.050
0.070
0.152

4.0 DEVELOPMENT AND OPERATION OF SPILLPOP MODEL

i)
Model Structure
The difference of population at every five years interval is first determined in second segment and computes
the spillover population on the basis of density criteria. It is determined on the percentage of the computed
spill over to be allotted to extended area on attraction based gravity model developed in the present study.

Pij = Spill over population of ith city zone to be allotted to jth extended zone
Pi = Spillover population magnitude of ith city zone (Pre expansion) of Expanded area
Aj = Attraction factor of jth Zone
dij =Inter zonal centroid distance in Km. between ith city zone and jth extended zone
Macro model structures is presented in Fig :1
ii) Population Allocation Model

City Zones (Pre Expansion)

The growth of CBD area is considered negative (-4.0%) which are based on the growth between 1991 to
2001. The forecasting years considered are 2011, 2016, 2021, on five years interval. The model forecasted
population for seven city zones as given in Table 2.
Table 2 Predicted Populations in Seven City Zones (Pre 2006 delineation)
Pre
Base Year
Expansion
2001
2006
2011
2016
2021
City Zones
1
4.13
4.052
3.976
3.901
3.827
2
3.35
4.407
5.799
7.629
10.037
3
5.81
7.608
9.962
13.045
17.081
4
3.34
4.407
5.814
7.671
10.122
5
3.2
4.194
5.497
7.205
9.444
6
2.02
2.69
3.584
4.773
6.357
7
2.51
3.359
4.495
6.015
8.05
Total
24.36
30.717
39.127
50.239
64.918

Extended Area: Base Population and Prediction

The growth rate considered for extended area are assumed lower because they are under rural environment
and the predicted population for these extended area are shown in Table 3. Nearly 8.227 l ac population
growth is in 2016. In extended areas it is nearly, addition of 10.145 lac in 2021.

Defining Problem
Data Base
Normal Population Growth
Spill over Population Computation

Yes

Policy Decision
Option
No
Micro level Population
Distribution in Extended Zone
Outputs

Figure 1 SPILPOP-Structure (Macro Level)

Table 3 Predicted Population in Seven Extended Zones
Base Year

Extended
Zones

2001

2006

2011

2016

2021

0.255

0.31

0.377

0.459

0.559

0.821

0.999

1.215

1.479

1.799

1.3

1.659

2.118

2.703

3.449

0.627

0.763

0.928

1.129

1.374

0.879

1.019

1.181

1.369

1.588

0.427

0.545

0.696

0.888

1.133

0.111

0.135

0.164

0.2

0.243

Total

4.42

5.43

6.679

8.227

10.145

Spillover Population at Pre zonal Stage

As the base, the differences of population between two segments are noted in Table 4. Depending upon
density criteria the magnitude of spill over population in each city zone is found out.
Table 4 Population Difference in City Zones

City Zones
1
2
3
4
5
6
7

2001-2006
-0.078
1.057
1.798
1.067
0.994
0.670
0.849

Horizon Years
2006-2011
2011-2016
-0.076
-0.075
1.391
1.83
2.354
3.083
1.408
1.857
1.303
1.708
0.893
1.189
1.136
1.52

2016-2021
-0.074
2.408
4.037
2.450
2.238
1.584
2.035

Total
-0.303
6.686
11.272
6.782
6.243
4.336
5.540

Total
6.513
8.409
11.112
14.678
40.712
The interzonal distances are determined through Autocad software. Centroid distance is adopted as shown
in Figure 3 and Table 5.

Definition of Study Area

Identification of Parameters

Data Base

Inventory data
Delphi data
Population growth

Normal population Growth in city zones and

Extended Area: 2011, 2016, 2021
Assessment of Attraction factors
for city extended area
Application of Growth Model
Allotment of Spill over Population
Gravity Model

Yes

Review
Micro Level Population
Distribution at Extended Zone

Output

Figure 2 SPILPOP-Structure (Micro Level)

Table 5 Centroid Distances (in Km) from City Zones to Extended Zones
Extended Zones

City Zones

Zones
1
2
3
4
5
6
7

1
8.79
5.06
7.77
10.50
13.80
12.50
7.58

2
8.07
5.30
5.85
8.59
12.37
12.11
9.43

3
9.25
9.01
6.04
7.44
10.95
12.58
13.57

4
5.98
8.84
5.09
2.86
3.93
7.11
11.94

5
10.37
14.14
12.22
9.47
5.61
6.96
14.54

6
12.10
14.86
15.05
13.38
10.52
8.35
12.63

7
6.64
6.70
9.43
9.73
10.13
6.65
2.71

Allocation Spillover Population to Extended Zones

The next city population difference from 2001 to 2010 is 40.712 lac out of this, nearly 12.40 lac
population is going to be settled in free expansion city zones where the population density is less
than 250 ppha within span of 10 t o 15 years depending upon hous ing market and choice of
difference by the residence, in other words the spillover population or distribution would 28.34 lac.
This magnitude is distribution to the new seven expanded areas per the SPILPOP Model, and same
is shown in Table 6.
Table 6 Spill Over Population in Horizon years in Extended Zones
Extended Zones
Horizon Years
1
2
3
4
5
6
2006
0.241
0.221
0.242
0.201
0.263
0.49
2011
0.646
0.556
0.585
0.546
0.68
1.27
2016
1.277
1.045
1.126
1.078
1.533
2.784
2021
1.684
1.377
1.484
1.42
2.022
3.672
Total
3.848
3.199
3.437
3.245
4.498
8.216

7
0.098
0.261
0.663
0.877
1.899

Total
1.756
4.544
9.506
12.536
28.342

Figure 3 Centroid Distance from City Zones to Extended Zones

iii) Model Programming

SPILPOP Model developed in the present study to predict the Spillover population from the earlier
city zones to the newly extended areas is written in FORTRAN Language as mentioned earlier. Micro
level Model structure is shown in Figure 2.

5.0 CONCLUSION
High urbanisation trends are observed in view of the economic growth policies set by the planners Surat city in
Gujarat is a fast growing industrial city having 65% plus decadal growth rate resulting in significant population
growth and urban activities. The situation warranted city expansion and accordingly all around the city zones are
expanded in 2006, to add additional 224 SqKm areas, coverage 35 villages. Obliviously it provides scope for
growth potential it near future. The impact anticipated here is shift of spill over population through migratory
process. Depending upon size of the expanded area and attraction possessed by the new area, the spill over
population to migrate in new area. By employing the SPILPOP model developed on the basis of attraction factor
and gravitational pool. The distribution of spill over in expanded area is computed to reflect on future growth up
to horizon year 2021. The study indicated that rest South-West zone and South zone are the most attractive
zones to absorb nearly 8.22 lac and 4.478 lac population by 2021. Thus the model provide demography base for
the city planning agencies.
REFERENCES:
1. Leena Garg, Avni Katariwala, Hiren Jariwala, Dr. B.K.Katti (2010) Ranking of city Expanded Areas with
Reference to Residential Attraction Potential
2. Avni Katariwala,(2009) Planning of Transportation Network for Newly Extended Area of South-West
Zone, Surat City,MTTEP Thesis SVNIT, Surat.
3. Joshi.G.J, (2006), Spatial Household Growth Urban Travel Demand Study with reference to a Metropolitan
city in Gujarat through Fuzzy-Neuro simulation Ph.D Thesis, SVNIT, Surat.
4. Papacostas, C.S., and Prevedouros, P.D. (2006). Transportation Engineering and Planning, Prentice-Hall
of India Private Limited, New Delhi.
5. Kadiyali, L.R. (1997). Traffic Engineering and Transportation Planning, Khanna Publishers, New Delhi.

Theme: Sustainable Urban Planning

A Framework for Sustainable Building Assessment: Holistic Approach
Rajiv Bhatt
Research Scholar, Civil Engg Dept,
Sardar Vallabhbhai National Institute of Technology, Ichhanath, Surat
E-mail: rajivbhatt123@yahoo.co.in
Dr J E M Macwan
Associate Professor, Civil Engg Dept, SVNIT, Surat
E-mail: jemm@ced.svnit.ac.in
Abstract
Green building is the practice of increasing the efficiency with which buildings and their
sites use energy, water and materials and reduce the impacts on human health and
environment through better siting, design, construction, operation, maintenance and
removal. Sustainable Building is one step ahead than Green Building. It addresses all
issues concerning to sustainable development: Environmental, Social, Economical and
Functional. This paper discusses current scenario of green building assessment in Indian
context. It further suggests adopting sustainable building assessment rather than green
building assessment. A hierarchical framework of parameters is suggested to carry out
sustainable building assessment for Commercial buildings. The approach is more holistic
one which will lead to real sustainable development in the true sense.
Introduction
As global environmental degradation is becoming more and more evident, people in the
whole world are becoming more sensitive about environmental issues. The resources are
day by day depleting, which further makes the issue more sensitive. Hence there is huge
expectation from every industry which is using energy and other resources in large
amount to adopt some alternative means of use of required resources to achieve
sustainable development in real sense. Green building is the practice of increasing the
efficiency with which buildings and their sites use energy, water and materials and reduce
the impacts on human health and environment through better siting, design, construction,
operation, maintenance and removal. To attend these environment related issues, building
industry has started serious efforts by developing building environmental assessment
tools. Building assessment tools are also called as building rating systems. The building
1

environmental assessment tools are emerging as a legitimate means to evaluate the

performance of buildings across a broad range of environmental considerations. The
increase in development and application of these methods has provided considerable
experience on their potential contribution in environment friendly building practices.
Movement of Green to Sustainable
Sustainable Development is defined as the path of social, economical and political
progress that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future
generations to meet their own needs. C onstruction industry all over the world should
design and construct Sustainable Buildings. Construction industry and built
environment are the main consumers of resources energy and materials. Sustainable
Buildings are considered as subset of sustainable development. Construction of
sustainable buildings involves continuous process of balancing environmental, social and
economical sustainability.
Green Building is fashionable word in the Indian construction industry. Governments,
Corporations and even Developers are now interested to get green certification for their
newly built buildings. The move from Green Building to Sustainable Building means
to cover broader spectrum of sustainable development. To move on to sustainability, the
green building rating systems need to deal with social equity and not just with efficiency
of resource utilisation. To become sustainable, green building must be a part of
sustainable matrix. For construction of sustainable buildings, one needs to create first the
sustainable urban environment to satisfy to societal needs of each section of the people.
Present method of planning and design of buildings does not address needs of the major
population and still these buildings get away with green certification.
Economical, Social and cultural issues are not considered as major issues by many of the
countries, till date while doing building assessments. The main emphasis is only on
ecological impacts to the environment. So, there is a need of paradigm shift in the
approach. Now, global need for sustainable development calls for addition of new factors
as: social equity, cultural issues, economic constraints, service quality and safety aspects.
So, the need of the hour is to shift from green building to sustainable building
construction. Sustainable construction requires more than what green building
technologies were conceived to do or can presently offer. For sustainable development,
2

built environment is also a part of a societal system. In building construction sector,

concept of sustainable development has led to adoption of entirely new approach.
Sustainable building assessment methods also differ from green building assessment
methods. They both differ in their assessment philosophy. Green building assessment
methods covers building performance standards and physical characteristics. Sustainable
building assessment method places more emphasis on processes and transformations that
occur within a building system.
Building Assessment Tools: Indian Scenario
At present, India has two Green building assessment tools, Leadership in Energy and
Environment Design (LEED INDIA) and GRIHA. The LEED INDIA Green Building
Rating System is a voluntary, consensus based, market-driven building rating system
based on existing proven technology. It is developed by Indian Green Building Council
(IGBC) and was launched in our country on 1 st January 2007. It has received good
response from Indian construction industry. It evaluates environmental performance from
a whole building perspective over a buildings life cycle, providing a definitive standard
for what constitutes a green building. This system is recently revised as LEED 2011
for India for new constructions and major renovations in February 2011.
The rating system is organized into five environmental categories: Sustainable Sites,
Water Efficiency, Energy & Atmosphere, Materials & Resources and Indoor
Environmental Quality. An additional category, Innovation & Design Process, addresses
sustainable building expertise as well as design measures not covered under the five
environmental categories.
Green Rating for Integrated Habitat Assessment (GRIHA) is a voluntary building rating
system developed by The Energy and Resources Institute, New Delhi (TERI). The rating
system, based on accepted energy and environmental principles seeks to strike a balance
between the known established practices and emerging concepts, both national and
international. The environmental assessment of Green building is done according to 32
various environmental criteria.
Strengths of Indian Building Assessment Tools
Building environmental assessment tools are having following strengths:

Provides a closed framework for the building authority to try and adopt green
building strategies.

LEED INDIA and GRIHA, both systems provides simple checklist to check the
building performance on various environmental issues. The procedure is easy to
carry out.

The performance oriented evaluation approach helps the seekers to plan in

advance certain targeted levels of achievements in various categories.

It is required to apply right from the design stage of the building hence all
stakeholders become aware about the needs and implementation of green features.

Covers major issues like energy, water, material and urban development.

The fee for the certification is nominal and affordable.

Use of such tools will surely contribute to the sustainable development of the
nation.

Weaknesses
By study of two green building rating systems in Indian context, following major
weaknesses are found.

Weighting of various contributing parameters is not defined in any of the Indian

tool. Hence, various sustainable parameters are not relatively compared on
regional basis. In India, regional conditions are different in various zones. Like,
Water efficiency is very much important for some of the regions, whereas in some
other states it may not be so important. The regional differences should be
addressed by the building assessment tools. It should reflect in deciding the scores
for Sustainable building assessment.

Indian tools do not cover social, economical, service quality and cultural aspects
in building assessment process. This approach should be made broader with a
view to cover all aspects to shift from Green Building to Sustainable Building.

LEED INDIA and GRIHA, both tools are applicable to any region of our country
as well as to any size of the building. This does not reflect the regional differences
in the building assessment process.

The process of development of both tools is done by involvement of few

stakeholders from leading organizations and does not have participation from all
4

agencies which are involved in the construction industry. This can be overcome
by taking feedbacks from different professionals from various sub-fields of
construction industry to develop weighting of criteria for sustainable building
assessment.

Benchmarks set for criteria scoring in both the Indian tools do not reflect local
conditions. It is common for all regions.

Different measurement scales for different criteria are used and no common scales
are used.

Cost factor is not considered while deciding points for scoring of each criterion.
Hence, building authorities are not getting attracted for trying out those criteria
where financial involvement is very high. Ex. In LEED INDIA system,
Installation of CO 2 monitoring system in the building and locating the building
site within 0.8 km of public transport lines has got same 1 point allocated.

Point allocation for various criteria is rigid one. Ex. In LEED INDIA system
credit 4.1 i s for water use reduction. It gives 1 point, if authorities uses the
strategies to use 20% less water than the water use baseline figure. But, if the
building authorities are unable to achieve the target of 20% saving due to less
efforts or even low performance of fixtures, the rating system will not allocate the
point. The rigidness of the tool may even not allocate anything if water saving is
achieved up to 19%.

No negative marking is adopted. International tool like SBTool 2007 gives -1

for deficient performance for any parameter. Indian tools do not cover this aspect
and hence lacks to give true picture of building performance with respect to
sustainability.

Sustainable Building Assessment Framework

Looking to the strengths and weaknesses of the current Indian building assessment tools,
in this paper an attempt has been made to develop a framework with holistic approach to
cover all aspects of sustainable development. Here, three building assessment tools are
taken as a reference: LEED INDIA, GRIHA and SBTool 2011. S BTool 2011 is a
collaborative effort of 20 countries under the umbrella of IISBE (International Initiative
for Sustainable Built Environment). SBTool 2007 i s a rating framework or toolbox,
5

which is designed to allow countries to design their own locally relevant rating systems.
The new developed framework for Sustainable Building assessment covers all aspects
like environmental, social, economical and functional. It has hierarchical framework of
Goal, issues, categories and parameters. Goal is firstly divided in 9 major issues. These 9
major issues are shown in figure 1 as given below. These 9 i ssues are further broken
down into different categories and then lower level parameters. Appendix 1 s hows this
final framework of Sustainable building assessment in Indian context for Commercial
buildings.

Sustainable Site
Water Efficiency
Energy Efficiency

GOAL Sustainable
Building

Materials and Resources

Indoor Environment Quality
Environmental Loading
Social and Economical Aspects
Cultural Aspects
Service Quality

Figure 1: Sustainable Building Assessment 9 major issues

Conclusion
It is high time that construction industry adopt green norms during design, construction
and operation stage of building construction to achieve real sustainable development.
Sustainable buildings are the next generation buildings which is a step ahead than green
buildings. It addresses all issues on broader scale. This paper discusses strengths and
6

weaknesses of Indian building assessment tools and then a framework is developed for
sustainable building assessment. A building performance should be evaluated by taking
into consideration all these parameters and then certification should be given looking to
its overall contribution towards sustainable development.
References
1. Bourdeau Luc, (1999): Sustainable development and future of construction: a
comparison of visions from various countries, Building Research & Information,
27(6), 354-366.
2. Bueren Ellen Van (2007): Establishing sustainability: policy successes and
failures, Building Research & Information, 35(5), 543-556.
3. Cole R J (2005): Building environmental assessment methods: clarifying
intentions and roles, Building Research & Information, 35(5), pp. 455-467.
4. Cooper I. (1999): Which focus for building assessment methods: environmental
performance or sustainability, Building Research & Information, 27(4/5), pp.
321-331.
5. Ding G.K.C. (2008): Sustainable construction-The role of environmental
assessment tools, Journal of Environmental Management, 86, pp. 451-464.
6. Gupta Vinod (2010): Paths to Sustainability, Buildotech, Jnauary 2010.
7. Haapio A. and Viitaniemi P. (2008): A critical review of building environmental
assessment tools, Environmental Impact Assessment Review, Vol. 28, Issue 7,
pp. 469-482.
8. http://www.bee-india.nic.in/sidelinks/Announcement/11TERIGriha.pdf, accessed
on 4-10-08.
9. LEED INDIA NC, version 1.0, January 2007, www.igbc.in
10. SBTool 2007 available on http://www.iisbe.org.

APPENDIX 1: Sustainable Building Assessment Model: Master Parameter List

A
A.1
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
A.2
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
A.3
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
B
25
26
27
28
29
C
30

SUSTAINABLE SITE
SITE SELECTION
A.1.1 Pre-development ecological value or sensitivity of land - flora and fauna of
site land
A.1.2 Pre-development agricultural value of land
A.1.3 Vulnerability of land to flooding - height of building plinth from flood level
A.1.4 Potential to contaminate nearby bodies of water - distance from water body
A.1.5 Brownfield redevelopment- sub surface contamination due to old building
A.1.6 Proximity of site to public transport
A.1.7 Proximity to residential area- Distance of site from residential zones.
A.1.8 Proximity of site to commercial and cultural facilities
A.1.9 Proximity of site to public recreation areas and facilities
PROJECT PLANNING
A.2.1 Potential environmental impact of development or re-development
A.2.2 Protect or restore habitat - Conserve existing natural areas.
A.2.3 Provision of surface water management system
A.2.4 Availability of potable water treatment system / Ensure water quality
A.2.5 Availability of split grey/ potable water system
A.2.6 Site orientation
A.2.7 Efficient utility utilization and optimized on site circulation during
construction
URBAN DEVELOPMENT
A.3.1 Development density - Ratio of total built-up area to permissible built-up area
A.3.2 Development footprint - Open space in plot compared to local zone
requirement
A.3.3 Encouragement of walking to occupants
A.3.4 Support for bicycle use
A.3.5 Alternative transportation for reduced pollution
A.3.6 Provision of project green space
A.3.7 Use of native plantings
A.3.8 Provision of trees with shading potential
WATER EFFICIENCY
B.1
Eliminate use of potable water for landscape irrigation
B.2
Water efficiency in Air-conditioning system
B.3
Reduced wastewater generation and potable water demand
B.4
Water use reduction
B.5
Efficient water use during construction
ENERGY EFFICIENCY
C.1
Optimized energy performance from non-renewable sources
8

Provision of on-site renewable energy systems

31 C.2
Use of off-site energy that is generated from renewable sources
32 C.3
C.4
Provision for ongoing accountability of building energy consumption over
33
time
D
MATERIALS AND RESOURCES
Reuse of existing structure
34 D.1
D.2
Minimum use of virgin materials by using salvaged, reused or refurbished
35
materials
Use of recycled materials from off-site sources
36 D.3
37 D.4
Use of cement supplementing materials in concrete to reduce GHG emissions
from the use of cement
Minimum use of finishing materials
38 D.5
Use of materials that are locally produced
39 D.6
Design for disassembly, re-use or recycling the structure in the future
40 D.7
Use of rapidly renewable materials in place of long-cycle renewable materials
41 D.8
42 D.9
Use of certified wood for wood-based products for environmentally
responsible forest management
E
E.1
43
44
45
46
47
E.2
48
49
E.3
50
51
E.4
52
53
54
E.5
55

INDOOR ENVIRONMENT QUALITY

INDOOR AIR QUALITY
E.1.1 Construction IAQ management plan- during construction and before
occupancy
E.1.2 Use of low-emitting interior finishing materials
E.1.3 Minimize exposure of building occupants to chemical pollutants
E.1.4 Minimize occupant exposure to pollutants due to tobacco smoke generated by
other occupant activities
E.1.5 CO 2 monitoring system for indoor air quality

VENTILATION
E.2.1 Effectiveness of ventilation in naturally ventilated occupancies
E.2.2 Air quality and ventilation in mechanically ventilated occupancies
THERMAL COMFORT AND RELATIVE HUMIDITY
E.3.1 Air temperature in naturally ventilated spaces
E.3.2 Air temperature and relative humidity in mechanically cooled spaces
DAYLIGHTING AND ILLUMINATION
E.4.1 Day lighting in primary occupancy areas
E.4.2 Illumination levels and quality of lighting
E.4.3 Degree of local control of lighting systems by occupants in working areas
NOISE AND ACOUSTICS
E.5.1 Noise attenuation through the exterior envelope of the building
E.5.2 Minimized noise transmission of HVAC system and equipments to primary
56
occupancies
E.5.3
Noise attenuation between primary occupancy areas
57
58 E.5.4 Acoustic performance within primary occupancy areas
9

F
F.1
59
60
F.2
61
62
F.3
63
64
65F.4
F.5
66
67
68
F.6
69
70
71
72
73

G
G.1
74
75
76
77
78
G.2
79
80
81
H
82
83
84
I
I.1

ENVIRONMENTAL LOADINGS
GREENHOUSE GAS EMISSIONS
F.1.1 Reduced CO 2 emissions during construction
F.1.2 Annual GHG emissions from energy used for facility operations
OTHER ATMOSPHERIC EMISSIONS
F.2.1 Emissions of ozone depleting substances by building operations
F.2.2 Emissions resulting into acidification by building operations
SOLID WASTE
F.3.1 Solid waste from construction operations
F.3.2 Solid waste from building operations- storage, sorting, re-use and disposal
scheme implementation
RAINWATER: Retention of rainwater for later re-use on site
IMPACTS ON SITE
F.5.1 Impact of construction process or landscaping on soil erosion
F.5.2 Adverse wind conditions at grade around tall buildings
F.5.3 Minimizing danger of hazardous waste due to building operations
OTHER LOCAL AND REGIONAL IMPACTS
F.6.1 Impact on access to daylight or solar energy potential of adjacent property
F.6.2 Cumulative thermal changes to lake water or sub-surface aquifers due to
pumping of ground water by the building operations
F.6.3 Heat island effect- landscaping and paved areas
F.6.4 Heat island effect- roofing
F.6.5 Atmospheric light pollution reduction
SOCIAL AND ECONOMICAL ASPECTS
SOCIAL ASPECTS
G.1.1 Minimization of construction accidents
G.1.2 Access for physically handicapped persons
G.1.3 Social utility of primary building functions
G.1.4 Providing minimum level of sanitation facilities for construction workers
during the construction of building
G.1.5 External views from regularly occupied areas
COST AND ECONOMICS
G.2.1 Minimization of life-cycle cost of the building
G.2.2 Minimization of construction cost of the building
G.2.3 Minimization of operating and maintenance costs
CULTURAL ASPECTS
H.1
Relationship of design with existing streetscapes
H.2
Compatibility of urban design with local cultural values
H.3
Maintenance of heritage value of existing building
SERVICE QUALITY
SAFETY AND SECURITY DURING USE
10

85 I.1.1 Maintenance of core building functions during power failures

I.2
FUNCTIONALITY
86 I.2.1 Spatial efficiency - Ratio of directly functional net area to total net area
I.2.2 Volumetric efficiency - Ratio of directly functional net volume to total net
87
volume
I.3
CONTROLLABILITY
88 I.3.1 Provision and operation of building management control system
89 I.3.2 Capability for partial operation of building management control systems
90 I.3.3 Degree of personal control of technical system by occupants
I.4
FLEXIBILITY AND ADAPTABILITY
I.4.1 Ability to modify/ relocate building management control systems during use in
91
future
I.4.2
Adaptability constraints imposed by the structure
92
93 I.4.3 Adaptability constraints imposed by floor-to-floor heights
94 I.4.4 Adaptability constraints imposed by building envelope and technical systems
95 I.4.5 Adaptability to future changes in type of energy supply
I.5
COMMISSIONING OF BUILDING SYSTEM
96 I.5.1 Commissioning of building system
I.6
MAINTENANCE OF BUILDING
97 I.6.1 Development and implementation of maintenance management plan during
operation of the building
98 I.6.2 Retention of as-built drawings and documentation
99 I.6.3 Performance incentives in lease or sales agreements
100 I.6.4 Skills and knowledge of operating staff

11

CLIMATE CHANGE AND SUSTIANABLE DEVELOPMENT FOR URBAN AREAS

Pastagia Digant A.
M-Tech Research Scholar Planning,
S.V. National Institute of Technology, Surat-395007
digantpastagia@gmail.com
Patel Chetan R.
Asst. Proff., Civil Engineering Department,
S.V. National Institute of Technology, Surat-395007
crp@ced.svnit.ac.in
Abstract: The paper focus on the issues of climate change due to population rise. Due to rise
in population the cities are becoming overcrowded which result urban evils like congestion,
pollution. This urban evils resulting to climate change an global warming. The sustainable
development will help against climate change. The sustainable development is done with the
help of effective sustainable planning. This sustainable planning can be measured with the
help of Sustainable indicators. This paper also discusses how Sustainability Indicator and
Sustainable Development will help in reducing in climate change.
Keywords: Sustainable Development, Sustainability Index, Climate change.
1. INTRODUCTION
India is the second most populous country in the world after China. India supports 16.87
percent of the world's population on i ts meager 2.4 pe rcent world surface area of 135.79
million square kms. The selected demographic characteristics of the population of India are
presented in Table 1. At the time of independence country's population was 342 million. The
countrys population size had grown from 361 million in 1951 to around 846 million in 1991
and 1027 million in 2001. The population of India almost trippled during the period of 19512001. The phenomenal increase in the population during the last fifty years has led to rapid
industrialization and high rate of urbanization which have created tremendous pressure on
natural resources like land, air and water. The urban population has increased three and half
times, from 62.4 m illion in 1951 t o 217.6 m illion in 1991 a nd it again increased to 288
million in 2001. The percentage of urban population increased from 17.28 percent in 1951 to
23.33 percent in 1981, 2 5.71 percent in 1991 a nd which further increased to 28 pe rcent in
2001. The decadal growth rates of the population are irregular, as it increased from 13.31
percent in 1951 to 24.8 percent in 1971 and afterwards it marginally declined to 24.7 percent
in 1981, 23.9 percent in 1991 and 21.34 percent in 2001.

Figure 1: Indian population scenario

(Source: Ministry of urban Affairs)
The impact of Urbanization on growth is on space, environment and quality of life will be,
tremendous. The provision of infrastructural facilities required to support such large
concentration of population is lagging far behind the pace of urbanization. As a consequence,
the urban environment, particularly in large cities, is deteriorating very rapidly. All cities
have severe shortage of water supply, sewerage, developed land, housing, transportation and
other facilities. The level, quality and distribution of services have been very poor. Several
studies have indicated large segments of urban population do not have access to drinking
water, sanitation, basic health services and education. These deficiencies have serious health
impacts particularly affecting the urban poor. Deteriorating infrastructure, weak municipal
institutions and poor delivery systems have constrained the urban economy and its ability to
generate employment, incomes and services for the poor.
Rapid urban growth has led to the problems of urban sprawl, ribbon development, and
unregulated development. Land for Inadequate disposal of urban and industrial waste is other
burning issue. With the increase of urban population, more and more agricultural areas have
been converted into urban use. For example, during 1981-91, the increase in population of
Vishakhapatnam was 75%, whereas the increase in spatial expansion was as high as 230%
recording 3 t imes growth. Likewise, the increase of population and spatial expansion of
Lucknow is 66% and 131% respectively. Large cities on the other hand do not have the land
to spread out. For instance in Greater Bombay, spatial expansion was 34% compared to the
increase in population of 77%.
2. CLIMATE CHANGE AND CARBON EMISSION
Climate change is one of the most important global environmental challenges, with
implications for food production, water supply, health, energy, etc. Addressing climate
change requires a good scientific understanding as well as coordinated action at national and
global level. Historically, the responsibility for greenhouse gas emissions increase lies
largely with the industrialized world, though the developing countries are likely to be the
source of an increasing proportion of future emissions. The projected climate change under
various scenarios is likely to have implications on food production, water supply, coastal
settlements, forest ecosystems, health, energy security, etc. The adaptive capacity of
communities likely to be impacted by climate change is low in developing countries. The
most effective way to address climate change is to adopt a sustainable development pathway
by shifting to environmentally sustainable technologies and promotion of energy efficiency,
renewable energy, forest conservation, reforestation, water conservation, etc. The issue of

highest importance to developing countries is reducing the vulnerability of their natural and
socio-economic systems to the projected climate change. India and other developing
countries will face the challenge of promoting mitigation and adaptation strategies, bearing
the cost of such an effort, and its implications for economic development.

Figure 2: Changes in global temperature

(Source: International association for urban climate)
Over the period, the GDP growth rate declines slightly, but remains above 8.5%.The CO 2
emissions of the economy increase to 4.0 GT in 2030, as shown in Fig. 2.6. The growth in
per-capita CO2e emissions under the Illustrative Scenario was also provided by the model,
and is 2.77 t ons CO2e per capita in 2030 a s highlighted in Fig. 2.7. T here is continuous
decline in the energy intensity of the GDP, at a CAGR of -3.85 percent during 2003-04 to
2030-31.

Figure 3: Growth in aggregated carbon

Figure 4: Growth in per capita emission of
emission
carbon
(Source: GHG emission profile of India. Ref No. 11)
The trajectory of aggregate Carbon emission in the Illustrative Scenario till the year 2030-31 is
presented below in table 2.2. The aggregate Carbon emissions increase from 1.6 GT in 2005 to 5.7 GT
in 2030. This works out to 3.9 tons/CO 2 e per capita in 2030.
Table 1: Carbon Emission in India

Carbon Emission per year (GigaTonne)

2005
2020
2030
1.6
3.2
5.7
(Source: GHG emission profile of India. Ref No. 11)

Figure 5: Carbon Emission Profile of Indian Cities

Figure 6:Per Capita Carbon Emission of

Indian Cities

3. NEED FOR SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT

Rapid economic growth, social polarization, and the worsening of environmental and health
conditions characterize the ongoing development processes especially in Asian mega cities.
The economic growth is connected with enormous urban growth, as well as the increase of
industrial and commercial zones and traffic. Industrial production with low environmental
standards, individual cars and insufficient housing conditions produce health-endangering
environmental loads. Human settlements are material and energy consuming and throughput
systems: high amounts of resources (e.g. water, oil, food, building materials and energy) are
imported into cities and urbanized regions, partly transformed (energy production), used
and in the end exported as solid waste, wastewater, waste heat, etc. These processes occur not
only on a local level, but are also internationally linked, and thus influence environment and
health on a global level; they raise global environmental and health risks. These global
environmental and health risks demand for a sustainable urban development.
Sustainable development shall meet the needs of the present without compromising the
ability of future generations to meet their own needs. The general public shall be involved in
decision-making and especially urban development processes. Many cities try to implement
sustainable urban development on t he local level. Sustainable urban development is an
integrative dealing with ecological, economic, social, and cultural aspects of urban
development in a long-term perspective, including also good human health conditions. It
takes place on t he local level while considering regional, national and global
interrelationships. Sustainable urban development requires the co-operation of a variety of
authorities, stakeholders and social groups on different political levels. Considering the
global variety of urban social, economic, cultural, and environmental conditions, it becomes
obvious that the above general meaning of sustainable development has to be transferred to
the prevailing local conditions. In order to discuss sustainability with various groups, and in
order to find out to what extent the real urban development processes comply with the
envisaged sustainability, adequate assessment procedures and accordant instruments are
required.
4. CONCLUSION
The population is rising at a rapid rate in Indian cities. The impact of Urbanization growth is
on space, environment and quality of life will be tremendous. The provision of infrastructural
facilities required to support such large concentration of population is lagging far behind the
pace of urbanization. With the help of Sustainable indicators planner can measure the

effectiveness of the planning and with that help the sustainable development will be great
measures against climate change and global warming.
5. REFERENCES
1. Amna S. and Salman Q. 1998, Indicators of sustainable urban development: A review
of urban regeneration projects in Karachi, Pakistan, Department of Geography and
Geology, University of Salzburg, Hellbrunnerstrasse 34, Salzburg 5020, Austria.
2. Christian A., John H., Kristian L. 1996, Methodological and Ideological Options
Socio-ecological indicators for sustainability, Ecological Economics Vol. no.18, page
no. 89-112.
3. De C., Carden K., Armitage N. 2005, Application of a sustainability index for
integrated urban water management in southern African cities: case study comparison
Maputo and Hermanus, UCL Development Planning Unit in collaboration with
DFID and UN-Habitat, London.
4. Emmanuel A., Samuel O. , T heophilus A. 2007, A Review of Urban Sustainability
Assessment Methodologies, International Conference on Whole Life Urban
Sustainability and its Assessment M. Horner, C. Hardcastle, A. Price, J. Bebbington
(Eds)Glasgow.
5. Giuseppe M. 2003, M easuring Sustainability: A Multi-Criterion Framework,
Manuscript forthcoming in Environment, Development and Sustainability Version
November 2003.
6. Heintz T. 1999, The Roles and Importance of Sustainability Indicators, U.S.
Department of the Interior.
7. Joyashree R., Chatterjee B. 2009, Sustainable Development in India? Who Should Do
What?, Jadavpur University, Kolkata, India.
8. Klaus S., Michael W. 2003, Modeling Urban Sustainability, Gulmohar Hall, India
Habitat Centre, New Delhi.
9. Miquel O. 2002, Sustainability indicators as discursive elements, Third World
Planning Review, Vol.14, No.4.
10. Parris, T.M., Kates R. 2003, Characterizing and Measuring Sustainable Development,
Annual Review of environmental and resource, PP 559-586.
11. A report on GHG emission profile of India, by Ministry of Environment and Forestry.
12. A report on Liveable City and Sustainable Plan, by City of El Paso Sustainability
Program.

SUSTAINABLE PLANNING STRATEGIES FOR FRINGE OF SURAT URBAN AREA

Doriwala Hiral V.
Research Scholar, Civil Engineering Department,
S.V. National Institute of Technology Surat, India
hiraldori@gmail.com
Prof. Pachchigar Shivani
Asst Prof., Architecture Department,
Sarvajanik College of Engineering & Technology, Surat, India
shivani.pachchigar@gmail.com
Dr. N. C. Shah
Professor, Civil Engineering Department,
S.V. National Institute of Technology Surat, India
ABSTRACT
An important development in urban settlement during the past few decades has been the rapid
expansion of population and built-up area into the unincorporated suburb and in areas
surrounding the large towns and cities. The emergence of the fringe zone with its complex
problems of adjustment between rural and urban ways of life has assumed great topical
importance and has drawn the attention of planners and social scientists. Basic concept of Urban
Fringe has been observed in terms of its characteristics, problems and growth patterns. The Surat
city and its surrounding area have been taken into consideration as a study area. The surrounding
villages of the study area have been analysed in terms of growth rate, density pattern,
accessibility and urban rural population distribution. These factors have been overlapped with
physical and social infrastructure facilities available in the delineated area. Based on the analysis,
present development plan and the upcoming various projects in and around the region; strategic
planning proposals have been derived for the balanced development of the fringe area.
1. INTRODUCTION
The growth of any City, Village or Settlement is totally depend on, the opportunities it gives to
the people in terms of the economic development and accommodation. Apart from these internal
factors; there are certain external factors like the locational advantages, which is unique in each
case.
Urban sprawl promotes the spread of urban land use into the urban fringe Villages draws
a larger number of people into the rural-urban interface, mostly because of these internal and
external factors. In most of the cases of Metropolitan Cities, particularly in the country like
India, where the urban population is gradually increases, because of the concentration of the
economic activities within the urban area, rural-urban migration, for the job opportunities, access
to the basic need and better quality of life.
In such Situation, the pressure increases in the urban area, the demand of land increases,
the land prices goes up, even the sharing of basic infrastructure like road network, water supply,
sewerage; and natural resources like land, ground water increases. Apart form that the local

authority also tries to imply the planning framework for the guided development with the control
regulations. The land market located immediate surrounding the urban area becomes more
lucrative for the investors and developers as a hub of the development.
Rural settlements absorb in urban limits during the process of development, and those
villages located in the fringe areas of large cities, can be termed as urban villages. These
settlements area rural because they have been so in the past and they are urban because of they
are now located in the intense influence area of a large city or within the urban limits and have a
majority of their workforce engaged in non-agricultural pursuits. The process of transformation
of these villages is not sudden. In fact, the level of transformation of and urban village is
function of the stage in the development of a city, in general and the immediate surroundings
where the rural center is located, in particular. The level keeps changing with time.
At the outskirts, in the fringe areas of the city, especially along major roads, the villages
area under pressure to sell off their agricultural land for speculation and development of
residential colonies and industries. The process of transformation of these villages is similar to
that of those located within the urban limits. The level of services in such areas is generally poor,
streets are narrow and the growth is haphazard. Open spaces area practically nil and social
services are inadequate. Special attention should be given to the villages located in the fringe
areas, particularly those located along the highways entering the city and if need be, and the area
of control should be extended up to such identified limits.
2. URBAN FRINGE: AN OVERVIEW
2.1 Concept:
The process of accretion which takes place outside the city has generated a z one of transition
between the rural and urban landscape, properly known as the rural-urban fringe. In other words,
the centrifugal forces which impel functions to migrate from the central zone of a city towards its
periphery create an amorphous territory around the cities, often called the rural-urban fringe.
The emergence of the fringe zone with its complex problems of adjustment between rural
and urban ways of life has assumed great topical importance and has drawn the attention of
planners and social scientists. Yet the study of the urban fringe has been a neglected area of
urban research. Even in the developed countries a few studies have been undertaken in this
regard though this developmental phase of urban morphology was experienced there in the very
beginning of the present century.
2.2 Characteristics:
One important aspect of the transformation of the rural area is the change in the spatial character
of the village. The character of a r ural area entirely depends upon t he surrounding urban
activities, which determines the scale and nature of changes in the area. In absence of
development controls and regulations the urban area offers flexibility in use and activity pattern.
The life in these areas is generally more compatible than the barren image of the new area
resulting from the manipulations of the spatial environment. Low income groups and the
migrants from rural areas find indigenous urbanized area as an attractive setup where they can
have a scope for the betterment of their environment. The scope for development of individual
villages however depends upon its immediate surroundings.

2.3 Problems:
Problems of urban fringe area in developing countries are quite different from that of the
developed countries. While most of the developed countries are concerned about sprawl
development in their fringes, most of the developing countries deal with (i) the problems of
haphazard development of shacks and slums, (ii) piecemeal commercial development, (iii)
Intermixes of conforming and non-conforming uses of land coupled with inadequate services and
facilities in their fringes.
2.4 Growth Pattern:
Proper development of peri-urban areas have
Figure 1.0: Diagrammatic representation of
received substantial attention world over. It
Growth pattern of city towards its fringe area
has been visualised as inevitable and even
desirable to help decongest the mother city to
achieve a better quality of life. It was realised,
that the process of overcrowding of cities
couldnt be solved by increasing the intensity
of use of land within, but by opening up the
hinterland with adequate road network with
public transport system to allow people to
live in the peri-urban areas. Therefore, peri-urban developments have become a major
phenomenon in the cities of developed countries. Figure 1.0 s hows the diagrammatic
representation of Growth pattern of city towards its fringe area.
3. STUDY AREA PROFILE
3.1 Locational Aspect:
Surat city, the headquarter of Surat district, is situated in the center of south Gujarat, along a
west coast of India almost at equi-distance between Mumbai (260 Km.) and Ahmedabad (224
Km.). It is situated at latitude 21 12 N and longitude 72 52 E. One of the biggest west flowing
rivers in India, Tapi, meanders along the northern limit of Surat City and then slices through the
western portion of the Municipal area before joining Arabian Sea at Hazira-Dumas, at a distance
of about 16 K ms. from the center of Surat City. The city is located along long principle rail
corridor of western railway between Mumbai and Ahmedabad. Surat is also well connected to
one of the busiest interstate trunk route in the country known as National Highway No. 8, which
plies at a distance of about 25 Kms. It is the biggest city in the region of south Gujarat. The city
is connected by road and rail with the major cities and towns of the state as well states of
Maharashtra and Madhya Pradesh.
3.2 Demographic Profile:
Surat is Indias twelfth and Gujarats second most populous city after Ahmedabad (Source:
2001 Census). The city is one of the 11 cities in the country, which attained metropolitan status
in 1991 c ensus by crossing the one million mark. The city is having highest growth rate
(47.04%, As per 2001 c ensus) in the State and second in population density (653), after
Ahmedabad (718)(2001 Census). Surat has experienced a rapid population increase in the last
two census decades (1971-81 and 1981-91). During the decade 1971-81 the population of the
city grew at a rate of 85.35 per cent. This was the highest among the 23 existing metropolitan

cities. In the following decade the city again witnessed a remarkably high population growth
rate of 66.01 per cent.
3.3Spatial Expansion of the city:
The physical expansion of the city was radial and rapid along five major corridors on the north,
south, east, west and south-west till the end of 80s. Since the 90s the city has been growing
rapidly on the eastern, southern and south-western sides wherein large chunks of residential
localities were developed under the SUDA area.
Figure 2.0 Growth of Surat City

2011

The land use pattern of the city indicates large parcels of agricultural lands in the Ved
area of North zone and in the wards - Jahangirabad and Jahangirpura of West zone. The growth
pattern is clearly demarcated with the industrial locations. Industrial location within SMC area
along the main railway line from Mumbai to Ahmadabad has attracted major residential
development during the past two decades and new industrial developments on the southern side
near Sachin has also been vital in the growth of the city in the southern direction.
3.4 Development Plan Proposal 2004
The planning process for the city of Surat is governed by the Gujarat Town Planning and Urban
Development Act, 1976 under the provisions of which the Surat Urban Development Authority
prepares the Development Plan for the entire SUDA area including the area under the Surat
Municipal Corporation. SMC prepares the Town Planning Schemes for the area under its
jurisdiction based on the Development Plan proposals.
Figure 3.0 Development Plan 2004

Figure 4: Delineated Area of urban fringe

The planning area besides the area within

the SMC included 148 vi llages of Choryasi,

Kamrej, Palsana and Olpad taluka. The urban sprawl has already started outside of Surat city
limits, along the radial roads and different corridors such as Udhana corridor, Dindoli corridor,
Rander Adajan Olpad corridor, Nana Varachha Kamrej corridor etc. This plan was
sanctioned in 1986. T he revised development plan for the SUDA area was submitted to the
Government in 1998, which was sanctioned on 2/9/2004.
3.5 Delineated Urban Fringe Area of Surat
At present there are about 94 vi llages of four different Taluka, different sizes and different
population come under the delineated area. Table 1 shown below clearly suggest that Surat urban
agglomeration has highest decadal population growth rate(85.09) and the lowest sex ratio(760).
Table 1: Comparisons of major agglomeration of Gujarat state

3.5.1 Growth Rate of Villages of Delineated Area

The last decadal growth rate (1991-2001) of delineated area is 51.14% which was 28.25% in
1981-1991. It shows that the villages are growing with a high growth rate.
Table 2: Taluka wise Growth Rate of Delineated area
Taluka
Growth Rate (%)
71-81
81-91
Choryashi
9.03
48.64
Olpad
2.30
10.05
Kamrej
39.41
39.35
Palsana
76.27
33.80
40.15
28.05

91-01
105.23
15.92
41.38
87.69
51.14

The analysis of the growth rate shows that the Choryashi Taluka is growing with the highest
growth rate from the last three decades. The villages located at the junction of the major
transport corridor are flourishing with the higher growth rate. On the other hand, the interior
villages have negative or lesser growth rate. About 53nos. of villages have growth rate between
(0-25percent).

3.5.2 Existing Physical & Social Infrastructure Condition of Urban Fringe

Water supply, Sewerage, Storm water drain, Electricity and Solid waste disposal facilities comes
under the head of physical infrastructure while Social infrastructure covers the facilities like
education, health, community facility and economic facilities.
Water supply:
At present, SUDA area has no water supply system of its own. The main source of water for
various villages in SUDA area is the ground water; being tapped through bore wells or the
water supply schemes supported by GWSSB.
GWSSB (Gujarat Water Supply and Sewerage Board) tries all the possible efforts to give
pure drinking water to all dwellers of villages by various programs like IWSS (Individual
Water Supply System), Sawajal Dhara, Sector Reform with 70 l pcd (considering only
drinking water) by individual tap connection.
Other than Choryashi taluka has rocky soil so the storage of underground water is not
possible so the shortage arise.
Lower class does not get the pure drinking water due to scattered settlements through tap
connection. They get the water through hand pump facility. But after the month of March,
ground water goes below the normal water table so at that time shortage arises.
Sewerage Systems:
In SUDA area, there is a lack of adequate sewerage system with adequate treatment and
disposal system for any of the outgrowth area.
In upper class houses of villages have their own toilet, soak pits and septic tank but in lower
class the situation is not same. Lower class people used open places near river, lake and canal
for discharge of night soil, so it pollute the natural resources and environment and such
situation encourage the disease.
To overcome this problem WASMO (Water And Sanitation Management Organization)
gives the various option for the part below the ground level (soak pit) and above the ground
level (toilet) at very low prices.
Solid Waste Management:
At present in SUDA area, there is no collection and disposal for solid waste available.
Storm Water Drainage:
Due to its location on b anks of the river Tapi and on t he bank of river Mindhola near the
estuary of the Arabian Sea, the land drainage in SUDA area is relatively poor.
In villages of delineated area there is a f acility available of open drain (kaccha) in isolated
way not continuous manner for the discharge of the storm water. So at the rainy season the
land drainage in villages is relatively poor.
In monsoon months, during heavy rains many areas of SUDA suffer flooding. Till now, such
flooding was not posing a major problem as major part was agricultural area.
Roads:
SUDA has planned to provide new roads and improve existing roads for better movement of
vehicles including outer ring road to reduce congestion on e xisting roads. This effort of
SUDA would result in better connectivity.
4. PLANNING PROPOSALS
Entire delineate area is developed under one tier. The main focus on the improving /upgrading
the existing condition of gamtal area. The improvement in terms of, provide the physical

infrastructure facilities and social infrastructure at desire level till year 2021. Based on t he
existing status as discussed earlier the following proposals are made.
4.1 Physical Infrastructure
4.1.1 Water Supply Proposals
People of scattered settlements have to go far from their houses to fetch the water, so first
proposal is to give drinking water to all houses at their door only through tap connection. In
short every individual house hold shall get at least the minimum quantity of water of desired
quality including those living in squatter.
Roof rain water harvesting is one of innovative idea for recharge the ground water.
Involvement of NGOs for awareness programme on optimal utilization and saving water.
In west part of SUDA basically at Hazira, number of well known mega industries are located.
Concept of adopting the villages for the development of physical and social infrastructure by
these industries is newly come up but it is on primary stage. So encourage this concept for
the balanced and self financed without governmental grant/resources development.
4.1.2 Sewerage proposals:
Each and every hose hold will get an individual toilet facility, septic tank and soak pit.
Increase the public awareness through the involvement of NGOs, campaigns and holdings
for better sanitary condition and clean environment.
4.1.3 Storm water drain proposals:
Continuous open drain (pakka) is proposed for proper disposal of rain water without giving
the effect of temporary flooding and preventing water logging area.
4.2 Social Infrastructure
Majority of the villages in the delineated area are small and medium size groups in terms of
population. Individually they cannot function as effective centers of rural activity. It cannot
afford the cost of all facilities at one place. Therefore concept of village cluster and central
village is adopted
.
Table 3: Level of service of settlements
population
Education

Health

Community
Facilities
Public Centre

Rural Growth Centre

more than 5000

Central Village
3,000 to 5,000

Primary Village
below 3,000

Primary School
Primary School
Primary School
Secondary & Higher Secondary Secondary & Higher Secondary
School
School
Technical Institute
Private Dispensary
Private Dispensary
Private Dispensary
Primary Health Centre & Family Primary Health Centre & Family
Planning Centre
Planning Centre
Veterinary Centre
Veterinary Centre
Maternity Home
Hospital
Medical Store
post office
post office
post office
Telegraphic Office
Telegraphic Office
Bus Stand
Telephone
Telephone
Bus Stand
Bus Stand

all type of industries

Economic

home industry of Agro based

Retail & wholesale shops

cold storage
Agri. Produce market

Retail & wholesale

shops

Figure 5: diagrammatic representations of interdependency of settlements

Influenced area of
settlements

Figure 5 shows the interdependency of the lower grade settlement on t he upper grade
settlements. In term of social infrastructure proposals, all villages should get at least the all social
facilities according to the UDPFI guidelines in priority basis
5. REFERENCES:
Chattopadhayay. B.C., (1996), City and Metropolitan Planning & Development Institute of
Town Planners, New Delhi, India.
Desai Niyati A. (2006), Planning Parameters of Outer Ring Road: A case Study of Surat,
MTRP, S. V. N.I.T. Surat, India.
H.Lal, (1997), City and Urban Fringe-A case study of Bareilly Concept Publication
Company, New Delhi, India.
M.M.P.Sinha, (1992), the impact of Urbanization on Land-Use in the Rural Urban Fringe-A
case study of Patna Concept Publication Company, New Delhi, India.
N.S.Saini, (1992), Rural Development at Metropolitan fringe: Resource conservation
approach Anmol Publication Company, New Delhi, India.
Nitya Thaker Dave (2007) A study of Revised Development Plan-2004 of Surat, with
special reference to Planning Parameters M-Tech(Planning), S. V. N.I.T. Surat, India.
Pankaj N. Modi, URP 1203, Land development & infrastructure facilities in fringe villages
of Ahmedabad outside A.M.C. limit, School of Planning, CEPT, Ahmedabad, India.
Prabhakar K., Kalbhor M. K., et all, Seminar Proceedings, Administration of the Urban
Fringe, 1969, Indian Institute of Public Administration, New Delhi.
Ramchandran R., Urbanization and Urban Systems in India, 1995, Fourth Edition, Oxford
University Press, New Delhi.

PROPOSAL OF FLYOVER TO MITIGATE TRAFFIC CONGESTION:

A CASE STUDY OF SURAT CITY
Chauhan B. P.
Assistant Professor, Civil Engineering Department,
C.K.Pithawala College of Engineering & Technology, Surat
boschauhan@gmail.com
Dholawala M.J.
Assistant Professor, Civil Engineering Department,
C.K.Pithawala College of Engineering & Technology, Surat
talk2mitu_21@yahoo.co.in
Rathod D.K.
Lecturer, Civil Engineering Department,
C.K.Pithawala College of Engineering & Technology, Surat
rathoddipesh43@gmail.com
ABSTRACT: Surat is one of the most dynamic cities of India and the biggest city in
south Gujarat. Surat is experiencing the fastest growth rate due to immigration from
various parts of Gujarat and other states if India. The explosion of population, rapid
industrialization and highest growth rate in vehicles made the traffic problem
complicated. Adajan becomes the main part of the surat city as its development is fast
compare to other area of the city.
Gujarat gas circle is the main intersection for the transportation from Adajan to central
area of Surat. Most of the people are traveling through same route for their purpose which
will create traffic congestion during peak hours. This paper is related to give suggestion
to overcome this problem by providing fly over at Gujarat gas circle, Adajan.
1. INTRODUCTION
Surats infrastructure is improving steadily. The city has recently seen the completion of
a large number of road projects, particularly elevated roads, or flyovers, in the diamond
and textile zones of the city. This has significantly cut down the commuting time for
many people traveling to the diamond and textile districts. One of the very few Multilayer Flyovers in India is now in Surat over Majura gate. The Varachha Flyover of Surat
is Indias longest flyover under city municipal limits in the four lane category.
Various areas in Surat, particularly in the Central Business District (CBD) area, are
beset with acute traffic congestion and this has been reflected in the enormous delay to
vehicles passing through the area. Considering the phenomenal growth in traffic, traffic
engineering and management measures need to be put into practice for ameliorating the
traffic problems.
In urban areas the major junctions are causing significant delays, queues, accidents etc.
Different techniques are there to manage the junctions properly i.e. signal control, rotary
control and grade separation. For intersections with a very high volume of traffic, it is

very difficult to manage through signal control or rotary control. So grade separation is a
better solution to avoid the conflicts at junctions.
Two important junctions are near Gujarat Gas Circle viz. Gujarat Gas Junction and
Bhulka Bhavan Junction on Adajan Road are required vehicular grade separation facility.
Both the junctions carry very high traffic. The right turning and straight traffic at both
junctions is very high, leading to traffic conflicts and accidents. To remove the traffic
conflicts and to facilitate smooth traffic movement, the authorities conceived to have a
vehicular grade separation facility at Gujarat Gas Junction and Bhulka Bhavan Junction.
There is a need to establish the provision of vehicular grade separation facility at Gujarat
Gas and Bhulka Bhavan Junctions.
2. SURVEYS AND METHODOLOGY
It is necessary to collect the necessary data in connection with the traffic to be carried by
the road system of the town. For this purpose, the traffic counts are carried out.
Because of the seriousness of the problem of congestion an understanding of the
economic effects of congestion and the methods available for its mitigation are of
importance to a engineer. He should be familiar with the manner in which travel demand
and cost interact with each other and the economic basis for restraining traffic which
causes congestion.
As the problem of congestion is very serious, it is required to understand the
behavior of traffic. Some studies are done for understanding the behaviors such as
Vehicle Volume Study.
2.1 Traffic Volume Study
Traffic volume is the number of vehicles crossing a section of road per unit time at any
selected period. Traffic volume is use as a quantity measure of flow; the commonly used
units are vehicles per day and vehicles per hour. A complete traffic volume study may
include the classified volume study by recording the volume of various types and classes
of traffic, the distribution by direction and turning movements and the distribution on
different lanes per unit time.
2.1.1 Manual Count Method
Most applications of manual counts require small samples of data at any given location.
Manual counts are sometimes used when the effort and expense of automated equipment
are not justified. Manual counts are necessary when automatic equipment is not available.
Manual counts are typically used for periods of less than a day. Normal intervals for a
manual count are 5, 10, or 15 minutes.
3. STUDY AREA
The explosion of population, rapid industrialization and highest growth rate in vehicle
population made the traffic problems complicated. Adajan becomes the main part of the
Surat city as its development is fast compare to the other area of the city.

Before 20 years in Adajan area there were only agriculture land, but due the
expansion of S urat city Adajan area become the part of Surat city. In 1991 the
population in Rander Adajan area was 1, 27,024 and further in 2001 was 2, 50,480 and its
decadal growth is 97.19%.
Gujarat gas circle is the main intersection for the transportation from Adajan to
central area of Surat. Most of the people are travelling through same route for their
business purpose, which will create traffic congestion during peak hours This paper is
about to give suggestion to overcome this problem by providing Fly over at Gujarat Gas
Circle, Adajan.

FIGURE 3.1 MAP OF STUDY AREA

(ADAJAN GUJARAT GAS CIRCLE)

3.1

No. of Routes at Gujarat Gas Circle:

1. Gujarat Gas Circle to Sardar Bridge.

2. Sardar Bridge to Gujarat Gas Circle.
3. Anand Mahal Road to Gujarat Gas Circle.
4. Hajira Road to Gujarat Gas Circle.
5. Navyug College to Gujarat Gas Circle.
6. Adajan Patiya to Gujarat Gas Circle.

FIGURE 3.2 ROUTS AT GUJARAT GAS CIRCLE

There are three major road bridges in the vicinity of Sardar Bridge across Tapti River,
i.e., Sardar Bridge, Vivekananda Bridge and Nehru Bridge. Out of these three river
bridges, the Sardar Bridge caters to maximum east waste traffic. The entry/exit of the
Sardar Bridge directly connects Adajan Hajira Road at Gujarat Gas junction. Surat
Municipal Corporation (SMC) has constructed a Rotary (Gujarat Gas Circle) at this
junction to minimize the traffic conflicts. However, heavy growth in the traffic conditions
and saturation of capacity at Gujarat Gas junction and Bhulka Bhavan junction,
particularly during peak hours. In order to augment the capacity of Gujarat Gas junction
and Bhulka Bhavan junction and to achieve smooth and efficient movement of traffic by
minimizing multiple conflicts at these intersections, we are proposed a flyover at this
location.
3.2 Gujarat Gas Junction
Gujarat Gas and Bhulka Bhavan junctions are adjacent to each other and the distance
between the two intersections is about 250 m. Also as the major traffic movement at this
location is between these two junctions, it is not feasible to provide independent flyovers
at these junctions.
Gujarat gas circle is a four-legged junction, forming the intersection of Adajan
Hajira Road, Sardar Bridge Road and Navyug College Road. Adajan Hajira Road is one
of the major arterials of Surat city, as in connects all the three bridges on river Tapti in
the suburban area. Currently the junction is operated with a big rotary island, popularly
known as Gujarat Gas Circle. Major land use in the vicinity of this junction is
Commercial as well as residential. Adajan Hajira Road (roadway width 42.5 m) is of 8lane divided carriageway. Sardar Bridge (roadway width 16.35 m ) is having a 4-lane
divide carriageway and Navyug College Road is a 4-lane divided road.
During morning peak hours high volume of
traffic moves towards Sardar Bridge and evening
peak hours, the traffic is in the reverse direction.
Due to existing traffic pattern and junction

geometrics, it is very difficult to manage the traffic with signal control. The traffic
volume at this junction has already reached the capacity.

FIGURE 3.3 GUJARAT GAS CIRCLE

3.3

Bhulka Bhavan Junction

This is a three-legged junction,

forming the intersection of Adajan
Hajira road and Anand Mahal Road.
Anand Mahal Road (roadway width
24.3 m) is a 4-lane road passing
through one of the major residential
areas of the suburbs of Surat city.
On Anand Mahal Road there is a m ix of commercial and residential land use. During
morning peak hours high volume of traffic moves from Anand Mahal Road towards
Sardar Bridge and towards Adajan Patiya and in the evening peak, the traffic is in the
reverse direction. The traffic at this junction is currently managed with traffic signals.

FIGURE 3.4 BHULKA BHAVAN JUNCTION

FIGURE 3.5 MORNING PEAK HOUR TRAFFIC FROM ADAJAN PATIA TO GGC

In all routes of Gujarat gas circle, traffic volume was counted during morning peak hours
(9:30 am to 10:30 am) and evening peak hours (6:00 pm to 7:00 pm) with consideration
of all working day (Tuesday), partial working day (Saturday) and non working day
(Sunday), analysis is done as per the total volume of mixed traffic.
4. DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS
The first requirement for any study of an area is to have good maps at a reasonable scale
and other statistics to know the detail about the development and transportation network.
Traffic volume of Two wheelers, Three wheelers, Four wheelers, Bus/Truck& Bicycle
was counted at morning and evening peak hours. Data collection of all vehicle models are
prepared & converted in to PCUs. After data collection total % of all vehicles was found
out at peak hours on full, partial, & non working day.
4.1 Locations of Volume Count at Gujarat Gas Circle
The volume count study was under taken at different locations on Surrounding Gujarat
Gas Circle. The survey was done for five screen points and one single directional
movement approach. The locations of the screen point survey are as follow.
1. At Sardar Bridge Downward
2. At Sardar Bridge Upward
3. At Vijay Diary
4. At Sardar complex
5. At Raymond Showroom

Survey

FIGURE 4.1 LOCATIONS OF VOLUME COUNT AT GUJARAT GAS

CIRCLE

Traffic
Volume
Count

Junction

Date / Day of Count

Gujarat
Gas Circle
at Adajan

Saturday
(Partial Working Day)
Sunday
(Non Working Day)
Tuesday
(Full Working Day)

4.2 Vehicle Categories

Looking to flow composition and physical observation the vehicles are categorized as
given below for traffic counts.
1. Cycle
2. Two Wheeler:(Scooter/Motor-cycle,
Moped)
3. Three Wheeler(Auto Rickshaws)
4. Four Wheeler: Car, Jeep etc.
5. Heavy Vehicle Bus, Truck
4.3 Traffic Volume Study
To provide one common standard vehicle unit, all the above categories of vehicle are
converted in PCUs. The equivalent PCU factor for various categories of vehicles are
counted.
TABLE 4.1 SURVEY DATA AT DIFFERENT LOCATION

TABLE 4.2 DIRECTION WISE MORNING PEAK HOUR TRAFFIC FLOW IN VEHICLES/HOUR

Day :Full Working Day

Time: 9:30 AM to 10:30 AM
TABLE 4.3 DIRECTION WISE MORNING PEAK HOUR
TRAFFIC FLOW FOR IN PCUS

Direction

Cycle

2W

3W

4W

Dir-1
Dir-2
Dir-3
Dir-4
Dir-5
Total

282
199
225
679
216
1601

4892
4045
1199
7029
2551
19707

849
370
464
1105
895
3683

1461
510
155
1141
599
3866

Bus/
Truck
67
18
32
39
66
222

Total
Vehicle
7551
5142
2075
9984
4327
29079

Bus/

Total

Truck

PCU

1461

201

4858

277.5

510

54

2950

599.5

348

155

96

1288

271.6

3510

828.75

1141

117

5868

Dir-5

86.4

1275.5

671.25

599

198

2830

Total

640

9854

2762

3866

666

17788

Direction

Cycle

2W

3W

4W

Dir-1

112.8

2446

636.75

Dir-2

79.6

2022.5

Dir-3

90

Dir-4

FIGURE 4.2 MORNING PEAK HOUR TRAFFIC FLOW

ON FULL WORKING DAY

Figure 4.2 shows the graphical representation of Table 4.3. Gujarat Gas Circle to
Sardar Bridge, at morning peak hours, PCU contribution is more than in other direction.
In morning peak hour, the maximum traffic is from Gujarat Gas Circle to Sardar Bridge.

FIGURE 4.3 % DISTRIBUTIONS OF VEHICLES

Figure 4.3 is showing the percentage distribution of particular category of the

vehicle. In morning peak hour two wheeler contributes 67.77%, three wheeler contributes
is 12.667%, four wheeler contributes is 13.29% and bus/truck contributes 0.76% in the all
direction.
5. RESULT AND CONCLUSION

As per IRC guidelines if intersection volume exceeds 10,000 PCU/hr, there is need for a
grade separation. Peak hour junction volume of the Gujarat Gas Junction is 27127
PCU/hr (21529 vehicles/hr.) which is indicating that the traffic volume at Gujarat Gas
Junction has already exceeded 10,000 P CU/hr and traffic volume at Bhulka Bhavan
Junction is also reaching the limits. Therefore there is an urgent need of flyover at these
two junctions.
As these two junctions are closely located (about 250 m ), it is difficult to
accommodate separate flyovers at these two junctions. Also, it is inferred from traffic
surveys analysis that most of the traffic movement is between Sardar Bridge approach of
Gujarat Gas Junction and Anand Mahal approach of Bhulka Bhavan Junction i.e.
Morning peak, traffic from Anand Mahal road to Sardar Bridge and Hajura to Sardar
Bridge is very high as compared to other movements. In the evening peak hours the
major traffic is from Sardar Bridge approach to Anand Mahal Road & Hajira Road. The
traffic between Navyug College Road and Sardar Bridge approach is also high.
TABLE 5.1 COMPARISION OF MORNING & EVENING PEAK HOURS TRAFFIC

TABLE 5.2 PERCENTAGE OF TRAFFIC BETWEEN GUJARAT

GAS AND BHULKA BHAVAN JUNCTIONS

Direction

From

To

Traffic

Anand
Mahal
Road

Adajan
Patiya

35.15%

Anand
Mahal
Road

Sardar
Bridge

Hajira

Day

Morning Peak
Hour

Evening Peak
Hour

(09:30 AM to
10:30 AM)

(06:00 PM to
07:00 PM)

Vehicle

PCU

Vehicle

PCU

Partial
Working
Day

24103

14558

24086

15145

60.44%

Non
Working
Day

18561

11547

21529

27127

Sardar
Bridge

30.12%

Full
Working
Day

29079

17788

26406

16601

Sardar
Bridge

Hajira

20.00%

Sardar
Bridge

Anand
Mahal
Road

59.86%

Adajan
Patiya

Anand
Mahal
Road

40.20%

5.1 Proposal and Route of Fly over

All traffic volume was analyzed & then a flyover proposed is prepared.

FIGURE 5.1 PROPOSAL AND ROUTE OF FLYOVER

In proposal approach, up-ramp is provided at City Civic Center at Adajan and it is

connected to bridge. On the other side of road, the up-ramp is provided at Water Tank
and down-ramp is given at Shreeji Arcade.
5.2 Grade Separated Traffic Movements
1.
2.
3.
4.

Traffic flow from Anand Mahal Road to Sardar Bridge

Traffic flow from Hajira to Sardar Bridge.
Traffic flow from Sardar Bridge to Anand Mahal Road to Sardar Bridge
Traffic flow from Adajan Patiya to Anand Mahal Road

5.3 Ground Level Traffic Movements

Traffic flow from Sardar Bridge approach to Navyug College approach
Traffic flow from Sardar Bridge approach to Adajan Patiya approach
Traffic flow from Anand Mahal approach to Adajan Patiya approach
Traffic flow from Anand Mahal approach to Pal Hajira approach
Traffic flow from Anand Mahal approach to Navyug College approach
6. CONCLUSION
The proposal flyover is located along the very busy corridor and situated very close to
Sardar Patel Bridge. Looking to the rapid development of Surat city and future traffic
growth, this flyover will provide a great relief to traffic congestion. This flyover is
crossing two junctions viz. Gujarat Gas and Bhulka Bhavan junctions.
Looking to overall development of Surat city, for misnaming traffic congestion, for
reducing time of travel & saving fuel cost and considering overall improvement in the
performance of the road network of the city, it is advisable to construct this flyover on
priority. There are certain constraints which need to be taken into account before taking
up construction of this flyover.

REFERENCES
Books
1. Dr. S.K. Khanna and Dr. C.E.S Justo, Highway Engineering, by Nem Chand and
Bros. Roorkee
2. Dr. L.R. Kadiyali, Traffic Engineering and Transport Planning, by Khanna
publisher, New Delhi
3. G.K.Hiraskar, Fundamental of Town Planning, by Dhanpatrai Publications
4. V.N. Vazirani & S.P. Chandola, Trancportation Engineering, by Khanna publisher,
Delhi-2007
Papers and Journals:
1. Azeem Uddin, traffic congestion in Indian cities: Challenges of arising power,
Kyoto of the Cities, Naples, Mar 26-28, 2009
2. Central Road Research Institute New Delhi, Transportation plan for Surat
3. Ranadhir P Reddy, Traffic & Transportation In Hyderabad Concept Paper,
Additional Commissioner ( Traffic & Transportation), and Project Director MRTS
Municipal Corporation of Hyderabad
4. Surat Municipal Corporation, New Development Plan of Surat for 2008-2013
5. Urban Management Centre (UMC), A PPP Model For Free Bus Serveice On SG
Highway, Initiative By AUDA To Ease Traffic Congestion, Ahmedabad
6. IRC-86-1983
7. IRC-106-1990

Websites:
1. www.suratmunicipal.org
2. www.methuenrotary.mhd.state.ma.us
3. www.ops.fhwa.dot.gov

SUSTAINABLE URBAN AND TRANSPORTATION PLANNING:

A socio-technico perspective for INDIA
Bhaven N. Tandel
Assistant Professor, Civil Engineering Department,
S.V.National Institute of Technology, Surat 395007
bnt@ced.svnit.ac.in
Dr. JEM Macwan
Associate Professor, Civil Engineering Department,
S.V.National Institute of Technology, Surat 395007
jemm@ced.svnit.ac.in
ABSTRACT: Transportation problems are among the most pressing strategic development
problems in many cities, often a major constraint for long term urban development in general and
very closely related to land development, economic structure, energy policies, and environmental
quality. Since all citizens are either enjoying the transportation system or, and often at the same
time, suffering from it, it is an important element of the urban quality of life.
Socially Sustainable Urban Transportation (SSUT) creates equitable access to opportunities
necessary for enabling individuals to achieve sustaining livelihoods, establishes livable cities of
social cohesion and inclusion, and overcomes the problems of polarized, fragmented, and
socially segregated metropolitan communities.
This article subsequently considers how urban transportation influences the achievement of
social sustainability in urban regions. Socially sustainable urban transportation is implied in the
literature through the elements of social equity, social exclusion, and quality of life. Several well
established research areas provide potential theoretical, methodological, and applied insight into
the development of future socially sustainable urban transportation research agendas, including:
urban form, location and individual based accessibility, and city / regional planning for
sustainability.
Keywords: quality of life, sustainable development, socially sustainable urban transportation.

1. INTRODUCTION:
The search for the sustainability in the cities includes the knowledge of the interaction between
the several activities developed in the cities and its impacts in the environment, in the society and
in the urban economy. Central to the Brundtland Reports [17] conceptualization of global
sustainability, was the necessity to protect the environment while also promoting economic
vitality and social equity, thus presenting the challenge in implementing balance between the
environmental, the economic and the social concerns of sustainability.

2. SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT:
The broad concept of sustainable development and sustainability has become widely popular in
research, political, and community agendas, especially since the 1987 Brundtland Commission

Report [17] identified the declining environmental condition and associated human factors as a
global problem. With emphasis placed upon resolving the global environmental crises, the equal
centrality of environment, economic and social dimensions in the conceptual understandings of
sustainability has been lost. If sustainability seeks to balance three interlinked objectives, to
protect the environment while promoting economic vitality and social equity, then more research
is needed to understand the social dimensions of sustainability. Of this sustainability triangle
(environment, economic, and social dimensions), this article focuses more on the SOCIAL. In
doing so, it is not assumed that the social takes precedence over the significance and urgency of
the environmental and economic concerns.
The sustainable development is usually seen inside three main dimensions, 1) Environment
2) Society 3) Economy. All the three cannot be analyzed independently. For each one of these
dimensions, some basic impacts can be identified and related to transports systems:

The environmental concern for resource depletion and over consumption; air, water, and
soil pollution; and energy crises;
The economic concern for the ability to promote economic growth, expansion, and longterm prosperity that is socially and environmentally viable;
The social concern for eradicating widespread poverty and hunger, meeting basic human
needs, and addressing the growing social and economic disparities.

3. SUSTAINABLE TRANSPORTATION PLANNING:

The transportation sector has proven to be particularly difficult territory for the advancement of
sustainable development policy. Transportation is a complex and porous social, technical and
economic system, difficult to address comprehensively [13]. Meanwhile, current trends are not
encouraging. The most transportation efficient cities in the world are facing escalating
motorization and mobility demands. Travel is increasing in virtually all regions of the world,
usually at or faster than the rate of economic growth, and generally faster in the long run than the
rate of reduction of energy and pollution intensity.
In the metropolis and megapolis of East Asia, South-East Asia and INDIA, a surging middle
class is pouring its new wealth into automobiles, while governments are pushing bicycles off the
streets and expanding roadways at breakneck pace. If these cities, with historically efficient
urban structures, are facing such setbacks, then the prospects for other cities look dim.
In this aspect, the transports system is very important for the maintenance of the urban
economy, but they produce some negative environmental impacts. For that, it is important to
associate the characteristics of the urban development with an adequate sustainable mobility.
4. SOCIALLY SUSTAINABLE URBAN TRANSPORTATION (SSUT):
The extent to which the research literature explores the social dimensions of sustainable
transportation in the Indian urban context is less explicit. This is particularly significant
considering the many ways transportation based barriers contribute to social injustices and socio
spatial inequities in Indian urban areas, especially along lines of class and income. For example,

inequitable access to employment exists in Indian cities as low skilled, low wage, and minority
workers are often more likely to experience problems of inadequate transportation to overcome
the spatial separations between their residential location and places of work opportunities,
resulting in higher levels of unemployment, more costly commutes or compromised wages.
These problems of accessibility may become exacerbated for lower wage workers who commute
by motorcycle / auto rickshaws, as the rising cost of fuel poses greater financial hardships and
individuals who are unable to absorb rising commuting costs must renegotiate issues of mobility
and access to employment.
Furthermore, the aftermath of floods in cities like Surat, Mumbai, Delhi brought to light the
mobility issues of inner city poor populations, highlighting the greater threat to vulnerability
among the nations minority poor in the event of emergency evacuations. Just as transportation
creates critical concern for environmental protection, the existent social disparities in
transportation necessitate concerted attention.
The purpose of this article is to give major focus on the dimensions of socially sustainable
urban transportation (SSUT) within the context of Indian cities. Here, SSUT is understood as
transportation that provides equitable access to urban opportunities and minimizes social
exclusion and improves or does not overly diminish an individuals quality of life. Because
transportation is a cr ucial mechanism by which individuals maintain a livelihood in the urban
context, when balancing the environmental, economic, and social dimensions of transportation
sustainability, the enabling of individuals to meet their needs and aspirations for a better life is
crucial for sustaining livelihoods.
Specifically, this article suggests that to some degree, the social is explicitly addressed in
sustainable transportation literature but more often appears implicitly in broader transportation
literature. A review of relevant literature suggests that SSUT is most critically researched at the
scale of individual livelihoods and is implied in transportation research through the elements of
social equity, social exclusion and quality of life [3] It is argued that the well established research
literature on urban form and accessibility offer potentially fruitful theoretical, methodological
and applied insight for ongoing future research on SSUT.
4.1. Research Potentials in SSUT in the context of Indian cities:
4.1.1 Urban Form
Studies of urban form suggest that depending upon the spatial structures of urban opportunities
and the available transportation systems, patterns of accessibility barriers in particular urban
areas may exist. In metropolitan landscapes of most of the Indian cities, patterns and processes of
urban sprawl dominate. Growing at the edges of central cities, sprawl is characterized as
scattered low-density residential, commercial, and retail development, with poor accessibility.
This polycentric or dispersed urban spatial structure has created metropolitan landscapes of
social inequality and social polarization. Specifically, with the outward growth of scattered lowdensity development of opportunities in the suburbs, individuals throughout the most of the cities
of INDIA have become increasingly dependent upon t he vehicles like motorcycles / a uto
rickshaws to reach suburban destinations of opportunity, especially employment.

This growing dependence upon automobiles creates geographies of social inequities and
polarization in metropolitan areas along socio-economic lines. The poor are disproportionately
reliant upon i nefficient public transportation systems that provide limited spatial and temporal
service. In many sprawling cities in INDIA, the large employment markets in the metropolitan
periphery remain inaccessible via public transportation, leaving large populations of central-city
residents without employment. These transportation based barriers to employment has led to the
formation of urban ghettos or inner cities, which in turn has resulted in social isolation and
concentrations of poverty among lower class / poor people in metropolitan urban core areas.
Several urban forms related research areas may prove useful for theoretical development in
socially sustainable urban transportation research agendas. The spatial mismatch hypothesis has
argued that higher unemployment rates or longer commutes of disadvantaged populations can be
attributed to socio-spatial processes, such as housing discrimination, and to deficiencies in
adequate transportation. Jobs-housing balance research has identified how suburban communities
are unbalanced, with residences concentrated in neighborhoods and jobs clustering in office
parks and retail centers in the edge cities. Together these research agendas identify how urban
spatial structures and transportation influence access to employment opportunities and could
provide theoretical insight for future socially sustainable urban transportation research.
Spatial planning with alternative urban forms suggests potential social advantages of more
concentrated urban structures. In opposition to patterns of sprawling, low-density, autodependent urban growth, the planning strategy of compact cities believes more concentrated
environments create better access to facilities and opportunities; increase the overall equity in
access; reduce commute time= length and the need to travel; provide greater opportunities for
social interaction and social contact leading to social cohesion; and increase capacity to meet the
housing needs of the population. These characteristics of more concentrated urban form increase
the quality of life by creating safer and more vibrant urban areas, support for local businesses
and services, greater social equity and social interaction, and better accessibility to facilities.
Similarly, the New Urbanism planning movement suggests that more dense urban environments
with mixed land-uses reduces automobile dependency through transportation alternatives and
increased walk-ability to daily urban opportunitiesincluding employment.
Thus, by maximizing access and mobility across social groups, theoretically a more humane
and livable community environment is created. Although, it remains debated whether compact
cities are more socially just or if socially disadvantaged groups actually benefit from the New
Urbanism, future research on the social sustainability of urban transportation could build upon
the theoretical benefits of mobility, access and social integration in concentrated urban forms.
4.1.2 Accessibility
Equity in access to opportunities (e.g., employment, services, shopping, education, health care,
and amenities) that contribute to meeting basic human needs and aspirations for a better life has
been argued as central to understanding SSUT.
Two distinctive approaches to accessibility, (i) location (place) accessibility and (ii)
individual (personal) accessibility have unique contributions for future SSUT research. In the
place-based approach, emphasis upon t he relative accessibility of a location is commonly
measured using aggregated data of geographic space to identify potential interactions between

places or to identify the relative prominence or importance of a place based on available sets of
opportunity. This approach can be used to develop theoretical understandings of urban structures
of opportunity and interaction, to understand and geographically visualize actual spatial
structures, or to analyze potential maximization (minimization) of benefits (costs) of
transportation network structures. In planning for accessibility, location-allocation models seek
to minimize barriers to access (i.e., time or distance) and have been used extensively for
evaluating the accessibility of public transit systems or in applying public service distributions.
Spatial interaction models have been used to understand metropolitan patterns of
accessibility and the significance of places by modeling intra-urban commuting using aggregated
commuting and employment data to understand the spatial variations of job accessibility. These
methodological techniques of location-allocation and spatial interaction models could help future
SSUT research better understand the interactions between places, measure the accessibility levels
of locations, and visualize urban structures and spaces of inclusion= exclusion. The individual
accessibility approach uses disaggregate data (at the individual level) to examine what
opportunities are available to an individual given spatial-temporal context, personal constraints,
and geographic context.
Methodologically, location accessibility assumes homogeneity of opportunity distribution
and travel behavior within zones; individual accessibility, on t he other hand, understands the
travel patterns of individuals based on individual activity and opportunity sets. Although distance
from opportunities is a significant factor to accessibility, it can only be the first approximation.
Characteristics of individual identity, personal constraints, or household structure can greatly
influence travel behaviors of individuals. When such is the case, rather than locational proximity,
space-time accessibility measures are advantageous as they incorporate the effect of interactions
between a persons constraints and identity, with the available urban opportunities.
The methods of space-time accessibility enable exploration into the variations of
accessibility based on individual differences. For example, Kwan (1999) [9] found that women
have lower levels of access to urban opportunities than do men, suggesting the significance of
gender based differences in domestic responsibilities, as well as unique individual constraints in
travel behavior. Further, individual accessibility is more contingent upon individual and
household characteristics than the effects of geographic context. As an approach, space-time
accessibility reflects interpersonal differences associated with the contingencies of everyday
life and is well suited for incorporating the unique realities of individuals in future SSUT
research. This type of accessibility research approach could prove useful by contributing
theoretical insight on human travel behaviors and uncovering specific socio-economic inequities.

5. SOCIO-TECHNICO SOLUTIONS / TOOLS FOR SUSTAINABLE TRANSPORTATION

PLANNING:
Urban development involves numerous activities and processes which are, in part, actively
planned and in part happen as a reaction to external forces and development. New strategies for
sustainable mobility require well balanced combinations of measures such as:

improved land-use / economic development planning;

improved planning, management and use of transport infrastructures and facilities;
incorporation of the real costs of both infrastructure and environment in investment
policies and decisions and also in user costs;
development of public transport and improvement of its competitive position; continued
technical improvement of vehicles and fuels;
incentives for the use of less polluting fuels; promotion of a more environmentally
rational use of the private car, including behavioural changes.

These problems can only be addressed with a consistent and comprehensive approach and
planning methodology that helps to design strategies for sustainable cities. This has to include an
integration of socio-economic, environmental and technological concepts including the
development, integration and demonstration of methodologies to improve forecasting,
assessment and strategic policy level decision support. No single model can cover the entire
range of processes and the spatio-temporal scales characterizing them, leading to a multi-tiered
approach.
Technically, and for the limited scope of transportation and emission control, there are
different options for controlling the environmental impact of traffic in cities that work both on
the demand side as well as the supply side of the system. Some of these measures include:
(1)
Changing transportation demand by appropriate spatial planning;
(2)
To induce different user behaviour, like using public transport;
(3)
To better control traffic efficiency, i.e., limit street congestion;
(4)
To introduce new technologies with reduced or zero emission.
Some policies can be a mixture of these options like e.g. the introduction of shared electric
cars for urban short travels. Other policies could consist in providing incentives for using
reduced emission technologies for urban transport.
For any sustainable transport policy to be successful, an urban / transportation planner must
avoid the common transportation policy pitfall of ignoring the larger systems in which
transportation activity is embedded. The goal of sustainable transportation may be better served
by a number of the organic innovations in transportation practice that are occurring in the field.
6. CONCLUSIONS:
Despite a number of these negative reasons, it does seem, however, that the social dimensions of
sustainable urban transportation are implied within the transportation literature, particularly
through the elements of social equity, social exclusion, and quality of life. The literature does
suggest that in the context of advanced capitalist cities, SSUT creates equitable access to
opportunities necessary for enabling individuals to achieve sustaining livelihoods, establishes
livable cities of social cohesion and inclusion, and overcomes the problems of polarized,
fragmented, and socially segregated metropolitan communities.
Given the breadth of literature, it is important to highlight some eminent questions for SSUT
research. More specific to SSUT, two key research questions should be addressed:

(i)

What are the parameters of the social dimensions of sustainable urban transportation?

In addition to the need of developing a widely accepted concept of sustainability (CUPR, 2000),
it is crucially important to similarly construct an accepted meaning of the social dimension of
sustainability and how it is influenced by urban transportation. One way to begin is by delimiting
the research to a specific context=place and scale. For example, as reviewed in this article, the
scale and context of individual livelihoods within Indian cities is one specific parameter by
which SSUT can be conceptualized and problematized. Establishing such parameters will
facilitate the development of focused research questions and the design of projects, which leads
to a second key question.
(ii)

What are the most appropriate methodological approaches for conducting research on
the social dimensions of sustainable urban transportation?

It is also important to identify the most useful and appropriate methods, data sources,
measurements, indices, and ways of representation specific to the research questions that emerge.
In particular, a mixed-method approach holds promise to simultaneously use highly relevant
secondary data in combination with detailed primary data collected specifically for the developed
research questions. The capabilities of geographic information systems (GIS) (e.g. data
integration, complex geo-computation, multi scale analysis, geo-visualization) could support
rigorous spatial and statistical analysis to explore underlying patterns and processes, provide
insight to explain relationships, and offer generalizations about the conditions of social
sustainability. At the same time, qualitative-based research could help understand individual
experiences as well as the underlying social structures that are complexly entwined with SSUT.
Given the subjective and contingent nature of the social dimension, qualitative data collection
may be essential to elucidate information necessary to construct appropriate quality of life
indicators specific to each research context. Similarly, as social networks are often fundamental
to meet individuals daily transportation needs, qualitative methods may be most appropriate for
analyzing the complexities of these structures and their relevance to individual livelihoods and
subsequent impacts on sustainability.
Together these questions could help establish a co ncerted research effort to advance the field,
knowledge and ongoing theoretical research in SSUT, as well as potentially influence policy at
local, regional, national, and international levels.
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(1)

Atkisson A. (1996), Developing indicators of sustainable communities: Lessons from

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(3)

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AN APPROACH TO THE DEVELOPMENT OF SUSTAINABLE URBAN

TRANSPORT SYSTEM IN CONTEXT OF KOLKATA

Prof. P.K. Sarkar

SPA, New Delhi

1. INTRODUCTION
Man has made excellent progress in every sphere of activity including launching satellite
vehicle into earths orbit. A tremendous advancement in transport technology is increasingly
made at urban, regional, national and international level. Present state of all technology has
enabled the present system to reach from manually driven bicycle to driverless advanced rail
transit system and computer-guided aircraft.
Rapid increase of population coupled with numerous socio-economic activities is a constant source of
increasing pressure on the limited available natural resources leading to constant threat of sustainable
development in the urban area. Present form of transport system consisting of private and public
transport emerged as a result of intense development in the urban area offers both merits and demerits
to our system of development. Increased mobility is the primary expression of the benefits, the
society enjoys due to transport system. This also acts as a catalyst for deterioration to the
environmental quality in terms of noise and air pollution. It is a major concern for our sustainable
development in the urban area.
Gasoline driven vehicles are the major pollutants causing environment unsustainable for healthy
growth of the cities. As per the studies carried out in Delhi, the city experiences severe level of air
pollution more than of 2000 tonnes per day and noise pollution beyond accepted prescribed limit in
most of the congested part of the city.
In the light of the severe air pollution, it is imperative that immediate action needs to be taken in order
to keep the urban transport environmentally sustainable. The following sections attempt to highlight
some of the major issues of environment and transport system, and explore potential/prospect and
constraints/limitations through appreciation of transport and environment problems in many cities in
the world, which would help in sustaining the development in future.
The concept of sustainability is to be understood at a global level rather than national or local levels
which would require various dimensional problems of the third world countries.
In context of urban transport sector, the car and the lorry may be considered to be symbolic of the
central problem of non-sustainability. The movement of these vehicles along with other personalized
motorized vehicles in the urban area bears significant impact on environment and is responsible for
green house effect and a serious concern on health. This is the central issue for understanding the
problem of sustainable development.

2. SUSTAINABILITY
2.1 Concept of Sustainability
The world Commission on Environment and Development (Burtland Report 1987) has clearly defined
the concept of sustainable society as one that meet the needs of the present without compromising

the ability of future generations to meet their own needs. There is a school of though which spells
out the following conditions for ensuring a physically sustainable society.
i)

Its range of pollution emission does not exceed the assimilative capacity of the environment.

ii) Land value should not exceed more than 4 times of the construction cost
iii) Availability of water
iv) Sustainable transport refers to any means of transport with low impact on the environment, and
includes walking and cycling, transit oriented development, green vehicles, car sharing and
building or protecting urban transport systems that are fuel-efficient, space-saving and promote
healthy lifestyles.
Rapid growth of population coupled with numerous economic activities has placed a substantial
demand for energy for all sectors of economy. The primary question is how best we could optimize
the limited available natural resources for present and future in order to keep the environment safe. In
the light of above aspects, an in-depth understanding of sustainability can help avoid a global
catastrophe by careful stewardship of the limited opportunities that nature provides for controlled
growth. As per Hajer (1991), sustainability is not only an attempt to provide solutions to improve the
objectives state of environment but also an effort to accommodate latent social conflict. Sustainability
also refers to the reduction of green house emissions caused due to high levels of air pollution

3. TRANSPORT AGENDA 21
The Earth Summit in June 1992 held in Rio, Brazil has identified Transport as one of the
key areas responsible in the deterioration of environmental quality. The impact of transport
on our society is well understood through a wide appreciation of the links, among
consumption, economic growth, environmental impact and sustainability. Transport Agenda
21, as discussed and documented in the Earth Summit, presents some of the major changes
taking place in the society which are likely to affect significantly the travel demand in this
century. It identified three major issues that relate to demographic change, technological
change and infrastructure requirement. It has been increasingly felt and argued that the
Agenda 21 for transport planning must address all three.
4. URBAN TRANSPORT PROBLEMS & SOLUTIONS
Most of the major cities in the world are increasingly confronted with numerous traffic problems
leading to high level of traffic congestion coupled with a considerable number of road accidents. The
problems of traffic are primarily attributable to innumerable factors such as high intensity of private
vehicles on the roads, poor mass transportation facilities, inadequate road capacity, heterogeneous
movement of traffic etc. While highlighting the problems of traffic as experienced by major cities in
the world, it would be worth mentioning the unfriendly modes of transport causing severe damage to
the environment. A brief review of major cities in the world experiencing severe traffic problems
with the adverse effect on environment is discussed as under.

4.1 Bangkok
The city, being the capital of Thailand, experiences unplanned and uncoordinated
development with 9 million population characterized by massive urban sprawl radiating up to 50
kilometers in all directions and its traffic condition is recognised as being among the worst in the
world. Average travel speed on the most of the road have come down to 5 km/hr from 10 km/hr with
the growth of traffic between 15 or 20 percent per year on the road network occupying 11 percent of

Bangkoks total land area. Presently, It has improved the transport system for catering a high travel
demand.
4.2 Lagos
This city is one of the fastest growing urban centre is Nigeria having the largest commercial,
industrial and financial base and has a total population of 5 million within an area of 1,800 sq./km.
There are a large number of traffic problems of which traffic management, transport coordination,
expansion of transport services is yet to be resolved. Presently inadequate mass transport services
resulted into such a situation that 80 percent of the estimated 35,000 used imported vehicles are
operating as public transport services known as Kabu-Kabu. It is estimated that over 2,50,000
vehicles and 2 million passengers enter and leave Lagos and adjoining area each day. Besides this,
poor urban rail transport exists on a stretch of 20 km. As per the estimates, the public road transport
would share between (80-85) percent of total trips

4.3 Santiago de Chile

Due to rapid growth of vehicles population increasing between 6 to 10 percent annually, the city had
405,000 vehicles as per the survey carried out in 1991 which was almost twice the number recorded in
a survey, 1977. This has resulted into serious problems of inadequate road capacity. In addition to
this, high level of car ownership with only 16.7 percent of the city population made an tremendous
impact in generation of passenger trips from 0.4 million to 1.34 million between 1977 and 1991 a
350 percent increase in absolute terms.
Though the deregulation in the citys bus service was a good move leading to bus fleet from 5200 to
10,500 between 1979 and 1989, but there was serious harmful consequences in terms of competition
among the buses, increase in traffic problems due to the absence of any regulated bus stops, routes, or
trip frequency.
In 1989,the National Commission for Energy in Chile organized a pilot program with the objective of
verifying under local conditions the conversion costs, energy efficiency, and impact of air pollution of
using cleaner fuels in public transport buses in Santiago. All five alternative fuel options tested are
LPG, methanol, gasoline, CNG and diesel. It was observed that all five options were effective in
reducing particulate emissions, with highest reduction achieved with LPG, CNG and Methanol. An
economic evaluation of all alternative fuel options for Santiago buses confirmed that diesel fuel buses
had strong competitive advantages while CNG buses could become competitive. This evaluation
demonstrated that LPG, methanol, and gasoline fueled buses were unlikely to substantial market
share.

4.4 Amsterdam, Netherlands

The city was not designed for cars like most old cities in Europe. Car traffic was not a significant
problem until 1970s as the network along the extensive canal system was well developed. With the
increase in the car ownership, the public transportation slowed down since the early 1970s. One of
the major problems in the city of Amsterdam is on-street parking demand exceeding the meager
supply of parking spaces. Over a period of time, it has been able to improve transport system and
make bicycling most attractive due to well planned bicycle network.

4.5 Havana, Cuba

Until 1990, Havana, the capital of Cuba, was mostly dependent on mass transportation facilities.
After the disappearance of the extensive network of electric trains and trolleys, the buses were the key
mode of public transport system. In 1990, Cuba faced a tremendous economic crisis when socialist

block broke off economic relations and the sugar and nickel prices (the countrys main export) fell
sharply from U.S. $ 8 billion in 1989 to only U. S. $2 billion in 1992. 1
This economic crisis was responsible to adopt a policy of encouraging bicycle usage in the country. It
is noteworthy to mention that Havana's 70,000 bicycles used solely for recreation and sport in 1990
shot up to 770,000 by 1993 resulting in the reduction of bus traffic and cars share by 50 percent and
by 35 percent respectively. The city finally turned into a bicycle city.

4.6 Lima, Peru

For population of 3 million, the city Lima is not an exception where traffic congestion and air
pollution, irregularity of bus services in low-income areas do not exist. Besides high level of traffic
congestion and air pollution caused due to cars, trucks and buses, accident rates are also high with
about 70 percent of total accidents resulting from vehicle pedestrian accidents. Studies also indicate
that half of the residents with the low income between U.S. $208 and U.S. $80 cannot afford to use
public transportation system due to its expensive fare structure.
4.7 Buenos Aires, Argentina
Argentine has also witnessed the problems of air pollution due to high growth vehicle population. In
order to over the problem, In 1985, a program (as explained by Faiz) of tax exemption was
introduced in Argentina to promote replacement of petroleum fuels by compressed natural gas (CNG).
Mid-sized trucks and taxis quickly adopted the program. By the end of 1994, 210,000 vehicles in the
Buenos Aires Metropolitan Region were converted to CNG usage. Of the nearly 40,000 officially
registered taxis, about 65 percent use CNG, with remainder running on diesel; of the 15000 registered
buses, only 300 run on CNG. The CNG program has substituted 12 percent of diesel fuel use in the
Buenos Aires Metropolitan Region. This has resulted in the reduction of 6 percent in particulate
emissions. Taxi owners generally prefer the CNG fueled cars because the nominal cost is CNG is
lower than diesel and substantially below the price of gasoline. In spite of the advantages of CNG
fuel, the potential shift of buses from diesel to CNG is limited mostly due to the inconvenience
associated with refueling. The fueling time for CNG is very long CNG fuelled vehicles emit no lead
and generate fewer NO 2, CO and HC than gasoline based vehicles under real life operating conditions.
CNG fuelled vehicles are less fuel efficient than gasoline based vehicles due to the extra weight of the
cylinders.
4.8 Brazil
Due to shortage of ethanol in 1990, an extensive investigation was made for search for solutions. A
new fuel blend of 60 percent hydrated ethanol, 33 percent methanol and 7 percent gasoline by volume
was identified as suitable substitutive for ethanol in Original Equipment Manufacturer vehicles
designed to run on ethanol and gasoline mixtures.
The addition of methanol tended to compensate for gasoline that resulted in leaner air fuel ratio and
low calorific value. Finally, this ethanol-methanol gasoline blend helped to meet a critical fuel
shortage without compromising the country's vehicle pollution control program.
4.9 Kathmandu, Nepal,
Kathmandu suffers from severe air pollution due to vehicle emissions and provided ideal
circumstances for the introduction of zero emission electric vehicles. With a population of
approximately 1.5 million people, the city occupies a small area. The distances travelled are quite
short. Speed hardly exceeds 40 km per hour.

Global Resources Institute initiated the first phase of the electric vehicle program for Kathmandu in
September, 1993 with the conversion of a diesel three wheeler to electric power. Based on the
continued efforts for conversion to electric vehicles, the on going work is focussed on developing a
sustainable electric vehicle industry in Nepal.
The Electric Vehicle Program for kathmandu has gone well. Since its inception in September 1993,
the Safa Tempo is the local generic name for three wheelerand it has become widely accepted ,
recognized and supported by the public. Other cities in South and east Asia are aware of the
developments in kathmandu.
4.10 New Zealand
In order to ensure a program for clean air, the New Zealand government launched a CNG program in
1979 aiming tto convert to CNG by the end of 1985. By 1986, 110,000vehicles (11 percent of cars
and light trucks) had been converted, and New Zealand had 400 filling stations at that time. The price
advantage of CNG rose to maximum in 1984 when CNG costs about 40 percent of price of gasoline.
4.11. Denmark
The Denmark Government focuses on three types of new vehicles hybrid, battery electric and fuel
cell and plans to develop the key technologies of battery, motor and electronic control systems.
One called 1,000+ Green Vehicles in each City promotes large-scale commercialization of
new energy vehicles in the public transport systems making hybrid, electric and fuel cell buses and
taxis available, initially in 13 cities. By 2012, over 60,000 clean buses and taxis are expected to be
running in Denmark.

Photo 1: Reserved Lane for Bicycle Traffic in Cities in Denmark

The Danish government has a long-term vision of making Denmark completely independent of fossil
fuels. The first step has been taken, introducing a new strategy for sustainable transport, designed to
break the curve of emissions. Denmarks green transport policy has been formulated with the overall
objective of improving mobility while reducing transport related CO2 emissions in a cost effective
way.

They cannot ignore the fact that transport is responsible for some 25 per cent of Denmarks CO2
emissions, a figure expected to rise in coming years. They intend to reverse this trajectory. But as they
endeavor to do so, they must not lose sight of the contribution transport makes to its quality of life
connecting people, families and businesses.
Green Transport Vision DK is a far-sighted, integrated plan for a green transport system, with three
fundamental components:

Adjusting vehicle tax to greener vehicle levies;

More and better public transport; and
New sustainable technologies.

It will bring down the rising CO2 emissions from transport as they approach 2020.
Judicious restructuring of vehicle tax to greener vehicle levies will accelerate the development of a
more energy-efficient national car fleet and the phasing-in of cleaner technologies not at least
using electricity for fuel. Cars are essential to many Danes, for the smooth running of their daily lives,
and they will remain important in the future. But they are now making energy friendly cars cheaper to
buy and introducing smart road pricing to motivate people to drive when the roads are at their
emptiest and to consider when it might be wiser to go by bicycle or public transport. This, combined
with such measures as smart traffic control, will reduce pressure on the roads. Congestion is already a
problem on some stretches, with inevitable loss to the economy.
Denmark will, therefore, significantly extend and improve its public transport, providing more trains,
at more regular intervals and with shorter journey times. This massive investment in public transport
will go hand in hand with the green re-adjustment of car taxation.
The big picture envisages efficient electrical cars within a few years. Hydrogen and electricitypotheyred cars are exempt from tax until 2012, and in the period 2012-2015 an advantageous
registration fee will apply to electricity-potheyred cars, commensurate with what is needed to
maximize their take-up. And if enough drivers make environmentally friendly choices both when
buying and driving cars, they shall have made great strides as a society towards ceasing to be
dependent on fossil fuels.
Denmark is also to act as a laboratory for developing sustainable transport technologies that they can
feed into and play a major role in the transport system in the long term. It is important that
international partners see the country as an attractive place for trialing new technologies, so pilot
projects will be set up over the next few years to identify opportunities for, and obstacles to,
disseminating new technologies and making them marketable. These will test the deployment of
energy-efficient transport solutions, such as energy-efficient buses and sizeable publicly or privately
owned fleets of vehicles. They must work systematically and internationally towards requirements for
the energy efficiency of vehicles, standards for electric cars, new fuel technologies and knowledgesharing.
4.12 Germany
There are many cities in Germany like Munich, Frankfurt emerging as bicycle friendly transport
network. Both the cities are well developed with comprehensive mass transit system dominated by
underground metro system coupled with LRTsyste,.

Photo 2: Bicycle Network in Frankfurt

Photo 3: Bicycle & LRT Network in Frankfurt

4.13 New York, USA
There are major differences in transport energy consumption between cities; an average U.S. urban
dweller uses 24 times more energy annually for private transport than a Chinese urban resident, and
almost four times as much as a European urban dweller. These differences cannot be explained by
wealth alone but are closely linked to the rates of walking, cycling, and public transport use and to
enduring features of the city including urban density and urban design.
The cities and nations that have invested most heavily in car-based transport systems are now the least
environmentally sustainable, as measured by per capita fossil fuel use. The social and economic
sustainability of car-based urban planning has also been questioned. Within the United States,
residents of sprawling cities make more frequent and longer car trips, while residents of traditional
urban neighborhoods make a similar number of trips, but travel shorter distances and walk, cycle and
use transit more often. It has been calculated that New York residents save $19 billion each year
simply by owning fewer cars and driving less than the average American as the residents use public
transport to significant extent

5. IMPACT OF TRANSPORT ON ENVIRONMENT

Transport system offers both the positive and negative impacts on the society in which we live. The
immediate concern of the ill effect of transport is generally high level of air pollution and traffic
noise, which are both injuries to our health and degradation of the environment. The following are
some of the issues relating to the impact of transport on environment.
Transport is a sector responsible for green house effect. According to UCN, UNEP, WWF (1991), the
change in climate induced by the addition of green house gases to the atmosphere is one of the biggest
threat to our society and sustainability. This green house effect is the sequence of events whereby
heat energy from the sun is trapped in the earths atmosphere by ozone, water vapour and carbon
dioxide. A large amount of carbon dioxide released due to fuel burning either by transport or
industry/thermal power station or every other means could result in the gradual warming of the earth
atmosphere. Joseph Fourier is the first person who discovered green house effect. Green house effect
has a tremendous negative impact to our society. These include the effect/melting of most of the
polar ice, raise the level of the sea which would ultimately pose serious threat to our society and result
into following situations:

Displace populations

Destroy low lying urban infrastructure

Inundate arable land

Contaminate fresh water bring recession of shorelines and wetlands

Increase tidal ranges

Spread diseases such

japanese encephalitis.

as

malaria,

schistosomiasis,

leishmaniasis,

dengue

and

Among the various gases, carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide generally generated by
vehicular traffic and CFCs are the primary green house gases contributing to global warming
with the share of 55%, 15% 6% and 17% respectively
5.1 Air Pollution
As discussed earlier, transport sector is one of key areas responsible for a large-scale generation of air
pollution. Table 1 presents the share of various air pollutants due to transport in the total air pollution
components (OECD 1991).
Table 1: Transports Share of Total Pollution (%)
France

UK

Germany

OECD(Europe)

NO2

76

49

65

60

CO

71

86

74

78

HC

60

32

53

50

SO2

10

4
Source: OECD (1991)

The rapid increase of vehicular traffic on the roads in Delhi poses a major pollution threat to Delhi.
Presently the daily emission of vehicular pollutant has increased to a considerable extent. The
pollution load from petrol driven vehicles is higher than that of diesel vehicles. The major pollutants
are CO, HC, SO2 and NO2, Besides these, ozone concentration is exhibiting increasing trend. High
concentration of ozone in the winter period has been recorded in Delhi with a maximum of over 600
g per cubic meter as per CRRI Study( 1993).
Table 2 Concentration of Pollutants through Gasoline Powered Vehicles in Metropolitan
Cities in India in (g/m3)
City

SO 2

NOx

RSTM

16

189

Kanpur

15

169

Varodra

42

34

Chennai

13

189

Kolkata

34

55

Delhi

Source: Air Quality on Major Cities, CPCB, Delhi, Data collected during (8 am to 8 p.m.) on April 2002

The estimates given in the Table 2 presents a comparative concentration of air pollutants in
few metropolitan cities in India. The effect of CO is serious on health causing haemolisis of
blood. Oxide of Nitrogen and Sulphur aggravate breathing problems and cause bronchitis.
Suspended particulates and contents of lead are suspected to cause cancer and problems of
blood circulation respectively. The National Standards prescribed are presented below for
comparison of the above data presented in the table 3.
Table 3: National Standards for Different Pollutants

City

Sulphur
dioxide
(SO 2 )

(Location)
National
Standard

80

Concentration (g/m3)
Nitrogen
Respirable Suspended
dioxide (NO 2 )
Particulate Matter
(RSPM)
80

100

Carbon
monoxide
(CO)
2000

5.2 Noise Pollution

About 130 million people in OECD countries are exposed to unacceptable noise levels (greater than
65 dB (A)) daytime as per estimates by OECD (1994) Noise level caused due to road traffic is one of
the most serious problems. The generation noise level in the road system depends on factors such as
traffic intensity, speed, the type and condition of the vehicle, acceleration/declaration depending on
the level of congestion, quality of road. Continuous exposure of noise of high intensity has serious
implications on human health and efficiency. People living near the railway track are also exposed to
high degree of noise pollution. The study carried out at a residential area of Chennai, 30 Mts. from

railway track indicates that the maximum noise level varies between 74 dB (A) for the movement of
trains (Thirumurthy 1990).
As far as air traffic noise is concerned, the severity of air traffic craft noise problem seem to be less
pronounced when compared to other two sources of noise as per the studys findings.

6. TRANSPORT DEMAND IN INDIA

Among the major modes of transport, there are a large number of vehicles driven by the petroleum
products as cars, scooter/motorcycles, buses, trucks etc. in India. Motor vehicles are the dominant
source of all pollution in major urban centres of India. In recent past, especially during past decade,
vehicular growth and fuel demand have rapidly grown in road transport sector in India as can be seen
in the table 4. Motor vehicles have grown about 15 percent in India during 1980-1990. Scooters/
motorcycles registered the highest growth rate with 19.6 percent followed by goods vehicles with 10.9
percent.
Table 4: Growth of Vehicles 1951-89(Number in Lakhs)
Vehicle Type

1951

1961

1971

1981

1989

1990

2001
(Estimated)

Buses

0.34

0.57

0.94

1.54

2.94

3.18

9.50

Cars/Jeeps

1.59

3.09

6.82

11.17

24.81

27.41

33.00

Two-wheelers

0.27

0.89

5.76

25.28

106.17

126.98

346.50

Goods

11.97

1326

Others

0.56

2.09

5.12

13.73

21..04

22.47

78.50

Total

3.06

6.64

18.64

51.73

166.93

193.30

423.60

SOURCE: Motor Transport Statistics of India, Ministry of Transport

(-) Data not available

From the Table 4, it can be seen that if this growth trend continues, there will be about 423.6
million petroleum driven vehicles in India. This would have tremendous impact on our
environment. The transport demand for selected cities in India as can be seen from the Table
7 reveals that the metropolitan cities such as Kolkata, Mumbai, Delhi, Bangalore would
generate travel demand more than 10 million trips. The modal split in favour of rail transport
in any cities in India would not be more than 33 percent.
7. ENERGY AND TRANSPORT
The energy consumption the transport sector is very high and account to nearly one third of
the total commercial energy in the country out of which 84 percent energy consumption
relates to fossil fuels. It would be note-worthy to mention that the rate of growth of energy
consumption in India in the last three decades has been faster that the rate of growth of the
economy as can be seen in the Table 5.

Table 5 Economic Growth & Energy Consumption

Plan

Average growth rate of

economy (% annum
compound)

Average growth
rate of energy
consumption (%
per annum)

First Plan (1951-56)

3.5

9.6

19.7

Second Plan (1956-61)

4.1

10.6

1 2.4

Third Plan (1961-66)

2.6

12.2

18.5

Fourth Plan (1969-74)

3.5

6.3

21.2

Fifth Plan (1974-78)

4.5

8.1

25.2

Sixth Plan (1979-83)

4.7

11.1

28.2

Eighth Plan ((1992-97)

6.8

26.5

6.5

Ninth Plan (19972002)

Share of energy
( % in the Five Year Plan)

Source: 1) Energy & Urban Transport: Potential of Battery Powered Road Vehicle, K.Mishra, Transport System & Studies, IIT, Delhi, 1996

2) Ninth Five-year Plan, 1997-2002, Government of India

It can be mentioned that amongst the bicycle, vehicle offers better option as compared to some of the
oil-based modes (Fig 1,). It can be seen (Table 6)that the biggest metropolis namely Kolkata, Chennai
and Delhi would experience significant travel demand more than 169 lakhs trips daily in the year
2001 as compared to the other cities in India.

Fig 1. Energy Consumption per Passenger Km

Table 6: Transport Demand (in Lakhs) for Selected Cities

City

Total Daily Passenger

Trips

Total Daily Passenger

Total daily Passenger

Trips

1981
1966-67

2001( estimated)

Kolkata

35

114.8

188.9

Mumbai

46.0

102.5

189.5

Delhi

19.8

70.0

169.1

Chennai

16.0

51.4

92.0

Bangalore

33.8

107.6

Ahmedabad

29.0

63.4

Pune

17.8

30.6

Jaipur

9.2

28.0

Lucknow

9.1

12.5

Coimbatore

7.9

12.9

Chandigarh

1.5

11.5

Source: Report of NTPC, Planning Commission, Satsangi, P.S. Development of Demands Models for Urban
Transport in India, IIT, Delhi

8. AN APPROACH FOR CONSIDERATION OF ENVIRONMENTALLY

SUSTAINABLE TRANSPORT
8.1 Introduction
There is no doubt that any transport system is the lifeline for any development in the society
irrespective of social, economical, political, cultural aspects and virtually acts as an important catalyst
to overcome any physical barrier. It is a well-established fact that transports system and economic
development go hand in hand with each other. Finally the question comes as to what extent and what
form of transport would be essential which would become environmental friendly sustainable
transport system. This would ultimately reflect the minimum ill effect on environment. In view of
the problems of many cities in the world, time is opportune to rationally evolve strategies on the
selection of appropriate transport mode in our society. In the light of energy requirements,
environmental friendliness concept, possible consequences of energy scarcity of oil-based transport
and damages caused due to it on environment, a scale of environmentally sustainable transport system
in the urban scale may be built and examined for its suitability.

8.2 An Approach for Environment Friendly Transport

In view of the major role of prevailing modes of transport and its impact on the environment, the
following modes can be examined which could be of great significance and importance for creation of
sustainable environment as can be seen in the Table 7
The bicycle, the lowest order of environment friendly vehicle, offers a reliable means of
transportation. It is economical, recreational, non-congesting and non-polluting means of movement.
Additionally it can be used for physical fitness. For a trip length of 5 km. This mode may be ideal for
urban area. A comparison of bicycle with other modes of petrol driven vehicle is presented below in
the table 7. Cycle-Rickshaw can be considered to play its role as intermediate or hired mode of
transport even in future as it serves today. For small and medium-sized cities, the role of cyclerickshaw is to be given due importance. Even in Metropolitan City where mass transportation is not
well developed, cycle-rickshaw can be assumed to play a major role.
Table 7 Personalized and Mass Transit Modes for Sustainable Transport System
Bicycles

Personalized Vehicle

Cycle-Rickshaw
Battery-powered vehicle
Solar-powered vehicle

Trolley bus, CNG operated Bus

Mass Transport

Tram
Light-trail transit
Metro

Table 8: A comparative Assessment of the Efficiency of bicycle with other modes.

Sl.
No.

System Parameters

Walk

Bicycle

Car

Bus

1.

Speed (km/ph)

6.4

16

16

16

2.

Width of Lane (m)

0.60

0.9

2.4

3.0

3.

Capacity per lane

4,224

2,680

1,760

1,056

4.

Number of lanes in 40
24 m road width

26.75

10

5.

Total capacity

70,400

18,800

8,500

168,960

Source: Reference (Sarkar 1982)

Battery powered vehicles in certain places in Delhi are operating. Major difficulty of this type of
vehicle is the heavy dead load as compared to the total weight of the vehicle and offers low-intensity
of electricity charges. Research and development are presently on full swing in developed countries
to find its commercial application. It is believed that this type of vehicle would be of greater demand
in near future, which would replace the prevailing personalized gasoline driven vehicles.
As far as solar-powered vehicle is concerned, it is yet to find its commercial success due to some
limitation.
Trolley buses have also made substantial impact in many countries in general and Nepal in particular.
This system can be explored to replace the existing diesel driven buses. Subsequently the role of CNG
operated buses should be considered seriously as a part of environment friendly mode of transport.
Tram can play an important role in the overall transport system. The advantages of introducing tram
as a major mode of mass transport are that it can either move on the street with the mixed traffic or on
the street with reserved section. A comparison of tram with respect to other mass transport is
presented in the Table 9.
When there is a high travel demand in the travel corridor, it is appropriate to convert conventional
tram system to modern LRT or Metro system. There are many countries in the world where light rail
transit system is increasingly becoming popular. Many cities such as Basel, Zurich, Karlsruhe,
Strutgart, Nantes, Grenoble, Cologne and Hanover have experienced modernization and conversion
from conventional tram way network to light rail transit system.

Table 9: Transit System Characteristics

System Characteristics

Buses

Tram

LRT

Metro

Vehicle capacity

120

100-120

200-300

300-375

Vehicle per train

(1-2)

(3-6)

(4-10)

capacity 16,000
speed

20,000

25,000

70,000

(15-30)

(10-25)

(15-25)

(30-35)

Lane/Track
(Passenger/hr
km/ph)

Journey

Journey speed km/ph

Source: Urban Transit System Guidelines for examining options by Alan Armstrong Wright.
Last and costliest option is the Metro. From the examples of London, Paris, New York, Chicago,
Tokyo, Moscow and Toronto, some of the developing countries are also attempting to develop this
Metro system. In order to minimize the cost of construction, it would be worth considering locating
the railway tracks at ground levels or above ground levels. This system capacity could be enhanced to
80,000 passenger per hour per direction being considered for Delhi Metro System.
9.0 A REVIEW OF INTERMEDIATE AND PUBLIC TRANSPORT SYSTEM IN KOLKATA
IN CONTEXT OF MAKING IT SUSTAINABL

9.1 Why do we need sustainable transport in Kolkata

Around 70% of Kolkatas 18 million inhabitants suffer from respiratory problems,

such as asthma, lung cancer, and breathing difficulties, much of it caused by pollution
from the cities chaotic transport sector. (Study by Chittaranjan National Cancer
Institute)

Noise pollution from mainly buses and auto rickshaws causes some percentage of
permanent damage of hearing, other than regular disturbances of work and studies.

The growth in the demand for mobility and the demand for motorized transport is the
largest single source of greenhouse gases and the source that is growing the fastest.

More the number of flyovers, roads, tunnels, parking space are provided, the more
demand will be. Restraining the unchecked development, both the city life and the
human life will be saved from further damage.

Sustainable solutions will make the best use of the citys assets without depleting
them.

9.2 What are the objectives of transport solutions in Kolkata as a Whole ?

Sustainable transport solutions are identified by their linkage to targets and objectives. Transport
planning and transport investment must have a purpose which must be clearly identified and reflect
the views of residents. There is a general level of agreement that these targets and objectives should
include:
reducing air pollution
reducing noise levels
increasing the space, security and comfort for pedestrians and cyclists
reducing the number of cars and lorries on the roads and increasing the proportion of journeys
accomplished by walking and cycling
developing and improving those modes of transport that are zero pollution on the streets (e.g. the
tram)

 establishing safe routes to schools, hospitals, workplaces, etc.

reducing road traffic accidents
reducing total energy consumption
increasing the amount of green space in urban areas
increasing the number of trees.

9.3 About Kolkata

Kolkata is the core city within the Kolkata Metropolitan District. The city is a treasure of culture.
The major functions for the city of Kolkata are:Trade
Administration
Manufacturing
Service
The city was founded as a trade center in the late 17th Century on the eastern bank of the river
Hooghly, 160kms from the Bay of Bengal. It was the capital for the British India. Today it is the
largest center of finance, commerce and education in the eastern region.
Kolkata

the Municipal Corporation area.

Population 4580544.
Density of population 24.76 per sq.km.
Area

185 sq.km.

N S direction 18 km.
E W direction 6 km.

(extent)

Pollution is at its worst in Kolkata. The ideal count of Suspended Particulate Matter
(SPM) and Respiratory Particulate Matter (RPM) should not exceed 140 and 60
respectively. But Kolkata's average SPM count is 211 and RPM count is 105.
Over the past year, only 20% of the city's 1.5m registered vehicles reported for emission
tests. The rest are getting away spewing out deadly smoke.

The identified places where the maximum traffic pollution occurs are as follows:
Important road traffic intersection junctions
Trade and commerce zones
Waterway ports
Taxi stands, auto stands, bus stands, where pollution is more in the form of garbage rather than
emitted gases.
Heavy vehicles such as lorries, buses, trucks, those ply on roads causing noise pollution.

In order to appreciate the various transport system in Kolkata, the following table helps to have a
quick glimpse of the positive and negative aspects of different transport system with a possible
solutions to make it sustainable.

Table 10 Comparisons of Different Types of Transport in Kolkata

Type of
transport

Positive points

Negative points

Solution

TRAM

1. Does not use any form of fossil

fuel, thus greenhouse emission is
zero. Runs solely on electricity.

1. Usage of a large amount

of electricity. An alternate
renewable source of energy
could be thought of.

1. A
Comprehensiv
e modern tram
(LRT) network
on reserved
right way.

2. Low noise pollution as

compared to other modes.
3. Low rate of accidents as trams
travel of fixed travel tracks.

METRO

1.Fixed tracks, no question of

causing traffic congestion.
2.Fixed routes, thus creating a
secondary efficient dependant
transport system of rickshaws and
auto rickshaws.
3.Fastest way of connecting the
north-south corridor in the city.

2. The sordid state of tram

system is unreliable, and
daily commuters prefer
using other modes.

2.
Increase
number
of
trams,
with
3. Trams carry less than line haul and
one-fourth of passengers feeder routes
they are designed to carry.
through
industrial and
service zones.

1. Immense amount of
noise pollution in closed
tunnels.

1.Increase
number of
trains.

2. Frequent lapse of
security causing deaths.

2.Change 20
year
old
machinery for
newer
ones,
lessen
noise
pollution,

3. Current supply is far less

than the demand, thus
causing rush hour crowd.

CIRCULAR
RAILWAYS

1.By far the easiest way of

travelling along the river Hooghly
on the east bank.
2.Designed in the British Era, it has
major interchanges with tram and
metro lines.
3.Cheap and fast mode.

1.Highly underutilized, the

trains run for more of a
social and cultural
obligation than for utility.
2.Immense amount of
industrial pollution on
either side repel
commuters.

1.It is not only

the
responsibility
of the transport
department, the
urban planner
needs to find
solutions
to
shift slums.

3.Shanties on either side of

tracks create unhygienic
conditions.
SUBURBN
RAILWAYS

1.Most efficient mode of transport

for 2.5 million daily commuters
from the suburbs.

1.The old tracks are over

utilized causing frequent
derailments.

2.Converges at Sealdah and

Howrah, the two major stations.

2.Overcrowding occurs,
demand is more than
supply, security is low.

1.Increase the
number of
coaches on
each train.
2.Increase
number of
tracks.

3.Excess pressure on
Sealdah and Howrah.

3.Create a new
station in the
4.Pollution occurs in forms far
of illegal settlements along south(Garia,
the tracks.
for eg) that is
as important as
Sealdah/Hwh.
1. No congestion as Hooghly river
WATER
TRANSPORT is wide enough to accommodate
more than the required number of
vessels.
2.Faster and cheaper than road
transport across the river.

1.Low marketing results in

lower commuters.
2.Lack of secondary
dependant communication
systems from ferry ghats
dissuade passengers.

1.Use of
Appropriate of
fuel for the
ferries.

2.Increase of
ferry
routes
will pave the
3.A major source of water way
for
pollution as ferries do not urbanized
use proper fuel, and often areas up the

BUSES

1.Connects urban, peri urban and

rural areas.
2.Efficient and cheap system.

dump dirty oil in the river.

stream.

1.Highest emitter of
greenhouse gases. Most
buses use diesel and emit
poisonous fumes causing
health hazards and
affecting longevity of life.

1.Change to
CNG buses.
Few JNNURM
buses have
been
introduced,
more need to
ply.

2.High in noise pollution,

disturbs residential locality.

2.Change
of
3.Poor conditions of buses private owners
cause frequent accidents.
to govt. owners
will
dec.
monopoly.
TAXIS

1.Connects all parts of the city.

1.Not environment
friendly, as it is almost
parallel to private vehicles.

1.Control the
number of
taxis plying.

2.Has approximately 1.1

passengers per trip, which
is not acceptable.

2.Taxis have to
ply at least a
minimum dist,
discouraging
3.Emits poisonous fumes if trips for less
unchecked.
dist.
AUTO
RICKSHAW
S

1.Fast and easy mode of

communication.

1.Very noisy, causes

disturbances in residential
areas.

1.Law should
enforce use of
LPG or CNG
gases.

2.Emits diesel fumes, very

few autos run on CNG or
LPG gas.

2.Restrictive
design
to
prevent travel
3.Problems of taking more of
passengers
than
the undesignated
designated ones.
no.
of
passengers.
CYCLE

1.Non polluting system of travel in

1.Creates traffic

1.Fix specific

RICKSHAW,
HAND
PULLED
RICKSHAW

all aspects.
2.Saviour in times of the citys
flooding.
3.Provides employment to the
Bengal, Bihar, Jharkhand and
Orissas unskilled workers.

congestion, as they cannot

compete with speedy
motorized vehicles.
2.Some argue
urbanization.

it

routes for
rickshaws.

2.Make onlystunts rickshaws

roads such that
people get
encouraged to
use them.

9. CONCLUSIONS
With a view to developing environment friendly urban transport system, it is extremely necessary to
develop strong national transport policies where attempt should be made to discourage the prevailing
petrol-diesel driven vehicles and to encourage bicycle traffic for a short distance and to promote
battery-driven and solar-powered vehicles. In order to develop proper national transport policies, a
critical evaluation of the present transport system with respect to the role of future transport system
based on non-petrol and diesel driven vehicles should provide a step further in this context. In this
paper, the role of CNG operated buses has been discussed on countries likes New Zealand, Argentina
and Chile. For country like India, its feasibility needs comprehensive review, analysis, and
experimentation and application with improved technology. This analysis shall receive an impetus
from the fact that the public transport system in Delhi is now currently running on CNG. The planning
for public transportation is an important exercise, which has a tremendous bearing on the National
Development. Future transport policies should also be directed towards developing mass transport
infrastructure based on electrically operated system that will have least impact in polluting the
environment. The possible mass transport scenario in future in our country may emerge into
environmentally sustainable transport and may be primarily developed in the form of trams, trolley
buses, battery-operated buses, LRT and Metro according to the prevailing socio-economic conditions
of the cities. Sustainable transport policies have their greatest impact at the city level. Outside
Western Europe, cities which have consistently included sustainability as a key consideration in
transport and land use planning include Curitiba, Brazil, Bogota, Colombia Portland,
Oregon and Vancouver, Canada. Many other cities throughout the world have recognized the need to
link sustainability and transport policies, for example by joining Cities for Climate Protection.
In view of the existing transport scenario in Kolkata, It is extremely necessary to convert diesel
operated taxi, truck, buses and auto rickshaw to CNG based system immediately as seen in Delhi.
Tram is required to be rejuvenated and transformed to LRT system which is more efficient with
respect to speed and acceleration and deceleration power. An attempt should be made to optimize the
potential of the existing IWT system so that sizeable transport demand made by other modes of
transport can be reduced with the help of strengthening the IWT in terms of increasing more routes
and frequency of the services. A detailed feasibility study is needed in terms of reorganization and
integration of transport system as highlighted for achieving sustainable transport system in Kolkata.

REFERENCES
1.

World Commission on Environment and Development (1987), our common future (The
Bruntland Report), Oxford University Press, Oxford.

2.

Hajer, M.A. (1991), Environmental Performance Review as Instrument of Ecological

Modernisation; a contextual analysis, paper for the International Symposium Environment
Performance Review; a new toll? The Fridtjot Namsen Institute, Oslo, May.

3.

The Urban Age, Urban Transportation Issue (1993), Volume 2, Number 1.

4.

IVCN, UNEP, WWF (1991), Caring for the Earth: A Strategy for Sustainable living,
Earthsean, London.

5.

OECD (1991), The State of the Environment, OECD, Paris.

6.

Thirumurthy, A.M. (1990), Traffic Noise Pollution A case study on the Awareness level of
an Urban Community in India, Proceedings of the National Conference on Transportation
System Studies, IIT, New Delhi, December (1-3).

7.

Sarkar, P.K. (1982), Accessibility Measures and Provision for the bicycle user
Particularly in Developing countries, a dissertation submitted for Master Degree in the
University of New Castle Upon Tyne, U.K.

8.

Sarin,S.M. et al (1993), Motor Vehicle Pollution in India and its Global Impact, Key Note
Paper presented at National conference held in Chennai,April,1993

9.

Faiz, A. Weaver, C.S and Walsh, M.P " air Pollution from Motor Vehicles, Standards and
Technologies for Controlling Emissisions, The World Bank, Washington, D.C

10.

Sarkar, P.K. et al (2003), An Approach to Development of Sustainable Urban Transport

Discussion Paper No. 486 Presented in the IRC Annual Meeting, January
2003,Published in IRC Journal, Jan, 2003

SUSTAINABLE TRANSPORTATION SYSTEM - A REVIEW

Girish M G
Assistant Professor, Department of Civil Engineer,
Manipal Institute of Technology,
Maniapl-576104, Udupi Dist., Karnataka.
girishmurgod@gmail.com

ABSTRACT: Transport allows people to move from one place to another

place and also enables the movement of commercial goods. Transport
supports the socio-economical development of whole region. Therefore it is
indispensable for present and in future also. The demand for it is growing
around the globe. However, on the other hand transport also has several
unpleasant effects on our health and on the environment. According to World
Health Organization estimate, the traffic accidents will be the second main
cause of death and injury in developing countries by 2020. More than 600,000
people die every year in road accidents and about 50 million people are
seriously injured. About 80,000 persons were killed and 382,700 persons were
injured in India in the year 2001. This clearly shows the enormity of road
traffic problems in India. Also, urban transportation is one of the most
significant sources of greenhouse gas emissions i.e. carbon dioxide, which
cause climate change. India is known as the worlds fifth largest greenhouse
gas emitter, accounting for about 5% of global emissions. Many other
problems of transport are traffic congestion, fuel crisis, noise pollution, etc.
These problems continue and will exacerbate in many urban areas of India if
the current trend of urbanisation continues. Concern about socio-economic
vitality, environment quality and climate change calls for a transport system
which offers safe mobility and sustainability. This paper presents a review of
sustainable transportation, covering - key issues, strategies, policies,
technologies and also its benefits to the society.
Keywords: - Urban transport planning, sustainable transportation, Green
City, Environment, Sustainability.

1. INTRODUCTION
Transportation plays a vital role in supporting sustainable economic growth of
any country in general. Today, many cities of India are emerging as a centre
of economic development and have become source for lively earnings. As a
result, transport sector in many urban cities of India is growing at tremendous
pace as transport sector provides a handful service in urban areas. On the
other hand increase in traffic has created some serious problems such as
congestion, noise and air pollution, accidents, consumption of energy and land
for infrastructure development and natural resource for vehicle production.
These problems are progressive in nature and may worsen if the current trend
of urbanization continues. However the growing concern over climatic change

and traffic related problems has engrossed transportation and city planners to
look into the aspects of sustainable transportation system.
Many authors and researchers have defined sustainable transportation in
different ways. Black, 19961 has defined sustainable transportation as the
current transport and mobility needs without compromising the ability of
future generations to meet these needs. Pearce et al., 1989; have expressed
that the sustainable transport should represent transport and mobility with
non-declining capital, where capital would include human capital, monetary
capital, and natural capital. Daly, 19921 proposed some criterion for a
transportation sector to be considered as sustainable and are as follows:
The rate at which it uses renewable resources does not exceed the rate
of regeneration.
The rate at which it uses non-renewable resources does not exceed the
rate at which sustainable renewable substitutes can be developed.
Its rate of pollution emission does not exceed the assimilative capacity
of the environment.
Richardson, et al., 19991 has defined sustainable transportation system as
one that fulfils the present transport and mobility without compromising the
ability of future generations to meet their own. Hashem Nejad et al, 2010
referring to urban cities defined sustainable transport as sustainable
transportation planning is nothing but emphasizing non-motorized transport
system like walking and bicycling, popularizing mass transit, ridesharing,
discouraging the use of single-occupancy cars, and connecting transportation
planning to land-use planning. In nut shell sustainable transportation is
nothing but intersection of societal, economical and environmental
components as shown in Figure-1.

Figure-1 Components of Sustainability (Source: Ref. 3)

2. NEED FOR SUSTAINABLE TRANSPORTATION SYSTEM

A transport system must meet the mobility and accessibility needs of
people by providing safe and environmentally friendly modes of
transportation. Today many of the cities in India, as like other major cities
around the world, are facing many transport related problems due to rapid
urbanization and industrialization causing increase in traffic. Some of major
transport associated problems observed in urban areas are addressed here
would emphasis why one should stress on sustainable transportation.

2.1 Road Accident

The overwhelming growth in urban traffic has resulted substantial increase in
road accidents. With over 130,000 deaths annually, the country has overtaken
China and now has the worst road traffic accident rate worldwide. It is
observed that the proportion of fatalities by time of day in 35 large cities of
India (population > 1 million) and in the rest of the country including rural
roads are more during peak hours i.e. 9.00 am to 9.00 pm. Studies have
shown that around 15% of the total road traffic fatalities in India occur in 23
major cities and the same is presented in Table-1. Many studies on road
accidents have shown that the non-motorised transport road users are the most
vulnerable group and account for 60 to 80% of the fatalities. On the other
hand 2- wheeler contributes 20-30% of total fatalities. Also it is evident from
the studies that the urban area account for 47% of total accidents with
fatalities of 38% and the number of persons injured accounting for 39%.

Table-1 Road Accident in 23 Major Cities of India

Sl.
No.

Name of city

Fatal
Accidents

Total No. of
All
Persons
Accidents
Killed

1
Ahmadabad
188
2179
200
2
Bengaluru
715
6872
742
3
Bhopal
244
3719
272
4
Chennai
602
5177
618
5
Coimbatore
262
1098
282
6
Delhi
2272
7516
2325
7
Hyderabad
465
2990
481
8
Indore
394
4724
419
9
Jaipur
389
2007
415
10
Kanpur
477
1178
533
11
Kochi
153
2042
154
12
Kolkata
399
2789
417
13
Lucknow
501
1444
524
14
Ludhiana
185
703
254
15
Madurai
125
555
127
16
Mumbai
607
29327
628
17
Nagpur
229
1383
250
18
Patna
265
922
265
19
Pune
383
2157
394
20
Surat
207
1357
217
21
Vadodara
128
1330
136
22
Varanasi
252
404
267
23
Visakhapatnam
434
1771
460
Total 23 cities
9876
83644
10380
All India
110993
486384
125660
Note: * Accident Severity: Road accident deaths/100 accidents

Persons
Injured
2232
5705
3152
4377
974
6936
2908
3817
1840
999
2107
2004
903
286
513
6567
1224
462
1839
1117
1052
162
1772
52948
515458

Accident
Severity*
9.2
10.8
7.3
11.9
25.7
30.9
16.1
8.9
20.7
45.2
7.5
15
36.3
36.1
22.9
2.1
18.1
28.7
18.3
16
10.2
66.1
26
12.4
25.8

Source: Road Accidents in India-2009, MORTH

2.2 Air Quality and Impact on Atmosphere

The rapid economic development, industrialization, urbanization, population
increase, progressive increasing traffic and higher levels of energy
consumption have caused an increase of pollution load in urban environment.
Automobiles are known as one among the critical source of urban air
pollution especially in the developing world. It is estimated that vehicular
emission account for 50% of the total air pollution. Automotive vehicles emit
several pollutants depending on the type of quality of the fuel consumed by
them. Vehicles in major metropolitan cities are estimated to account for 70%

of CO, 50% of HC, 30-40% of NOx, 30%of SPM and 10% of SO 2 of the total
pollution load of these cities. The transport sector contributes around 14%
towards global emission of greenhouse gases (CO 2 ). Figure-2 shows the
forecasted CO 2 emission from transport, indicates that the figures are quite
alarming. The vehicular emissions have damaging effects on both human
health and ecology.

Figure-2Estimated CO2 Emission (Source: CPCB Report-Ref.8)

2.3 Congestion
Traffic congestion is a major problem in many parts of Indian cities which is a
direct result of growth of private vehicle usage in urban area and the problem
is augmenting day by day due to lack of space available for infrastructure
development. Most of the cities are suffering from medium to high level of
traffic congestion. The roads are becoming congested at a faster rate. Table-2
gives congestion index of some of the cities of India which indicates the
traffic congestion status.

Table-2 Congestion Index of Major Cities of India

City Name
Panaji
Shimla
Pondicherry
Bikaner
Raipur
Bhubaneswar
Chandigarh
Hubli, Dharward
Guwahati
Amritsar

Congestion
Index
0.07
0.13
0.20
0.20
0.30
0.33
0.00
0.23
0.33
0.20

City Name
Patna
Varanasi
Nagpur
Jaipur
Kanpur
Surat
Pune
Ahmedabad
Hyderabad
Chennai

Congestion
Index
0.23
0.41
0.30
0.30
0.33
0.31
0.20
0.30
0.37
0.37

Source: Ref. 9

2.4 Depleting Petroleum Reserves

India stands 6th amongst top ten oil consuming countries of the world. The
transport sector alone consumes more than 50% of the total oil consumption
in the country. Table-3 presents the fuel consumption in percentage by
various sectors in India and especially in metros respectively. The ever
increasing demand for fuel because of significant increase in vehicular
population has led to significant hike in fuel price. In future the problems

related to fuel may further worsen particularly in urban area as the nonrenewable fossil fuel reserve is diminishing and on the other hand demand for
fuel increasing.

Table-3 Fuel Consumption in Percentage by Various Sectors

Sl.No.
1
2
3
4
5

Sector
Transport (Petrol, diesel, CNG, Aviation Fuel)
Industry
Commercial & others
Domestic
Agriculture

Consumption (%)
51
14
13
18
4

Source:-CPCB Report-Ref. 8

3. SUSTAINABLE TRANSPORTATION STRATEGIES

Strategy developing is one of the key steps involved towards achieving the
goals of sustainable transportation. The strategies grouped under various
categories are given in Table-4. The category-1 discusses the strategies of
environmental concern. Improving the efficiency of vehicle reduces the
emission of pollutants, green house gases and fuel consumption. Innovation of
vehicle and fuel technology may lead to meaner, quieter, safer and cleaner
vehicles. The second category of strategy discusses the improvement of
traffic and transit facilities. Improvement of traffic signal timing, prevention
of bottlenecking, ramp metering and flow metering results in lower noise
level due to reduced stop and go driving and smooth traffic flow, reduced
greenhouse gas emission, economy in fuel consumption and decrease in
accidents. Educating drivers and creating awareness may result better and
efficient freight operations. Similarly the last category covers demand
management. Encouraging car users and commuters to use public transit,
Para-transit, ridesharing and walking for personal travel helps towards
achieving the goals of sustainable transportation. Land use significantly
influences the demand for transport as it governs the trip length. For instant,
integrated land use such as location of shopping mall, hospitals, market and
other public facilities under one roof, proximity to residential area reduces the
trip length, makes transit affordable and encourages public towards using
Para-transit or ridesharing or even walking for personal travels. Congestion
pricing is another option available which encourages usage of public transit
discouraging personal transit like car there by supporting sustainable
transportation system.

Table-4 Sustainable Transportation Strategies

Category
Category-1

Category-2

Category-3

Strategy
Vehicle/Fuel Technology
Improving efficiency of conventional vehicles
Innovative vehicle technology
Alternative fuels
Improving Traffic and Transit operations
Improving traffic flow
ITS
Educating Drivers
Logistic and Fleet Management
Demand Management
Modal Substitution

Telecommunication substitution
Taxes and Incentives
Land use
Source: Ref-3

4. AVAILABLE OPTIONS
Increase in population, rapid urbanization and industrialization, growth trends
in traffic population, pollution and ever increasing demand for fuel is forcing
transportation and city planners to think towards adopting sustainable
transportation system. Some of the options available towards achieving
sustainability are addressed below.
Making transit system comprehensive and convenient
Provision of dedicated transit Right-of-ways
Making public transit fares low and keeping them low.
Providing transit and vanpool subsidies
Target prime transit users
Encourage non-traditional transit Encourage carpools and vanpools
Pricing on parking
Offer parking cash-out
Promotion of telecommuting and flexible scheduling
Integrating bicycles seamlessly into transit system
Provision of dedicated bike routes
Check on continual expansion of the urban boundary ever outward to
accommodate new development.
Promotion of mixed-use zoning and transit-oriented development
Modifying parking requirements
Endow facilities to support alternative commuting.
Give preference to transit modes
Time signals to smooth traffic flow
Implementing congestion pricing
Educating community
Making streets safer for pedestrians

5. BENEFITS OF SUSTAINABLE TRANSPORTATION SYSTEM

Some of the social and economical benefits of adopting sustainable
transportation system are listed below:
Scope of new business
Promotion of sales
Encourage local circulation of money
Stimulates retail trade
Offers cost effective service (transit)
Encourage high value land use
Increase productivity
Significant reduction in transportation cost, congestion and other
traffic related problems
Enables economic developments
Reduces infrastructure costs
Creates jobs
Reduces emission of greenhouse gases and other pollutants

Reduces fuel consumption

6. STUMBLING BLOCK TO SUSTAINABILITY

There are several impediments to the attainment of sustainable transportation.
Few important ones are briefed below:
Decision making: - One of the important and foremost steps in any project or
task is making decision by governments, corporations and individuals towards
implementing it.
Mindset: - There is a mindset that achieving sustainable transportation is too
costly, difficult, and will threaten our quality of life and lifestyle.
Mechanism: - There are no proper mechanisms available for identifying
improvements in sustainable transportation. Success stories and beneficial
trends are very little.
Technology: - The modes of transport which comprehensively employ non
conventional sources of energy such as electricity vehicle, biodiesel, solar
power and other forms of renewal energy etc. are still in developing stage and
existing ones are not adequate and needs to be strengthened.

7. CONCLUSION
Though automobile eased the way we travel, has also have some negative
impact at social, economical and environmental level. A need for sustainable
transport facilities which is socio-economic and environmental friendly is
increasingly significantly. Achieving sustainable transportation solutions
requires an organized approach, to guarantee that sustainability principles are
integrated into the decision making process when evaluating and selecting
options. This paper presented a review of literature, expressed the urgency of
sustainable transport stressing the problems caused by transport facilities at
urban level and discussed the strategies and options available for achieving
sustainable transport solutions.

8. ACKNOWLEDGMENT
I would like to express my sincere gratitude to authors and co-authors of all
the papers which I referred for preparing this paper. I also like to express my
sincere gratitude to all the people who are working in this area and
contributing nobly. I also like to thank the organisers of SUTRIMS11, for
accepting abstract/paper. Before I conclude, I would like to express my thanks
to my institute MIT Manipal, for providing all sort of support.

9. REFERENCE
1. Black, R. and William R. (2010) Sustainable Transportation: Problems
and Solutions. Journal of Transport Geography 485-3, The Guilford
Press. 272 pp
2. Bill Drumheller,Allison Quaid, Michelle Wyman, Jim Liljenwall, and
Abby Young (2001) Sustainable Transportation Options International
Council for Local Environmental Initiatives - A report.
3. Deakin E. (2001-03) Sustainable Development and Sustainable
Transportation: Strategies for Economic Prosperity, Environmental
Quality and Equity A report.
4. Fusun Ulengin, Sule Onsel, Y. Ilker Topcu, Emel Aktas, Ozgur
Kabak(2007), An Integrated Transportation Decision Support System
for Transportation Policy Decisions: The Case of Turkey.
Transportation Research Part A, 41, 8097.
5. Hatzopoulou M., Miller E.J. (2009), Transport Policy Evaluation in
Metropolitan Areas: The Role of Modelling in Decision-Making.
Transportation Research Part A, 43, 323338.
6. Muneera T., Celikb A.N., Caliskanc N. (2011) Sustainable Transport
Solution for a Medium-Sized Town in TurkeyA Case Study,
Sustainable Cities and Society, 1, 2937, Elsevier.
7. Road Accidents in India (2009) MORTH, Transport Research Wing
ND - A report.
8. Status of The Vehicular Pollution Control Programme in India,
Central Pollution Control Board A report.
9. Traffic & Transportation Policies and Strategies in Urban Areas in
India, Ministry of Urban Development and Wilbur Smith Associates. A report.

SOIL STABILIZATION OF ROADS IN URBAN AREAS

Sujan. M
Junior Engineer (Civil)
Engineering section,
The English and Foreign Languages University,
Hyderabad 500 007
E-mail: sujan_be@rediffmail.com
ABSTRACT
In developing countries like India the major problem is to provide a complete road net work
system with in limited finances available. There is a need to build up the road net work
system to meet the growing needs of the road tariff .The construction cost can be reduced by
selecting local material at the site including local soil for the construction of the pavements
such as sub-base course. If the local soil is not adequate to with stand wheel loads, the
properties of the local soil to be improved by soil stabilization.
1. INTRODUCTION
Expansive soils, also called `as swelling soils, are those soils which expands (or have) during
the rainy season due to intake of water and shrink during the summer season. Mainly in India
the expansive soil are presently in the states like Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra and Andhra
Pradesh. The engineering structures which are constructed on the expansive soils lead to their
damage and cracking.
2. STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM
2.1 Mechanics for Expansive Soil Stabilization
The term soil stabilization means the improvement of the stability or bearing power of the
soil by the use of controlled compaction; proportioning and or the addition of suitable
admixture or stabilizers.
2.2 The Basic Principle in Soil Stabilization
1. Evaluating the soil properties of given soil.
2. Designing the stabilized soil mix for intended stability and durability values.
3. Considering the construction procedures by adequately compacting the stabilized
layers.

2.3 Investigation for expansive soil stabilized roads

The various field and laboratory investigations needed for the soil stabilized road
construction may be listed as.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Investigation of route and alignment.

Soil survey and field identification of the soil.
Survey for availability of material and transportation.
Laboratory tests on the soil.
Soil classification.

The soil survey is carried out and disturbed soil samples are collected from shallow depth
after removing top soil and organic matter. Field identification tests are carried out to assess
the general quality of the soil. The laboratory tests may be for physical, chemical and
engineering properties of the soils.
Identification and classification tests such has liquid limit, plastic limit and mechanical
analysis may be carried out after this classification tests CBR test may be conducted. The
other tests to estimate the engineering properties are soundness, strength and abrasion tests on
aggregate component and determination of swelling property on the fine fraction of the soil.
3.0 METHODOLOGY
3.1 Behavior of Expansive Soil
Black cotton (BC) soils are highly clayey soils, grayish to blackish in colour found in several
states of India. In several black cotton soil areas suitable road aggregate are to be transported
from distant places, thus increasing the cost of conventional type of pavement layers. The
pavements constructed in black cotton soil areas are found to suffer from early failures.
The black cotton soils are found to contain montmorillomite, clay mineral which has high
expansive characteristics. The colloidal clay content in black cotton soils is up to 50% and the
fraction passing 0.075mm sieve range from 70 to 100%. The liquid limit and plasticity index
value range from 40 to 100% and 20 to 60% respectively. The black cotton soils have low
shrinkage limit (10 to 15%) and high OMC (25 to 30%).
3.2 Main Problems for Construction of Road on Expansive Soil
1. It is very difficult to pulverize the soil as the dry lumps are different to break due to
the high dry strength and the wet soil is too sticky and unmanageable.
2. There is excessive variation in volume and stability with variation in the water
content.
3. There is considerable shrinkage on drying, resulting in the formation of extensive
cracks. Black cotton soil compacted at OMC will also shrink when dried as shrinkage
limit is much lower than OMC.
4. The black cotton soil exerts high swelling pressure from below on being soaked.
5. Conventional construction material like hard aggregate may not be available within
easy reach.

4.0 OBSERVATION OF EXPANSIVE SOIL

4.1 Stabilization of Expansive Soil

Soil lime has been widely used either as a modifier for the clayey soil or as a binder. Lime
also imparts some binding action even in aggregate soils. In fine grained there can also be
action even in granular soils. In fine grained soils there can also be pozzalanic action
resulting in adding strength.
When clay is treated with lime, the various possible reactions are base exchange, coagulation
or flocculation, reeducation in thickness of water film around clay particles, cementing action
and carbonation. By addition of suitable proportion of lime to the black cotton soil and
allowing it to react for a day or two, the modification in the properties take place.
4.2 Predominant Modification Takes Places When Lime Treated with Black Cotton Soil
1. Plasticity index decreases to almost zero and the soil behaves as non plastic soil. Also
the soil become friable in nature and become easy to pulverize the lumps.
2. The affinity with water decreases and there are less changes in volume and stability
with changes in moisture content.
3. The soaked stability value is increased.
4. The shrinkage limit is increased and there is less shrinkage after compaction.
5. Soil-lime is quite suitable as sub-base course for high a types of pavements and base
course for pavements with low traffic. As in the case of soil cement, soil-cement also
cannot be used as a surface course for light traffic in view of its very poor resistances
to abrasion and impact.
4.3 Factors Affecting Properties of Soil-Lime
There are various factors on which the properties of soil lime depend they are as follows
1. Soil Type: - The soil properties affect the base-exchange characteristics and
pozzolanic action.
2. Lime Content: - Generally an increase in lime content causes a slight change in liquid
limit and a considerable increase in plastic limit resulting in reeducation in plastic
index. The rate of increases in plastic limit is first rapid and than the rate decreases
beyond a certain lime content.
3. Type of Lime: - After long curing period all types of limes produce almost the same
effects. However quick lime (Cao) have been found to be more effective than
hydrated lime [Ca (OH2)].
4. Compaction:-The compacted density is important as regards the strength soil-lime is
concerned.
5. Curing: - The strength of soil-lime increases with curing period up to several years.
The rate of increase in the strength rapid during the initial period of curing, which also
depends on temperature.

4.4 Design of Lime-Mix

There is no standard method of mix design. If lime used mainly as a modifier for highly
plastic clay, then the lime content may be decided based on lime fixation limit or at a higher
value to reduce the plasticity index and swelling values up to the desired limits.
4.5 Construction steps of Soil-lime Base Course
1. Preparation of sub grade.
2. Pulverization of the soil to be stabilized.
3. Additional the mixture to age for about a day or precond toning the soil, and remixing
when pulverization becomes easy.
4. Adding rest of the lime, water if necessary and remixing.
5. Spreading to desired grade and compacting.
6. The soil-lime is protected from drying out and is allowed moist curing.
7. The field control tests include checking moisture content at the time of compaction
and checking dry density.

5.0 CONCLUSION
1. The expansive soil contains montmorillomite clay mineral due to which swelling and
shrinkage take place.
2. Lime stabilization technique is very economic compared to other stabilization
techniques.
3. Due to the pozzolanic reaction swelling pressure is reduced.
4. The strength of the expansive soil-lime increases with the increases the curing period.

REFERENCES
Khanna, S.K and Justo, C.E.G Highway Engineering, Nem Chand & Bros,Roorkee(U.S)
Page No 463-487.
Khanna, S.K and Justo, C.E.G and surinder kumar, Design of soil-Aggregate Mixture for
base course Road research Bulletin 15, Indian Road Congress, 1971.
CAI,soil-cement construction Hand Book, Concrete Association of India.
HRB,Soil Stabilization with Portland Cement Highway Research Board, Bulletin 292,
1961.
Mehar, S.R., Chadda, I.R., Use of Lime in Soil Stabilization, Journal, Indian Road
Congress, Vol. XIX-I and 4,1954.
PCA, Soil-Cement Laboratory Hand-Book, Portland Cement Association, Chicago.
Mehta, S.R and Uppal, H.L., use of stabilized soil in Engineering Construction, Journal
Indian Roads Congress, Vol.XIV-3,1950

Lambe, T.W.(1960) The Strcture of Compactes Clays, Journal soil Mech. Found. Div.
Vol.84, No. SM 2, Proc, Paper 1964; Also Transaction, ASCE, paper No. 3041, Vol. 125,
Part-I.
Meyerholf, G.G. (Dec. 1951). The
Geotechniaque, Vol-2 No. 4, London

ultimate

bearing

capacity

of

Foundation.

SUSTAINABLE URBAN TRANSPORT INITIATIVES IN INDIA WITH A FOCUS

ON PUBLIC PRIVATE PARTNERSHIP (Revised)
__________________________________________________________________________
Dr. Chandra, Rajesh, Senior Economist (Project), rchandra@niua.org and Prof. Vaidya,
Chetan, Director, cvaidya@niua.org, National Institute of Urban Affairs, Core 4B, India
Habitat Centre, Lodhi Road, New Delhi 110003.
Unified Metropolitan Transport Authority
in million plus cities to coordinate urban
INTRODUCTION
transport and use Public Private
Partnership (PPP); setting up a dedicated
Most of the cities in India have been facing
urban transport fund at city as well as state
transport problems for past many years
levels; Unified Metropolitan Transport
affecting the mobility of people and finally
Authorities have been set up in two cities
the economic growth of the urban areas.
etc. The Government of India has funded
These problems are due to prevailing
15,260 modern and intelligent transport
imbalance in modal split; inadequate and
systems enabled buses for city transport
non-sustainable
transport
for 61 mission cities as a part of the
systems/infrastructure and its sub optimal
economic stimulus package.
use; no integration between land use and
transport
planning.
There
is
no
The present paper gives highlights of
improvement or little improvement in
selected
transport
initiatives/projects
public transport (rail or bus based), which
undertaken or are being undertaking in ten
leads to a massive shift to Intermediate
cities of India, which is based on the study
Public Transport and personalized
on Urban Transport Initiative in India:
vehicles. In view of above, the
Best Practices in PPP, submitted by the
Government of India approved the
National Institute of Urban Affairs (NIUA)
National Urban Transport Policy in April
to the Ministry of Urban Development
2006 focusing mainly on mobility of
(MoUD), Government of India (GOI).
people; integration of land use and
The study is available on NIUAs website,
transport planning; improvement in public
www.niua.org.
transport; introduction of intelligent
transport system; facilities for nonOut of 10 projects, four are BRTS of
motorised modes; capacity building;
Ahmedabad,
Pimpri-Chinchwad,
revolving legal and administrative issues;
Visakhapatnam, Jaipur; 5 modern city bus
involvement of private sector; innovative
services of Jalandhar, Jabalpur, Surat,
financing mechanism; use of cleaner
Vadodara and Jalgaon; and multi-level
technology;
and
major
awareness
underground parking project of Kolkata.
campaign for citizens.
Barring Jaipur Public Transport (through
BRT and modern city bus service) project,
In above context, the Government is
remaining projects are PPP based projects.
taking a number of initiatives to develop a
The paper presents description of the
sustainable urban transport system that can
projects
in
brief,
identifies
support the growing level of economic
challenges/constraints
and
gives
activities in India. Many cities have
suggestions, which might be helpful to
prepared Comprehensive Mobility Plans
urban planners and professionals in
and have plans to introduce modern bus
formulating and implementing sustainable
services; Bus Rapid Transit System
transport projects in the country.
(BRTS) is coming up in eleven cities; six
cities are planning new metro rail systems;
setting up a Special Purpose Vehicle
PPP in Selected Projects
(SPV) to manage bus services; setting up
PPP is the method in which public and
1

private sector cooperate and partner with

each other to provide infrastructure and/or

Table 1: Highlights of Public Private Partnership in BRTS Projects of Selected Cities

Public-Private Partnership

Cities

Public Sector

Private Sector
PPP Arrangements(Contracts):

Ahmedabad Janmarg Limited, a SPV, for:

Ahmedabad

2.

Maintenance Contracts for Bus Stations (Civil Works),

Lighting of Bus Stations & Corridor, Monitoring and
Maintenance of BRTS Corridor (Civil works), Signage.
Pune Mahanagar Parivahan Mahamandal Ltd. (PMPML) Private Sector for Road Furniture:
responsible for managing facilities and services (operating
buses).
PCMC Infrastructure Company, a SPV, to:
Bus stops;
Plan, construct, operate and maintain the BRT corridor
Public toilets;
through funds generated by the Urban Transport
Landscaping;
Fund. Premium on loading of Transfer of
General maintenance; and
Development Right (TDR) is a robust source of
Advertisement rights offered on Mumbai Pune
revenue.
road of 12Kms.

1.

Jaipur Development Authority responsible for:

1.
Pimpri -Chinchwad

Planning of services;
Selection of operators;
Monitoring of service quality;
Fare revisions;
Coordination with relevant departments; and
Future BRTS expansion plan.

Bus Procurement, Operations and Maintenance;

Integrated Information System including
Automatic Ticketing and Vehicle Tracking
System(BOT);
Supply & Service Contracts for Bus Station
Sliding Doors, Turnstiles;
House Keeping & Cleaning of Bus Stations;
Management of Pay & Park facilities;
Lease of Advertisement Rights;
Development of Foot Over Bridges on DBFOT;
Development & Maintenance of Landscape; and

2.
Jaipur

4.

Development of BRT infrastructure; and

Supervision of construction works of BRT
corridors.

Jaipur City Transport Services Ltd., a SPV to:

3.

No private sector involved.

Look after overall BRT projects;

Procurement of bus operators, collection
agencies, ITS agency; and
Regulate, control and monitor BRT operation.

Unified Metropolitan Transport Authority deals with the

policy level decisions, which are related to land use and
transport.
PDCOR Ltd and STUP Consultant Ltd. are responsible
for infrastructure designing, bus operation and supervision
of Engineering works.

In future, JDA would construct bus stops / shelters /

stations in the city through PPP.

Visakhapatnam

Cities

Public-Private Partnership
Public Sector
Visakhapatnam Urban Transport Company Limited, a SPV,
(with equity stakes through GVMC, APSRTC &VUDA)
responsible for:

Planning, designing, financing, developing constructing,

maintaining, marketing operating;
Providing multi model transport services including
owing, licensing and operating bus routes, passengers and
other modes of transportation; and
Serving as a single agency which will facilitate,
coordinate, control and monitor the activities of various
public and private partners.

Private Sector
Private Sector is for:

Implementing (financing, designing and

executing) the bus shelters and foot over bridges
on the corridors on BOOT model;
Operating and maintaining facilities for given
Concession period; and
Transferring facilities to GVMC after Concession
period.

Note: BOT Build- Operate -Transfer; BOOT- Build- Own- Operate and Transfer; and DBFOT
Design Build Finance Operate and Transfer.

Table 2: Major Highlights of Public Private Partnership in Modern City Bus services of
Selected Cities
Public Private Partnership
Cities
Public Sector

Private Sector
Private Sector is for:

Jalandhar

1. Jalandhar City Transport Service Limited, a SPV, to:

Operate and manage Public Transport system;
Provide differentially priced services; and
2. Municipal Corporation of Jalandhar to provide space for City
Bus Depot and bus queue shelters on lease basis.

Bus Queue shelters on BOT;

GPS on BOOT;
Monthly bus passes;
Electronic ticketing machine;
Five bus operators; and
Public Information System (PIS).

Private Sector is for:

1. The Surat Municipal Corporation is to:

Surat

Identify routes, bus stops and fixing up fare structure; and

Quality of service in terms of frequency and CNG fuel.
2. Regional Transport Authority for sanctioning carriage stage
permits providing statutory sanctions to these terms.
Jabalpur City Transport Services Limited, a SPV, to operate and
manage the public transport system in a PPP model.

Procuring, owning, operating and maintaining

buses;
Expenditure on rolling stock;
Construction of bus stops on BOT; and
Rights given to operators by SMC for collecting
fares.
Private Sector is for:

Jabalpur

Procuring and operating buses;

Making passes;
Constructing bus stops on BOT; and
On line Vehicle Tracking System GPS and PIS.

Public Private Partnership

Cities
Public Sector

Private Sector

1. Vadodara Mahanagar Seva Sadan is the lead implementing

agency to:

Private Sector is to:

Procure, own, operate and maintain the buses;
Take care of expenditure on rolling stock and
operation and maintenance;
Provided uniforms (with logos of VMSS and the
VTCOS Pvt Ltd) to drivers and conductors; and
Construct Pick- up stands / Queue shades on BOT.

Vadodara

Identify bus routes, bus stops and fixing of fare structure;

Define quality of service in terms of frequency
Determine the buses should run on CNG
2. Regional Transport Authority for:
Sanctioning stage carriage permits providing statutory
sanctions to these terms.
Providing technical assistance to VMSS in preparing proposal
and tenders etc.
3.

Gujarat State Road Transport Corporation for providing route

map.

Jalgaon

1. A Transport Committee, constituted by Jalgaon Municipal

Corporation, for:

Private Sector is to:

Policy decisions;
Levy of fares and charges of transport services has been
decided by the transport committee with approval of the
Municipal Corporation and R.T.A.; and
Approval to the Routes Stages and Fare structures.
2. Transport Manager for:

Identification of routes stages and fares and charges;

Submission of proposal to Appropriate Authorities;
Management of Undertaking; and
Execution and overall implementation of PPP Model.

Procure, own, operate and manage buses;

Erection of Bus shelters;
Appointment and Training ;

Note: Municipal Corporation of Jalgaon has transferred

the rights to the above mentioned transport company, in
lieu of the royalty of ` 0.85 per km. The Corporation
has also taken ` 25,000 per vehicle from the Operator
as a guarantee in the form of bank deposit.

Table 3: Major Highlights of PPP for Kolkata Multilevel Underground Parking at

Lindsay Street
Public Private Partnership
Public Sector
Kolkata Municipal Corporation to:

Private Sector to:

Private Sector

Offer the concessionaire, Simplex Pvt. Ltd.

(private sector), the right to construct the parking
system and commercial complex. Architectural
designs and drawings were approved by the
Corporation; and
Collect the basic rent directly from the lessee.

Construct commercial complex (at Level -1) on

BOOT;
Construct underground car parking (at Level-2)
on BOOT; and
Impose and collect parking charges and pay the
Corporation.

improved public services. Public is

4

represented by SPV in the projects of

Ahmedabad, Pimpri-Chinchwad, Jaipur,
Visakhapatnam,
Jalandhar,
Jabalpur;
Municipal Corporation in case of Surat,
Vadodara, Kolkata; and Transport
Committee in Jalgaon. Private is
represented
by
Private
Sector
Organizations/Companies involved in
financing
the
project
or
for
technical/engineering means or for
management purposes. There are many
PPP models available in which public and
private sectors enter into the partnership
(Table 1, 2 and 3).

SUSTAINABLE
PROJECTS
SUCCESS STORIES
Out of ten urban transport projects, eight
have been implemented and running
successfully. However, Jalgaon City Bus
Service has recently been started. Amongst
eight implemented projects, two are the
BRTS of Ahmedabad and Jaipur; five are
modern city bus services of Jalandhar,
Surat, Jabalpur, Vadodara, Jalgaon; and
Kolkata Multilevel Underground Parking
Project. These implemented projects may
be called as sustainable projects / success
stories
because
of
their
overall
performance and impacts of the project
(Table 4).

After going through various PPP

arrangements made in the sample projects,
one can infer that public and private
sectors enter into PPP through various
types of agreements, contracts or
concessions to meet their requirements.
Public sector
usually do not have
sufficient
finances
or
technical
expertise/means due to which they have to
depend upon private sector for procuring,
operating and maintaining of buses;
erection of bus shelters/bus stops;
providing ITS and other infrastructures.

PPP is one of the factors of their

success, which made the project
sustainable by reducing burden on public
budgetary resources (Surat, Vadodara,
Jabalpur and Jalgaon). Besides, these not
only maximized the quality of service but
also minimized the cost of service.
The operation of fuel efficient and
environment friendly (CNG buses) modern
buses also made the projects sustainable as
these generated environmental benefits
through reduced emissions of greenhouse
gases and local air pollutants. Moreover,
the operation of efficient public transport
discouraged people to use their personal
vehicles, which helped in reducing air
pollution on roads (Ahmedabad, Jaipur,
Vadodara and Surat).

However, the role of public sector, as

mentioned in the aforesaid Tables, is
planning, designing, identification of
routes, fixing of fares, over all supervision
and monitoring of the project. In nutshell,
this is all done for providing efficient and
better quality services to the citizens. It is
expected that the PPP arrangements may
help in making the project sustainable and
successful in terms of operational
performance. This largely depends upon
financial performance, which itself is
subject to management efficiency and fare
structure. The following section of this
paper tries to identify sustainable projects
(success stories) by evaluating overall
performance of the case projects with the
available data/information on the projects.

The Ahmedabad BRTS has been

awarded by MoUD as the Best Mass
Transit Project under JNNURM in the year
2008-2009. It was given 2010 Sustainable
Transport
Award
for
visionary
achievements in sustainable transportation
and urban livability in a function held at
Washington.
The success of Vadodara city bus
service may be due to private investment
by operators for buses, infrastructure and
operation and sharing of returns with
5

operators against expenditure incurred.

The Government of India has conferred an
Award for Excellence in Urban Mobility
on 5th December, 2008.

The success of Surat city bus service

is attributed to the PPP model used for
providing the service. It has received Best
PPP Initiatives in Urban Transport award,
by MoUD in the year 2008.

Table 4: Overall Performance / Impacts of the Projects of Selected Cities

Performance / Impacts of the Projects

Cities
Projects

Ahmedabad
BRTS
Jaipur
Public
Transport
Vadodara
City
Bus
service

Increase
in
Ridership

Improvement
in service
frequency

Information
Availability

NA

Surat City
Bus Service

NA

NA

Jalandhar
City
Bus
Service

NA

Jabalpur
City
Bus
Service

NA

Jalgaon City
Bus Service

Increase
in
Revenue

NA

NA

Reduction
in
Pollution

Reduction
in
Accidents

Users
Satisfaction

NA

NA

NA

NA

NA

NA

NA

NA

NA

NA

NA Not available

MAJOR CHALLENGES / CONSTRAINTS

It is to be mentioned that the aforesaid case
studies are success stories in many respect
but these have encountered many
challenges or constraints, either at the time
of planning or at the time of
implementation.
Challenges/constraints
indicated in the case studies may be
classified in following categories:

Chinchwad);
Financial sustainability of overall
operation (Jaipur).
Lesson Learnt: Financial viability
of the project should be worked out
keeping in view the trend of
inflation rate.

a) Finance
Financial constraints due to cost
escalation
(Pimpri-

b) Planning
Inadequate Right of ways (RoW)
in some areas (Jaipur);

Availability of minimum RoW to

achieve segregation of traffic on
the corridors (Vishakhapatnam);
Land acquisition of properties to
produce RoW (Visakhapatnam);
Acquisition
of
land
for
construction of depot, workshop
and bus terminals (Jalgaon);
Unavailability of lands
for
provision of parking near bus stops
(Jaipur);
Land acquisition delays the
implementation process & land
acquisition issues (Jaipur);
Lack of interagency coordination
(Jaipur and Vishakhapatnam); and
Shifting of utility services (Jaipur)
addressing
drainage
(Visakhapatnam).

Lesson
Learnt:
Automatic
transmission is must not only to
improve maneuvering but also to
reduce the wear and tear of the
buses; and minibuses should be
operated on such roads where
widening of roads is not possible.

Lesson Learnt: Land use planning

should be integrated with transport
planning in newly developing
areas. NUTP also suggests the
same.

d) Technical
Problem of driving buses as the
engine fitted at the rear side of bus
and there is no automatic
transmission system (Jabalpur);
and
Buses are big in size, operation on
narrow road is not smooth having
inadequate
turning
radius
(Jalandhar).

e) Socio-Economic Issues

c) Operation of Buses
Buses are time efficient but the
frequencies of these buses are very
low (Jalandhar, Jabalpur); and
Existing routes are not viable for
profit to the Bus Operators
(Jalandhar).

Agitation by auto rickshaws

drivers;
Poor knowledge of traffic sense of
the citizens has created difficulties
in day to day traffic despite efforts
towards high standards of traffic
engineering in the city (Surat and
Vadodara).
Lesson
Learnt:
Awareness
Campaign should be organized to
provide knowledge about the
project as well as traffic rules.

Lesson Learnt: Travel demand on

different routes should be
reviewed periodically.

activities to make the project more

successful.

SUGGESTIONS
Keeping in view the review of case
projects, in terms of overall performance
and impacts of the projects, PPP
arrangements/models
used,
challenges/constraints encountered at the
time of planning or implementation of the
project and lessons learnt,
some
suggestions can be given to improve future
planning and implementation of the urban
transport projects:

1)

2)

The analysis of various case projects

reveals that PPP is one of the factors,
which is responsible for making the
project successful. The nature of PPP
model / arrangement depends up on
the requirements of the public sector.
Where the Urban Local Bodies
(ULBs)
or
Urban
Transport
Undertakings are not financially
sound, they should enter into PPP
and engage the private sector through
service contract to procure, operate
and maintain the buses(as in case of
Ahmedabad, Jalandhar, Vadodara,
Surat, Jalgaon, etc). If a public sector
does not have technical and
engineering means, it may involve
the private sector for specific
purposes, like, construction of bus
stops / bus queue shelters, GPS, PIS
through BOT, BOOT, and foot over
bridges through DBFOT etc.
In the case projects, public sector has
been represented by Municipal
Corporation (Surat, Vadodara and
Kolkata), SPV (Ahmedabad, PimpriChinchwad, Jaipur, Visakhapatnam
and
Jabalpur)
and
Transport
Committee (Jalgaon). The aforesaid
Municipal Corporations have been
performing their roles efficiently,
however, it may be suggested that
there should be a dedicated body,
like SPV or TC, which could
concentrate only on transport
8

3)

The public sector should be

responsible for planning, designing,
identifying routes and locations of
bus stops/bus queue shelters, fixation
of fares etc. Moreover, it should be
responsible for monitoring the
operation of buses to ascertain as to
whether the operators are operating
buses as per the schedule or time
table.

4)

Fixation of fares or preparing fare

structure should be done by the
public authorities. It is one of the
important responsibilities of the
public sectors as indicated in case
studies also. The fares should not be
pegged levels lower than that
required to cover the cost. Moreover,
the fares should be revised
periodically to meet the operating
cost.

5)

The authorities should explore

alternative ways to generate revenues
besides the fare box. The ULB of
Pimpri- chinchwad has developed an
innovative financial model to create
a new revenue stream to UTF to
construct, operate and maintain BRT
corridors. It has allowed TDR from
other zones to BRT corridor on
payment of premium, which makes
59% of the total income potential of
BRT corridor. The same model may
be replicated in the BRT projects of
other cities.

6)

As indicated in some case studies,

land acquisition for providing RoW
in city area had become one of the
major constraints. In such cases, the
government should take a quick
decision to release the land by giving
appropriate compensations to the
property owners.

7)

Coordination problems have been

faced with the agencies involved. In

Chandra, Rajesh(2006). National Urban

Transport Policy and its Implication, Urban
India, Vol. 26, New Delhi.

this regard, it may be suggested that

the public body-SPV or transport
committee should intervene to solve
the coordination problem with the
relevant departments or agencies
involved.

8)

Kansal, P. and Nagi, A.(2007), Planning and

Design of Bus Rapid Transit System Delhi
experience, Vol. 8, Institute of Urban
Transport (India), New Delhi.

In order to make the BRTS more

successful, it may be suggested to
identify nodal points at BRT
corridors and provide feeder
services from these nodal points to
important city areas.

Ministry of Urban Development(2006),

National Urban Transport Policy, New Delhi.
Sharma, R.C. (2009), National Transport
Policy- The Road Ahead, Urban Transport
Journal, vol. 7, Indian Institute of Urban, New
Delhi.

SELECTED REFERENCES

_______________________
Ahmed, F.(2009), PPP in Metro Project, India
Infrastructure, vol.11, New Delhi.
Asian Development Bank(2009).Bus Rapid
Transit (BRT): Toolkit for Feasibility Studies
"Module 2" (Report). -New Delhi.
Asian Development Bank(2009). Guidelines
for Bus Service Improvement: Policy and
Option Module 3, New Delhi.

KEY ISSUES AND PRESENT PRACTICES FOR SUSTAINABLE TRANSPORTATION

Parmar Bhavin K. & Dr. P. J. Gundaliya
Bhavin Parmar M.E. Student Transportation Engineering Department L. D. College of
Engineering (bhavinparmar1986@gmail.com)
Dr. P. J. Gundaliya Professor Civil Engineering Department L.E. College of Engineering
Morbi (pjgundaliya@gmail.com)

Abstract Numerous initiatives have been undertaken or proposed to reduce the negative
environmental and health impacts of current transport systems. There have been significant gains
with respect to specific pollutants, notably carbon monoxide and lead, from the application of
regulations controlling vehicle emissions and fuel quality. However, many measures lack
effective implementation, in particular those targeting structural changes in transport activity and
reductions in carbon dioxide emissions and noise. Continuing growth in transport activity offsets
the gains achieved through technology. Overall, insufficient progress has been made towards
achieving environmental sustainability for the transport sector especially in developing nations
and India.
Some Key benefits of Sustainable Transport Planning are:
Attracts new business
Generates sales
Encourages local circulation of money
Stimulates retail trade
Offers cost effective services
Encourages high value land use
Increases productivity
Reduces transportation costs
Enables economic development
Reduces infrastructure costs

Thus by incorporating Sustainable Planning an overall efficient and environment friendly system
can be developed for the betterment of society. This paper addresses some key issues and present
practices for Sustainable Planning in the field of highway engineering.

1.

INTRODUCTION

Sustainable development means attaining a balance between environmental protection and

human economic development and between the present and future needs. It means equity in
development and sectored actions across space and time.
It requires an integration of economic, social and environmental approaches towards
development. Sustainable urban development refers to attaining social equity and environmental
protection along with urbanization while minimizing the costs of urbanization.
UN General Assembly convened a conference on the human environment at Stockholm in
June 1972, which came out with guiding principles on human environment. It emphasized that
man has the fundamental right to environment of quality and also that he has a responsibility
towards protecting the environment for present and future generations. It also maintained that
natural resources of the earth must be safeguarded for the benefit of present and future
generations. World Commission on Environment and Development created in1983 popularly
known as Brundtland Commission (1983) 1, described sustainable development as development
that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to
meet their own needs. After twenty years of Stockholm Declaration, the UN Conference on
Environment and Development (also known as Earth Summit) was held at Rio-de Janeiro in
1992 that adopted an action plan, popularly known as Agenda 21. The agenda 21 promised to
reduce poverty, provide clean water and health care, and protect the natural resources and so on.
Also to be noted that some of the Millennium Development Goals (see UNDP) 2 have urged for
ensuring environmental sustainability and reduction of the percentage of the population under
extreme poverty. Similarly, explaining implications of climate change for sustainable
development the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change notes (IPCC) 3 the importance of
social and environmental equity in development. Thus all the major world conferences and
initiatives taken so far on environment and development have stressed on economically viable
development, socially equitable development and protection of the environment for attaining
sustainable development.
Sustainable urban development specifically means achieving a balance between the
development of the urban areas and protection of the environment with an eye to equity in
employment, shelter, basic services, social infrastructure and transportation in the urban areas.
With rapid expansion of urban population around the world there has arisen a wide awareness
about minimizing the environmental costs of urbanization. Concerns are raised at environmental
damages and depletion of nonrenewable resources and rising levels of pollution in urban areas.
(Chattopadhyay 2009)
According to this, ensuring environmental sustainability means taking steps, which include:
a) Integration of the principles of sustainable development in the policies and projects of the
country,
b) Reversal of loss of environmental resources,
c) Reduction of the proportion of people without sustainable access to safe drinking water,
1

World Commission on Environment and Development (WCED) known by the name of its Chair Gro Harlem
Brundtland was convened by the United Nations in 1983.
2
Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) are eight goals to be achieved by 2015 that responds to the worlds
main development challenges. These are drawn from the targets and actions contained in the Millennium
Declarations in the UN Millennium Summit in September 2000.
3
For detailed discussion on climate change see the report of Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, the
source can be found under Cruz et al. (2007) in the reference.

d) Improving the lives of slum dwellers.

Key benefits of Sustainable Transport Planning are:
Attracts new business
Generates sales
Encourages local circulation of money
Stimulates retail trade
Offers cost effective services
Encourages high value land use
Increases productivity
Reduces transportation costs
Enables economic development
Reduces infrastructure costs
2.

PRINCIPLES FOR SUSTAINBILTY

A. Precautionary principle
If there are threats of serious or irreversible environmental damage, lack of full scientific
certainty should not be used as a reason for postponing measures to prevent environmental
degradation. In the application of the precautionary principle, public and private decisions should
be guided by:
Careful evaluation to avoid, wherever practicable, serious or irreversible damage to the
environment, and;
An assessment of the risk-weighted consequences of various options.
B. Intergenerational equity
The present generation should ensure that the health, diversity and productivity of the
environment are maintained or enhanced for the benefit of future generations.
C. Improved valuation, pricing and incentive mechanisms
Environmental factors should be included in the valuation of assets and services, such as:
Polluter pays - that is, those who generate pollution and waste should bear the cost of
containment, avoidance or abatement.
The users of goods and services should pay prices based on the full life cycle of costs of
providing goods and services, including the use of natural resources and assets and the
ultimate disposal of any waste.
Environmental goals, having been established, should be pursued in the most cost
effective way, by establishing incentive structures, including market mechanisms that minimize
cost and maximize benefits environmental problems and develop their own solution for
environment protection.(EIA report by SKM Australia 2009)
D. Changing unsustainable patterns of consumption and production
With increasing purchasing power, wasteful consumption linked to market driven consumerism
is stressing the resource base of developing countries further. It is important to counter this
through education and public awareness. In several areas, desirable limits and standards for
consumption need to be established and applied through appropriate mechanisms including
education, incentives and legislation. Several traditional practices that are sustainable and
3

environment friendly continue to be a regular part of the lives of people in developing countries.
These need to be encouraged rather than replaced by more modern but unsustainable practices
and technologies.
Development decisions regarding technology and infrastructure are a major determinant of
consumption patterns. It is therefore important to evaluate and make development decisions
which structurally lead to a more sustainable society. Technologies exist through which
substantial reduction in consumption of resources is possible. Efforts to identify, evaluate,
introduce and use these technologies must be made.
E. Protecting and managing the natural resource base of economic and social
development
The integration of agriculture with land and water management, and with ecosystem
conservation is essential for both environmental sustainability and agricultural production. An
environmental perspective must guide the evaluation of all development projects, recognizing the
role of natural resources in local livelihoods. This recognition must be informed by a
comprehensive understanding of the perceptions and opinions of local people about their stakes
in the resource base.
There is need to establish well-defined and enforceable rights (including customary rights) and
security of tenure, and to ensure equal access to land, water and other natural and biological
resources.
Water governance arrangements should protect ecosystems and preserve or restore the
ecological integrity of all natural water bodies and their catchments. Biomass is, and will
continue for a long time to be, a major source of fuel and energy, especially for the rural poor.
Recognizing this fact, appropriate mechanisms must be evolved to make such consumption of
biomass sustainable, through both resource management and the promotion of efficient and
minimally polluting technologies, and technologies which will progressively reduce the
pressures on biomass, which cause environmental degradation. The traditional approaches to
natural resource management such ponds, water harvesting etc., should be revived by creating
institutional mechanisms which recapture the ecological wisdom and the spirit of community
management inherent in those systems. (Bahuguna 2008)

3.

ROLE OF TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING IN SUSTAINABLE PRACTICES

Transport has an important role in meeting the goals of urban sustainability. Energy use in the
transportation sector includes the energy consumed in moving people and goods by road, rail,
air, water, and pipeline. The transportation sector is second only to the industrial sector in terms
of total end-use energy consumption. Almost 30 percent of the worlds total delivered energy is
used for transportation, most of it in the form of liquid fuels. The transportation share of world
total liquids consumption increases from 53 percent in 2007 to 61 percent in 2035 in
the IEO2010 Reference case, accounting for 87 percent of the total increase in world liquids
consumption. Thus, understanding the development of transportation energy use is the most
important factor in assessing future trends in demand for liquid fuels.
World oil prices reached historically high levels in 2008, in part because of a strong increase
in demand for transportation fuels, particularly in emerging non-OECD (Organization for
4

Economic Co-operation and Development) economies. Non-OECD energy use for transportation
increased by 4.5 percent in 2007 and 7.3 percent in 2008, before the impact of the 2008-2009
global economic recession resulted in a slowdown in transportation sector activity. Even in 2009,
non-OECD transportation energy use grew by an estimated 3.2 percent, in part because many
non-OECD countries (in particular, but not limited to, the oil-rich nations) provide fuel subsidies
to their citizens. With robust economic recovery expected to continue in China, India, and other
non-OECD nations, growing demand for raw materials, manufactured goods, and business and
personal travel is projected to support fast-paced growth in energy use for transportation both in
the short term and over the long term 4.
One of the challenges of a sustainable urban form is to meet the economic performance
objectives and environmental sustainability of a city at the same time. It may be useful to build
multi modal urban region and supply transport to take care of the different urban and economic
activities. For this the land use and transport policies will have to match the demand of different
activities.
The idea is to create a city that performs well economically and conforms to the objectives of
environmental sustainability. In order to be economically efficient a city needs to reduce
production costs, e.g. costs of receiving inputs and distributing outputs. It also needs to reduce
travel time between the different related companies, between the company and the workers
homes. At the same time the enlargement of the space of the urban labor market enables the
companies to choose from a large pool of workers and also gives the workers a variety of jobs to
choose from. An economically efficient city also creates economies of scale for services and
housing markets. (Bertolini, 2005)
It has been argued by Prudhomme and Lee (1999) that actual extent of the spatial markets
engaged in economic functioning rather than the city size is what matters. Also the jobs those are
accessible rather than those showed in statistics that are significant. Two more factors namely,
the speed of its transport system and the geographical spread of activities affect economic
performance (Bertolini, 2005). The combination of speed, size and spread determines the
effective labor market according to Prudhomme and Lee. Kenworthy and Laube (1999)
comparing the data on speed and spread of 46 cities of the world found that, American cities use
cars, have higher speed and travel distance and low land use density.
On the other extreme, rich Asian cities like Hong Kong, Tokyo and Singapore use slow
speed public transport, travel less distances and have concentrated land use density. European
cities use public transport as well as cars and have moderate densities of land use. Thus the
challenge is to find an urban form, which gives an effective size of urban market by combining
land use policies and transport alternatives. Two factors are important in this regard which are
accessibility i.e. acceptable time and environmental sustainability i.e. reducing costs like CO2
emissions, air pollution, and traffic noise. One solution for this is multi modal urban region.
The idea is to create an environment friendly transport system and create activity places that are
reachable within acceptable time limits. For this to happen, activity locations should be created
which can be reached:
1. Without moving, by walking, by cycling,
2. By public transport,
3. By energy efficient cars &
4. By careful planning of intermodal services.
4
Statistics as per Report :International Energy Outlook 2010 published by U.S. Energy Information Administration available at
http://www.eia.doe.gov/oiaf/ieo/highlights.html

Land-use and transportation implications of this is to create

1. Multi-functional homes/workplaces which does not need travel,
2. Develop multi-functional neighborhoods, which can be accessed by walking, cycling,
3. Develop nodes having functional concentrations that can be reached by public transport
and
4. Develop multifunctional urban regions which can be reached by energy efficient cars.

4.

NEED FOR SUSTAINABILITY IN INDIA

Indias energy and economic development has a cause and effect relationship. With India being a
growing economy, there is external resistance for sacrificing economic growth for the sake of
protecting environment in the future. But India needs to keep up the pace of economic growth to
ensure the good of its masses. Its initial five year plans mostly focused on the urban development
as a result of which there has been no equitable distribution of wealth across the urban and rural
or across the rich and the poor. India needs economic growth and development to free itself from
the evil clutches of poverty and hunger. To ensure the desired rate of growth of the economy it
also needs adequate energy either indigenously or by means of import. This entails that in order
to maintain the required economic growth India would have to exploit the natural resources in
the form of coal, hydro, gas nuclear, and wind. But the challenge is how it can harness the energy
resources so as to ensure its energy needs and at the same time make it sustainable for its future
generations. Indias Integrated Energy Policy Report 2008 lays stress on the energy security
aspects as well diversification of its fuel mix coupled with indigenous use of resources to meet
its energy challenges and its efforts to raise its level of human development. India faces
formidable challenges in meeting its energy needs and in providing adequate energy of desired
quality in various forms in a sustainable manner at competitive prices. India needs to sustain an
8% to 10% economic growth rate, over next 25 years, if it is to eradicate poverty and meet its
human development goals.
In order to deliver a sustained growth of 8% through 2031, India would at least need to grow
its primary energy supply by 3 to 4 times whereas the electricity supply needs to grow at the rate
of 5 to 7 times the present consumption. In real sense of the Indian context, the issue of
sustainability is larger compared to OECD countries as we as a nation have to address the basic
needs of millions. (Gupta & Raman 2009)
National transport policy of India, 2006, advocated public transport and recommended to
promote road transport, which are energy efficient, conserves environment and meets social
demand. It noted that it is needed to promote public transport to reduce negative externalities,
like air pollution and congestion. It also advised to promote Non-Motorized transport. The
national policy recommended, Transit Oriented Development with high- density areas and
urged for developing new satellite towns along major transport corridors. It also discourages
sprawl through taxes and fees.
Like most of the developing countries, in India a large percentage of people travel by
cycling and walking by compulsion as they are poor and cannot afford motorized transport.
Walking and cycling has an inverse relation with city size in India. But then it varies among the
large cities. For example, in Delhi walking and cycling is more common than in Mumbai and
Kolkata (Pucher et al, 2005). Perhaps Mumbai and Kolkatas better public transport explains the
difference. Lack of good public transport in Delhi has resulted in use of private cars. It may be
6

mentioned here that Delhi Transport Corporation (DTC) has recently introduced air- conditioned
bus services in some routes and is making profits. Another such good example is AMTS
(Ahmedabad Municipal Transport Service) & BRTS (Bus Rapid Transit Service) service in
Ahmedabad.
More such options in other routes may reduce use of private cars. One should keep in mind
that low density sprawled development makes it difficult for public transport system to survive.
This makes a case for high-density polycentric development with multi modal region. It would
look after equity also.
Dempsey and Jenks (2005) conclude that future urban forms for cities may include:
polycentric urban forms, closely linked to good public transportation systems; development that
is directly related to transport; culturally appropriate increases in the density of development, that
is responsive to the urban context; urban forms and buildings that take advantage of solar energy,
and that take account of the life cycle of the development; forms that interact with new
technology; developments which enable accessibility and sustainable behavior and involve the
people who live there.

5.

KEY ISSUES FOR SUSTAINABLE PRACTICES

Public unawareness
There is major amount of population which is either illiterate or not interested in learning and
adopting sustainable practices. They dont think of future conditions as the resources are
abundant and readily available today.
High initial setup costs
Sustainable practices requires setting up advanced technology and equipment, their training
involving added project costs, hence are less attractive alternative
Lack of advanced technology and skilled personnel
Advanced technology developed nationally and internationally is not readily available in
markets and there is lack of skilled personnel for their use and training.
Lack of research
Very less research has been done in the field of sustainable planning and recycled materials
which can be materialized for implementation.
Lack of interest from Government and other agencies
Government and other agencies are not keen on promoting such measures. If such practices
are adopted than no worthwhile credit are given for such practices which would encourage its
promotion.
Abundance of conventional and natural resources
India is blessed with abundant natural resources viz. land, water and minerals etc. hence there
is lack of interest for conservative use of these resources.
6.
RECOMMEDATIONS FOR SUSTAINABLE PRACTICES
Utilization of energy audits to check energy wastage.
Energy audits should be introduced to measure and check the energy consumption in
highway projects for equipment and project setup which would help in identifying the areas
of major consumption and wastage and thereby providing a scope for improvement.
Promoting Recycling for reuse of resources.
7

Recycling leads to saving of new material & saving of transportation costs. Many countries
have started adopting recycling of old asphalt and concrete pavement to cut the cost of
reconstruction and to minimize the problem of land disposal.
Developing national and regional energy efficiency plans and regulations.
National and regional agencies should plan and develop necessary legislatures regulations
and subsidies for energy conservation along with environment protection for promotion of
energy saving technologies, recycled materials. Subsidizing the energy saving technologies
would encourage their usage by local and regional project managers.
Educational and enforcement measures for Sustainable practices.
Sustainable concepts and practices should be marketed and promoted by means of campaigns
and mass broadcast. Incorporating these principles in educational courses would ensure a
generation which will be experienced an trained for sustainable practices.
Promotion of Mass Transit Systems
High occupancy vehicles like buses and metros have high passenger and cargo carrying
capacities and they also solve traffic and parking problems if they are planned properly. A
well planned public transport system would encourage walking and reduce congestion form
Central Business Districts. Moreover as their occupancy is high the emission generated per
person is also quite low compared to other vehicle and these vehicles can use advanced
technology like solar energy, Compressed air, Hydrogen, Fuel cell etc. which would
eliminate their demand of conventional fuels.
Promoting Non Conventional Sources of energy.
Wherever possible non conventional sources of energy should be promoted for highway
projects for e.g solar street lamps, Solar signals, bio-diesel and other non conventional fuels.

7.

CONCLUSION

There is vast potential for promotion and adoption of sustainable practice in the field of
transportation and particularly for Indian economy. Sustainable practice would bring out a major
growth in improvement and conservation of environment along with fostering economy.
Sustainable Transport would bring out good results for environmental conservation, along with
energy conservation. The environmental problems which India is facing now are going to
increase manifolds in future if no steps are taken to control them now. Sustainable Transport
practices would be the keys to mitigate these problems

REFERENCES
Atmanand, Amit K. Gupta, and Rishabh Raman(2009) Energy and Sustainable Development-An
Indian Perspective, , World Academy of Science, Engineering and Technology ,128-133
Basudha Chattopadhyay (2009) Sustainable Urban Development in India: Some Issues assessed
from http://www.eSocialSciences.com/data/articles/Document117112009200.1412012.pdf on
22 may 2011
8

Bertolini, L. (2005) The multi-modal urban region: A concept to combine environmental and
economic goals
Jenks, M. & N. Dempsey, (2005). The language and meaning of density In Future Forms and
Design for Sustainable Cities, M. Jenks And N. Dempsey eds. Elsevier, Oxford, U.K.
Sunderlal Bahuguna(2008) Sustainable Development in India: Perspectives

Prudhomme R. & Lee, C. (1999) Size, Sprawl and the Efficiency of Cities. Urban Studies, 36
(11). 1849-1858.
Warrell Creek to Urunga- Upgrading the Pacific Highway, Environmental Assessment Report
by Sinclair Knight Merz Australia, Volume-1, January 2010 ISBN 978-1-921692-63-5

INTEGRATED MASS TRANSIT SYSTEM NEEDS OF AN EMERGING MEGA CITY

A CASE STUDY OF AHMEDABAD
Darji R.H.
Research Scholar,
S.V.National Institute of Technology, Surat 395007
rajukumar.darji2010@gmail.com
Dr. Shah N.C.
Professor & Section Head (TEP and Urban Planning),
S.V.National Institute of Technology, Surat 395007
ncs@ced.svnit.ac.in
ABSTRACT: Urbanization is a key indicator of economic development and should be seen as a
positive factor for overall development. The contribution of urban sector to Indias GDP has
increased from 29% in 195051 to 47% in 198081. The urban sector presently contributes
about 62%63% of the GDP and this is expected to increase to 75% by 2021. The city of
Ahmedabad is a fast growing city becomes the 7th largest city of the India as per JNNURM. With
a population 72.08 lakh in 2011, Ahmedabad district is the most populous district in the state.
Ahmedabad district has a total number of 12.9 lakh motor vehicles registered in the year 2002.
This went up to 19.4 lakh by 2007 and presently recording about 24 lakh vehicles. Of this 73%
were two wheelers. The district, which accommodates 11% of the state population accounts for
about 21% of the vehicles registered in the State. This high density and rapid growth of personal
vehicles have worsened the transport situation to a significant extent. In present paper various
strategies have been discussed to enhance urban mobility, reduce traffic congestion and to
promote traffic safety by integration of mass transit modes which has ability to bear traffic
volume for long time both qualitatively and quantitatively for Ahmedabad city
Keywords: Strategies, Integrated mass transit, Ahmedabad.

INTRODUCTION
The city of Ahmedabad, founded in 1411 AD as a walled city on the eastern bank of the river
Sabarmati, is now the seventh largest metropolis in India and the largest in the state. The city at
the present is spread over 466 Sq. km of area and accommodates 55.70 lakh people. The main
agency governing the area is the Ahmedabad Municipal Corporation (AMC). According 2001
and 2011 Census, the population of Ahmedabad city (AMC limits) was recorded 45.25 lakh and
55.70 lakh people. The population of the city, from the present 55.70 lakh, is likely to rise to 80
lakh and to 110 lakh by 2021 and 2035 respectively. The area of the city is likely to increase
from the present 466 Sq. Kms to 1200 Sq. Kms by 2035. This area would incorporate
surrounding settlements including the State Capital Gandhinagar to form Greater Ahmedabad.

Sustenance of this growth is possible only with the development of an efficient transport system.
The city has drawn up a vision and a set of strategies to translate the plan proposals to reality.
A comprehensive plan was drawn up as part of Integrated Public Transit System
Alternatives, which envisaged a series of measures ranging from introduction of a rail based
rapid transit system, a sub-urban rail transit system, bus rapid transit system, pedestrianisation of
inner city areas, building bicycle ways, parking management etc.,
Based on the Integrated Public Transit Plan and BRT plan, phasewise development of BRT
system in Ahmedabad was done. During the first phase, 58 kms of BRT development was
sanctioned under JnNURM and the same is under implementation. Subsequently detailed project
reports have been prepared for developing metro system to connect Ahmedabad and
Gandhinagar, regional rail to connect outlying towns and industrial areas and bus rapid transit
system plan to serve the needs of the city.

COMPREHENSIVE MOBILITY PLAN

The city authorities recognise the need to take a long term perspective and look at a regional
scale. They have implemented a series of plans and programmes. As a result the city has an
efficient urban structure and transport network. The city is fairly compact. The network is
complete with 5 rings and 20 radial roads. Trips are fairly distributed both in time and space. The
result of such integrated development is clearly evident. The average trip length of 5.5 kms,
when compared to Bangalore (9.5 kms), Hyderabad (8.5 kms), Jaipur (8.5 kms), London (11.5
kms), Bogota (16 kms) and Singapore (8.5) is one of the shortest. The fatality rates are also very
low 244 in Ahmedabad when compared to over 840 in Bangalore, 204 in London, 190 in
Singapore, 424 in Hyderabad, 267 in Surat and more than 2000 in Delhi.
Integrated Public Transit System Plan
The number of motorised trips will increase from the present 50 lakhs to about 132 lakhs by
2035. About 50 % i.e. 65 lakh trips are expected to be serviced by mass transit systems. The bus
and rail based systems are expected to share the responsibility in the ratio of 50:50. It is
recognized that no single mode would cater to the mobility needs of the city and that the Bus
forms the most critical segment of the public transport system in the city. Therefore it has been
decided to develop and implement an integrated public transit system which will include:
A Metro Rail System to cater to major high intensity movement between the City and
Gandhinagar,
A Suburban Rail Transit System to connect the city with its industrial suburbs such as Kalol,
Naroda, Mehemdabad etc.
A Bus Rapid Transit System to cater to major mobility needs of the city,
A regular Bus System to support BRTS, and Decentralized Regional Bus & Rail Terminal

Inner city transit development

Integrate different form of systems, i.e. BRT and feeder with other regional and urban
transport systems, with bicycles and Pedestrian Facilities
Integration of Land Use -Transport elements (Increased FSI along BRTS Corridor)

Figure 1 Integration of Land Use Transport

Metro Corridor Proposal
A proposal for metro rail has been under consideration since 2003. The DPR proposes a total of
118.05 kms of metro rail system connecting Ahmedabad with the state capital Gandhinagar in
two phases. The proposal for phase-1 covering a length of 61.55 is under active consideration.
Table 1: Proposed Metro Corridors, Phase - 1
Section
Length Number of
N-S Corridor
(in km) Passengers
(Lakhs)
Vishala via ITO Sabarmati
32.65
13.27
Koba Indroda circle
Sachivalaya Akshardham
10.0
6.28
Koba circle Gift city
Koba circle Airport
8.0
8.18
Kalupur Thaltej
10.9
2.25
Total
61.55
29.98

Passen ger Km
(Lakhs)
126.85

Passenger
km/ km
(Lakhs)
2.81

Cost
Crores

52.81

5.47

724

87.61
20.56
287.83

2.7
1.65
12.63

430
838
5374

3382

Table 2: Proposed Metro Corridors, Phase - 2

Section
Length Number of
E-W Corridor
(in km) Passengers
(Lakhs)
S.G Highway Lane
40.00
15.27
Changodar Sarkhej Thaltej
Sola Adalaj Gandhinagar
Ring road Lane Sarkhej
16.50
5.28
Vishala Shivranjani
Akhabarnagar Vadaj Ranip
Shubhash bridge
Total
56.50
20.56

Passen ger Km
(Lakhs)
136.85

Passenger
km/ km
(Lakhs)
2.81

Cost
Crores

62.81

5.47

1724

199.66

12.63

5246

3522

Figure 2 Proposed Metro Corridors, Phase 1 and Phase 2

Suburban Rail Corridor
The proposal consists of 153 kms connecting core city with Naroda, Kalol, and Barejadi with 25
rail stations. A regional rail corridor has been proposed using additional space available along
the existing rail is under active consideration of the Railway Ministry.

Table 3: Proposed Sub-urban rail network

Section
Length Number of
(km)
Passenger
Km
Lakhs
Line1 : Barejadi Kalupur 43.5
2.47
Kalol
Line2 : Kalupur - Naroda
9.4
1.65
Total
52.4
4.12

Passenger
Km
Lakhs
34.3

Passenger
Km /Km
Lakhs
0.79

Cost
Crores
957

13.73
48.03

1.46
2.25

206.8
1163.8

Figure 3 Proposed Regional Rail Corridors

Bus Rapid Transit System Proposal
Bus Rapid Transit system was proposed by AMC as a viable transit option for Ahmedabad in the
year 2005. The first phase of the project covering 58 kms is under advanced stage of completion.
A second phase of the project is in progress. This proposal suggests addition to phase-1 corridors
to connect more critical sections of the network. This would enable BRT system to pass through
central area, busy commercial areas in the intermediary circle of the city and to the educational
hub, where over 15000 students come to study every day. Third phase proposal connects the city
with the state capital and the emerging business district of Greater Ahmedabad, GIFT city.

Figure 4 Bus Rapid Transit System Proposal

The BRTS for Ahmedabad is envisaged as a closed system operating like a trunk and feeder,
with trunk lines operating on exclusive bus lanes and feeder services connecting to trunk lines,
operating in mixed traffic. This kind of system is expected to provide Ahmedabad a fast,
efficient and reliable mode of transport. In Ahmedabad, the physical infrastructure (road design,
buses, terminals, workshops, depots) is combined together with a sound marketing and business
plan and an efficient operations plan and branding strategy to create a world class public
transport system.
The primary objective of identifying and developing phase 2 corridors is to complement the
58 km of phase 1 being built now and to make more areas of Ahmedabad accessible through
BRT. Phase 2 corridors attempt to link more destinations and also access the central areas of the
city. The outlying suburbs which are developing rapidly are also linked with the BRT network.
Keeping the above principles in mind, a further 30 km of trunk corridors has been identified,
which will make the BRT network complete and generate higher demand on the entire corridor.
Thus, at the end of phase 2, a total of 88 km of BRT trunk corridors would be implemented.
After implementation of phase 1 and 2, it is important to note that:
All major railway stations will be linked by BRT
All major GSRTC terminals will be linked by BRT
The major educational hub in Navrangpura will be on the BRT network
Industrial suburbs of Odhav, Naroda, Narol and Vatva will be on the BRT network
Upcoming residential suburbs of Chandkheda, Satellite, Bopal will be linked by BRT

Inner-City Transit Development Plan

The Inner city, the historic core of Ahmedabad, is the cultural, economic and administrative
heart of the city. With a spread over 5.8 Sq. Km and population of about 3.7 lakhs, it is
characterized by intense commercial activities, dense population and rich architectural heritage.
It generates greater mobility and accessibility needs. The continuing spread of retail and
wholesale markets, infrastructure inadequacies, excessive ingress of personalized vehicles and
traffic congestion are resulting in the deterioration in physical and living environment. There is a
continuous decline in the residential population of the Inner city. The plan includes the following
components.
Transit Corridor Development and Public Transport
Public Transport Improvements and Traffic Management Proposals
Pedestrianisation of core area
NMV facilities in the core area
Development of Integrated Terminal-cum-Parking Facility Development
Pedestrian and NMV Facilities
Providing walkable streets and bicycle facilities is a priority action on the agenda of AMC.
Integration of BRT and other major roads. Bicycle parking has been integrated with BRT.
Pedestrian facilities on all the BRT corridors and other major roads (88 kms).
On all roads with width over 36 mts, a separate bicycle lane has been proposed.
Parking Policy
The larger objective of the parking policy is to improve access and at the same time promote use
of public transport. The proposals under implementation/ consideration are:
1. Developing Multi-storied/Underground Parking Complexes on a BOT basis: Five locations
with heavy parking demand have been identified on priority for development.
i. Municipal Plot located behind Navarangpura Bus Station, ii. Sarangpur Bus Terminus.
iii. Navarangpura Municipal Market open plot, iv. Kalupur Octroi Office
v. Sarangpur Anand market AMC Plot
2. As part of the 58 km long first phase BRT roads, utility areas on either side have been
developed and parking will be integrated along with BRT operations.
3. Reviews in progress:
a) A detailed assessment of parking on street is being carried out on 400 kms of identified
major roads in Ahmedabad and b) A detailed assessment of parking demand and supply
surveys in Multiplexes/Malls is under way.
c) The Government of Gujarat has prepared a Draft Parking Policy and is under consideration
of the State Government.

Figure 5 Integrated Transit System

CONCLUSIONS
Developing an integrated plan is the theme of this paper. Integrated plan would imply integration
wrt land use and transport, integration of various modes (fares, routes, facilities) framework
Evolve Future Travel Demand Scenarios
Evaluation of various alternative technologies to solve the existing problems with cost
benefit analysis, technical feasibility including evaluation of lowest cost options like Traffic
Management, Rationalization etc., rationale for choosing a particular Technology / system
concept
Transport Master Plan should focus on moving people and not vehicles. It should integrate land
use with transport plan including mass transit systems connectivity to all new/ future Satellite
Townships/emerging activity centres (SEZs), main network and Feeder network including
pedestrian & NMVs, phasing of implementation
REFERENCES
[1] Ahmedabad City Development Plan (2006): Prepared as part of JnNURM
[2] Integrated Public Transit Alternatives (2002-2005): Overall integrated landuse-transit
development framework for the city and Ahmedabad Metro and Regional Rail System study:
[3] Ahmedabad Bus Rapid Transit System Plan (2006 and 2008): Detailed project report
sanctioned under JnNURM

Spatial Analysis for Transportation System Management-A case

study of Jaipur city
Ashish Dhamaniya
Assistant Prof.
SVNIT, Surat
adhamaniya@rediffmail.com

A.N. Arora
Professor
KITE, Jaipur
anarora21@rediffmail.com

Rohit Goyal
Professor
MNIT Jaipur
rgoyal_jp@yahoo.com

Abstract
Transportation infrastructure is the backbone of every nation, the gateway to economic development and
subsequently, a healthy economy. Transportation infrastructure represents one of the largest and most critical
investments made in any nation, at any stage of development. Effective planning can bring drastic change in
deploying and maintaining resources wisely. Planning in its broadest sense is clearly an activity that requires
information about existing as well as predicted future situations. Jaipur is one of the fast growing city of India in
which the numbers of vehicles are growing rapidly. The mixed traffic flow in Jaipur city results in traffic congestion
and is one of the cause of serious accidents. An attempt is made to develop a GIS database for various traffic
operations/surveys in Jaipur city such as traffic volume study on various major and minor roads, signalized traffic
and time study, t-intersection study, accident study, speed study of two and four wheelers etc. Data from these
surveys are analyzed using various GIS tools and maps are obtained to depict the current situation. Analysis of such
data could provide information about locations where traffic operations are inefficient. On the basis of such analysis
financial sanctions can be provided based on the priority areas.

1. INTRODUCTION
As a country wide phenomena, cities are growing at a tremendous pace and with them vehicle
ownership and vehicle use are also growing. Growth of vehicles is much more rapid as compared to the
road space available. This is resulting in increased congestion, air pollution and considerable loss of time
spent in commuting.
Jaipur, which is one of the thirty five metropolitan cities in India, with a population growth rate of
49% per decade and vehicle growth rate up to 10-12% per annum, is also encountering similar problems.
Jaipur is located in Aravalli hills at an altitude of about 430 m above mean sea level on 26 degrees 55N
and 75 degrees 50E. The climate is dry and annual rainfall is 620 mm. The area is covered under Survey
of India top sheets number 45N/13 and 455N/14. The city, besides being the capital of Rajasthan state, is
also a major tourist centre of the country. The city has developed in a rather imbalanced form. While most
of the economic activities are located in the walled city area, the residential colonies are growing in
western and southern parts, which are far off from the walled city (the main centre of activities). This
imbalance in the location of jobs and residences over space, coupled with inadequacy of public transport
system, generates huge volumes of intermediate and personalized traffic especially on arterial roads, with
growth rates of traffic volumes ranging between 6-12% per annum.
Authentic information on the transport infrastructure is a fundamental requirement for many
decision making processes and therefore the information required is to be reliable, updated, relevant,
easily accessible and affordable. Yet better information does not guarantee better decision-making
capability but its absence surely precludes it. However, if the data is integrated properly by using the
appropriate referencing system concept, it can be put to maximum use for transportation, as well as for
many other purposes. So considering the complexities in developing, updating and processing of the
transport related data there is an urgent need to adopt new concepts and technologies for designing and
developing the information resource management of transport infrastructure in the country. Therefore the

development in the field of information technology such as Geographical Information System (GIS)
Database Management Systems is especially relevant to the field of transportation.
In this study, the Traffic parameters of Jaipur city have been described by many attributes like
peak hour traffic, speed of the vehicle, study of signalized intersection, traffic at T-intersection, pavement
condition at different locations along with lane configuration, location and detailing of Accident prone
areas, traffic at rotaries etc. Then by using the GIS Software thematic maps are obtained and also maps of
general query capabilities have been developed.
A GIS is a computerized mapping tool for representing features on the surface of the earth and for
identifying problem domains encountered on day to day basis. In simple words GIS is a computer system
capable of assembling, storing, manipulating and displaying geographically referenced information, i.e.,
data identified according to their locations. If GIS is developed for transported related aspects it could be
referred as GIS-T. The biggest advantage of GIS-T to various transport organization is its potential for
data integration. The data referenced to transportation network as well as many other stand alone data
bases of the past like bridge inventories, traffic counts, sign inventory (Sign locations), accidents record,
traffic volume and other operational data, right of way and other ownership data can now be investigated
as and when needed. Other more disparate data types such as administrative, land use, demographic,
environmental, resources, terrain and sub surface data can also be integrated.

2. TRAFFIC CHARACTERISTICS
For the evaluation of traffic characteristics of various population groups, population growth,
occupation structure, growth of vehicles, traffic volume aspects have been covered in the study.
2.1 Population Growth
The population of Jaipur city rose from 0.160 million in 1901 to 2.32 million in 2001 and is
expected to be 3.5 million in 2011 as given in Table 1.
Table 1: Population Growth Trends of Jaipur City
Year Population Variation
1901
1911
1921
1931
1941
1951
1961
1971
1981

1,60,167
1,37,098
1,20,207
1,44,179
1,75,810
2,91,130
4,03,444
6,15.258
9,77,165

-23,069
-16,891
+23,872
+31,631
+1,15,320
+1,12,314
+2,11,814
+3,61,907

Percentage
Variation
-14.40
-12.32
+19.94
+21.94
+65.59
+38.58
+52.50
+58.82

2.2 Occupation Structure

Occupation structure of Jaipur city as per 2001 census is as given in Table 2. Occupation of about
24% is trade and commerce, 26.1% are employed in industry and a major chunk is employed in other
services

Table 2: Occupation Structure of Jaipur

S.
No.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.

Occupation
Agriculture
Cultivators
Mining and Quarrying
Industry
Construction
Trade and Commerce
Transport and Communications
Other Services

Percentage of
total workers
0.5
1.5
0.6
26.1
6.4
24.0
8.1
32.8

2.3 Growth of Vehicles and Traffic Volume

Growth of vehicles in Jaipur varied from about 85 to 14% per annum except year 2008-09 in
which growth was observed about 55 as can be seen from Table 3 below. Some of the categories are
clubbed together in the table to reduce the number of columns. Classified Traffic volume on major traffic
corridors of Jaipur city is given in Table 4.
Table 3: Growth of Vehicles in Jaipur City

Year

Two Wheeler
/Autos
/Tempos

1980-81
1985-86
1990-91
1995-96
2000-01
2005-06
2006-07
2007-08
2008-09
2009-10

47165
95213
196551
306334
490239
809331
907828
1014604
1066419
1178413

Cars
/Jeeps
/Taxi
14418
20410
33274
50015
88354
156262
177314
202969
219704
249667

Tractors/
Trailers
5992
8926
12322
16785
23306
29403
32226
37503
36031
42194

Buses/
Trucks
13562
18504
23831
32052
41412
54516
57793
66650
62676
72840

Others
130
220
276
313
456
994
1593
2898
3027
3498

Total
81267
143273
266254
405499
643767
1050506
1176754
1324624
1387857
1549737

Growth
%

12.78
11.81
10.11
7.72
13.8
12.02
12.57
4.77
11.66

3. Data Collection
The traffic data for preparing GIS database have been collected from major and minor roads of Jaipur
city. The major roads are defined as those roads having high volume of traffic and having structures like
flyover, underpass to accommodate the heavy traffic. The major roads which are included in the study
are: J.L.N. Marg, Tonk Road, M.I. Road, New Sanganer Road, Jothwara Road, Ajmer Road. The main
minor roads included in the study are: Janpath, Ashok Marg, Sahkar Marg, Moti Doongari Road, Sardar
Patel Marg, Prithvirai Road, Station Road, Shipra Path, Madhyam Marg. Apart from these, some other
roads are also considered as minor roads in the present study. Bypass Roads have also been considered in
the present study. Those roads, which are the bypass for approaching to the National Highways, are

considered as bypass roads. Few bypass roads considered by for this study are: Jawahar Nagar Bypass,
Delhi Bypass, Ajmer Bypass, Gopalpura Bypass.
Table 4: Classified Peak Hour Traffic Volume on Major Traffic Corridors
Name of the Road
Jawahar Nagar Bypass
J.L.N.Marg
Tonk Road
Sahkar Marg
Ajmer Road
M.I. Road
New Sanganer Road
Sirsi Road
Sikar Road
Mount Road
Amber Road
Khatipura Road
Moti Dungari Road
Bhawani Singh Road
Jan Path
S.C. Road
Shipra Path (Mansarovar)
Madhyam Marg
(Mansarovar)

Two
Wheeler

Car/Jeep/Van

275
3084
6035
5624
5977
3714
420
1395
3228
1264
392
1539
1059
3429
2810
1842
1262
985

251
779
1394
902
1345
873
134
204
494
624
191
352
264
860
492
358
204
83

Bus
Mini Bus Standard
57
50
16
7
147
108
45
36
150
88
96
11
2
1
25
6
129
108
131
76
6
2
35
8
58
24
78
46
1
15
98
16
0
0
67
3

Cycles

Others

Total
Vehicles

56
1002
1164
3409
1887
302
73
630
1321
621
270
610
386
1228
1137
620
248
194

441
178
487
509
449
960
79
66
273
331
153
124
238
192
230
580
60
161

1130
5066
9335
10525
9896
5956
709
2326
5553
3047
1014
2668
2029
5833
4685
3514
1774
1493

[Source: Rajasthan Urban Infrastructure Development Project]

4. ANALYSIS OF DATA AND INTERPRETATION OF RESULTS

4.1 Preparation of Traffic Data
The various traffic data which have been included in the present study are; accident study, speed
study, traffic study at T-Intersections, traffic study at rotaries, peak hr. traffic study, classified traffic
study, study of signalized intersection, study of pavement condition. The basic map layers include only
name and identification number. These are shown in the map only for the aesthetical purposes and to
show the relevant locations. Parameters included are: track, nallah, major road, minor road, bypass road,
historical places, and others such as institutions, railway stations, stadiums etc.
Locations of the different places have been tabulated on the basis of Identification No. so that the
Excel spreadsheet can match with the GIS data window. If the two or more locations are same in different
spreadsheets the same ID no. is given. At the intersections the name of intersecting roads are given so that
it can be easily identified on the map. For example at Lakshmi Mandir Intersection the Intersection Roads
are Tonk Road and Sahkar Marg. The designation of lane configuration of the roads is given on the basis
of lane type as single, double, three, four and six lanes etc. Divided and undivided roads are designated as
A & B. Three legged rotaries are designated as Q and four legged as P in the study.
The peak hr traffic data are given in PCU (Passenger Car Unit) factor whereas the classified
traffic is given in the number of commercial vehicles, number of four wheelers, number of two wheelers
and number of slow moving vehicles. The speed of the vehicles is given in kilo meter per hour and the
pavement conditions are designated as Good, Fair and Poor. Considering these parameters data sheets
have been prepared for all the traffic data available at the different locations of Jaipur city.

4.2 Methodology of Preparing GIS Database

As was discussed earlier, GIS is a computerized data base information system with unique
capabilities of managing and manipulating spatially referenced data and presenting them in an easily
understandable map format. Here spatial data refers to any type of data linked to a location. Before
starting analysis using GIS, remotely sensed image of Jaipur area was obtained from NRSA and was
registered to UTM Zone 43N projection system as a raster image. Locations of various roads,
intersections etc. were then digitized from the raster image.
4.3 Analysis using GIS
4.3.1 Accidents
The accident data from Jan. 2000 to June 2001 was obtained from traffic police, Jaipur. Thematic
map using grid template was generated along with a 3D map which shows the area in different colors as
per the percentage of fatal accidents occurred. A query Map was also generated which shows the result as
per given query. It was observed from these maps that the accidents occurred near the road intersections
specially T intersections are most common locations of black spots and the speed of the vehicles
corresponding to that locations are not in limits. The pavement conditions are poor. The map is shown in
Figure 1.

Figure 1: Thematic Map of Accident Location in Jaipur City

4.3.2 Speed of vehicles

The speed data was taken at about 35 different locations in Jaipur city. The locations were so
chosen that the relation between different data such as pavement condition, accident locations, and speed
could be obtained. A thematic map using grid and range templates and a query Map has been developed.
For example if we generate a query such that those locations where the average speed of two wheelers is
greater than 40 and average speed of four wheelers is greater than 45, the map will provide us such
locations and also corresponding accident data and pavement condition can be obtained.
4.3.3 T-Intersections
A thematic map by using grid template has been developed for T Junctions considering the
expression of V/C ratio at turning sides. A bar chart, which shows the complete data bars to interpretation
of the result about the reserve capacity at that intersection. A query map is generated for the expression of
V/C ratio > 1. This shows that the highlighted locations need improvement. Map is shown in Figure 2.

Figure 2: Query for expression of V/C ratio > 1

4.3.4 Rotaries and Signalized Intersections
A thematic map using grid and range templates has been generated for showing the traffic at the
3-legged and 4-legged rotaries. A query map has been generated to show the V/C Ratio in the traffic
approaching in different directions. A relation by combining the query map of speed near the rotaries and

traffic at the rotaries such that the speed is within limits according to the traffic so as not to cause any
accident. Similarly thematic map using grid and range templates are obtained for the total traffic at that
intersection and also a map by giving an expression between major and minor road traffic can be
generated. The signal timing in different directions is shown in the table, to design the proper signal
timing according to the total traffic
4.3.5 Pavement Condition
Pavement condition has been divided in three categories and designated as good, fair and poor,
and given a number 10, 20 and 30 respectively in the data sheet. A query map is generated according to
the pavement condition and the locations were highlighted according to the query. A combination of
query maps can be generated for visualizing a relation between accident data, speed data along with the
pavement condition at that location.
4.3.6 Peak hour Traffic
Thematic maps by using range and grid templates are generated by giving an expression between
peak hr. traffic and maximum capacity as shown in Figure 3. The peak hr. traffic was counted at about 18
locations having heavy traffic in Jaipur city.

Figure 3: Peak Hour Traffic

Query maps have been generated for some specified queries. Following queries are executed:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.

Percentage of Fatal Accident > 10%

Av. Speed of TW > 30 kmph and Av. Speed of FW > 35 kmph
At T-Intersection RT1/C1 >1
At T-Intersection LT/C2 > 1
At T-Intersection RT/C3 > 1
Peak Hr. Traffic V/C ratio >1
At Rotaries ES/C2 > 1
At Rotaries WN/C4 > 1
Pavement Conditions are Poor

By entering these conditions one by one and executing the query one can find the location on the
map and desired attributes on the screen.

5. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

Using the software capabilities the results can be drawn in the text format and prints can be taken
out. The results of the above queries are shown in map and in the text format in figure. With help of these
available parameters and software capabilities queries can be performed in numerous ways. In this
manner one can find out whatever information as required in different combinations. This facilitates
collection of information, their modification and their analysis in the required manner, resulting in ease of
data handling, avoiding delicacy and saving of enormous money and time.
Therefore it has been seen that how important is the GIS for managing and manipulating spatially
referenced data. New data as and when they come into play can supplement the old data. So when a new
updated traffic data or any missing data is gathered it can be added in the data inventory to update the
database.
6. CONCLUSIONS
Following conclusions can be drawn from the study conducted.
1. As the vehicular traffic is increasing rapidly in all metropolitan cities, by knowing the volume and
capacity of roads at congested locations from GIS database, widening of roads projects can be
decided promptly saving time and energy.
2. GIS database shows the complete information of each location such as traffic, capacity of road and
intersection, signal timings, average speed of vehicles, pavement condition by clicking a button of a
computer, to prioritize the improvement works to be taken up.
3. By using this technology in maintaining the transport inventory, the work of planning
and
supervision of traffic and transportation projects shall be reduced tremendously.
4. Central monitoring office can monitor easily the planning and progress of the work with the help of
GIS.
5. Spatial analysis functions and querying capability in GIS are very useful tools for the day-to-day
management of the road network in urban areas.
6. A database developed at any time can be further modified and supplemented with
new
information as and when it is available.
7. The database on GIS platform can provide a modernization impact on local development authorities
like Jaipur Development authority and Jaipur Nagar Nigam and RUIDP with computerization of all
its traffic and transportation planning and monitoring activities
8. The accidents In Jaipur city occurred near the road intersections and at T junctions. Speeds at these
points were observed not within the specified limits by IRC.

9. At some T intersections roadway capacity & geometric designs are faulty. At Shalimar T junction
accidents were observed due to congestion of traffic resulting from nearness of other two i.e.
government hostel crossing & polovictory - M I Road T junction

REFERENCES
1. Dhamaniya A. (2003). Use of Geographic Information System in Transportation Planning
of Jaipur City. M.Tech. Dissertation, Malaviya National Institute of Technology, Jaipur.
2. Fisher P.F. (1991). Spatial data source and data problems, from Geographic Information
System: Principals and Applications.
3. Moses Santhakumar, S. Shrikant Dash, Prabhat Kumar and P. Partheeban. (1997). AGIS for
the Highway around Tiruchirappalli. Silver Jubilee Conference on Trends and Techniques
in Transportation, Allied Publishers limited.
4. Rajasthan Urban Infrastructure Development Project. (2002). Jaipur Master Plan.
Government of Rajasthan.
5. Sharma, R. (2004). Twenty One Thousand Deaths from Two Forty Five Ways. News
Article, Rajasthan Patrika, Hindi Daily, Oct. 9th, pp. 1.
6. Soni S.K., Durai B.K., Kumar Parveen and Murty A.V.S.R. (1996). GIS and
Transportation. Indian Highways, IRC, February.

ADDITIONAL SIDE LIGHT ON AUTOMOBILES

Nihalani A.V.
Production Engineer,
S.V. National Institute of Technology, Surat 395007
anant.nihalani@gmail.com
Praveen K.
Post Graduate Diploma I Student, Transportation Design,
MAEERs MIT Institute of Design, Pune 412201
praveenindiaa@yahoo.com
Bhatia P.A.
Post Graduate Diploma I Student, Product Design,
MAEERs MIT Institute of Design, Pune 412201
preet.yes@gmail.com
ABSTRACT: Improving a countrys transportation system does not solely mean building new
roads or repairing aging infrastructure. The future of transportation lies not only in concrete and
steel, but also increasingly in using small innovations in technologies. This has led to an
increased focus on the need to manage transport demand and supply by deploying intelligent
transport systems (ITS).This paper puts forward a small innovation in automobiles. This paper
suggests how an additional side light could be used to avoid accidents and improve traffic
congestions on Indian highways. When two cars travelling in the night in opposite directions
have their head lights on high beam, both the drivers cannot see the road ahead of them clearly
due to the glare of each others head light. In such a situation each driver can switch on an
additional side head light, provided on the right hand side of the car (switching off the front right
hand side headlight simultaneously), so that both the drivers can see the road ahead and avoid
probable accidents. Moreover single lane highways comprise 27% of the total highways in India.
Overtaking on a single lane highway is a risky task. Considering a situation on a single lane
highway, if two cars are crossing each other from opposite directions keeping their side head
lights on, will indicate the vehicles behind them not to overtake. This will enhance the safety of
the users and improve traffic efficiency.

INTRODUCTION:
The Transport Sector plays a vital role in the socio-economic development of a State. Proper
regulation and development of the sector can have positive effects on the quality of the life of the
people.
Road safety is both a health and development issue of concern considering its magnitude and
gravity and the consequent negative impacts on the economy, public health and the general
welfare of the people. With rising motorization and expanding road network, travel risks and
traffic exposure grow at a much faster rate, as the growth of registered vehicles always
outnumbers population growth and new roads are constructed. Today road traffic injuries are one

of the leading causes of deaths, disabilities and hospitalizations with severe socioeconomic costs
across the world.
Transport in the Republic of India is an important part of the nation's economy. Since the
economic liberalisation of the 1990s, development of infrastructure within the country has
progressed at a rapid pace, and today there is a wide variety of modes of transport by land, water
and air. The Automobile industry in India is rapidly growing with an annual production of over
2.6 million vehicles and vehicle volume is expected to rise greatly in the future. During the year
2009 there were around 4.9 lakh road accidents which killed 1,25,660 people and injured more
than 5 lakh persons in India. These numbers translate into one road accident every minute and
one road accident death every four minutes for India. Road traffic injuries and fatalities impose a
huge economic burden on developing economies in particular. In India more than half of the
road accident victims are in the age group (25-65 years), the key wage earning and child raising
age group.
These numbers could be successfully brought down by adopting multipronged approach to
road safety that encompasses traffic management, road design, safer vehicles, law enforcement,
provision of accident care, etc. The challenge for us is to adapt and evaluate these approaches to
suit our needs.
Success of road safety initiatives requires active cooperation and participation of all
stakeholders. Studies of the relationship between gross domestic product (GDP) per capita,
growth of motor vehicles and road fatalities, have shown that fatality rates increase as GDP
increases at relatively low levels of GDP per capita, but then start to decline with continued GDP
growth. The challenge now is to bring about a shift in the relationship between economic growth
and road fatalities, so that developing country like our can benefit from a much earlier
improvement than traditional models predict based on the experience of high-income countries.
Background
Indias population was 1,210 million in 2011 which is keep on increasing at an annual rate of 4
per cent. Although it is a low income group country having gross national income per capita
1054$ the vehicle sales rate are increasing at a much higher rate. The road traffic death rate is
around 16.8 per 1 lakh of population. Despite on-going improvements in the sector, several
aspects of the transport sector are still riddled with problems due to out dated infrastructure, lack
of investment, corruption and a burgeoning population. The demand for transport infrastructure
and services has been rising by around 10% a year with the current infrastructure being unable to
meet these growing demands. According to recent estimates by Goldman Sachs, India will need
to spend US$1.7 Trillion on infrastructure projects over the next decade to boost economic
growth of which US$500 Billion is budgeted to be spent during the Eleventh Five-Year Plan.
Problem statement
Out of the many transport issues, in this paper we have tried to cover a major issue faced by
travellers travelling mostly on a single lane highway. When two cars approach each other from
opposite direction at night glare of headlamps in high-beam mode blinds the vehicle driver
approaching from the opposite direction and force him to slow down, swerve or slam the brakes the sudden manoeuvres that lead to accidents. Being confronted with a bright distracting light
triggers a fight or flight response. The result is high blood pressure, stress, blood sugar increase,

not to mention the added risk of eye disease. Unnecessary distracting and blinding lights are a
hazard. Now there are norms for the installation and use of headlights, but there is little clarity on
how to deal with drivers who violate these norms, say traffic and transport officials.
Goal
The metropolitan, Commercial vehicle and Rural program areas are focused primarily on the
infrastructure, intelligent vehicle initiative should aim to accelerate the development and
availability of advanced safety and information systems applied to all types of vehicles. The goal
is to integrate driver assistance and motorist information function so that vehicles operate more
safely and effectively.
Limitation
Many ideas remain at conceptualization level without getting into practice due to lack of
coordination between government offices, research institutes and educational institutes. So, there
is a need for a common platform to support such ideas which could effectively be implemented
and help in improving the current transport scenario.

THEORETICAL FRAME
Study area
Road network is vital to the economic development, trade and social integration. It facilitates
smooth conveyance of both people and goods. Road transport has emerged as the dominant
segment in Indias transportation sector with a share of 4.5% in Indias GDP in 2005-06. The
road transport sector carries about 87% of passenger traffic and 61% of freight traffic. The total
road length in India had increased significantly from 3.99 lakh km in1951 to 41.70 lakh km in
2011. Out of this Single Lane or Intermediate lane comprises of almost 30 per cent which comes
up to 20,849 km. Numbers of vehicles in India are around 13.2 million excluding two wheelers
and are annually increasing at a rate of around 10.16% per annum leading them to be one of the
important contributors in air pollution and (CO2) emission. This has lead India to worlds fourth
largest carbon dioxide (CO2) emitter with emissions amounting to1.34 billion tonnes per annum
.The number of trips on highways and urban networks has significantly increased in cities across
the world. Widening roads and providing additional new roads became the mechanism to
provide additional capacity to deal with growth of traffic. Today, even with the addition of new
roads/flyovers or widening of existing roads has added to more traffic congestion within a short
span of time due to high growth of vehicle ownership. This has led to issues such as wasting time
of passengers, Inability to forecast travel time accurately, increase in fuel waste, air pollution,
carbon dioxide emissions and wear and tear on vehicles due to idling in traffic and frequent
acceleration and braking.
This all leads to high stress and frustration level for the passengers. Road accidents occur
due to factors such as type of road users and colliding vehicles include visibility, road design and
geometry, access control, intersections provision of segregation. Road traffic fatalities have been
increasing at about 8% annually. Accident about 41% occurs during night time. Drivers fault

account for 78.5% of total accidents; 77.4% of the total number of persons injured and 71.7% of
the total number of persons killed in road accidents. Injury prevention and control had gone into
the issue of social cost of accidents in India and had estimated the cost at Rs.65,000 crores in the
years 2009-2010, which constituted 5% of the GDP for the year. Funds allocated for road safety
for year 2011 is just 81 crore which is very negligible in comparison to road development funds.
Hence balance between development and safety applying ITS is required in a developing
country like India.
ITS
Intelligent transport system (ITS) refers to efforts to add information and communications
technology to transport infrastructure and vehicles in an effort to manage factors that typically
are at odds with each other, such as vehicles, loads, and routes to improve safety and reduce
vehicle wear, transportation times, and fuel consumption. It is comprised of a number of
technologies, including information processing, communications, control, and sand electronics.
It enables people and goods to move more safely and efficiently through a state-of-the-art,
intermodal transportation system.
Understanding ITS
Intelligent transport systems vary in technologies applied, from basic management systems such
as car navigation; traffic signal control systems; container management systems; variable
message signs; automatic number plate recognition or speed cameras to monitor applications,
such as security CCTV systems; and to more advanced applications that integrate live data and
feedback from a number of other sources, such as parking guidance and information systems;
weather information; bridge dicing systems. In- vehicle devices addressing lane-change, rear end
and roadway-departure crashes are estimated to offset crashes per year. In Urban areas, crashes
could be prevented annually by advanced lane-keeping and collision-avoidance technologies
which would reduce fatalities by 14 to 32 per cent. Enhancements in night time and bad weather
vision applications may significantly improve driver's ability to stay in lanes and distinguish
hazards in the road. ITS comprises mainly of two systems V2I (Vehicle to infrastructure) and
V2V (Vehicle to vehicle).
ITs would increase travellers satisfaction as well as improve quality of life, reduce
congestion, reduce air pollution, increase fuel efficiency, reduce time loss and accidents on
highways. It would also create demands for jobs increasing the countrys economy.
Innovations under ITS around the world
Wireless communications, Inductive loop detection, Video vehicle detection, Emergency vehicle
notification systems, Automatic road enforcement, Collision avoidance systems, Dynamic
Traffic Light Sequence, Integrated fare management, Enhanced transit/customer relationship
management, Traffic prediction Improved transport and traffic management, Traveller
information and advisory services, Road user charging, Variable parking pricing etc. are
innovations introduced around the world under ITS.
ITS is used in various countries such as SUICA (Super Urban Intelligent Card) in Japan, Tmoney in South Korea,, Pay per kilometer in Holland, ETC in Italy, Q- free in Norway,

IntelliDriive in USA, I-transp

port in Sinngapore ettc. Many multinationnal compan
nies have
introduceed ITS and applied theem in theirr technologiies such as GMs OnSStar, FORD
Ds SYNC
system annd NISSAN
Ns alcohol detection
d
seensors.
In Inndia, many projects
p
aree undertakeen by multin
national com
mpany EKC
CON which
h provides
global IT
TS solutionss. They havee introduce d systems such
s
as ETC
C (Electroniic Toll collection), Ipay, I-Flleet, Highw
way Traffic Managem
ment System
m (HTMS), E-Dispatchh, Toll maanagement
system (E
ETMS), Weeight in mo
otion (WIM
M) etc. Research is goin
ng on topiccs such as Automatic
A
braking, Directional seat vibrration systeem, Motoriized seatbeelts, adaptivve head beeams etc.
a Emergenncy Electron
nic Brake
Applicatiion of ITS in Vehiclee Safety Coommunicatiions such as
Light (EE
EBL), Forw
ward Collision Warningg (FCW), In
ntersection Movement Assist (IM
MA), Blind
Spot Warrning + Lanne Change Warning
W
(BS
SW + LCW
W), Do-Not-P
Pass Warniing (DNPW
W), Control
Loss Warrning (CLW
W) is under process.
p
A reccent global report sugg
gests that appproximately 75% of crashes
c
for all vehicless could be
addressedd by V2V annd V2I.

METHO
ODOLOGY
Y

(I)

As seen iin diagram (I) to solvee the probleem of glare coming fro
om oppositee vehicles head
h
light
an additioonal side liight as show
wn in diagrram (II) iss provided along
a
the ddriver side head
h
light
which woould functioon when thee driver putss his light frrom high to low beam. The driver side head
light wouuld turn offf and at the same time turning on the addition
nal side ligh
ght. This wo
ould be an
additionaal feature forr the driver while puttiing his lightt from high to low beam
m.

(II)

The addiitional side light woulld be workiing on low

w beam covering an anngle minim
mum of 65
degree froom the horiizontal axis of the sourrce of light. It would also be visibble from a distance
d
of
60 metress and withinn the range of 560-13700 metres ab
bove the gro
ound as sugggested in CM
MV rules.
The lightt angle is suuch that it will
w not obstrruct the view
w of other drivers.
d
Thee side light will come
under thee optional caategory as per
p AIS rulees.

BENEFIITS
The mainn problem which
w
led to this paper is glare com
ming from the oppositee vehicles high
h
beam
head lighht could be solved,
s
enhancing the eease of passengers trav
velling at niight mainly
y on single
lane roadds and makinng their jou
urney safer.

(III)

As seen in diagram
m (III) if thee side light is kept ON
N, it meanss that a vehhicle is com
ming from
opposite direction toowards the ongoing veehicle. So th
he vehicle behind
b
the ongoing veehicle gets
l
and ov
vertaking at that instancce could be avoided.
notified bby the side light

Also overtaking would become safer, reducing the chances of collision with vehicles coming
from opposite direction.
Further benefits would be that the flow of traffic would be smoother increasing the average
speed of vehicles.

CHALLENGES
To put our concept into practice government organisations such as ARAI and SIAM should test
prototypes and if found suitable should allow their use in existing as well as new vehicles.

CONCLUSION
Cities around the world face common transport challenges from increasing congestion, safety
concerns and aging infrastructure to a lack of funding and increasing environmental impacts. A
need is there for implementing smart solutions to address these challenges and provide
improved mobility, better services for travellers and a more cost-effective transport network.
Intelligent transport is about more than implementing discrete technologies. Treating transport as
an integrated service, moving from just managing infrastructures to providing integrated
services, making this style of management a team sport that involves collaboration among
customers, suppliers and all levels of government. Shift focus from planning and designing for
mobility to enhancing accessibility will strengthen transport integrating automation with
current technology making it more desirable.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
We would like to thank Mr D.P Parkhe and his son Mr Vijay Parkhe for providing us with this
concept and motivating us to work upon it.

REFERENCES
2008-2009, Annual Report, Government of India Ministry of Road Transport & Highways New
Delhi
June 2009, Automotive Industry Standard, Automotive Vehicles Control Location and
Operation Requirements
1989, The Central Motor Vehicles Rules
2010, IEA Statistics, CO2 emissions from fuel combustion
2005-2010, Indian Automobile Industry- An Analysis
Ezell Stephen, January 2010, Intelligent Transportation System

June 2009, IBM Global Business Services, Intelligent Transport

Arora Salil, Vyas Anant and Johnson Larry R., Projections of highway vehicle population,
energy demand, and CO2 emissions in India to 2040
2009, Road Accidents in India 2009, Government of India, Ministry of Road Transport &
Highways, Transport Research Wing, New Delhi
Mohan Dinesh, March 2009, IND Road Accidents in India
July 2010, Basic Road Statistics of India, Government of India, Ministry of Road Transport &
Highways, Transport Research Wing, New Delhi
Mishra S.K., Road Safety in India

Proc. of the National Conference on Sustainable Urban and Transportation planning: Issue and Management
Strategies.
S. V. National Institute of Technology Surat. 3950 007,Gujarat, India.

Sustainable Urban Transport:

Search for Appropriate Planning Strategies.
Birva Gandhi . H, Sangeeta Vaghasia . J.
P.G. Student, M.Arch in City Design Architecture Department,
SCET, Surat.
Dr. Katti B. K.
Emeritus Professor, Department of Civil Engineering,
S.V.National Institute of Technology, Surat - 395007
ABSTRACT: In fact Urbanization is a desired process to achieve desired economic
growth but it has brought on forefront many unsustainable issues too. Urbanization have
significant impact on various urban sectors including the transportation. One of its major
impacts is uncontrolled growth that acts as catalyst for social, economical and
environmental problems. Transportation one of key elements in urban planning plays a
vital role for sustainable urban growth and development. In absence of planned strategy
for sustainability the urban activities lead to add burden to manage the urban
development. The present paper highlights urbanisation scenario prevailing in
metropolitan cities in particular and attempts to have a perspective vision on sustainable
transportation. Transportation issues are highlighted comprehensively. Further paper
highlights on urbanization impact on transportation system and broadens the
sustainability concept, so as to develop appropriate planning strategies to attain
sustainable transport system to reasonable level. Certain strategies for sustainable
transportation are examined and discussed, adoption of which may lead to a sustainable
urban development and transportation.

INTRODUCTION
A phenomenal population growth has been
observed in most of the metropolitan cities in India
in last two decades owing to rapid pace of
urbanization taking place. Further the impact has
been noticed in terms of vehicle growth, traffic
growth and travel demand in most of the
metropolitan cities. It has resulted in severe traffic
congestion, inefficient transport system and
environmental degradation. Urban transportation,
is quite complex on long-term urban development
in general as it is very closely related to land
development, economic structure, energy policies,
and environmental quality.

Proc. of the National Conference on Sustainable Urban and Transportation planning: Issue and Management
Strategies.
S. V. National Institute of Technology Surat. 3950 007,Gujarat, India.

India is a very large country with over a billion people and nearly 50 of its cities contain
populations above 1 million each. Four decades from now the population of India is
expected to be 1.7 billion. Nearly 800 cities are likely to come under class I category by
2021 itself and 50% of urban population of class I cities is anticipated in 50
metropolitan cities to result in significant burden on transportation of people and goods,
particularly for the poorer section of the society.
Urban transportation infrastructure development should follow the urbanization growth
rate but it doesnt happen leading to the gap between transport demand and supply
resulting in unsustainable transportation. Hence it is time to bridge the gap of
transportation demand and supply with effective planning and implementation strategies.
Adoption of the principles of sustainable transportation has become more evident, where
the inefficient public transportation system and rising incomes have stimulated the
demand for personal mobility with increased automobile ownership and use. Increase in
automobiles in inadequate traffic management strategies.
URBANIZATION IMPACT
Rate of urbanization and city growth can be realised prior to formulation of specific urban
transportation strategies. The anticipated urbanization levels and growth of cities can be
realised from the following statical figures:

Description/ year

2001

2031

2051

Population (billion)
Urban
population
(million)
Urban/total
population (%)

1.10

1.50

1.70

285

583

820

27.8

38.0

47.5

Urban population in the country could be more than double in next four decades. The
likely number of cities by 2051 are shown below is an indicator of higher growth in
metropolitan cities. Nearly there would be 1000 settlements in class I category by 2051.
Number of cities

Population/ city
>10 million
1 to 10 million
0.3 to 1 million
0.1 to 0.3 million

2001
3
32
88
308

2051
15
85
300
600

The transport demand is anticipated to increase significantly in all the cities owing to
increase in economic activities and city expansion. The urban trip rates are increasing, the
rate is changing from 0.9 tpcd to 1.8 tpcd. Surat and Amedabad have 1.61 and 1.57 tpcds
respectively. The motorisation rate shows growth in its rate from 60 vehicles to 100
vehicles per 1000 population in lower order cities and 200 and plus vehicles in mega
cities. There is considerable increase in a personalised vehicle trips through tremendous
growth in two wheelers in recent time. It does have the impact on traffic composition on
Indian roads. Two wheelers have further added problems of air pollution because they

Proc. of the National Conference on Sustainable Urban and Transportation planning: Issue and Management
Strategies.
S. V. National Institute of Technology Surat. 3950 007,Gujarat, India.

belong to petrol driven system. On the contrary the public transportation infrastructure is
reducing and increasing the captive drivers of two wheelers. Nearly 50-65% of mass
transit system is desired for the metropolitan city on the contrary. At present it is barely
30-35%. Surat is best example to show the poorer mass transit system. As it is hardly 1215%, resulting in higher growth in para-transit and personal modes on the roads.
SUSTAINABLE URBAN TRANSPORT: CONCEPT
Since 1987 Brundtland commission report brought global attention to the concept of
sustainable development. The academicians and planning professionals are working to
imbibe the sustainability principles in shaping the urban settlements. Accordingly
sustainable development has to meet the needs of the present without sacrificing the
ability of the future generation. These needs are now widely accepted to include goals
related to economic development, social and human development, and environmental and
ecological health. In the context of natural resource policy, sustainability would mean
limiting depletion of resources to the rate at which they can be replenished, or alternative
can be identified. In the transportation sector one has to define the resources of concern
related to sustainability. The depleted resources can be termed as energy, human habitats,
atmospheric carbon loading capacity and individuals available time. The transportation
divisions are concern with economic growth and job creation, character and intensity of
land use and socio-economic and geographic transfers of wealth.
SUSTAINABLE TRANSPORTATION: MISSION
Transportation sustainability is one of the important components in ambit of urban
development sustainability, concerned with physical, social, economical and ecological
aspects. The main mission here is:

To provide access to goods and services in an efficient way for all inhabitants of
the urban area.

Protection of the environment, cultural heritage and ecosystems for the present
generation.

Not to endanger the opportunities of future generations to reach at least the same
welfare level

Sustainable transportation is based on the integration of a number of different methods

and models into a coherent and comprehensive assessment. The overall common
framework, that will guarantee a well structured analysis for direct comparison of
alternatives within and between cities, is defined by a set of indicators of sustainable
urban development, and urban transportation in particular. This common set of indicators
is identified or defined for all cities, and applied to a benchmarking exercise involving a
much larger set of urban conglomerates.

Proc. of the National Conference on Sustainable Urban and Transportation planning: Issue and Management
Strategies.
S. V. National Institute of Technology Surat. 3950 007,Gujarat, India.

PROPOSED PLANNING STRATEGIES:

Integrated transport and land use planning
If land use and transport system are not planned in an integrated way there is disturbance
in transport economy, environmental quality, resource usage and socially related
economic factors. As city structures are based on land use pattern, appropriate
transportation systems need due consideration. A planning should aim at maximizing the
urban transport system efficiency, through proper linkage of land use structure and the
urban transportation to maximize social benefits and sustainable development.
Integration of transport operation system
To meet the raising transit demand in the cities there is need of blending and coordination of the transport operators, belonging to both private and public sectors. As
para transit system through auto-rickshaw, taxis and cycle rickshaws are part of city
transit systems co-ordination between the groups in a geographical frame work is desired.
Focus on walkable cities
Walking is the most sustainable mode of
commuting. It does not consume fuel, causes no
pollution and is good for health. It can be said that
everybody in the city walks; some for part of the
trip and some for the entire trip length. A study of
30 cities in 2008 showed that on the average,
almost 28% are walking trips. However, walking
and cycling are in a decline due to growing city
size, increase in trip lengths and lack of safety. The
necessary pedestrian infrastructure facility should
be planned with proper sidewalks and crosswalks
maintained. Neighbourhood planning should be oriented towards promoting pedestrian
walking for various non-work trips
Promoting NMT transport
Non motorized transport is an energy efficient, environmentally friendly transport mode
that can play a significant role in urban mobility. The dedicated 3mts wide bicycle and
cycle rickshaw tracks should be considered at neighbourhood planning level.
Compact city
Compact urban form is desired for efficient transport network. Most of the metropolitan
cities are multi-nuclei based structure attracting the maximum trips. However, most of the
cities have historical base and strong core areas or walled city areas having the maximum
commercial activities and dense population settlement, attract the trips from the all suburban areas around the core area. These mono-centric activity needs transformation into
multi-nuclei centres through decentralization by creating multiple business areas on urban
fringes. This helps in developing sustainable transport network.NMT are short distance
modes of transport. PT requires concentrated demand to remain financially viable. NMT
and PT are sustainable modes for a compact city which will promote both.

Proc. of the National Conference on Sustainable Urban and Transportation planning: Issue and Management
Strategies.
S. V. National Institute of Technology Surat. 3950 007,Gujarat, India.

Comprehensive city mobility plan

Urban transport has nearly 20 components that can be categorised into three groups, i.e.
a. Modes of transport, infrastructure, and related activities. Modes are buses,
paratransit, autos, taxis, goods vehicles, NMT and personal vehicles.
b. Infrastructure includes roads network, intersections, bridges, by-passes, terminals,
interchanges, parking, pedestrian/ bicycle facilities and bus priority schemes, with
dedicated pathways and terminals for water and rail transit.
c. Related activities include traffic management, enforcement, training of drivers,
licensing and transport demand management measures. All these features must be
planned and implemented simultaneously for full benefit.
Promoting public transport system
Sustainable development of urban transportation
system needs to place a priority on the
development of the integrated urban transport
system with public transport at the core.
Therefore transit oriented development which
prefers a compact mixed community structure
with transit station as the core will improve transit
ridership and support the main pillars of
sustainable development that is economic growth,
environmental protection and social diversity in
the community. Appropriate fare structure should be developed to attract the public
transit riders particularly of urban poor. In view of coverage of different mass transit
riders, three categories of bus services is desired as under:
a. Janta city buses, of standard size
b. Express bus services
c. Air conditioned Volvo bus services.

The fare structure of the first category should be

subsidised to meet the affordability of low
income and other urban poorers. The subsidised
rate should be adjusted with b. and c. category of
services. The proper route planning network for
the city should be developed to take care of above
services.

Proc. of the National Conference on Sustainable Urban and Transportation planning: Issue and Management
Strategies.
S. V. National Institute of Technology Surat. 3950 007,Gujarat, India.

CONCLUSION:
Urbanization is an unavoidable phenomenon in the country as it is strongly associated
with economic development and welfare of the society. However it has certain negative
impacts, if it not properly managed by the policy makers. All urban sectors come under
the influence of urbanization impact. As urbanization, industrialization and city growth
go on simultaneously; utmost care is required on part of the planner to maintain the
balance between them. The growth and development has to be sustainable. Therefore
understating the sustainability mission, principles and long range objectives become
premise for sustainable planning and development. As urban transportation has wider
impact on economy, environment and social structure, it deserves more attention. The
metropolitan cities which have concentrated population and acts as magnet for the
hinterland, need prompt attention in their sustainable development. Before
implementation of sustainable development plans the proper planning and development
strategies should be framed with interaction with the expertise from various fields. The
integrated planning approach, promotion of public transportation system and encouraging
walking and bicycle system of movement are some of the important instruments in
achieving the urban transport sustainability, as part of immediate action plan by the local
governments.
References.
[1] Whitelegg J. Transport for Sustainable Future: The Case of Europe. London: Belhaven Press,
1993.
[2] Faiz A. Automotive emissions in developing countries: Relative implication for global
warming, acidification and urban air quality. Transportation Research A, 1993, 27A (3): 167-186.
[3] Spaethling D. Sustainable transportation. The American experience. In: Proceedings of
Seminar C. Planning for Sustainability of the 24th European Transport Forum. PTRC Education
and Research Services Limited. London, England, September 1996.
[4] Towards a sustainable future: Addressing the long term effects of motor vehicle transportation
on climate and ecology. Special report 251. Committee for a Study on Transportation and a
Sustainable Environment, TRB, National Research Council, Washington, D.C., 1997
[5] Black, J.A. and Salter, R. J. (1975) A review of the modelling achievements of British
urban land-use transportation studies outside the conurbations, Journal of the Institution of
Municipal Engineers
[6] Black, J., Kuranami, C. and Rimmer, P. J. (1983) Transport - land use issues, problems and
policy implications: Sydney since the thirties, 8th Australian Transport Research Forum: Forum
Papers
[7] Black, J., Mason, C. and Stanley, K. (1999) Travel demand management: An application by
the University of New South Wales (UNSW) as a large trip generator, Transport Engineering in
Australia
[8] Patel B. K., (2007) Urbanisation impact on Environment Sustainability with reference to
Traffic in Big cities, National seminar on Urban and Transportation Planning, SVNIT, Surat.
[9] Singh . N. K., (2000). Problems relating to metropolitan transport in India and possible
remedies, Urban Transport Journal.

CAPACITY OF TWO-LANE ROADS AND UNCONTROLLED INTERSECTIONS

Dr. Satish Chandra

Professor,
Department of Civil Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology, Roorkee
1. TWO LANE ROADS
Two-lane highways compose the predominant portion of most National and State Highway system in
India. Two-third length of National Highways and more than 50 percent of State Highways are still
two-lane wide. Two-lane roads have one lane for use by traffic in each direction and the faster
vehicles when approach the slower vehicles use the opposing lane to overtake the slower vehicles
depending on the sight distance available and the gaps in opposing stream. Overtaking involves lanechange maneuvers, possibility of the acceleration and deceleration actions and estimation of relative
speed of the overtaking and overtaken vehicles. Road capacity, Level of Service and safety are all
affected by the passing ability of faster vehicles. The quality of two-lane highway is described by the
average travel speed; the percent time delay and capacity utilization. The passenger and goods traffic
on two-lane highways have high economic implications. It is also necessary to estimate the capacity
of a two-lane highway in order to decide the economic feasibility of its upgradation to multilane
highway or a freeway.

1.1 Field Studies

In order to study the various characteristics of mixed traffic, data were collected at different sections
of two-lane roads in different parts of India. All the sections were on intercity portions of two-lane
highways with 7.0 m wide pavement and 3.6 m wide earthen shoulders on either side. Video
recording technique was used to collect the data for arrival pattern of vehicles and speed studies. Data
were collected at 15 sections for arrival pattern and at 18 sections for speed studies. For lateral
placement of vehicles data were collected at 19 sections by dividing the lane width into segments of
250 mm each with a self adhesive white tape numbered seriatim from the pavement edge to the centre
line and the placement of rear left wheels was recorded manually. The overtaking behaviour was
studied by the moving car method and data were collected at 3 sections.

1.2 Simulation Program

The above data were analysed and finally a simulation program was developed to simulate the traffic
flow on a two-lane highway incorporating all the aspects of flow behavior. The development of the
proposed simulation process consists of the following major submodels related to traffic flow on a
two-lane road: (1) generation of arrival pattern (2) generation of type of vehicle (3) lateral placement
of vehicles (4) speed assignment to the vehicles (5) decision rules for safety margin between the
vehicles (6) overtaking maneuvers (7) acceleration characteristics during overtaking and (8) logic for
the lateral clearance.

1.3 Estimation of Capacity

The program was run to determine the capacity of a two-lane road under different influencing
parameters. Capacity of a two-lane road under all car situation is estimated 2860 PCU/h. This is
10.6% lower than the maximum capacity of 3200 PCU/h suggested in Highway Capacity Manual

(2000). It was observed that the capacity reduces as the second type of vehicle is introduced in the
stream as shown in Table 1.
Table 1 Capacity at different composition
Second category Proportion on second category of vehicles (%)
of vehicle

10

20

30

50

100

2-wheeler

2860

3250

3620

4000

5050

5600

3-wheeler

2860

2625

2500

2300

2100

1850

HVs

2860

2780

2500

2300

1550

780

Tractor

2860

2200

1780

1420

900

580

To see the effect of directional distribution on capacity the simulation program was run at five levels
of directional splits; 50/50, 60/40, 70/30, 80/20 and 90/10 (ratio of lane-1 volume to lane-2 volume)
with all car situation. It is observed that the capacity decreases as the directional distribution moves
away from an even split of 50/50. A straight line relationship was observed between capacity and
directional split as given below.
C = 3524 14*Q Pm

(1)

where, C is the capacity in PCU/h and Q Pm is the percent traffic in main direction.

2. UNCONTOLLED INTERSECTIONS
Studies on uncontrolled intersections in mixed traffic situations have always been an intriguing one
for traffic engineers. Majority of the studies reported in literature on gap acceptance and critical gap
estimation are reported from homogeneous traffic conditions. The traffic conditions in India are of
mixed nature with predominant number of small size vehicles. These vehicles squeeze through any
available gap between large size vehicles and move into the intersection area in a haphazard manner.
The rule of priority is often violated. Estimation of critical gap, which is an indispensable term in
arriving at the capacity, becomes complicated due to the heterogeneity of the traffic stream and
absence of lane discipline. Critical gap values estimated by some important methods available in
literature are found to give substantial variation and are generally on the lower side (Ashalatha and
Chandra, 2007)

2.1 Behavioural Concept of Critical Gap

One of the definitions of critical gap is the minimum time gap required in major street traffic by a
minor street vehicle to enter the conflict area (Weinert, 2000). It assumes that the minor street
vehicles would wait for a suitable gap in high priority stream to enter the intersection. The theoretical
models developed to analyze traffic flow behaviour under homogeneous traffic conditions are based
on the concept that some of the movements have absolute priority and a low priority movement will
always yield to a high priority movement. In situations where rule of priority is not observed strictly
and the minor street vehicles clear the intersection in a zig-zag manner, requirement of gap will
depend on two factors; the clearing behaviour of the minor street vehicle and the clearing distance for
the movement under consideration. A new concept of determining critical gap is introduced by
Ashalatha and Chandra (2007) which takes into account the clearing time and gap acceptance
characteristics of a vehicle. Both of these characteristics depend on behaviour of the vehicle at

intersection. Under this concept, an area as shown in Figure 1 was considered as the influence area for
gap acceptance by a right turning vehicle from minor street. This area has the dimension L*W, where
L is equal to 3.5m (lane width) and W is almost 1.5 times the width of the crossing vehicle. It is a
rectangular area having the conflict point at its geometric center. The edge XX which is the upstream
boundary of the area so formed was taken as the reference line for measuring the gaps offered. This
area is referred as the Influence Area for Gap Acceptance (Inafoga). Similar areas were defined for
other movements also.

Figure 1 Influence area for measuring gap accepted and clearing time for right turn from minor
The above concept provides reasonably good results for critical gaps for different types of vehicles
and methodology can be used for both homogenous as well as heterogeneous traffic conditions.

2.2 Estimation of Capacity

The entry capacity of a movement depends on critical gap and conflicting traffic. The Bludens
equation as given in HCM (2000) is used to determine the capacity of a movement. The typical
capacity charts are shown in Figure 2.

3000

Car
Three-wheeler
Two-wheeler

Capacity

2000

1000

0
0

500

1000

1500

2000

Conflicting traffic voulme (vph)

Figure 2 Capacity Charts for Right Turn from Minor Street
As expected, the movement capacity decreases sharply as the conflicting traffic increases. It depends
on type of vehicle also. The small size vehicles like two-wheeler have low value of critical gap and
hence the entry capacity for a priority movement with these vehicles is substantially higher than that
for other categories of vehicles. The capacity charts of the type shown in Figure 2 are for one type of
vehicle in the traffic stream. If the priority movement has a mixed type of traffic then the entry
capacity, Q m can be estimated using Equation (1).

100 Pc P2 w P3 w
=
+
+
Qm Qc Q2 w Q3 w

(1)

where, Pc , P2 w , P3 w are the proportion of car, two-wheeler and three-wheeler respectively and Q c ,

Q 2 w , Q 3 w are their individual entry capacities.

REFERENCES
1. Ashalatha R. and Satish Chandra, Capacity of uncontrolled intersections under mixed

traffic conditions, HRB 77, Indian Roads Congress, New Delhi, October 2007, pp. 73
80.

2. Dey, P. P., Satish Chandra and Gangopadhaya, S., Acceleration characteristics of

vehicles on Indian roads, Highway Research Journal, Vol. 1(1), 2008, HRB, Indian
Roads Congress, New Delhi, 43-48.
3. Dey, P. P., Satish Chandra and Gangopadhaya, S., Modeling of vehicle arrival on twolane roads, Highway Research Journal, Vol. 1(1), 2008, HRB, Indian Roads Congress,
New Delhi, 71-80.
4. HCM (1985, 2000). Highway capacity manual. SR 209, Transportation
Research Board,
National Research Council, Washington D.C.
5. Dey, P. P., Satish Chandra and Gangopadhaya, S. Speed distribution curves under mixed

traffic conditions, Journal of Transportation Engineering, ASCE, vol. 132 (6), 2006,
475-481.
6. Weinert, A. (2000). Estimation of critical gaps and follow-up times at rural
unsignalised
th
intersections in Germany. Transportation Research Circular EC108: 4 International
Symposium on Highway Capacity, Hawaii.
7. Ashalatha, R., Kala, P. and Satish Chandra (2005 a). Comparative study on gap acceptance at Tintersection. Indian Highways, Vol. 33 (7), Indian Roads Congress, New Delhi, 29-39.
8. Ashalatha, R., Satish Chandra and Prasanth, K. (2005 b). Critical gap at uncontrolled
intersections using maximum likelihood technique. Indian Highways, Vol. 33(10), Indian Roads
Congress, New Delhi, 67-74.

Travel Demand Modeling: Approaches & Applications

COMPARISON OF TOUR- BASED AND TRIP- BASED
TRAVEL DEMAND MODELS
Vishnu B*
Research Scholar,
Transportation Engineering Division,
Indian Institute of Technology, Madras,
Chennai- 600036, India.
E-mail: vishnub87@gmail.com
Karthik K Srinivasan
Associate Professor,
Transportation Engineering Division,
Indian Institute of Technology, Madras,
Chennai- 600036, India.
Phone: 91-44-22574282
E-mail: hsmnp@yahoo.com

Abstract
The inability of the four step
planning process to completely
represent the travel demand
patterns has led to the
development of the activity
based travel demand modeling
paradigm. The difference starts
from the fundamental unit for
the two approaches, trip and
tour. Also, the tour based
approach
investigates
the
* Corresponding Author

reason for which an individual

travels, in addition to its ability
to capture the impact of interpersonal relationship. In this
paper, a comparison between
the trip- based and the tourbased models for two cities,
Chennai and San Francisco, for
workers in a household has
been attempted. The current
work looks into the research
objectives such as, differences

between trip generation and

tour
generation
models,
differences in the tour pattern
across workers in the household
and a comparison of trip and
tour generation models for two
cities with similar population
(San Francisco and Chennai).
The tours undertaken by
members in a household are
classified as tours performed by
workers and tours by nonworkers. The tours performed
by workers are modeled
conditional to the individual
performing a work tour on a
particular day. If an individual
has performed a work tour on a
particular day then, the number
of work tours, pre-work tours,
work-based sub tours and postwork tours performed by the
individual are modeled, else,
the number of non-work tours
is modeled. Trip generation
models are also developed for
all the workers. Comparison of
the coefficients obtained for the
variables
from
the
two
approaches are then used to
identify significant differences
between the two approaches.
The coefficients of the tour
generation
models
are

compared across workers in a

household to study intrahousehold
effects
and
interactions. Finally, salient
similarities across the two cities
and unique characteristics of
each are analyzed.
Introduction and Background
Transportation
systems
influence the daily life of the
people. With the increasing
population, vehicle ownership,
number of trips made by
people,
urbanization
and
decreasing dependence on
public transportation systems,
the need for finding solutions to
urban transportation problems
such as congestion, inadequate
infrastructure, etc is gaining
importance. This demands the
development of methods that
can predict how and why
people travel, more accurately.
The conventional four step
planning models fails to
completely represent the travel
pattern of the people. This has
led to the development of
Activity Based Travel Demand
models which is based on the
notion that the travel is derived
from the desire to participate in

activities (Pas 1996; Bhat et al.

2004). Further, it works at the
disaggregate level (Pas 1996)
and also takes into account
inter- personal interactions such
as joint tours, in- home
activities and time allocation
for individuals into account
(Yagi 2006; Bowman 1995).
Activity based travel demand
modeling considers a tour based
structure, where tours are made
up of a chain of spatially or
temporally connected trips
(Yagi 2006). However, in the
four step planning process, the
different trips are considered to
be independent of each other
(Kitamura 1996). Another key
aspect of activity based travel
demand modeling is the
inclusion of time of the day, in
which different time intervals
are provided, making prediction
of trip assignment and travel
pattern more accurate.
Current Research
The current research looks into
the
following
objectives.
Comparison of tour based travel
demand models and the trip
based travel demand models for
the two cities. Following this,

the coefficients obtained using

the tour based travel demand
models are then compared
across individuals in the
household to study interpersonal interactions within the
household. Finally, the salient
similarities
and
the
dissimilarities between the two
cities are identified.
Data
The analysis has been carried
out for two cities, viz. Indian
city of Chennai and the
American
city
of
San
Francisco,
having
similar
population of about 80 million.
Analysis for Chennai is carried
out using the Activity Diary,
collected
during
Chennai
Household
Travel
Survey
(2004- 05) with sample size of
2200 and a single day activity
diary. Bay- Area Travel Survey
(BATS 2000) data, with 15,000
households and 2- day activity
diary has been used for worker
analysis of California
Modeling Framework
For analysis, the members of a
household are classified as

working and non- working

people.
Fully
employed
members and students who are
partially employed constitute
workers
and
housewives,
retired and students who are not
employed constitute the nonworkers. The overall number of
tours generated in a household
is calculated by adding up the
number of tours made by
workers and non- workers.
Workers have been classified as
head, spouse, child and others.
Others include all other
relations such as parents, inlaws, uncles, aunties and other
relatives.
In the analysis, initially, it
is identified if the individual
makes a work tour on a
particular day or not. In case he
makes a work tours, then the
number of work tours, prework tours, work- based tours,
post- work tours undertaken by
that particular individual is then
modeled. In the event that an
individual does not undertake a
work tour on a given day, the
number of non- work tours
undertaken by that individual is
then modeled. In the case of
trip based travel demand

models, the total number of

trips in the household is
modeled.
Modeling Approach
The number of tours is modeled
at the individual level as
explained in the previous
section. Descriptive statistics
was initially carried out, to
understand the behavior of the
dependent and the independent
variables and to identify the
variation of the dependent
variable according to the
various scenarios.
The Index of dispersion
was then calculated. The index
of dispersion for the data used
for this analysis falls into the
following
categories,
viz.
under- dispersed and with
dispersion close to 1. When the
values were close to 1, further
analysis was carried out to
check if the data fits a Poisson
distribution. Based on these two
conditions, two kinds of models
are used for the analysis, viz.
Poisson Regression and ZeroInflated Poisson Regression.

Poisson regression deals

with situations in which the
dependent variable is a count.
Based on this condition that the
mean is always comparable to
variance, Poisson regression
can be used for modeling count
data. The Poisson regression
has been formulated as shown
below.
x i *
where,
= mean,
x i = independent variables,
= coefficients
This has been used to
develop models for pre- work,
post- work and work- based
tours
for
the
various
individuals.
Zero- Inflated Poisson
Regression models are used
when the Poisson distribution
cannot fit the data. This is
normally due to the increase in
number of zeros. The zeros can
mainly be due to two reasons,
1. There are actually zeros

2. Zeros are due to

unobserved readings by
the enumerator
In order to capture this,
zero inflated models are used.
The density function includes a
proportion (1- ) of extra- zeros
and a proportion x exp (-)
zeros coming from the Poisson
distribution.
The
density
function is given below
f(x;,) = (1-) P 0 (x,0) +
P 0 (x,)
where,
= mean,
x= observations,
= proportion value
Linear regression was used
for
developing
the
trip
generation models. They take
the form,
y = a + b*x 1 + c*x 2 +
where,
y = dependent variable,
x i s = independent variables,
b, c = coefficients

x2=

Results
For the current analysis, base
models have been developed
for the trip generation and tour
generation, without using the
secondary data, such as landuse.
Trip generation models
y = 3.54 + 3.756 * x 1 + 0.86 *
x 2 + 0.169 * x 3
where,
y = number of tours per hh
x 1 = number of children in hh
x 2 = number of vehicles in hh
x 3 = hh income
Tour generation models
-2.136 +0.135 * x 1
+.278 * x 2 0.186 *
x 3 0.295* x 4
where,
= mean number of tours per
person
x 1 = number of workers in hh

Age of individual
between 45 and 55

x 3 = family
income

has

is

medium

x 4 = family has high income

The analysis showed that, in
spite
of
modeling
trip
generation models at the
household level, they fail to
capture the effect of household
interactions,
which
may
increase or decrease of the
number of trips. This was
captured using the tour
generation models.
The coefficients obtained
by carrying out the analysis for
the tours clearly indicate the
influence
of
household
interaction. The analysis carried
out for the pre- work tour of the
Head of the family, indicates
that the number of children in
the family is a deciding
criterion for carrying out a prework tour. And when the same
analysis was carried out for
spouse of the head, it was found
that along with the presence of
kids of the age group less than
5 years, the presence of a male

head who is employed forms

the criteria for carrying out a
pre- work tour. This confirms
the initial assumption that the
household interaction plays an
important role in deciding the
travel pattern of an individual.
Further analysis was
also carried out for the various
tours that were undertaken by
the same individual to study the
temporal
variation.
This
strengthens the assumption that
time of the day is an important
parameter for an individual to
decide whether or not to
undertake a tour. This can
clearly be inferred from the
analysis that was carried out for
the pre- work and post- work
tours that were undertaken by
the head of the household. The
variable parking time, which
was not significant for the prework tours (t- statistic was very
poor to accept it), had a
negative coefficient indicating
that the person does not prefer
longer duration activities in the
morning, turned out to be

significant for the post- work

tours and with a positive
coefficient, indicating that the
individuals
prefer
longer
duration activities after work.
From the analysis carried
out for the two cities, it can be
found that even when the two
cities had similar population,
the travel pattern and the types
of tours undertaken by the
individuals are different. There
is significant difference in the
number of work- based and
post- work tours that were
undertaken by the individuals in
the two cities.
The study only throws light
into the initial assumptions, but
there is a need for a detailed
analysis to confirm that the tour
generation models are better
than the trip generation models.
For this, detailed analysis has to
be carried out to check the
continuity in mode choice, etc.
References
1. Bhat, C.R., Guo, J.Y,
Srinivasan, S. and A.
Sivakumar,
(2004)

"Comprehensive
Econometric
Microsimulator for Daily
Activity-Travel
Patterns,"
Transportation
Research Record, 1894,
57-66.
2. Bowman, J. L (1995)
Activity based travel
demand model system
with
daily
activity
schedules,
thesis,
presented
to
Massachusetts institute
of
Technology
at
Massachusetts,
in
partial fulfillment of the
requirements for the
degree of Master of
Science.
3. Bowman, J. L and BenAkiva M (1996) Activity
based
travel
forecasting.
Proceedings of Activity
Based
Travel
Forecasting
Conferences, Orlando,
3- 36.

4. Kitamura, R (1996)
Applications of models
of activity behavior for
activity based demand
forecasting.
Proceedings of Activity
Based
Travel
Forecasting
Conferences, Orlando,
119- 150.
5. Pas, E. I (1996) Recent

advances in activitybased travel demand

modeling. Proceedings
of Activity Based Travel
Forecasting Conference,
Orlando, 79- 102.

6. Yagi,

S (2006) An
activity-based
microsimulation model of
travel
demand
for
transportation
policy
and impact analysis,"
thesis, presented to
University of Illinois at
Chicago, in partial
fulfillment
of
the
requirements for the
degree of Doctor of
Philosophy.

DEVELOPMENTS IN DISCRETE CHOICE MODELING TECHNIQUES FOR TRAVEL

MODE CHOICE ANALYSIS : AN OVERVIEW
Mrs. Desai N A
Research Scholar , S.V. National Institute of Technology, Surat
Assistant Professor, Civil Engineering department,
Babaria Institute of Technology, Varnama, Vadoadra.
nipa_adesai@yahoo.co.in.
Dr.Joshi G.J
Associate professor, Civil Engineering department.,
S.V. National Institute of technology, Surat-395007
gj@ced.svnit.ac.in

ABSTRACT : Asian countries has made remarkable economic growth in last few decades. At the
same time it is also a fact that this economic growth increases income and contributes to the
improvement in quality of life. Rapid increase in populations, trend towards urbanization and
motorization has contributed in air pollution, traffic congestion, road accidents and many such
problems. To resolve out these serious issues and to obtain sustainable developments many cities
have adopted transportation development policies that primarily aimed at reduction in the usage of
personalized motor vehicles and promoting the usage of high occupancy vehicles. Lots of work has
been carried out to achieve sustainable transportation developments out of which travel behavior
analysis has established itself as a central area of fundamental intellectual significance in the
transportation planning and travel demand management. Knowledge about what people want can
enable planners to devise easy-to-understand and simple-to-use systems as well as provide
essential and useful information to the customers. Travel demand and mode choice modeling are
popular research areas to understand and forecast future transportation scenario. There is a vast
literature on travel mode choice modeling which has provided a good understanding of factors
which influence mode choice and the general range of trade-offs that individuals are willing to
make among level-of-service variables such as travel time and travel cost, comfort, convenience,
service reliability etc. In order to explore an appropriate modeling technique which can explain
urban travel mode choice behavior, a detailed review of existing literature is made and various
mode choice modeling approaches and popular travel mode choice models are studied, highlights
of which are presented in this paper.
1. INTRODUCTION
Economic and social developments are the measures to judge growth of any nation and
national transportation system is the backbone for that social and economic development.
Rapid urbanization, social and economical development and boost in population has
increased transportation demand. The urban areas of any country are major contributors of
these national development and prosperity but at the same time in urban areas increased
demand for the transport seriously affects the quality of life. Easy availability of motor
vehicles due to attractive finance schemes, increase in household income and developments
in industrial and commercial activities has further added to transport demand and other
related issues.
In many cases, especially in context with Indian metro cities the demand has
overcrowded the road capacities. Traffic congestion, road accidents, travel delays, air
problem and serious health problems due to pollution are the indicators of seriousness of
transportation problems in India. The main reasons for these problems are the prevailing
imbalance in modal split, inadequate transport infra structure and its non-optimized usage.
Public bus transportation services have deteriorated in past few decades as it has not been
able to cope up with rapid increase in demand. Further reduction in the usage of public
transportation modes have been observed in last few years as many passengers have shifted
-1-

from public to personalized or intermediate transport. The reason behind this is, public
transport needs are often get neglected, either due to policy shortcomings or poor
management strategies even though individual cities can not afford to cater sprawls in private
cars and other personalized vehicles on existing city roads.
There is a serious need to encourage public transport instead of personalized vehicles,
effective demand and supply side management measures and qualitative and quantitative
development of entire system. To resolve out these serious issues and to obtain sustainable
developments many cities have adopted transportation development policies that primarily
aimed at reduction in the usage of personalized motor vehicles and promoting the usage of
high occupancy vehicles. For success of these policies, it is very much essential to understand
travelers thinking and behavior.
1.1 Travel Mode Choice Behavior And Its Importance In Transportation Planning And
Management.
Transportation system design and planning is one of the most challenging areas of traffic and
transportation engineering. To achieve the most optimized usage of system, lots of base work
is needed as entire system is depending on peoples preference.
Public transportation plays an important role in achieving sustainability, efficient
mobility and high quality of urban life. However, there are many reasons why people do not
use public transport to its full potential. The knowledge about what people want can enable
planners to devise easy-to-understand and simple-to-use systems as well as provide
essential and useful information to the customers.
The scientific results obtained from the fundamental theories, when implemented in
practice by operators, authorities and other actors in the transportation sector, could improve
the performance of a system. Travel demand modeling and mode choice modeling are
popular research areas to understand and forecast future transportation scenario and success
of the system designed. Understanding and modeling traveler behavior in a variety of
situations is a major area of emphasis of this paper.
2. INTRODUCTION TO CHOICE MODELING
Choice modeling is used, when the decision process of an individual or segment in a
particular context is required to be modeled. Choice Models are able to predict with great
accuracy how individuals would react in a particular situation. Choice Modeling is believed
to be the most accurate and general purpose tool currently available for making probabilistic
predictions about human decisions and behavior. In addition Choice Modeling is regarded as
the most suitable method for estimating consumers willingness to pay for quality
improvements in multiple dimensions.
2.1 Summery On Data Collection Techniques Used For Choice Modeling
Data used for development of choice modeling are broadly classified in two categories v.i.z.
revealed and state preference data. In revealed preference techniques peoples preference can
be obtained basd on the past records. The major strength of the revealed preference
approaches is that they are based on actual choices, while the major weakness of revealed
preference approaches is their reliance on historical data. In the SP data collection method,
people are directly asked about their preferences and hence there is a liberty to construct the
details as it is required to be evaluated. Strength of the stated preference approaches is
flexibility. The major weakness of the stated preference approaches is their hypothetical

-2-

nature. Respondents are sometimes placed in unfamiliar situations in which complete

information is not available.
According to Citing Louviere et al. (2002), SP data can capture a wider and broader array of
preference-driven behaviors than revealed preference (RP) data on actual behavior, allowing for
experiments with choice opportunities that do not yet exist. Barsky et al. (1997). Louvire et al
(2002) give an overview of studies comparing preference parameter estimates based upon SP data
with estimates based upon RP data and find that the two are usually quite close, although formal
statistical tests sometimes reject exact equality. Patrick Beaton Ph.D, Qiuzi Cynthia Chen, Ham
Meghdir ( 1996) has carried out validity test for the application of Stated Choice models to
commuter mode choice and modal shift. The Stated Choice model forecasted mode shifts within
one percent of the after implementation value; the Revealed Preference model backcasted to
within 10 percent of the before initiation value. These findings are limited but useful
documentation in the external validity testing of discrete choice models.

To overcome the disadvantages of different techniques and to exploit the advantages of

each type of data in recent years a combined revealed and stated preference data collection
technique has gained popularity. Findings on combine and jointly estimate revealed and
stated preference data have been suggested by Ben-Akiva and Morikawa, 1990; Morikawa,
Ben-Akiva, and Yamada, 1991; Hensher and Bradley, 1993; Swait and Louviere, 1993.
2.2 Modeling Approaches In Discrete Choice Analysis And Interesting Findings On
Different Approaches.
Discrete choice models have been developed using two modeling approaches as aggregate
and disaggregate approach. Aggregate demand transport models are either based on observed
relations for groups of travelers, or on average relations. Quandt and Baumol, 1966 has
formulated aggregate mode choice model. Warner ( 1962) or Oi and Shuldiner ( 1962), have
identified serious deficiencies in conventional methodologies used in aggregate models, in
spite of that these models continued to be used in the majority of transport projects till the
early 1980s. The aggregate models are associated with number of problems such as lack of
behavioral basis, deficiencies of aggregate estimation methods and unsuccessful functional
form. These deficiencies led to poor performance of the aggregate models, which in some
cases over predicted the demand by as much as fifty percent, Ben- Akiva and Witmarsh,
1984.Disaggregate demand models are based on observed choices made by individual
travelers. It is expected that use of this framework will enable more realistic models to be
developed. The capabilities of disaggregate models were investigated by Watson, 1973 and
1974. He has also concluded that disaggregate models provide a better statistical explanation
of mode choice behavior. Several prediction test revealed that the errors associated with
aggregate models are several times higher than disaggregate models.
2.3 Reviews And Comparisons On Various Discrete Choice Models based On
Literature.
Since the development of very first model for travel mode choice, till today lots of models
were developed which has its own advantages and disadvantages. Attitude models by
Fishbain and Ajzen, 1975 and random utility models by Ben Akiva and Lerman, 1985 being
the most commonly used approaches. In these models, mode choice is typically
conceptualized as a function of the characteristics of alternative travel modes and a set of
personal and household characteristics. In attitude models transport mode choice is calculated
based on set of attitudes while in utility based approach the model is designed on the

-3-

principle of utility maximization. In recent years activity based mode choice models has also
gain popularity.
A comparative study of performance of scholastic mode split and mode choice models
viz. discriminant analysis, logit and probit models in binary situation is carried out by
Talvitie, Stopher and Lavender ( 1972). Talvitie results indicate that there were no
statistically significant difference either among the methods of estimation or among the
model specification themselves. On the other hand, Stopher and Lavender found that
discriminant analysis, was clearly inferior to wither logit or probit analysis. However there is
no distinction between probit and logit based upon the stistics, logit analysis is a more
popular and preferred technique as probit analysis requires a more time consuming
calibration procedure than logit. While evaluating both logit and probit, Ghareib (1996) has
suggested not to calibrate the complicated models shch as Probit when analyzing the situation
of a binary mode choice because logit model shows more accurate predictions. As discussed
earlier the basic logit model is having a disadvantage of IIA property and hence there has
been a search for a models which lie somewhere between the generality and complexity MNP
model and the restrictiveness but traceability of the MNL model, Dogit model developed by
Gaudry and Dagenais ( 1979) is of them.
Further, several research articles focused on introducing more flexibility to the
covariance structure of MNL in order to relax IIA and improve the performance of the model.
Nested logit is one example of this area. In addition, there are a numerous other variations on
the logit theme, albeit none that comes close to the popularity of MNL and NL. Cross-nested
logit (CNL), relaxes the error structure of nested logit by allowing groups to overlap. CNL
was first mentioned by McFadden (1978) and further investigated and applied by Small
(1987) for departure time choice, Vovsha (1997) for mode choice, and Vovsha and Bekhor
(1998) for route choice. MNL, NL, and CNL are all members of the General Extreme Value,
or GEV, class of models, developed by McFadden (1978, 1981), a general and elegant model
in which the choice probabilities still have tractable logit form but do not necessarily hold to
the IIA condition. There is also the heteroscedastic extreme value logit model, which allows
the variance of the disturbance to vary across alternatives. This was developed and applied by
Bhat, 1995, for travel mode choice and tested against other GEV and probit models using
synthetic data by Munizaga et al. (2000).
A recent application of multinomial logit model for transportation mode choice can be
reviewed from the research paper by Yagi and Mohammedin , 2007, sequential logit by Fujii,
Kitamura and Monma, 1998; Borgers, Timmermans, 2000. Bhat and Guo 2004, Hess et al
2005 nad recently Greene et al. 2006, has given their valuable findings and applications on
Mixed multinomial logit models.
The other major family of discrete choice models is the probit family, which has a
multivariate normal distributed disturbance. The early investigations of probabilistic choice
models (Aitchison and Bennett, 1970; Bock and Jones, 1968; Marschak, 1960) were of probit
form, because it is natural to make normality assumptions. Probit is extremely flexible,
because it allows for an unrestricted covariance matrix, but is less popular than the GEV
forms primarily due to the difficulty in estimation (i.e., lack of a closed form solution). Much
of the research on probit is in the areas of estimation (for example , Clark, 1961, developed
an early used approximation; Lerman and Manski, 1981, pioneered the use of simulation for
econometric models; and Geweke, Hajivassiliou, and Keane developed the now common
GHK simulator4, which made great strides in increasing the tractability of probit) and in
simplifying the error structure (for example, McFadden, 1984, proposed using a factor
analytic form to reduce the dimensionality of the integral). Daganzo (1979) provides a
thorough examination of probit, and the model is widely described in Econometrics
textbooks, for example, Amemiya (1985), Ben-Akiva and Lerman (1985), and Greene

-4-

(2000). Logit kernel (or continuous mixed logit model) is a model that attempts to combine
the relative advantages of probit and GEV forms. It is a powerful and practical model that has
recently exploded in the applied literature and is making its way into econometric textbooks,
for example, Greene, 2000, and Louviere et al., 2000. The disturbance of the logit kernel
model is composed of two parts: a probit-like term, which allows for flexibility, and an i.i.d.
Gumbel (or GEV) term, which aids in estimation. The technique was used as early as Boyd
and Mellman (1980) and Cardell and Dunbar (1980) for the specific application of random
parameter logit. The more general form of the model came about through researchers quest
for smooth probability simulators for use in estimating probit models. McFaddens 1989
paper on the Method of Simulated Moments, includes a description of numerous smooth
simulators, one of which involved probit with an additive i.i.d. Gumbel term. Stern (1992)
described a similar simulator, which has an additive i.i.d. normal term instead of the Gumbel.
At the time of these papers, there was a strong desire to retain the pure probit form of the
model. Hence, the algorithms and specifications were designed to eventually remove the
additive contamination element from the model (for example, McFadden, 1989) or ensure
that it did not interfere with the pure probit specification (for example, Stern, 1992). Bolduc
and Ben-Akiva (1991)5 did not see the need to remove the added noise, and began
experimenting with models that left the Gumbel term in tact, and found that the method
performed well. There have been numerous relatively recent applications and investigations
into the model. A particularly important contribution is McFadden and Trains (2000) paper
on mixed logit, which both (i) proves that any well-behaved RUM-consistent behavior can be
represented as closely as desired with a mixed logit specification and (ii) presents easy to
implement specification tests for these models.
In addition to the above mentioned modeling approaches activity based models,
constraints based models, micro-simulation models etc. are also popular for travel mode
choice analysis which are not discussed in this paper.
3. CONCLUSION
Since the development of very first model for travel mode choice, till today many models are
developed having its own advantages and disadvantages. Out of all models attitude models by
Fishbain and Ajzen, 1975 and random utility models by Ben Akiva and Lerman, 1985 being
the most commonly used approaches. It is concluded from the reviews that discrete choice
models are most suitable to study choice preferences. Daniel Mcfadden, Moshe Ben-Akiva,
Lerman, Frank S. Koppelman, Chandra R Bhat, Train, K., J.de.D Ortuzar and L.G
.Williumsen have given their valuable contributions in development of theories and
application in transportation planning. Stopher and Lavender found in their studies that
discriminant analysis and other techniques, were clearly inferior to either logit or probit
analysis. Logit analysis is a more popular and preferred technique as probit analysis requires
a more time consuming calibration procedure than Logit. However in recent years due to
advanced computational facilities and modeling software probit approach has also gain
popularity. Ghareib (1996) has suggested that Logit model shows more accurate predictions
when analyzing the situation of a binary mode choice. There are numerous other variations
of Logit and many new models are developed, but still MNL and NL are the most popular
models.

-5-

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Anderson, P, De Palma, A.& Thisse, J. (1992) "Discrete choice theory of product
differentiation." MIT Press.
Bolduc D (1999) A practical technique to estimate multinomial probit models in
transportation. Transportation Research 33B: 6379.
C.Jotin Khisty & B.Kent Lall ( 2003) , A text book on Transportation Engineering
an introduction published by Prentice hall of India private limited, New Delhi, India.
C.S.Papacostas & P.D.Prevedouros (2001) , A textbook on " Transportation
engineering and planning " theird edition published by Prentice hall of India private
limited, New Delhi, India.
C.S.R.K Prasad ( 1997), " Behavioral mode choice models for intersity rail-road
passenger travel" A thessis submitted to Karnataka University for the award of degree
of doctor of philosophy.
Chandra R Bhat ( 1997) a text book on transportation systems planning : methods and
applications " Random Utility based discrete choice models for travel demand
Analysis"
David A. Hensher & Kenneth J Button ( 2000) " Handbook of transportation
modelling" , an imprint of elsevier science, UK.
David Madigan Rutgers Logistic & Tobit Regression , Based in part on Web Notes
by Kathleen Kerr, University of Washington & Thomas Love, CWRU.
David Revelt and Train, K (1998). "Mixed Logit with Repeated Choices: Households'
Choices of Appliance Efficiency Level," Review of Economics and Statistics, Vol.
80.
Frank S. Koppelman and Chandra Bhat( 2006) A Self Instructing Course in Mode
Choice Modeling: Multinomial and Nested Logit Models Prepared For U.S.
Department of Transportation Federal Transit Administration.
G. Rodrfguez ( 2007) , online notes on " Logit model for binary choice"
J.de.D Ortuzar and L.G .Williumsen (1992 ) a text book on " Modeling transport"
second edition, published by Jhon willy and sons.
Joan Leslie Walker(2001) Extended Discrete Choice Models: Integrated Framework,
Flexible Error Structures, and Latent Variables A thesis submitted for the Degree of
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Makata Chikaraishi, Akimasa Fujiwara, Junyi Zhang & Kay W Axhausen., ( 2011),
"Identifying variations and co-variations in discrete choice models., published in
Springer Science + Business management.

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Marloes Verhoeven & Geboren te Oss ( 2010), " Modeling life trajectories and
transport mode choice using Bayesian belief networks." unpublished thesis available
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Moshe Ben-Akiva, Daniel Mcfadden,Makoto Abe,Ulf Bckenholt,Denis
Bolduc,Dinesh Gopinath,Takayuki Morikawa &Venkatram Ramaswamy ( 1997),
Modelling methods for discrete choice analysis Marketing Letters 8:3 (1997): 273
286 Kluwer Academic Publishers, Netherlands.
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"Preliminary and incomplete draft of a textbook on discrete choicen analysis" ,
updated version of the book by Ben-Akiva and Lerman (1985, MIT Press.
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Transportation Science.
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-7-

LATENT FACTORS IN DESTINATION CHOICE SELECTION:

AN EXPLORATORY STUDY
Madhavan Harikrishna & Rastogi Rajat
Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee
E-mail: hari1312@gmail.com; rajatfce@iitr.ernet.in
ABSTRACT: This paper identifies the latent constructs influencing destination choice
preferences of domestic tourists visiting waterfront destinations. Domestic tourists are
interviewed to ascertain their responses to nineteen identified dimensions on a five point likert
type scale. Factor analytic approach with Kaiser normalisation and oblimin rotation and using
multiple criteria is used to derive the latent constructs. The average of the scores for the
dimensions is computed and it is observed that aspects pertaining to safety, comfort and
convenience have relatively higher average scores. The factor analysis results indicate that
comfort and safety, social and personal restrictions and pre-decision factors influence the
choice of a destination. The identification of these factors would aid in the development of travel
behaviour models pertaining to destination choices. They would also help in formulation of
development strategies at destination for improved revisitation and patronage.
Keywords: Destination preference, domestic tourist, latent construct, factor analysis.

of accommodation to choose and which

mode to travel in. On account of the inherent
heterogeneity
and
multiplicity
of
destinations, the choices before the traveller
are varied. Moreover, subjective factors
such as preferences play a significant role in
destination choice selection.

1. INTRODUCTION
Travel to a destination has stemmed from
the need to access geographical locations in
space so as to derive space, time and quality
utility from travel. Among the various travel
purposes, like for work, shopping, school
etc, travel for leisure is characterised by
heterogeneity with respect to travel
destinations. Unlike other travel purposes,
leisure travel is discretionary in nature.
Hence the decision process related to a
leisure trip commences with the decision as
to whether to travel or not, where to travel,
at what time of the year to travel, which type

A number of studies have been

conducted to examine the preferences of
travellers with respect to the destination
being chosen for the leisure trip. Um and
Crompton (1990) studied the influence of
attitude in identification of an evoked set of
destinations. Baloglu and Uysal (1996) have

of domestic tourists. This is more relevant in

the case of domestic tourist travel in the
Indian context, since the number of
domestic tourist visits have shown a marked
increase over the years. Figure 1 shows the
domestic tourist visits in India from 19972009. The statistics shown above indicate
that 300% increase in the number of
domestic tourist visits in a period of 12
years. However, no study has been
conducted in the Indian domestic tourism
context that pertains to the destination
preferences of travellers. This study
explores the latent constructs influencing the
destination choice preferences of domestic
tourists visiting selected water front
destinations using factor analytic approach.

identified the push and pull factors which

influence leisure travel. The Push factors are
socio-psychological
intentions
that
predispose the individual to travel while the
pull factors attract the individuals to a
destination with their activities. Ben-Akiva
et al. (1999) has emphasised that choice
behaviour is characterised by a decision
process that is formed by perceptions and
beliefs based on the available information
and influenced by the emotional state of the
decision maker, their attitude, motives and
preferences. Johansson et al., (2006) have
stated that differences in peoples attitudes
and personality traits result in varying
importance being attributed to safety,
comfort, convenience and flexibility. The
need for examining latent constructs that
would provide an insight into the decision
making process of individuals have been
emphasised. Segmentation of leisure travel
market with the aid of household and trip
characteristics have also been attempted by
different researchers (Sung et al. 2001,
Silverberg et al. 1996, Pizam and Sussmann,
1995, Javalgi et al. 1992, Gitelson and
Kerstetter, 1990). From the review of
literature, it is concluded that decision
making process, a multiattribute and highly
correlated phenomenon, is a step-by-step
procedure incorporating behavioural and
socio-demographic constraints and the
choice of a destination is influenced by
attributes of the destination as well as the
way in which the destinations are viewed
upon by the travellers themselves.

(Source: www.indiastat.com accessed on 12th April 2011)

Figure 1: Domestic tourist visits in India:

1997-2009.
2. METHODOLOGY ADOPTED FOR
THE STUDY

The previous studies have been

undertaken in the context of foreign tourist
travel scenario and no studies are conducted
to analyse the destination choice preferences

This section is divided into sub-sections that

explain the study cities and sample, sample

instrument and the

adopted for the study.

statistical

analysis

information about the place and presence of

sightseeing locations at and in the vicinity of
the city. Travel related aspects such as
connectivity, affordable travel modes, safety
and distance are incorporated and
miscellaneous factor includes presence of
shopping and entertainment facilities and
language barrier. The respondents are asked
to rate these factors on a 5 point Likert type
scale indicating with 1 representing
extremely unimportant and 5 as
extremely important.

2.1
Study Cities and Sample
In order to collect the relevant information
regarding the preferences of domestic
tourists for identified factors, a survey is
conducted. Two cities having water fronts
namely Kochi and Goa are selected for the
study. These are famous tourist destinations
for both domestic and international tourists.
Domestic tourists at locations within the
study city are interviewed to gather the
relevant information. The eligibility criteria
fixed for the selection of a respondent is that
he/she should not be a resident of the city in
which the data is collected and he/she
should be staying in the city for at least one
night. 300 tourists at each study city are
interviewed.
After
checking
for
inconsistency in the data and removing
incomplete data, 599 data samples are found
suitable for further analysis.

Table 1: Dimensions identified for the

present study
Factor

Social related

2.2
Study Instrument
A self administered questionnaire is
formulated for eliciting the information from
the tourists. The dimensions influencing the
destination preferences of tourists are
identified after a review of previous studies.
After examining their applicability to Indian
cultural milieu, 19 dimensions are identified
which are classified, for the sake of
convenience, into four distinct categories
namely social related, destination related,
travel related and miscellaneous. The
identified dimensions are shown in Table 1.
The social related factor includes monetary,
budgetary and social considerations.
Destination related aspects include climate,
cuisine, affordable stay, cuisine available,

Destination
related

Travel related

Miscellaneous

Dimensions
Number of days that are
available for the trip; Budget
available in hand for the trip;
Number of aged or children
in the family;
Presence of known persons
at the destination.
Climate of a place;
Comfortable and affordable
stay;
Availability of desirable
cuisine;
Personal safety at
destination;
Other leisure locations
nearby;
Information about the place;
Presence of sightseeing
locations.
Direct connectivity;
Availability of affordable
travel modes;
Comfort and convenience
during travel;
Distance from home;
Safety during travel.
Shopping facilities;
Entertainment facilities;
Language barrier.

relationship between variables is strong and

factor analysis can be proceeded with.

2.3
Statistical Analysis
The mean scores for the identified
dimensions are computed and analysed to
identify the dimensions that the travellers
give more importance. Factor analysis, with
Kaiser normalisation and oblimin rotation is
then used to uncover the latent constructs
influencing destination choice. SPSS
(version 16.0) software is used for
conducting the factor analysis. Before
proceeding with factor analysis, the
adequacy of sample size is checked using KM-O test statistic. It is calculated as given
by Equation (1)

In addition to the above, the

correlation matrix is checked for singularity
or multicollinearity. Variables so identified
are to be eliminated before proceeding. The
anti-image correlation matrix which
contains the negative partial covariances and
correlations as its diagonal elements is also
checked. This matrix contains measures of
sampling adequacy for each variable.
Factors are identified based on oblimin
rotation and those having eigen values less
than 1.0 are not processed further because
these factors are equivalent to a single
variable (Tucker et al., 1969). Factor loading
greater than 0.5 and above were retained
(Kim and Mueller, 1978). For retaining an
item within a factor, the criteria that a
difference of at least 0.10 between the
items loading with its factor and between
factor loadings under each of the other
factors was used (Nie et al., 1975). Each
dimension was further subjected to a
reliability checking using Cronbachs alpha
value. Only those factor dimensions with
Cronbachs alpha values greater than 0.50
are considered acceptable for further
analysis. The scree plot is also used to
identify the number of significant factors.
The scree plot gives the plot of the eigen
value against the factor. Eigen values
represent the variation accounted for by
each factor and in the scree plot, the number
of components will be equal to the number
of dimensions considered. Number of
factors to be considered has been identified
from the scree plot based on its stable slope.

(1)
Where
= sum over all items in the matrix when
item i j
r ij -Pearson correlation between items i and
j
a ij - Partial correlation coefficient between
items i and j.
K-M-O measure ranges from 0 to 1, with
smaller values indicating that factor analysis
would be unwise. Kaiser (1974) have
suggested the following criteria for
evaluating the size of K-M-O statistic,
Above 0.9Superb; 0.8-0.9Great, 0.70.8 Good, 0.5-0.7Mediocre, and <
0.5 Barely acceptable.
Next Bartlett's test of sphericity is
used to test the null hypothesis that the
variables in the population correlation
matrix are uncorrelated. If population
correlation matrix resembles an identity
matrix, then there is no correlation between
variables and no clusters would be found.
This indicates that the strength of

After identifying the statistically

significant factors from the pattern matrix,
which contains the factor loadings,
subjective to the criteria as mentioned
above, the factors are named on the basis of
the predominant dimension loading onto it.

Table 2: Mean scores of dimensions

Dimensions
Social related
Number of days that are available for the
trip

3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

3.1 Mean Scores of dimensions

The mean scores for the various identified
dimensions are shown in Table 2. The mean
scores are categorised on the basis of their
class interval. Among the nineteen
dimensions, personal safety at destination
and personal safety during travel are
considered highly important by the
travellers. Next, the dimensions number of
days that are available for the trip, budget
available in hand for the trip, comfortable
and affordable stay, presence of
sightseeing locations and comfort and
convenience during travel are considered
important by the travellers. At the next
lower level, the dimensions no. of aged or
children in the family, presence of known
persons at destination, climate of a place,
other
leisure
locations
nearby,
information about the place, availability
of
affordable
travel
modes
and
entertainment facilities find place. The
lowest scores are given to shopping
facilities and language barrier.

3.83 (0.98)

Budget available in hand for the trip

3.89 (1.00)

Number of aged or children in the family

3.74 (1.09)

Presence of known persons at the

destination
Destination related

This section details the mean scores for the

identified dimensions and the results of
factor analysis.

Mean Score

3.61 (1.03)

Climate of a place

3.65 (1.05)

Comfortable and affordable stay

3.95 (0.99)

Availability of desirable cuisine

3.74 (1.03)

Personal safety at destination

4.28 (.87)

Other leisure locations nearby

3.64 (1.02)

Information about the place

3.67 (0.99)

Presence of sightseeing locations

4.01 (0.99)

Travel related
Direct connectivity

3.42 (1.06)

Availability of affordable travel modes

3.62 (1.10)

Comfort and convenience during travel

4.02 (0.94)

Distance from home

3.51 (1.08)

Safety during travel

4.42 (0.78)

Miscellaneous
Shopping facilities

3.05 (1.12)

Entertainment facilities

3.60 (1.16)

Language barrier

3.01 (1.12)

Note: Figures within brackets indicate standard deviation

3.2

Factor Analysis of Destination

Preferences
The KMO statistic to check the adequacy of
sample size is found to be 0.71, which
means it could be termed as good. The
probability associated with Bartletts test

important in the context of tropical climate

regions, especially in water front
destinations. Direct connectivity with home
place eases the burden of mode change and
subsequently adds to the comfort aspects of
the traveller. Social and personal restrictions
such as the presence of aged and children in
the family as well as the presence of known
persons at destination are found to be loaded
onto the second most significant factor.
Moreover, the availability of desirable
cuisine is also found influencing the
travellers preferences. The pre-decision
factors such as budgetary and time
constraints influence the destination
preferences. Moreover, the presence of
sightseeing locations is found to influence
the traveller preferences. This indicates that,
since the trip is undertaken for the purpose
of leisure, the travellers look forward to the
sightseeing locations at the destination for
relaxing.

gave significance value of 0.00, which is

less than 0.05, indicating that population
correlation matrix does not resemble an
identity matrix and factor analysis is
possible. The determinant of the correlation
matrix is 0.03, which is greater than
0.00001, indicating the absence of multicollinearity and singularity in the sample
data. The diagonal values of the anti-image
correlation matrix are greater than 0.5,
indicating that all the 19 dimensions could
be retained for factor analysis.
The scree plot of eigen value against the
factor is shown in Figure 2. Out of the 19
identified factors, the first couple of factors
account for most of the variance, and the
remaining have very less eigen values. Six
factors are identified to have eigen values
greater than or equal to one, out of which
the first four factors are considered relevant
for further analysis as the slope of the graph
changes abruptly after this point. Out of the
four identified factors, three statistically
significant factors are identified, based on
criteria explained in Section 2.3. The details
of the factors and their loaded dimensions
are given in Table 3.
The most significant factor, which
accounts for 20 % of variance in the data,
pertains to psycho-physical comfort and
safety aspects. The aspects relating to
comfort during travel and stay finds place in
this factor. Safety aspects during travel as
well as personal safety at destination find
place in this factor. Moreover, dimension
associated with climate of the place and
connectivity with the home place is found
loaded onto this factor. Climate becomes

Figure 2: Scree plot from factor analysis

Table 3: Identified factors influencing

destination preferences
Factor

Comfort (Psychophysical) and Safety

(20.02; 3.80; 0.71)

Social and personal

restrictions
(7.56; 1.44; 0.53)

Pre-decision
(6.02; 1.14; 0.50)

and at the same time to provide safe and

convenient modes to access the destinations.
Time and budgetary constraints coupled
with the desire for comfort and convenience
is given prominence at the next level. This
implies that facilities for economical yet
comfortable accommodation are sought by
the travellers at the destinations. Dimensions
such as language barrier and shopping
facilities are not given any importance by
the travellers.

Loaded Dimensions
Comfort and convenience of
travel (0.66)
Safety during travel (0.66)
Comfortable and affordable
stay (0.64)
Direct connectivity (0.61)
Climate of a place (0.53)
Personal safety at
destination (0.53)
No. of aged or children in
the family (0.82)
Presence of known persons
at destination (0.65)
Availability of desirable
cuisine (0.61)
Budget available in hand for
the trip (0.83)
No. of days that are
available for the trip (0.58)
Presence of sightseeing
locations (0.50)

The factor analysis results indicate

that domestic tourists give due consideration
for the aspects relating to safety and
comfort, social and personal restrictions
and pre-decision while choosing a
destination to travel for a leisure trip. The
identification of these latent constructs is
useful in analysing the behavioural aspects
of travellers with respect to destination
choice and in the development of travel
behaviour models to identify the pertinent
variables influencing destination choice.
Moreover, the latent constructs also give an
idea of the importance accorded by the
travellers at waterfront destinations, which
helps in developing destination specific
strategies to improve the (re) visitation
potential
of
the
destination.
The
identification of the latent constructs could
lead to the development of Structural
Equation Models (SEM) that aim to model
the decision making pattern of domestic
tourists with respect to the destination
chosen for the trip. Similarly, studies could
be taken up to explore the latent constructs
influencing destination choice of tourists at
destinations having different leisure values
such as historical heritage, religious etc, to
formulate management strategies.

Note: The values adjacent to the factors are variance explained,

Eigen value and Cronbachs alpha value respectively. The values
in the brackets adjacent to the dimensions indicate the loadings.

4.0
CONCLUSIONS
The study identified the latent constructs
influencing the destination preferences of
domestic tourists visiting a waterfront
destination using factor analysis. The
detailed statistical procedure to be adopted
prior to factor analysis and the criteria to be
used for identifying the significant factors
are described in detail. The mean scores of
the dimensions give an idea regarding the
dimensions that the travellers give
importance to while selecting a destination
for the leisure trip. The higher importance
scores given to safety imply the necessity to
maintain law and order at the destinations

Social Sciences, No. 07-014, Sage

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SPSS: Statistical Package for Social
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Does
Nationality
affect
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behaviour?,
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of
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America,901-917.
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the
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G.S. and OLeary, J.T. (2001). The
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Sought and Subsequent Vacation
Behaviour: A Case Study, Journal of
Travel
Research,
Vol.28,
Sage
Publications, 24- 29.
4. Javalgi, R. G., Thomas, E.G. and Rao,
S.R. (1992). Consumer Behaviour in
U.S. Pleasure Travel Market: An
Analysis of Senior and Non-senior
Travellers, Journal of Travel Research,
Vol.31, Sage Publications, 14-19.
5. Johansson, M.V., Heldt, T. and
Johansson, P. (2006). The Effects of
Attitudes and Personality Traits on
Mode Choice, Transportation Research
Part A, Vol.40, Elsevier Ltd, Great
Britain, 507-525.
6. Kim, J. and Mueller, C.W. (1978).
Factor Analysis: Statistical Methods and
Practical Issues, Sage University paper
series on Qualitative Applications in

*****************

UNDERSTANDING TRAVEL BEHAVIOUR AND DEVELOPING A

SIMULATION MODEL FOR AN EDUCATIONAL TOWNSHIP IN INDIA
Nanduri, K.
B.Tech student, Department of Civil Engineering,
Indian Institute of Technology, Bombay 400076
kanchana@iitb.ac.in
Patil, G. R.
Assistant Professor, Department of Civil Engineering,
Indian Institute of Technology, Bombay 400076
gpatil@civil.iitb.ac.in
ABSTRACT: The Indian Institute of Technology (IIT) Bombay is a classic example of
a self-sustained campus. The campus has a population of about 12,000 and is spread over
an area of 220 hectors. This area incorporates distinct residential zones for students,
faculty and supporting staff, an exclusive academic zone, a market, a school right from
kindergarten to higher secondary, a large sport and recreation facility, and a leisure area
by the Lake. Essentially the campus is self-reliant as far as day- to-day activities are
concerned resulting in a different lifestyle among residents compared to people outside in
the city. This study aims to understand the travel behaviour patterns of IIT & incorporate
them into a simulation model using VISSIM software.
Data on the geometric layout of roads, land-use pattern & population distribution was
collected for the entire study area. Additionally data on traffic characteristics
(composition, volume, speed etc) was collected through a campus-wide OriginDestination survey based on license plate method and speed survey using a radar speedgun. Various default parameters in VISSIM were modified to adapt to the Indian driving
conditions. The simulation model based on dynamic traffic assignment was calibrated
and validated based on the field data. The developed model showed good match with the
observed data, thus the model can be used to assess the implication of various
infrastructure developments within IIT campus.
1. INTRODUCTION
This project was started in August 2010 with an aim to understand the travel behaviour
patterns of IIT Bombay & develop a reliable simulation model for the same. The primary
motivation to begin this study was to develop a comprehensive & integrated
transportation model for this mini-township. To this day, such a model has not been
developed and this poses as a significant disadvantage during implementation of new
transit systems or infrastructural changes inside IIT Bombay. Thus, this project is nothing
but an endeavor to develop an efficient tool for travel forecasting within the IITB
campus.
The traffic patterns observed within IITB are quite unique due to the self-sustained
nature of this campus. This study aims to understand the travel behaviour patterns of IIT

and incorporate then into a simulation model using VISSIM software. A long-term goal
would be to use this model to visualise the effects of different kinds of developmental
strategies and infrastructural changes in future.
2. LITERATURE SURVEY
Dynamic traffic assignment (DTA) has gained significant important since the seminal
work by Merchant and Nemhauser (1978a, 1978b). DTA overcomes some of the
important shortcomings of static traffic assignment and is expected to be the primary
approach of traffic assignment in the near future. However, at present there are some
limitations with DTA which is why DTA is not widely used for transportation planning.
DTA approaches are broadly divided into four groups: mathematical programming,
optimal control, variational inequality, and simulation (Peeta and Ziliaskopoulos, 2001).
2.1 Static vs. Dynamic models
In a static model, inflow to a link is always equal to the outflow: the travel time simply
increases as the inflow and outflow increases. The volume on a link may increase
indefinitely, and exceed the physical capacity of the link and subsequently congestion
will occur. The drawback of using static models is that it does not directly correlate with
any physical measure describing congestion such as speed, density or queue. In dynamic
models explicit modeling of traffic flow dynamics ensures direct linkage between traveltime and congestion (Yi-Chang Chiu et. al, 2010).
In a dynamic model, each link may be defined by its own fundamental diagram
which describes how congestion at the exit node (reduced link outflow) is propagated
upstream though the link, until it spills back onto the next upstream links. This
phenomenon of congestion spill-back is not represented in a static model. Most
intelligent transportation systems (ITS)-related applications, such as traveler information
systems and advanced network control schemes are beyond the modeling capabilities of
static assignment models.
2.2 Principle of obtaining a dynamic solution
The most common method of finding a dynamic user equilibrium (DUE) solution is to
apply the following three algorithmic components in sequence iteratively, until a defined
stopping criterion is met:
a) Network Loading: Given a set of route choices, i.e., routes and route flows, what
are the resulting route travel times?
b) Path Set Update: Given the current route travel times, what are the new shortest
routes (per O-D pair and departure-time interval)?
c) Path Assignment Adjustment: Given the updated route sets, how vehicles should
be assigned to routes to better approximate a dynamic user equilibrium

2.3 Limitations of dynamic models

DTA models are not the universal cure that can cost-effectively address all types of
problems at hand. DTA models take more time and resources to construct and calibrate
(as compared with static traffic assignment models). The existing simulation-assignment
paradigm is vehicle-based instead of person-based, and travelers are generally considered
homogeneous in many choices. In some cases the traffic flow models within a DTA
model may produce counter-intuitive results that are difficult to explain because they are
the consequence of interactions taking place over the entire network and across multiple
time periods. To conclude, in the context of modeling large-scale dynamic vehicular
traffic networks, DTA models have reached sufficient maturity to provide meaningful
results within acceptable solution times. However, the above precautions should be
considered in applying DTA models.
3. METHODOLOGY
3.1 Zoning of the campus and developing OD matrices
Based on land-use pattern data, the IIT Bombay campus was divided into 9 major zones
as shown in Figure 1. For the purpose of developing a peak-hour OD matrix for the study
area, a campus-wide license plate survey was conducted with the help of volunteers at 16
different locations as shown above. The locations were selected so as to ensure that any
flow which joins onto a major link from any minor link is monitored just downstream of
the intersection (Figure 2). The official time period of the survey was between 4 pm to 6
pm on a Thursday. However, a journey which began before 4 pm may have been
recorded from an intermediary location in the first 15 mins of the survey leading to an
incorrect origin recording. Similarly, a journey which was still in progress at 6 pm would
not register a destination. Therefore, the first 15 minutes & the last 15 minutes of the
observations were disregarded. Based on collected data, the OD-matrix shown in Table 1
was developed.
3.2 Campus-wide speed survey
For the purpose of calibrating the dynamic simulation model, a campus-wide speed
survey was conducted during peak hour with the help of volunteers at 7 different
locations as shown in Figure 3.
From this survey, the 98th percentile speed and the S-distribution of speeds was also
obtained. The speed measurement was based on a device known as SPEEDAR which is
part of a range of hand-held radar speedmeters, operating in the 24GHz band. It is
intended for the measurement and display of the speed of vehicles approaching or
receding from the operator at an accuracy of 1 km/hr. The Speedar hand-held traffic
radar equipment is based on the well-known principle known as the Doppler Effect.

FIG 1. Zoning of IIT Bombay campus

FIG 2. License plate survey locations

10

15

10

14

52

21

16

21

47

= 211

16

17

44

11

15

81

= 192

16

18

= 62

64

72

36

50

37

76

19

20

157

= 538

28

16

21

31

= 117

11

51

11

66

= 167

12

14

= 50

21

12

16

= 80

18

22

11

45

= 116
= 387

10

37

51

23

93

24

68

13

15

45

18

=
220

=
167

=
119

=
367

=
108

=
211

=
53

=
69

=
113

=
493

TABLE 1. OD matrix for the simulation period (1.5 hr)

FIG 3. Speed survey locations

3.3 Campus transit system analysis

The IIT Bombay campus has an internal shuttle known as the Tum-Tum service. There
are enough stops to ensure good accessibility to all campus residents. However, the
challenge lies in optimal scheduling during peak hours which inevitably is different in
practice from the proposed schedule on paper. The routes followed by different TumTums & the frequency of service on each route were studied during evening peak.
4. SIMULATION MODELLING AND ASSESSMENT
4.1 Developing the basic network
Using the values of link lengths, link cross-sections & directional orientations from a
previously developed GIS shape file, the above road network was constructed in
VISSIM. It encompasses all major roads, minor roads & connecting roads of the IIT
Bombay campus. The total length of the road network in the study area is 13.64 km. The
cross-sectional widths vary from 9.0 m to just 3 m
4.2 Features added to the road network
Pavement markers were utilized on major roads to model zebra crossings & combined
with reduced speed areas for all vehicle types since most pedestrian crossings on campus
are on speed-breakers. Each vehicle type was assigned a desired speed based on the speed
survey conducted (Appendix II) and was designated by a unique colour to make
simulation visualization easier.

Driving behaviour was modeled as the typical Urban Motorized driving which is a
built-in feature in VISSIM. However, slight modifications were made to this behaviour in
order to realistically model the driving in IIT Bombay. For example, to permit lateral
overtaking within the same lane, such as when cars & autos overtake slow bicycles or
scooters, the minimum lateral gap between any two vehicles was reduced. Despite these
changes, behaviour of the simulation model is still not accurate because VISSIM does not
permit overtaking by entering the lane meant for opposite flow. This kind of overtaking is
prominently seen in IIT Bombay due to one-lane roads & absence of dividers.
Next, conflict areas at each intersection were resolved using the right-of-way method for
the bigger link. IIT Bombay only has 3 legged intersections thus making 9 conflicts at
each: 3 diverging, 3 merging & 3 weaving movements.
Transit stops for Tum-Tums were introduced according to the actual location of
each stop. The average no of passengers per Tum-Tum was assumed to be 25 (during
peak hour) and the dwelling time at each stop was assumed to be 20 sec which is quite
realistic unless it is the first or the last stop, in which case the Tum-Tum is modeled to
wait there for 5 mins till it is time for the next round around the campus.
For the purpose of Dynamic Traffic Assignment, a system of nodes & parking lots was
incorporated. Nodes essentially depict junctions where paths are found to diverge. In this
dynamic model however, parking lots are not intended to serve the conventional purpose
of parking space. Rather, parking lots are provided within a zone to serve the purpose of
Origin parking lots & Destination parking lots. Vehicles appear out of origin parking lots
& vehicles disappear into destination parking lots. There can be multiple parking lots
within each zone & each is specified a relative flow value.
4.3 Validation and calibration
To achieve model validation, an observational qualitative analysis of the entire network
was performed across different iterations. During this process some commonly observed
errors were:
a) Input errors resulting in unusual bottlenecks : If more than one Tum-Tum arrived at a
stop simultaneously, it lead to slight congestion in that area. This was removed by
spacing out the Tum-Tum dwell times as much as possible.
b) Usage of long detours instead of the direct paths : The DTA algorithm in VISSIM
gives a high weightage to the discovery of new paths. Since roads within the campus
do not have any monetary cost associated with them, in some situations, slightly
lesser travel time on detours increases their frequency of use as compared to the busy
Main Road. However, this is not observed in real. Between any 2 destinations, the
Main Road usually carries the majority of traffic. Thus dummy surcharges were
introduced on detours to reduce their frequency of use.
c) Excessively stringent convergence criterion : When a 5% tolerance value for travel
time on all paths was used, a converged solution was not obtained even after 10
iterations of the simulation period. It was realised that this tolerance value was too
stringent & consequently a 10% tolerance was fixed as optimal for a stable and
convergent network.

Thus, the purpose of the qualitative analysis stage was primarily to achieve a model
that exhibited a stable solution, was free of gridlock and, if possible, in which the overall
traffic pattern resembled the actual conditions on the street.
Calibration using Link Volumes for 1 hour evaluation period (refer FIG 2)
Data Collection Point
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16

Observed volume in veh/hr

(Bi-directional)
380
223
185
225
101
212
91
321
400
96
387
170
354
117
316
42

Output volume in veh/hr

(Bi-directional)
343
216
213
195
87
186
102
283
351
80
432
147
318
113
271
39

Percentage Deviation
9.73 %
3.14 %
15.13 %
13.33 %
13.86 %
12.26 %
12.1 %
11.84 %
12.25 %
16.67 %
11.63 %
13.53 %
10.17 %
3.42 %
14.24 %
7.14 %

TABLE 2. Correlation between license plate survey data & model outputs

Calibration using Average Speeds for 1 hour evaluation period (refer FIG 3)
Data Collection Point
Number

Observed Avg. Speed for all

vehicle types (km/hr)

1
2
3
4
5
6
7

29.71
27.38
29.17
30.26
25.21
27.15
28.81

Output Avg.
Speed for all vehicle types
(km/hr)
29.19
28.32
30.12
30.55
28.84
29.34
28.44

Percentage Deviation

1.75 %
3.43 %
3.26 %
0.96 %
14.4 %
8.07 %
1.28 %

TABLE 3. Correlation between speed survey data & model outputs

4.4 Network evaluation of the DTA model

Network Performance was evaluated using the following output parameters inbuilt in
VISSIM:
1. Distance : Represents the total distance (in km) travelled by all currently active
vehicles in the network as well as all the previously arrived vehicles
2. Travel Time : Represents the total travel time (in s) of all active & arrived vehicles
between their origin parking lot & destination parking lot
3. Average Speed : Distance(above) / Travel Time(above)
Represents the average speed (km/hr) in the network across all vehicle types
4. Delay Time : Represents the total delay time (in s) of all active and arrived vehicles.
The delay time of a vehicle in one time step is the part of the time step which is spent

because the actual speed is lower than the desired speed. Dwell times of buses/trams
at stops & time spent in parking lots is not included.
5. Average Delay Time : Total Delay Time / No. of (active + arrived) vehicles
Represents the average delay per vehicle (in s) during the journey from the origin
parking lot to the destination parking lot
In the following table, the values of these output parameters are presented after
completion of the simulation runs. Assuming a 7% compounded growth rate per year for
all the cells in the base year OD matrix, the parameter values for future years were also
obtained.
Network Parameter Number
(refer above)
1
2
3
4
5

Value in base year

Value after 5 years

Value after 10 years

1198.593 km
43.798 hr
27.366 km/hr
1.408 hr
3.875 s

1546.495 km
56.890 hr
27.184 km/hr
2.343 hr
5.021 s

2148.662 km
80.212 hr
26.787 km/hr
5.008 hr
7.705 s

TABLE 4. Results of network evaluation

5. CONCLUSION
This project marks the first of its kind for educational townships in India. A significant
milestone has been achieved in terms of developing a reliable simulation model which
can serve as the foundation for future travel forecasting as well as for the impact
assessment of new infrastructure. To conclude, this B.Tech Project has immense potential
to contribute to the efficient transportation planning of self-sustained townships such as
IIT Bombay. It is hoped that with its successful completion in April 2011, it paves the
way for many more such studies which shape a bright transportation future for the
country.
REFERENCES
Chiu, Y-C., Bottom, J., Mahut, M., Paz, A., Balakrishna, R., Waller, T., and Hicks, J.,
(2010). A Primer for Dynamic Traffic Assignment. ADB30 Transportation Network
Modeling Committee, Transportation Research Board.
Merchant, D. K. and Nemhauser, G. L (1978a). A model and an algorithm for the
dynamic traffic assignment problems, Transportation Science 12(3), 183-199.
Merchant, D. K. and Nemhauser, G. L (1978b). Optimality conditions for a dynamic
traffic assignment model, Transportation Science 12(3), 200-207.
Peeta, S. and Ziliaskopoulos, A. (2001). Foundation of dynamic traffic assignment: the
past, the present and the future, Networks and Spatial Economics, 1, 233-265.

Capacity Enhancement
Of A Rotary A Step Towards Sustainable Development
Mrs. Shruti B. Khara,M. E. Student, Sem. IV, Transportation Engineering, L.D. College of
Engineering, email shruti21063@gmail.com,
Guided by Prof. Ashutosh K. Patel, Lecturer in Civil Engineering Dept. Government
Polytechnic, Ahmedabad 380015, email ashutech.asp@gmail.com

Traffic engineering is a branch of

transportation planning. Since last fifty years
there is a sustainable growth in vehicles,
which has its own positive and negative
impacts on society, environment and on
economy of country. To improve urban
transportation planning, traffic should be
diverted or conveyed in such way, it
decreases
peak
hour
congestion.
Roundabouts
help
to
accommodate
sustainable growth of urban traffic also help
in maintaining easy flow of vehicles without
significant increase in air pollution and fuel
consumption. Poor road planning and sub
standard
geometric
conditions
of
roundabouts have significant effect on
roundabout capacity and traffic congestion.
It is vital to evaluate the capacity of
roundabouts for proper traffic operation, and
give a clear picture to traffic engineers.
In this paper an attempt has been made to
analyze the capacity of four leg rotary i.e.
Nehrunagar junction in Ahmedabad city
considering the traffic distribution on the
circulating lanes. The data collected for
study is traffic volume data, physical
dimension and approach speed on every leg.
From the observed peak hour, the capacity is
calculated using IRC recommendations for
the intersection. Comparing peak volume
with capacity and looking to the present
geometry of the intersection some
modifications are suggested in the existing
geometry. These suggestions convert rotary
into advance roundabout, also increase the
capacity of the intersection. Modifications
not only increase the capacity but reduce
locking of vehicles during peak hours.
Improved geometry of the intersection
Abstract

improves the present traffic scenario in

evening peak hours, in the future also helps
traffic engineers for better planning of city
traffic.

1 INTRODUCTION
Due to constant growth in vehicles city
engineers everyday plan for better urban
traffic policy and transportation planning.
Each year, cities receive numerous requests
to reduce the traffic congestion on their
streets. Each city is facing serious evening
peak hours congestion, air pollution, noise
pollution, which requires some solid steps at
all intersections for smooth and quick
passing of vehicles. Citizens also express
concerns about the safety of the streets on
which they live. In an effort to find
appropriate ways to deal with these concerns,
reduce traffic congestion and improve safety,
many cities have begun considering the use
of "roundabouts." Roundabouts are used
extensively throughout Europe, and in many
other places around the world, to reduce
accidents, traffic delays, fuel consumption,
and air pollution and construction costs,
while increasing capacity and enhancing
intersection beauty. They have been
successfully used to control traffic speeds in
residential neighborhoods and are accepted
as one of the safest types of intersection
design. In our country still traffic planners
are in dilemna whether to select roundabout
at intersection or to select signalized

intersection at crossroads. Efficiency of

roundabouts mainly depends upon the
geometrics of the roundabouts. Roundabouts
with proper design fulfill the purpose of to
relieve the traffic congestion during peak
hours.

2 CAPACITIES
Fig. 1 Movements at Weaving Section
The capacity of rotary is determined by the
capacity of each weaving section. IRC-65
proposed the following empirical formula to
find the capacity of the weaving section.

(3)

.
3 CASE- STUDY
(1)

(2)
Where
e 1 is the width of the carriageway at the
entry
e 2 is the carriageway width at exit.
is the average entry and exit width,
i.e. (e1+e2)/2
is the weaving width,
is the length of weaving, and
P is the proportion of weaving traffic to the
non-weaving traffic.
Figure 1 shows four types of movements
at a weaving section, and are the nonweaving traffic and and are the weaving
traffic.

Nehrunagar intersection of Ahmedabad is

selected as a case study. This intersection is
one of the busiest and congested
intersections of the city.
A comprehensive investigation of traffic
conditions and physical characteristics of the
location is required for the proper evaluation
of an intersection. Various surveys have
been carried out to furnish the necessary data
for the purpose of capacity evaluation and
intersection improvement. The surveys are
conducted on normal working days for
whole
week, from Fourteen February to
Nineteen February. Data collection was
done from 8.00 A. M. 8.00 P. M. The
following data were collected through
surveys.
1)Vehicular volumes

for each

traffic

movement, i. e. left, right and through from

each approach of an intersection.
2) Spot speed survey was conducted by
measuring time taken by vehicles to cover
known distance.

3)Spot speed survey were done during off

moving around the circle between their pair

peak hours and peak hours.

of origin and destination. AMTS buses and

4)Physical dimensions of the intersection,

include each approach entry and exit width,
inscribed circle dimensions, entry and exit
angles, weaving width, weaving length were
taken.

Detailed

dimensions

regarding

geometry of the intersection were collected.

The intersection comprises both motorized

and non-motorized vehicles. In this study,
for analysis purpose traffic has been grouped
into five classes:
1. Car (Car, Jeep, Taxi)
2. Large buses,
a) BRTS buses
b) GSRTC buses
3. Two wheelers
4. Autorickshaws
5. Bicycle
As the traffic survey was conducted
during day time, trucks were not present
as they are not allowed to enter within the
city limits at this time period.
As mentioned earlier this is one of the

most busiest intersection of the city. BRTS

are

intersection.

also

passing

buses

are

also

passing

through

the

intersection. The Percentage of two wheelers

are very high. At the time of peak hours
percentage of two wheelers becomes very
high. Following table shows vehicular
composition at the intersection.
Table 1 Vehicular composition for evening

4 TRAFFIC SUMMARY

buses

Gujarat State Road Transport Corporation

through

this

For the smooth, effective and

efficient operation of BRTS buses special

lane has allotted by Ahmedabad Municipal
Corporation. But at the intersection there is
no special right of way for BRTS buses at
the intersection. All the vehicles including
buses during maneuvering the intersection

peak hour 18:00 to 19:00

S
r
N
o

Appro
ach

Two
wheel
ers

Three
wheel
ers

Car
jeep
van

HM
V

Leg A

48.0%

11.0%

38.0
%

2%

Leg B

63.00
%

11.00
%

25.3
%

0.7
%

Leg C

58.0%

10.5%

27.5
%

4.0
%

Leg D

52.0%

17.00
%

29.0
%

2%

Table 2 Morning Peak Hour Factor

approach is good. Analysis of geometric

details of existing intersection is as follows.

Sr.
No.

Approach

Peak Hour
Factor

1. Case study Nehrunagar intersection is not

having symmetrical shape and dimension.

Leg A

0.95

Leg B

0.92

2. As per the drawing of the intersection all

legs are having four lanes, except Leg B.

Leg C

0.85

Leg D

0.93

3.Throughout the circular weaving portion

width remains same.
4. Central Island is not perfectly circular in
shape; it has oval shape, expanded towards
Leg B to Leg D.

Table 3 Evening Peak Hour Factor

Sr.
No.

Approach

Leg A

0.96

Leg B

0.90

Leg C

0.88

Leg D

5. Throughout the weaving section weaving

length varies.

Peak
Hour
Factor

6. In weaving section D to A and B to C

available weaving length is too short, the
ratio of w/l does not fall within the range of
0.12 to 0.4, reduces the capacity of rotary by
great amount.
7.Ratio of w/l does not fall within the range
of 0.12 to 0.4, reduces the capacity of rotary
by great amount.

0.96

8. Entry and exit angles are not equal.

Above

tables show morning and

evening peak hour factor, which shows

intersection peak hour traffic scenario.
5
SALIENT
FEATURES
NEHRUNAGAR INTERSECTION:

OF

The case study intersection is the four legged

old pattern a big rotary intersection. The
layout plan of intersection is given in the
Appendices A. The plan shows all the
geometric details of the intersection. There
are four major roads meeting at the point,
which are Satellite road, C. N. school road,
Manekbaug road, Polytechnic road. All roads
contain four lanes, except C. N. school road.
The road condition at study intersection

9. Traffic entering from Leg B and Leg D

has very less weaving length. Due to this
situation ratio of w/l within the required
cannot be maintained. This becomes major
reason of vehicular locking.
10. Weaving length is as per IRC 65
requirements.
11.E/w ratio is maintained for all legs.
12. As per IRC requirements looking to the
entry and exit angles certain adjustments are
needed.

6 CAPACITY ENHANCEMENTS
Looking to the present geometry of the
intersection and traffic situation the
intersection has achieved its full capacity.
Considering future increase in traffic volume
the intersection geometry should be revised.
Present Central Island is having 60.00 meter
radius, which is very large. As per actual site
condition and some enforcement restrictions
weaving length cannot be increased. If the
central island is reduced by 15% , then it
may increase the capacity by almost 20%. As
per present situation weaving width is 12
meters, changes can be made to weaving
width. Weaving width can be increased from
12meters to 17 meters.
Applying changes to geometry capacity will
be increased. Table no. six of Appendics A
gives comparison of capacity of the
intersection before and after enhancement.
Looking to the present traffic and constant
growth of vehicles also to maintain the
beauty of the intersection, only capacity
enhancement is the way to increase the
capacity.

7 CONCLUSION
As per the geometry of the intersection and
looking to the peak hour traffic volume one
can say that during peak hours in the
morning and evening, traffic police is needed
to intervene in the situation to regulate traffic
flow. This problem will continue and it may
worsen in the future due to the rapid growth
of population and vehicle nos. in
Ahmedabad. Increase in the capacity
automatically reduces the requirements of
the n ew facility, also helps towards
satisfying future travel demand without
giving
more
impact
to
economy,

environment and neighbourhood. According

to present situations, following suggestions
can be made.
1.
Installation and
operation of signals during peak
hours.
2.

Reassessment
of geometric design as per
suggestions given in paper.

REFERENCES
1. L.R. Kadiyali Traffic Engineering &
Transport Planning by Khanna
Publishers 8th Edition
2. FHWA (2000), Roundabouts: An
Informational
Guide
Federal
Highways Authority, 2000.
3. Recommended Practice for traffic
Rotaries, IRC: 65-1976, Indian
Roads Congress, 1976.

Appendices A
Table 1Traffic volume data at Nehrunagar intersection Survey time: Evening peak hour
18:00 to 19:00
Sr. no.
Approach
Lane Group
Lane Group
Approach
Total
Volume
volume
intersection
pcu/h
pcu/h
volume pcu/h
1
Leg A
Left Turn
154.55
1819.75
9276.15
From
Through
1199.3
panjrapole
Right Turn
465.9
2
Leg B
Left Turn
229.9
2539.6
From C. N. Through
2201.9
school
Right Turn
107.8
3
Leg C
Left Turn
627.1
1937.3
From Manek Through
1113.2
baug
Right Turn
197
4
Leg D
Left Turn
980.1
2979.8
From Umiya Through
1360
vijay
Right Turn
639.7

Table 2 Capacity Analysis of a case study Intersection

Approach
Entering
Exiting
Total
Vehicles
in Vehicles in vehicles
pcu/h
pcu/h
pcu/h.

Capacity
of Capacity
in intersection in Status
pcu/h.

Leg A

1819.65

2201.1

4020.75

3790

Less than
reqd.

Leg B

2539.5

1711.55

4251.05

2572

Less than
reqd.

Leg C

1937.3

2149.8

4087.1

3812

Less than
reqd.

Leg D

2720.6

3294.9

6015.5

3140

Less than
reqd.

Table 3
Geometric Details of Case study Intersection
Approach
No. of Lanes Approach
Approach
Width
Grade
Leg A From 4
11.750m.
0
Panjrapole
Leg B
2
8.0
0
Leg C
4
12.25
0
Leg D
3
11.25
0

Weaving
Length
30.1m.

Weaving
Width
12.0

18.35m
39.5m.
19.0

12.0
12.0
12.0

Table: 4 Physical Details of Nehrunagar intersection

Sr.
Approach Approach
No. of Divided/
One-way/
No.
Name
Lanes
Undivided Two-way

Entry
Width

Exit
Width

Leg A

Polytechnic

Divided

Two-way

11.750m.

11.75m

Leg B

C. N. School

Divided

Two-way

8.00m

8.00m

Leg C

Manek Baug

Divided

Two-way

12.25m

12.25m

Leg D

Satellite

Divided

Two-way

11.25m

10.86m.

Table: 5 Details of Weaving combinations of Nehrunagar Intersection

Sr.
Approach
Weaving Weaving Non- Weaving Approach Shape
No.
Combination Length
Width
Grade
of
Width
Rotary

Diameter
of
Rotary

Leg A-B

30.1m.

60.0

Leg B-C

18.35m

12.0
12.0

12.0

12.0

60.0
Oval

Leg C-D

39.5m.

Leg D-A

19.0

12.0
12.0

12.0

60.0

12.0

60.0

Table 6 Comparison of Capacity

Sr.
No.
1
2
3
4

Leg

Present Capacity

Proposed Capacity

% Increase

Leg A
Leg B
Leg C
Leg D

3695
2572
3621
3140

4868
3142
4200
3363

32%
22%
16%
7%

/
Fig. 1 Google image of case study intersection

EMISSIONS FROM IN-USE THREE -WHEELERS FUELED BY COMPRESSED

NATURAL GAS EXPERIENCE IN KALUPUR, AHMEDABAD CITY
Darji R.H.
Research Scholar,
S.V.National Institute of Technology, Surat 395007
rajukumar.darji2010@gmail.com
Dr. Shah N.C.
Professor & Section Head (TEP and Urban Planning),
S.V.National Institute of Technology, Surat 395007
ncs@ced.svnit.ac.in
ABSTRACT: Auto-rickshaws in India use different fuels and engine technologies, with varying
emissions and implications for air quality and climate change. This study carried out at among a
very busy signal point of kalupur darwaza intersection, near kalupur station which reveals that
the congestion of two wheelers, and three wheelers is indeed very high at peak traffic hours and
the movement of vehicles is very slow. In the present study, airborne particulate pollutants data
were collected by respirable dust samplers (RDSs) under a pilot project air emission monitoring
study programme for a period of 16 hours at particular location in Ahmedabad. Verbal Interview
was conducted on sixty-three in-use auto-rickshaws to quantify the impact of switching from
gasoline to compressed natural gas (CNG) in spark-ignition engines. Fifty nine vehicles had twostroke CNG engines (CNG-2S) and four had four-stroke CNG engines (CNG-4S). Fuel-based
emission factors were determined for gaseous pollutants (SO 2 , NO x , and CO) and fine
particulate matter (PM 10 ) and Respirable Suspended Particulate Matter (RSPM). For most
pollutants there was no significant difference between old (1998-2001) and new (20052009) age-groups within a given fuel-technology class. Study data, clearly shows that the
observed Respirable Suspended Particulate Matter (RSPM) concentrations varied from 83.0 to
96.0 g/m3, and concentrations of Particulate Matter of aerodynamic diameters less than 10
microns (PM 10 ) ranged between 264.0 to 398.0 g/m3. The concentrations were more than the
permissible limits set by the Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) and Gujarat Pollution
Control Board (GPCB). Mean fuel-based PM 10 and PM 2.5 emission factor for CNG-2S was
almost 30 times higher than for CNG-4S. In this paper, a study points that global warming
commitment associated with emissions from CNG-2S was more than twice or thrice than that
from CNG-4S due mostly to particulate matter and CH 4 emissions. On the basis of the results, it
is found that comprehensive measurements and data should drive policy interventions rather than
assumptions about the impacts of clean fuels because atmospheric environment of Ahmedabad is
severely polluted to unhealthy range.
Keywords: Auto-rickshaws, congestion, Particulate matter, CNG-2S, CNG-4S, Ahmedabad,
India

INTRODUCTION
Traffic congestion is part of daily life in India, vehicle-related air pollution is growing at an
alarming rate, and traffic delays have tripled in the last fifteen years. It is not only the health cost
that is going to be enormous and burdensome on the national exchequer, but the loss of potential
working ability of the people due to poor health conditions. Motor vehicle emissions make a
large contribution to the urban air pollution in Asian cities and population exposure to mobile
sources is exacerbated by the proximity of individuals, residences and workplaces to traffic.
Transport is also a major contributor to climate change emissions, and polices aiming to improve
air quality may have climate impacts, and vice versa. CO, nonmethane hydrocarbons, and NO x
are typically regulated for new vehicles due to their health impacts. Fine particulate matter
(PM 2.5 ) from spark-ignition engines is not regulated in most jurisdictions. However, multiple
lines of evidence have connected PM 2.5 and PM 10 exposure to adverse health effects. PM 2.5
components also affect regional and global climate by changing the atmospheric radiation
balance. Certain exhaust constituents, such as CO 2 and CH 4 are not regulated and are not directly
hazardous to human health, but are critical greenhouse gases. Since transportations emissions can
impact Air Quality and climate change, both aspects need to be considered when conducting
emissions measurement studies or implementing emission control policies.
In India, the main policy approaches that have been used to address traffic-related air
pollution are (i) new vehicle emission standards (Bharat Stage Norms); (ii) an inspection and
maintenance program for in-use vehicles (pollution under control, PUC); (iii) limiting heavyduty diesel truck activity to night-time hours; and (iv) use of alternative fuels, such as
compressed natural gas (CNG) and liquefied petroleum (LPG) gas to replace gasoline and diesel.
The Bharat Stage Norms and PUC are described in the Supporting Information. In response to
very poor Air Quality that had not improved appreciably in almost a decade, in 2002 the
Honble Supreme Court ordered all public transportation vehicles in Ahmedabad (including
three-wheeled passenger carriers or auto-rickshaws), to operate on clean fuel. As a result, all
buses, taxis and auto-rickshaws in Ahmedabad were retrofitted to run on CNG by 2005. Since
then, only new vehicles with CNG engines have been available in Ahmedabad so retrofitting is
no longer required. A number of other jurisdictions in India and other countries, notably Pakistan
and Bangladesh in Asia, but also Latin American and European countries, have switched or are
considering switching to CNG-fueled vehicles, citing environmental considerations.
The impact of Ahmedabads CNG policy on both Air Quality and climate has been studied in
number of ways. Time-series analysis of pollution measurements at a traffic hot-spot noted that
an abrupt decrease in CO coincided with the CNG switch in 2005, though the PM 10
concentrations were essentially unchanged during the fuel-switching period. The same study
showed that the observed trend in NO x (gradual increase until 2004, followed by a small decline)
was likely related to other changes in Ahmedabads vehicular traffic, including increasing
number of vehicles and changes in the fleet composition. Motor vehicles have been getting
progressively cleaner over time in developing as well as developed countries, due to increasingly
stringent emissions standards; continued improvement is urgently needed to address vehicles

potentially dominant contribution to poor urban air quality given the adverse health impacts of
exposure to traffic related air pollution.
An alternative, bottom-up approach to assess emission mitigation options uses emission
inventories based on emission factors (EFs: pollutants emitted per fuel consumed or vehicle
activity), fleet composition and activity levels. For example recently evaluated the change in
fuel-use and EFs attributable to the CNG switch in Ahmedabad and thus assessed its climate
impact. However lack of empirical emission data for in-use vehicles in developing countries in a
source of significant uncertainty in such bottom-up studies. Vehicle emissions can range widely
in different settings due to variations in fuel quality, uncertain vehicle age distributions, and
nonexistent or ineffective inspection and maintenance programs leading to a fleet with a high
fraction of poorly tuned or malfunctioning engines. A recent inventory of gaseous road
transportation emissions in India reports that uncertainty in fleet average EFs was lowest for
NOx(about 20% to + 20% ) and greatest for CO( 51% to + 68% ). Uncertainty in PM 2.5
emissions from spark-ignition engines may be even greater.
Furthermore, although EFs are available for two-stroke gasoline auto-rickshaws, few EFs are
available for CNG and LPG fueled auto-rickshaws, The Automotive Research Association of
India conducted a measurement campaign to develop EFs for a wide range of in-use Indian
vehicles, including those fueled with CNG. However the study examined only one or two test
vehicles for each engine/alternative fuel combination (each tested before and after maintenance),
which did not allow for an assessment of intervehicle variability. Vehicle emissions studies using
larger sample sizes suggest that as many vehicles may be needed to estimate EFs, given typical
variability in a fleet.
This study measured a comprehensive set of emissions relevant to Air Quality and climate
change like gaseous pollutants (SO 2 , NO x , and CO) and fine particulate matter (PM 10 ) and
Respirable Suspended Particulate Matter (RSPM) from a sample of in-use auto-rickshaws
representing the on-road fleet in Ahmedabad. Auto-rickshaws from Ahmedabad were chosen for
the study because (a) they operate on CNG, (b) they are for-hire vehicles, and are hence readily
recruited, and (c) they all have the same basic chassis design and function ( manufactured by one
company, but available with different engine types and a wide range of model years). In
Ahmedabad, there are more than 110000 CNG auto-rickshaws, chhakda providing flexible
mobility that is faster and more reliable than city buses while costing less than conventional
taxis. There are an estimated 3 million auto-rickshaws in India, around two-thirds of the world
total.
The overall aims of this study were to (a) determine EFs (pollutants emitted per fuel
consumed or vehicle activity) from light-duty CNG-fueled engines for use in inventories of
health - and climate-relevant emissions, (b) compare emissions from two-stroke and four-stroke
CNG engines, (c) assess the extent to which emissions from in-use CNG vehicle vary and exceed
Bharat Norms for new vehicles, and (d) explore the influence of fuel choice vehicle age on
emissions from a subset of the vehicles.

METHODOLOGY ADOPTED TO FIELD STUDY

Study Area
Ahmedabad is the largest urban city in Gujarat State and seventh largest city in India. It lies in
western India (23.03 N 72.58E) at an elevation of 174 feet. The city sits on the bank of the river
Sabarmati, in north-central Gujarat. It spans an area of 466 km2 with 55.70 lakh Population. The
city is located in a semi-arid region. As a consequence, many roads and open areas of the city are
often covered in sand. The steady expansion of the Rann (Desert) of Kutch threatens to increase
desertification around Ahmedabad. Except for the small hills of Thaltej Jodhpur Tekra, the city
is almost flat. Except during the June to September monsoon season, the climate is usually dry.
The weather is hot from March to June with daily maximum temperatures ranging from 23C to
43C. From November to February, the average temperature is less than the 30C (85F), the
average minimum is 15C (59F), and the climate is extremely dry. Cold northerly winds are
responsible for a mild chill in January. The southwest monsoon brings a humid climate from
mid-June to mid-September. The average rainfall is 93.2 cm (36.7 inches) and infrequent, heavy
rains during the monsoon cause the Sabarmati River to flood.
Air Monitoring
Pollutant such as SO 2 , NO 2 , RSPM, PM 10 were measured at sampling site by using high volume
sampler placed 3-10 m above ground level ( on and above traffic booth almost at centre of
kalupur intersection) for 16 hours. SPM were collected on a filter paper using HVS for the
measurement of both RSPM and PM 10 , operated at a flow rate of 0.80-1.5 m3/min. Absorbing
media for the gaseous pollutants were placed in separate impingers. Air was also allowed to pass
through the absorbing media of SO 2 and NO 2 . As a result; only these gases from the atmosphere
got absorbed in their respective absorbing media. SO 2 and NO 2 were sampled at a flow rate of
0.2-2.5 lpm.

Data Collection and Analysis

The particulate pollutants samples were collected by the Emission Monitoring Services with
commercially available Respirable Dust Sampler (RDS;Envirotech APM 460BL) instruments
under a pilot project air emission monitoring study programme. The RDS had a free flow
condition without filter and the flow rate of air sampler varied between 0.9 and 1.4 m3/min. It
could be operated up to 28 hrs and the sampling duration was 24 hrs as accepted by the
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) of the U.S.A. and the Central Pollution Control Board
of India (CPCB). Whatmann micro fibre filter papers (EPM, 2000) were used for the collection
of PM 10 particles. CCTV camera was installed at particular intersection for Classified Volume
Count for traffic monitoring purposes. Volume count figure suggest that approximately 55000

auto-rickshaws were passing from particular junction during sampling hours. Verbal Interview
was also conducted on sixty-three in-use auto-rickshaws to quantify the impact of switching
from gasoline to compressed natural gas (CNG) in spark-ignition engines. Fifty nine vehicles had
two-stroke CNG engines (CNG-2S) and four had four-stroke CNG engines (CNG-4S). Fuelbased emission factors were determined for gaseous pollutants (SO 2 , NO x , and CO) and fine
particulate matter (PM 10 ) and Respirable Suspended Particulate Matter (RSPM).
Site Description
The sampling sites chosen for the present study were the Residential rural and other area
locations of an urban area of Ahmedabad city. A total of one sampling site was selected in the
city based on sources of pollution. These sites were selected to provide an overall average
concentration of SO 2 , NO 2 , CO, RSPM & PM 10 constituting dominant activities of the city.
Table 1: Characterization of Monitoring Sites
Name of the site
kalupur darwaza intersection, near kalupur station

Types
Residential rural and other area

Air Quality Trend Analysis in Ahmedabad City

In the Urban Area the Air quality is mainly affected by Vehicular Emission, in Addition to
Industrial Emission. It is reported that before CNG, there was 85% of the Urban CO Emission
due to the Vehicles, and 35-65% of un-burnt hydro-carbons were due to two-three wheelers &
90% of NO x emission were due to Diesel driven Vehicles. The data of Ambient Air Quality is
based on Annual average concentration and Monthly average concentration for the year 2003 to
2009 monitoring shows that average values of S0 2 and NO x are within limits while those of
RSPM and SPM are found exceeding.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Primary statistics of pollutants PM 10 , RSPM and gaseous pollutants (SO 2 , NO x , and CO) are
listed in Tables 2 and 5, respectively.

Table 2: SPM ANALYSIS ( From 6.00 AM to 2.00 PM)

SR
DATE
DURATION
SPM ANALYSIS 08 HOURLY OBSERVATION
NO
HOUR OF
GAS SAMPLED
RSPM
SPM
3
3
DAY
M
Microgram/m Microgram/ m3
432
96
398
1
14/03/11
06.00 AM
GPCB LIMIT
TO
60
200
02.00 PM
NAAQS LIMIT
100
Table 3: SPM ANALYSIS ( From 2.00 PM to 10.00 PM)
SR
DATE
DURATION
SPM ANALYSIS 08 HOURLY OBSERVATION
NO
HOUR OF
GAS SAMPLED
RSPM
SPM
DAY
M3
Microgram/m3 Microgram/ m3
432
83
264
1
14/03/11 02.00 PM
GPCB LIMIT
TO
60
200
10.00 PM
NAAQS LIMIT
100
Table 4: GAS ANALYSIS ( From 6.00 AM to 2.00 PM)
SR
DATE
DURATION
GAS ANALYSIS 08 HOURLY OBSERVATION
NO
HOUR OF
GAS
SO 2
NO X
CO
DAY
SAMPLED Microgram Microgram Microgram/
M3
/ m3
/ m3
m3
34
63
0.82
0.96
06.00
AM
GPCB
80
80
1
14/03/11
TO
LIMIT
02.00 PM
NAAQS
80
80
02
LIMIT
Table 5: GAS ANALYSIS ( From 2.00 PM to 10.00 PM)
SR
DATE
DURATION
GAS ANALYSIS 08 HOURLY OBSERVATION
NO
HOUR OF
GAS
SO 2
NO X
CO
DAY
SAMPLED Microgram/ Microgram/ Microgram/
M3
m3
m3
m3
53
51
1.06
0.96
1.
14/03/11 02.00 AM
GPCB
80
80
TO
LIMIT
10.00 PM
NAAQS
80
80
02
LIMIT

Study result data, clearly shows that the observed Respirable Suspended Particulate Matter
(RSPM) concentrations varied from 83.0 to 96.0 g/m3, and concentrations of Particulate Matter
of aerodynamic diameters less than 10 microns (PM 10 ) ranged between 264.0 to 398.0 g/m3.
The concentrations were more than the permissible limits set by the Central Pollution Control
Board (CPCB) and Gujarat Pollution Control Board (GPCB).

CNG ENGINES: FOUR-STROKE GOOD, TWO-STROKE BAD ?

To compare different engine-types and get a complete picture of their health and climate coimpacts, both regulated (CO, HC (including CH 4 ), NOx) and unregulated (PM 2.5 and CO 2 )
species must be considered. Both two-and four stroke engine types produced similar levels of
CO. Two-strokes CNG engines emitted five times more Hydro Carbon than four-strokes, of
which most is CH 4 from unburned fuel. Although CH 4 does not directly cause adverse health
effects, it is an important precursor to trophospheric ozone and a strong greenhouse gas. Twostroke engines NO x were an order of magnitude lower than NO x from four-stroke engines. But
Fuel consumption from CNG-2S was about 20% higher than for the CNG-4S group; this is
expected for two-stroke engines due to scavenging losses. With respect to gaseous emissions,
both engine types present trade-offs.
When PM 10 emissions are examined, it becomes apparent that the legitimacy of CNGs
designation in clean fuel in spark-ignition engines relative to gasoline is strongly dependent on
which engine technology is used. Some literature sources shows that CNG-2S vehicles emitted
approximately 30 times more PM 10 and PM 2.5 than the CNG-4S group. Analysis revealed that
Most of the PM 10 and PM 2.5 from CNG-2S vehicles is likely aerosolized lubrication oil, which in
CNG vehicles is injected directly into the air intake and much of which may be emitted
unburned. High PM 10 and PM 2.5 emissions are thus a fundamental problem with many simple
two-stroke engine designs, and cannot be dramatically reduced by switching to a clean fuel.

CONCLUSIONS
The present study shows that particulate pollutants PM 10 and RSPM are mostly above
permissible limits at sampling sites in Ahmedabad. In Ahmedabad, RSPM concentrations are
continuously decreasing but there are no substantial changes in PM 10 concentrations. This
implies that fine-mode particles are still produced by vehicles, industrial activities, and
combustion of CNG fuels for domestic and commercial purposes.
These studies indicate that a switch from gasoline or LPG to CNG in two-stroke engines may
bring a sizable PM emissions reduction (of around a half), however emissions are still many
times higher than the acceptable levels of CNG-4S vehicle. The average CNG-2S vehicle
emitted nearly 3 orders of magnitude (700 times) more PM than the new CNG-4S test vehicle.In

places where a large proportion of three-wheelers still have two-stroke engines, retrofit
technologies can be used to reduce two-stroke engine emissions.
In the Philippines, for example, relatively low-cost kits were developed that enabled direct
fuel injection while metering the lubricating oil, reducing unburned fuel emissions and PM while
improving fuel efficiency. Such kits require development of a custom retrofit design for each
engine type targeted, but this would not be a barrier for two-stroke three-wheelers in India since
one manufacturer has made these vehicles and engines for decades. However, regulators should
also consider following the example of Dhaka, Bangladesh, who banned use of two-stroke
vehicles completely. This study has shown the need for comprehensive test programs that
develop (EFs: pollutants emitted per fuel consumed or vehicle activity), based on multiple
vehicles: accurate health - and climate-relevant EFs are essential inputs for vehicle emission
inventories or models, and an important step toward implementing appropriate policies.

REFERENCES
[1] HEI (2010), Traffic-Related Air Pollution: A Critical Review of the literature on Emissions,
Exposure and Health Effects: Health Effects Institute, Boston MA
[2] Reynolds, C.C.O; Kandlikar, M (2008). Climate impacts of air quality policy : Switching to a
natural gas-fueled public transportation systems in New Delhi. Environ.sci.Technology.42(16),
5860-5865
[3] Grieshop, A.P; Reynolds, C.C.O; Kandlikar, M;Dowlatabadi, H (2009): A black-carbon
mitigation wedge.Nat.Geo, 2(8), 533, 534
[4] Reynolds, C.C.O; Kandlikar, M ; Badami, M.G (2011): Determinants of PM and GHG
emissions from natural gas-fueled Auto-rickshaws in Delhi. Transportation Rese.,part D, 16,
160-165
[5] EPCA. (2010); Review of Existing Cap on the Number of Three-Wheelers in Delhi and Its
Implication for Pollution and Congestion, Report No. 34; Environment Pollution (Prevention &
Control) Authority for the National Capital Region: Delhi, India, http:/ /
www.indiaenvironmentportal.org.in/files/epca_0.doc.
[6] Iyer, N. V (2003). Role of three-wheeled vehicles in urban transportation in South Asia.
Smart Urban Transp., 2, 2.
[7] Begum, B.A; Biswas, S.K; Hopke, P.K (2006); Impact of banning of two-stroke engines on
airborne particulate matter concentrations in Dhaka, Bangladesh. J. Air Waste Management
Asso. 56(1),85-89

Evaluation of Displaced Right-Turn Intersection using Computer Simulation

Dr. P. Vedagiri
Assistant Professor
Transportation Systems Engineering
Civil Engineering Department
IIT Bombay, Mumbai.
Email: vedagiri@civil.iitb.ac.in
&
Mr. Krishnakumar Subramanian
3rd year, B.Tech Civil Engineering
National Institute of Technology, Calicut.
Email: krishkmar.91@gmail.com

Abstract: The high volumes of traffic being encountered in major cities demand the need for the
implementation of Intelligent Transportation System and new unconventional designs. Since most
of the designs are very costly and time consuming, it calls for the research in efficient, costeffective and dynamic systems. One such system is the Displaced Right-Turn Intersection (DRT),
also known as the Continuous Flow Intersection. The design is based on the principle that the major
conflicting traffic movement, i.e. the right-turning traffic (in India condition) be excluded from the
main intersection. The DRT intersection which is derived from its US version Displaced Left-Turn
Intersection has been proved to be a much efficient system. The analysts believe that, in long run
the intersection could avoid the requirement of a grade-separated intersection. The aim of the study
is to determine whether such a design will be efficient enough in India, where the traffic is highly
heterogeneous and driving behaviour erratic. For the case study, a 4-Arm signalised intersection
was taken and data collection, model development and validation were done. The model was then
simulated with a partial DRT and was tested for various traffic flow conditions. The results were
compared to the same traffic conditions in the conventional 4-Arm intersection. The analysis of the
simulation results show that the PDRT design is certainly more efficient when compared to
conventional designs.
1. Introduction
The road traffic in Indian cities has grown at a very steep rate in the recent past making the
available transport infrastructure inadequate. As augmentation of urban transport infrastructure is
expensive, there is a need to find alternative solutions to the problem. One way is to devise
methods for optimal utilization of available infrastructure (road space) in such a way that the
carrying capacity of the roadway is enhanced. This may be achieved by the displaced right-turn
concept is an innovative traffic signal intersection being developed for the United Kingdom
highway network by the Highways Agency. The concept of the displaced right turn has been
considered since the 1950s as an alternative intersection design to traditional at-grade and gradeseparated intersections. It enables one or more conflicting movements to take place away from the
main intersection at a new crossover intersection, which reduces the number of conflicts at the
central node. This study is concerned with evaluation of Displaced Right-Turn intersection under
heterogeneous traffic flow conditions using computer simulation.

2. Displaced Right-Turn intersection

Displaced Right-Turn intersection (Continuous Flow Intersection) is an at-grade signalised
intersection which can be considered as a sub level between grade separated and at-grade
intersections. The principle behind this intersection is that the main conflicting traffic, i.e. the rightturning traffic is excluded from the main intersection. Instead this traffic is carried to a bay which
runs parallel to the opposite through traffic. The right-turning traffic is carried through a crossover
intersection approximately 300-400 feet upstream of the main intersection. The main advantage of
this intersection is that for a partial DRT (DRT on two approaches), there is a single phase
reduction resulting in only 3 phases for a 4-arm intersection. A double phase reduction can be
achieved using a complete DRT (DRT on all four approaches). The major advantages of DRT are
listed below:
As said earlier, there is a one phase reduction for partial DRT and a two phase reduction for
a complete DRT. This traffic signal phase reduction in DRT results in less delay, fewer
pollutants and lower fuel consumption than the conventional 4-Arm intersection.
The intersection can easily handle more volume and is efficient in terms of land use. Thus it
avoids the construction of grade-separated intersections at a later stage.
Some analysis also says that DRT may also provide a certain level of safety benefit
compared to the ordinary 4-Arm. The safety of an intersection can be estimated by counting
the number of conflict points. The three main types of conflict points are Crossing,
Merging, Diverging. The figures 1 and 2 shows the various conflict points in a conventional
4-Arm and a complete DRT. As you can see, the number of conflicting points in DRT is 28
while in the case of 4-Arm intersection its 32. Whereas when the number of crossing
conflict points (which accounts for higher risk) is just 12 in the case of DRT, while it is 16
in the case of ordinary 4-Arm.

Fig 1 Conflict points in a 4-Arm intersection.

Fig 2 Conflict points in a complete DRT

3. Phasing Diagram for DRT

We have discussed earlier that there is a phase reduction in DRT. In an ordinary 4-Arm
intersection, a minimum of four phases are required to allow the flow of traffic. While in a DRT we
only require two, and in the case of partial DRT we only require three. Figures 3 and 4 shows the
two phases for a complete DRT and figures 5, 6 and 7 shows the phases for a partial DRT.
2

(i) Complete DRT

Fig 3. Phase1

Fig 4. Phase2

In the phase 1 of DRT, the N-S through moving traffic is allowed. At the same time, there right
turning traffic from the parallel bay is also allowed. This right turning traffic then faces a signal at
the crossover junction in E-W road. The right turning traffic of the E-W road is now taken to the
parallel bay and stop at the main intersection. All the left turning traffic are free to move and are
unsignalised in both the phases.
In the phase 2 of DRT, the E-W through moving traffic is allowed. This phase is identical to the
phase 1 except that it is with respect to the E-W direction. The right-turning traffic of the N-S road,
which were stopped at the crossover intersection in phase 1, now receive a green signal and move
along with the E-W through moving traffic. At the same time, the right turning traffic of the E-W
road, which were stopeed at the main intersection, now receive a green signal and move to the next
signal at the N-S crossover intersection. Here the right turning traffic of the N-S road, are taken to
the parallel bay and are stopped at the main intersection. In the next phase, that is phase 1, all the
stopped traffic are again cleared. This completes the cycle, thus giving rise to just 2 phases to
discharge all the traffic flows. The advantage of having lesser phases can be realised like this. Let
the green time for all the traffic be 30s (including 2s amber time). In an ordinary 4-Arm, where
there are four phases, the total cycle time becomes 120s. That is, when it is green for one arm, its
red for all other arms. Therefore calculating for all the 4 arms, we get in each arm, 30s green time
and a 90s red time. Now consider a DRT, where there are only 2 phases. Therefore, the cycle time
becomes just 60s, which implies that 30s green time and 30s red time for each arm. Therefore even
though the cycle time just reduced by half, the red time in each arm reduced by threefolds. This
allows a continuous flow for all the traffic and hence the name.
(ii) Partial DRT

Fig 5. Phase1

Fig 6. Phase2

Fig 7. Phase3

In the phase 1 of a partial DRT, the North-bound and South-bound traffic is cleared.
Simultaneoulsy their right-turning traffic is also cleared from the parallel bay. All the left-turning
traffic are free to move in any phase.During phase 2 and phase 3, the East-bound and West-bound
traffic are cleared along with their right turn traffic. When this happens, the right-turning traffic of
the North-bound or South-bound traffic (whichever is free to cross) is allowed to crossover to the
parallel bay, and are queued at the main intersection. It maybe noted that, a traffic signal at the
crossover junction for the through moving traffic in the N-S road is redundant in a partial DRT, and
therefore is optional. But, to improve the efficiency of the intersection and also for safety reasons a
signal can be provided. The main purpose will be to avoid the situation where the last vehicles of
the through moving traffic might block the green signal for the crossover vehicles, thus reducing
the effective green time for these vehicles.
4. Need for Study
We have discussed earlier that the traffic in major roads are increasing at a huge rate. While the
conventional intersection designs are failing to control saturation volumes of traffic. Since gradeseparated intersections are very costly and space demanding, such measures are often faced with a
lot of obstacles. This brings us to the Displaced Right-Turn intersection. The DRT has been proved
to be effective in the developed countries (U.K, USA). The need for the present study is to
determine whether the DRT design is effective for a highly heterogeneous traffic flow conditions
prevailing in India. The main objective of this study is to evaluate the impact of Partial Displaced
Right-Turn Intersection under highly heterogeneous traffic flow conditions.
5. Data Collection and Extraction
The Bhagwan Mahavir Chowk in Vashi, Navi Mumbai (Figure 8) is a 4-Arm junction and carries
medium-heavy traffic flow. As shown in Figure1, the areas 1 and 2 allow us to design a partial
DRT in this 4-Arm intersection and thereby improve the network system. The approaches A and C
are major, while B is semi major. The traffic D is minor. A videographic survey of the intersection
was performed for about 20 minutes and data extraction was done in the lab. Field observed traffic
flow details and traffic composition are given below.

Fig 8. Study Intersection

Traffic Flow Details
Traffic Flow

Total Flow

A
B

1562
1009

Through Traffic
Proportion
0.684
0.253

C
D

1598
848

0.691
0.225

Traffic Vehicular Composition

Traffic Flow
Bike
A
0.173
B
0.260
C
0.143
D
0.297

Auto
0.479
0.088
0.587
0.200

Car
0.306
0.642
0.254
0.455

Right Turning
Proportion
0.259
0.493

Left Turning
Proportion
0.057
0.254

0.252
0.297

0.057
0.478

Bus
0.036
0.004
0.013
0.034

HGV
0.005
0.004
0.003
0.014

6. Model Development and Validation

VISSIM is a microscopic transit/traffic simulation software which consists of traffic flow model. It
moves and tracks the vehicle and also features a signal control model. The user friendly graphic
interface (GUI) enables the user to use the software very easily. Graphical network editor for data
input of road network, transit lines, routes, volumes, detectors, signals etc are some of the features
of GUI in VISSIM. It also helps to define user-specific vehicle compositions, vehicle types and
even driving behaviour to override the default algorithm.
The visualisation of the simulation in 2D or 3D and also the measure of effectiveness of queue
length, queue delay, travel times, average speed, emissions etc helps the user to analyse the model
more easily and thus improving the decision support system. A VISSIM model was made to
simulate these conditions and validate the model for further analysis. Simulation run time was set
5

as 984 seconds to replicate the real conditions. The validation criteria, as obtained from the field
were as follows:
1. Total number of vehicles in the network during the period of survey: 1285
2. Average queue length in the approach arm A
: 56 m
The total number of vehicles in the network is the sum of number of active vehicles in the network
and the number of vehicles that left the network. From the simulation result the values were
observed as 187 and 1118 respectively. Adding these values we get 1305. For any validation to be
accurate the error obtained between the simulated and the real data should not be greater than 10%.
We obtain an error of just 1.55% in this case. The simulated result for the queue in the approach
arm A is 60m while the observed queue length was 56m. Therefore the error is 7.14%. Since both
the validation criteria are met with relatively high accuracy, the VISSIM model of Bhagwan
Mahavir Chowk can be regarded as a true representation of the real system. Therefore the model
can be used for further analysis and experimentation.

7. Effect of Partial Displaced Right-Turn Intersection

For the application and analysis of DRT, first of all we need to make a comparison with the
conventional system. Therefore the 4-Arm VISSIM model is simulated for the various conditions
and the same conditions are applied for the 4-Arm PDRT model. The snapshot of
Conventional 4-Arm Intersection
From the data extraction, the right-turning proportion was found to be 25% for the major
approaches A and C. Therefore the model will be tested for 20% of right turning traffic for the
traffic volumes of 1500, 2000, 2500 and 3000 veh/hour.

Fig 9. VISSIM model Snapshot of 4-Arm conventional Intersection.

Fig 10. VISSIM Model snapshot of 4-Arm PDRT Intersection

7

Model Output
Volume (Veh/hr)
Parameter
Average delay time per vehicle

1500

2000

2500

3000

66.793s

97.413s

99.502s

100.872s

1.296

1.776

1.868

1.871

12.453 kmph

9.239 kmph

9.090 kmph

9.020 kmph

Average stopped delay per vehicle

51.601s

74.390s

75.525s

76.556s

Total delay time

24.194 h

35.150 h

36.871 h

37.238 h

Total number of stops

1690

2307

2492

2487

Total number of vehicles in the

network
Total number of vehicles that left
the network
Total stopped delay

177

197

200

193

1127

1102

1134

1136

18.691 h

26.842 h

27.986 h

28.262 h

Total travel time

33.425 h

44.208 h

46.180 h

46.544 h

Average number of stops per

vehicle
Average speed

Queue Length:
Counter

Volume 1500 veh/hr

Volume 2000 veh/hr

Volume 2500 veh/hr

Volume 3000 veh/hr

Average

Average

Average

Average

1
2
3
4

56
63
28
76

No. of
Stops
420
469
250
366

136
94
28
81

No. of
Stops
692
530
249
353

157
96
29
81

No. of
Stops
745
564
260
310

No. of
Stops
736
569
247
358

160
99
28
79

4-Arm Partial Displaced Right-Turn Intersection Model Output

Volume (Veh/hr)
Parameter
Average delay time per vehicle

1500

2000

2500

3000

46.120s

62.984s

70.784s

65.701s

1.165

1.607

1.784

1.716

16.511 kmph

13.185 kmph

12.046 kmph

12.834 kmph

Average stopped delay per vehicle

32.070s

41.095s

46.970s

41.496s

Total delay time

16.770 h

23.532 h

24.833 h

24.383 h

1525

2162

2253

2293

Average number of stops per

vehicle
Average speed

Total number of stops

Total number of vehicles in the

network

91

125

127

115

Total number of vehicles that left

the network

1218

1220

1136

1221

Total stopped delay

11.661 h

15.354 h

16.479 h

15.400 h

Total travel time

26.485 h

33.258 h

33.879 h

34.084 h

Queue Length:
Counter

1
2
3
4
5
6

Volume 1500 veh/hr

Volume 2000 veh/hr

Volume 2500 veh/hr

Volume 3000 veh/hr

Average

Average

Average

Average

19
24
32
17
17
32

No. of
Stops
193
212
229
153
129
247

9
32
35
17
84
40

No. of
Stops
137
229
263
152
483
287

18
24
35
17
103
44

No. of
Stops
151
188
248
160
476
264

10
22
33
17
104
44

No. of
Stops
121
191
242
160
509
321

8. Effect of PDRT
From the obtained simulation results it is very evident that the Partial Displaced Right-Turn
Intersection is in many ways better than the conventional 4-Arm design. With the PDRT design,
there is an average reduction of 32.5% in the delay time per vehicle. Also an average reduction of
29.75% was observed in the queue formed in approach arm A, and a reduction of 24.25% in the
arm C, which forms the major road at the intersection. A new parameter was introduced which is
the proportion of the number of vehicles that leave the network for every vehicle that arrives the
network. This can be considered as a measure of efficiency of the network, since it directly gives
insight into the overall vehicular movement. It can be computed by taking the ratio between
number of vehicles in the network and number of vehicles that left the network. There was an
average increment of 80.83% for this parameter. This implies that with PDRT, for every vehicle
that arrived into the network 80% more vehicle can leave the network. Thus more traffic can be
handled by the intersection. When the average speed of vehicles was considered, there was an
increment of 37.53% with the PDRT intersection. Figure 11 and 12, shows the graphs between
Vehicular Movement Ratio vs. Traffic Volume and Average delay time per vehicle vs. Traffic
Volume.

Fig 11. Vehicular Movement Ratio vs. Traffic Volume

Fig 12. Average Delay Time per Vehicle vs. Traffic Volume
From figure 11, it is obvious that PDRT can manage more traffic volume. The average number of
vehicles that leave the network for each vehicle that enters is on an average of 10 in PDRT and
only around 6 for the conventional design. Figure 12 shows that the average delay per vehicle is
much less compared to the conventional design.
9. Conclusion
The analysis of the simulation results show that the PDRT design is certainly more efficient when
compared to conventional designs. With higher handling capacity for traffic volume, lesser delay
and queue length the PDRT design can almost avoid the requirement of a grade-separated
intersection. Thus the intersection proves to be a sub level between the grade separated and at-grade
intersections, and therefore can be regarded as a sustainable measure for urban transport planning.
10. References
Khan, S.I., and Maini, P. (2000). Modeling heterogeneous traffic flow. Transp.Res.Rec.,1678,
Transportation Research Board, Washington, D.C,234- 241.
Kumar, V.M., and Rao, S.K. (1996). Simulation modeling of traffic operations on Two lane
highways. Highway Research Bulletin, 54, Indian Roads Congress, 211-237.
Marwah, B.R. (1995). Simulation and Animation of Traffic Flow on Highways with Intersections.
Proc., of International Conference on New Horizons in Road and Road Transport, Roorkee, 989999.
Agarwal, R.K., A.K. Gupta and S.S. Jain (1994) Simulation of intersection flows for mixed traffic,
Traffic Engineering, Highway Research Bulletin, 51, Indian Roads Congress, 85 97.
10

 Banks, J., S.C. John and L.N. Barry. Discrete-event system simulation,
Prentice-Hall of India
Private Ltd., New Delhi, 2000.
Drew, D.R. Traffic Flow Theory and Control, McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York, 1968.
Law, A.M. and W.D. Kelton. Simulation modeling and analysis, McGraw-Hill Higher Education,
Singapore, 2000.
May, A.D. Traffic Flow Fundamentals, Prentice Hall, Engelwood Cliffs, New Jersey 07632, 1990.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Displaced_left-turn
Simulation of Traffic Systems An Overview; by Matti Pursula.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/VISSIM
Performance Analysis of Parallel Flow Intersection and Displaced Left-Turn Intersection Designs;
by Amit Dhatrak, Praveen Edara, and Joe G. Bared.
Evaluation of Signs and Markings for Partial Continuous Flow Intersection; by Vaughan W. Inman.
Evaluation of Sign and Marking Alternatives for Displaced Left-Turn Lane Intersections; FHWA
Publication No: FHWA-HRT-08-071.

11

MODELING OF MIXED TRAFFIC DISCHARGE RATE AT AN ISOLATED URBAN

INTERSECTION: A CASE STUDY OF SURAT CITY
Ghadiyali Gaurang A. & Dr. B. K. Katti
Ghadiyali Gaurang A.
Highway Design Engineer Trainee, SAI Consulting Engineers Pvt. Ltd., Ahmedabad, India
Email: ghadiyaligaurang@yahoo.co.in
Dr. B. K. Katti
Professor Emeritus, Sardar Vallabhbhai National Institute of Technology, Surat, India
ABSTRACT: Rapid urbanization has built
immense pressure on urban traffic and travel
system thereby affecting traffic quality
resulting in vehicular delays, lower speeds and
severity in road safety on urban road network.
Frequently intersecting urban road links lead
to conflict between opposite flow of traffic
thereby causing delay and accident.
Intersections are an important part of an urban
roadway and they have a significant effect on
the operation and performance of the traffic
system. The performance of an intersection is
mainly dependent upon the discharge of traffic
with minimum delay & conflicts experienced
by the road users.
Intersections have become most
vulnerable nodes to affect traffic quality under
heterogeneous conditions. They are normally a
major bottleneck to smooth flow of traffic and
a major place for conflicts. Thus operation of
intersection is critical in Indian urban context
where the heterogeneous traffic conditions
prevail. Different class of vehicles possesses
diversified acceleration rates, which ultimately
affects the clearance of traffic from an
approach at the intersection. The interaction of
each class of vehicle with the other in the
traffic is quite different. Vehicles with lower
acceleration rates impart delays to the overall

traffic at the intersection. Hence an effort has

been made to study the discharge behavior of
traffic at the intersection which can be used to
compute possible vehicle delays. Further,
regression modeling technique has been
adopted to develop discharge rate model of
traffic flow at a particular approach of the
intersection under study. Mixed Traffic
Discharge Rate Model so developed evidently
reveals the noteworthy effect of two wheelers
and four wheelers in the traffic as well as the
effect of queued vehicles during the rd period.
Research findings reflect the behavioural
pattern and characteristics of heterogeneous
traffic at an urban intersection at macro and
micro level, which can be useful to evaluate
the overall performance and efficiency of an
urban intersection.
1

INTRODUCTION

Most of the metropolitan cities in India are

facing serious traffic problems such as
congestion, bottlenecks, reduction in speed,
higher travel time, increased pollution levels,
etc. The developing cities are sufferers of these
problems as they possess diversified traffic
characteristics. The characteristics of traffic
flow include speed of vehicles, their
concentration, and density of flow and these
1

are governed by a variety of factors

attributable to road features, the vehicle
performance characteristics and road user
behaviour. Traffic phenomena are complex
and nonlinear, depending on the interactions of
a large number of vehicles. Due to the
individual reactions of human drivers, vehicles
do not interact simply following the laws of
mechanics, but rather show phenomena of
cluster
formation
and
shock
wave
propagation,[citation needed] both forward
and backward, depending on vehicle density in
a given area. Most of the Indian cities
(Metropolitan
cities)
comprise
of
heterogeneous traffic composition, with twowheeler and four-wheeler as the leading
percentages. Heterogeneity not only exists in
terms of vehicles but also in case of road users
and pedestrians.
Intersections are an important part of
an urban roadway and they have a significant
effect on the operation and performance of the
traffic system. Urban intersections are the
most important nodes as they connect various
transport linkages in any urban transportation
system. These linkages contribute traffic to
intersections from different agglomerations of
the city wherein traffic gets accumulated at a
single spot. As a result, delay in travel time is
experienced by vehicle users due to inefficient
performance of the intersection, lack of traffic
discipline, heterogeneity of traffic, inter-modal
interaction of traffic, etc. Even the discharge
rates and the clearance rates of each traffic
mode vary according to their acceleration
rates. This in turn increases the interaction
between different modes at the intersection
and imparts delay to the overall traffic
accumulated at an approach.

Urbanization is a determinant as well as result

of economic development. It is a natural
consequence of economic changes that take
place as a country develops.
An effort has been made in this paper
to develop a generalized model for discharge
rate of traffic under heterogeneous traffic
environment to have a clear understanding of
the behaviour of each mode in the traffic and
its influence on the overall discharge rate.
2

NEED OF THE RESEARCH STUDY

It is necessary to understand the behavioral

pattern of each traffic mode as well as the
mixed traffic at an intersection, as the effect of
each modes behaviour on mixed traffic is
quite diverse & noteworthy. The models
regarding mixed traffic discharge rate
developed in the western countries are based
on homogeneity of traffic. PCU factors have
been developed for Indian conditions, but they
only deal with static characteristics of the
vehicles. These factors only convert different
types of vehicles into an equivalent passenger
car unit, which does not deal with the dynamic
behaviour of the vehicle in the traffic stream.
Also, earlier studies do not take into account
the discharging pattern of mixed traffic at the
intersection.
Considering the above issues, an effort
for developing a discharge rate model based
on heterogeneity of traffic conditions at the
intersection
is
indispensable
which
encompasses most
of the attributes
representing mixed traffic in a better way.

OBJECTIVE OF THE RESEARCH

STUDY

GHODDOD INTERSECTION

The main objective of the research study is

-

To understand the behaviour of each traffic

mode into the traffic mix at the urban
intersection and

To develop models relating the discharge

rate and delay with their independent
variables at an urban intersection under
Indian heterogeneous traffic conditions.
Fig. 1: Bird View of Ghod-dod Intersection

STUDY AREA SELECTION

Surat city has seen an unprecedented growth in

last four decades recording one of the highest
growth rates in the country and a 10-fold
population rise. There are about 125
intersections in Surat, out of which 35
intersections are provided with traffic signals
and 90 intersections are uncontrolled. Before
selecting the study location, a brief
observation of various urban intersections was
done in which some intersections were
provided with traffic signals and some were
controlled by traffic police.
Ghod-dod intersection of Surat city has
been selected as the study intersection which is
operated by police during morning and
evening peak hours. It is a 4-legged urban
intersection falling in the South-West zone of
Surat and its approaches lead to major
commercial
and
residential
zones.
Considerable delays and substantial formation
of queue takes place at 2 major approaches of
the intersection during morning peak and
evening peak. Following Table 1 describes the
geometric features of approaches of Ghod-dod
intersection.

Table 1: Approach Geometric Features of

Ghod-dod intersection
Approach
Parle
Point
Approach
Bhatar
Approach
Athwa
Approach
Joggers
Park
Approach
5

Geometric Features
4-lane divided with 9.15 m
carriageway width on both side
and 1 m wide median.
4-lane divided 8.5 m
carriageway width on both side
and 1 m wide median.
2 Lane undivided, 8.5 m
carriageway width.
4-lane divided 9 m carriageway
width on both side with 1.2 m
wide median.

DATA COLLECTION & ANALYSIS

Study of traffic volume, traffic composition,

turning traffic, discharge rate of mixed traffic
in different phases of successive cycles at an
approach, STOP & GO time observations, etc.
was done through video-graphic technique in
morning and evening peak periods. Macro as
well as micro level discharge rate study has
been done to have a correct idea about the
discharge rate of mixed traffic at the
intersection.

Following Fig. 2 shows the volume of

traffic on all the approaches of Ghod-dod
intersection. The volume from Bhatar
approach during morning as well as evening
peak periods dominates with a range of 14501500 vph. Least traffic volume is recorded on
Athwa Approach.

Total Traffic Volume

Volume (vehicles per 5 min)

1600

Morning Period
Evening Period

1400
1200
1000
800
600
400
200
0
Bhatar

Parle

Joggers Park

Athwa

Time (min)

Fig. 2: Traffic Volume Scenario at Ghoddod Intersection

Table 2: Summary of Traffic Composition
at Ghod-dod Intersection
Intersection 2W
Approach
Bhatar 51.61
Parle Point 54.22
Joggers 54.79
Park
Athwa 51.98

Morning Peak
3W 4W LCV Mini/Std.
Bus
18.25 21.34 0.20
0.13
17.31 25.83 0.59
0.59
16.70 26.56 0.29
0.29
14.88 31.45 0.00
0.38
Evening Peak
3W 4W LCV Mini/Std.
Bus
19.18 23.97 0.20
0.54
23.02 20.89 0.19
0.48
17.90 27.67 0.41
0.00

Intersection 2W
Approach
Bhatar 50.37
Parle Point 51.93
Joggers 52.98
Park
Athwa 52.29 15.17 26.70 0.47

0.16

NMT Others
8.40
1.47
1.37

0.07
0.00
0.00

1.32

0.00

NMT Others
5.54
3.19
1.03

0.20
0.29
0.00

5.06

0.16

The percentage of 2W is dominating

with a range of 50-55 % on each approach,
followed by 4W with 20-30 % and 3W with
15-20 % contribution to the traffic. The

contribution of other modes of transport is

almost negligible. This can be seen in Table 2
below.
6

VEHICLE DISCHARGE STUDY

6.1

Macro Level Observations

Discharge rate is an important factor which

plays a vital role in deciding the overall
efficiency of any urban intersection. It has a
major impact on the cycle length, delay and
the formation of queue on the approach
therein. The number of vehicles discharged
from an approach in the respective green times
provided is noted and the average discharge
rate of the mixed traffic is determined
thereafter. This is done through the extraction
of data from the video-graphic footage. The
number of vehicles discharged from the Bhatar
approach is taken under consideration to find
the average mixed traffic discharge rate.
Following Table 3 describes the green
time, the traffic discharged during that green
time and the computed discharge rate of
Bhatar approach.
Table 3: Bhatar Approach Discharge Rate
Calculations
Cycle
(No)

Green
Time
(sec)

Traffic
discharged
during green
(sec)

Discharge
Rate
(veh/sec)

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10

18
19
16
18
20
29
18
18
20
14

58
53
61
63
79
86
68
55
67
43

3.22
2.79
3.81
3.5
3.95
2.97
3.78
3.06
3.35
3.07

increases gradually from the initiation of green

time up to a certain period. Then after it
stabilizes and the number of discharging
vehicles drops at the end of green time.

Frequency of Vehicles Discharged

The maximum and minimum discharge

rates observed on this approach are 3.95 and
2.79 vehicles per second respectively. This
discharge rate is calculated for an effective
width of 8.5 m. Fig. 3 depicts that the average
discharge rate being 3.35 vehicles per second
and the overall discharge rate lies within the
range of 2.80 to 4.00 vehicles per second.

Discharged Vehicles for G = 18 sec

16

14

12

Minimum Green Time

13

14
10

10

6
4
2
0
0-3

3-6

6-9

9-12

12-15

15-18

Green Time - Slots of 3 sec

Fig. 4: Discharged vehicles in slots of 3

seconds for G = 18 seconds

6.2

Micro Level Observations

Also the discharge of vehicles is observed for

three different values of green time. For this
purpose out of the ten cycles on the Bhatar
approach, three cycles namely the maximum
green time, minimum green time and an
intermediate green time is selected to observe
the behaviour of discharged traffic.
Fig. 4 depicts the number of vehicles
discharging in every three seconds time for a
green time of 18 seconds. It is observed that
the maximum number of vehicles discharging
is 14 whether the minimum number of
vehicles discharging is 5. It can be clearly seen
that the number of vehicles discharged

Discharged Vehicles for G = 20 sec

16
Frequency of Vehicles Discharged

Fig. 3: Discharge Rate scenario on Bhatar

Approach

Similarly, Fig.5 states the number of

vehicles discharged for a green time of 20
seconds. It can be seen that the maximum and
minimum number of vehicles discharged in a
time of 3 seconds is 15 and 3 respectively.

14

15

Intermediate Green Time

14
12

11

11

10

8
5

4
2
0
0-3

3-6

6-9

9-12

12-15

15-18

18-20

Green Time- Slots of 3 sec

Fig. 5: Discharged vehicles in slots of 3

seconds for G = 20 seconds

In Fig. 6 it can be seen that during the

slot of 6-9 seconds the discharged traffic
suddenly drops. This is because of the
influence of a standard bus in the traffic during
that time slot. The bus takes a longer time to
clear off the stop line, which in turn affected
the vehicles queued behind it.

Frequency of vehicles discharged

Discharged Vehicles for G = 29 sec

14

13

12

12
10

10
8

10

4
2
0
0-3

3-6

6-9

9-12

12-15

15-18

18-21

21-24

24-27

27-29

Green Time -Slots of 3 sec

Fig. 6: Discharged vehicles in slots of 3

seconds for G = 29 seconds
7

Y=1.111+0.009x 1 0.0077x 2 +0.015x 3

0.0264x 4... (i)
R2 = 0.812
where,
Y = Mixed Traffic Discharge Rate (veh/sec/lane)
x 1 = Share of two wheelers in mixed traffic (%)
x 2 = Queued vehicles during red time
x 3 = Red Time (sec)
x 4 = Share of four wheelers in mixed traffic (%)

Maximum Green Time

10

Following is the discharge rate regression

model developed.

MODELING OF MIXED TRAFFIC

DISCHARGE RATE

Based on the data collected, a discharge rate

model has been developed considering effect
of various attributes on the mixed traffic
discharge rate. Regression modeling technique
is used to develop this model. Various
attributes like the arrival rate of vehicles, the
red time given to an approach and the
percentage of two wheelers and four wheelers
are found to have a significant effect on the
mixed traffic discharge rate. Bhatar approach
is selected to develop the model, wherein ten
cycle timings are taken and corresponding to
these cycles, the vehicles discharged in the
green time, the red time and the vehicles
queued during this red are noted.

The model is developed for a particular

range of composition of traffic modes and lane
configuration. The composition of two
wheelers varies between 50-60 %, that of four
wheelers between 20-30 %, that of three
wheelers between 15-25 %, and the rest of the
share of traffic mode is composed of six
wheelers and NMT. Also the model is
developed based on the lane configuration of
Bhatar approach, i.e. it is two lane roads with
effective carriageway width of 8.5 meters.
It can be interpreted from the above
discharge rate model that the discharge rate of
mixed traffic increases with increase in the
percentage of two wheelers in the
composition, while discharge rate decreases
with rise in the share of four wheelers.
Increase in discharge rate because of two
wheelers is due to higher acceleration rates
and smaller dimensions. On the other hand,
four wheelers posses lower acceleration rates
compared to two wheelers which thereby
reduce the overall discharge rate of mixed
traffic. As the number of queued vehicles
increases, vehicles find difficult to clear the
approach in specific time due to one to one
interaction in the queue. Due to this vehicles

consume more time to discharge from the

approach, thereby reducing the overall
discharge rate of mixed traffic. As red time
increases, queued vehicles increase. With
increase in queued vehicles, the joining
vehicles in the queue also increase. Because of
rise in the joining queue vehicles the discharge
rate goes up.
The Coefficient of determination (R2)
value of the model is 0.812 (d f = 9, = 0.95),
which indicates a strong relation between the
attributes and the independent variable. Also
the correlation between the dependent
attributes is developed and it proves that there
is a very less relationship amongst them. The
discharge rate model developed is further
utilized to calculate the delay at the
intersection. Based on this delay, various delay
models for have been developed for different
lane configurations and different volume
levels. The discharge rate model so developed
has been further amended for different
composition of traffic, lane configurations and
right turning traffic by developing discharge
modification factor.
8

CONCLUSION

It has been a common practice to convert

mixed traffic volume into homogenous traffic
adopting certain PCU conversion factors at the
intersection. These factors only take into
account the static behaviour of traffic mode,
but do not encounter dynamic effect of traffic
mode and its individual effect into the traffic
mix at the intersection. Also one to one
interaction of each traffic mode with the other
in the traffic mass is not reflected if mixed
traffic is converted into homogeneous traffic.

Owing to these conditions, the

discharge rate model so presented in this paper
takes into account the effect of traffic
heterogeneity and fluctuations in traffic
composition. The independent variables such
as composition of two and four wheelers in
mixed traffic, red period and vehicles queued
in respective red times have a significant
influence on mixed traffic discharge rate. This
model can be applied to urban intersections of
developing cities possessing heterogeneous
traffic.
The discharge rate model for mixed
traffic so developed can be further utilized to
develop delay model as a measure of
performance of any urban intersection. It can
also form a strong base for determination of
optimum signal cycle lengths at intersections.
REFERENCES
Allsop R. E. (1971). Delay-Minimizing
Settings for Fixed-Time Traffic Signals at a
Single Road Junction, J. Inst, Maths; Appl. 8,
164-185.
D S Reddy, Dr C S R K Prasad, (August
2008). Design and Evaluation of Isolated
Traffic Signal using New Minimum Delay
Cycle Length Equation, IE (I) Journal; CV
Vol. 89.
Sam Yagar, (1975). Minimizing Delay at a
Signalized Intersection for Time-Invariant
Demand Rates, Transportation Research;
Volume 9, 129-141, Pergamon press (Great
Britain).
L.R. Kadiyali, Traffic Engineering
Transport Planning, Khanna Publishers.

&

Greenshields B. D., Shapiro D. and Ericksen

E. L. (1947). Traffic Performance at Urban

Street Intersections. Technical Report-1, Yale

Bureau of Highway.
M. Hossain, (Nov. 2000). Estimation of
Saturation Flow at Signalised Intersections of
Developing Cities: A Micro-Simulation
Modeling Approach, Transportation Research
Part A: Policy & Practice, Volume 35, Issue 2,
Pages 123-141.

DYNAMIC PASSENGER CAR EQUIVALENTS FOR SIGNALISED

INTERSECTIONS: A CASE STUDY
Patel Pinakin. N, Patel Dewang K.
P.G.Student, Transportation Engineering and Planning,
S.V. National Institute of Technology, Surat-395007
pnpatel123@gmail.com

Katti B.K.
Ex.Professor Emeritus, Department of Civil Engineering
S. V. National Institute of Technology, Surat-395007

ABSTRACT: The traffic and travel situation is highly aggravated in metropolitan cities
because of significant growth of in traffic and addition of more and more numbers of two
wheelers year by year in to the stream. Such mixed traffic needs conversions in to some
standard units so that a comparative values or available for the road capacity. Passenger car
equivalent are specified by IRC in India for this purpose but they are static in nature, as they
are not addressing the speed component in deriving the PCU values. In view of this numbers
of research work is undergoing for the highways but enough work is not carried for the
intersections. The present paper therefore attempts to study the equivalent car units for the
signalised intersections which are critical nodes in road network. Two methods namely
Chandras model of ratios of speed and areas of reference vehicles and multi linear regression
models are employed here to work out the passenger car equivalent units for 2W, auto
rickshaws and cars which are the main modes of the urban corridor traffic observed. Two
signalised intersections on the main corridors of Surat city form the study area. The
approaches are of 3-lane in each direction bifurcated by median. The traffic conditions are
nearer to saturation as vehicles speed are part of the model processing and which are varying
subjected to traffic condition lead to dynamic characteristics and so the PCU are dynamic
passenger car equivalent. The paper further highlights the variation in DPCU values for peak
and off-peak conditions.

INTRODUCTION

The mixed traffic comprising of number of modes having different physical characteristics
and speed flow behaviour reflecting heterogeneity is main feature of Indian traffic plying on
metropolitan road network. Obviously there is need of converting such heterogeneous traffic
in to homogeneous one through passenger car equivalents introduce by HCM in 1965, with
thrust on trucks and buses in the traffic stream. The PCE definition in HCM 2000 is the
number of passenger car that are displaced by a single heavy vehicle of particular type under
prevailing roadway, traffic and control conditions. The mixed traffic is converted to
homogeneous equivalent passenger car units by applying respective PCU values. Lots of
research work is carried and still going on to interrelate the wide variations in static and
dynamic characteristic of mixed traffic with the passenger car equivalent using the different
methodology and equivalency criteria. Most of the traffic engineers are adopting the static
PCU specified by HCM or Indian Road Congress (IRC) in analysis of different traffic
situations and deciding the road capacities and establishing LOS. However dynamic
characteristics of mixed flow cannot be ignored in traffic system designing or operation.
Therefore it may not be precisely correct to adopt a constant set of PCU values under
different roadway and traffic conditions.
1

Signalised intersections are most vulnerable elements of city road network, as the
vehicular delay, intersection capacity and pedestrian safety are highly associated with them.
Generally Webster signal design is followed in setting of traffic signals at the intersections
with reference to traffic volume arriving and the saturation flow of the approaches. Both
traffic volume and saturation flow are to be specified in equivalent passenger car units
through conversion of mixed traffic applying PCU values mentioned in IRC codes, on
assumption of static PCU, not to have any significant effect in conversion but the fact is it is
not so. One has to account the vehicle dimensions, speed variations and queue formation etc.
while transforming from heterogeneous mixed traffic in to homogeneous passenger car
equivalents. The present study focuses on this very issue through the study carried at two
important intersections, namely Rushabh intersection and RTO intersection situated on two
main corridors of Surat city. Rushabh intersection is of 6-lane divided four arm intersection,
whereas RTO intersection is also of 6-lane divided Tee-intersection with separate left turning
lanes.

TECHNIQUES OF PCU DETERMINATION

Different techniques are adopted in computation of PCU. The passenger car unit factors are
usually computed by comparing the departure times of cars at the stop line and identical
measure for all other types of vehicles. Methods developed for the calculation of PCU factors
are mainly discussed in the following section.
Walkers method
Headway method
Density method
Simulation method
Speed ratio to area ratio method
Multiple linear regression method
2.1

Walkers method

It is based on number of overtaking performed per of km highways. If each vehicle is

continue at its normal speed. This method is more suitable for hilly region where truck travels
at slower speed. The greater is the speed difference, the greater is the reduction in service
volume, with a corresponding increase volume, with corresponding increase in PCU value.
2.2

Headway Method

Headway method has been used extensively for PCU estimation at highways and
intersections. Headway may be defined in terms of space and time headway. Considering a
stream of traffic in which only two categories that is cars and trucks are present Guinn et al.
(1970) suggested the following basic equation. The method is based on concept that a truck
occupies more space than a car therefore reduces capacity.
2.3

Density Method

In the density method an idealised traffic mixture of only passenger car is equivocated with
another 100 percent, homogeneous, traffic stream. This stream consist of other traffic entity
type, e.g. truck, bus, motorcycle etc. the passenger car and truck streams have equal space
mean speeds when using the density method. The PCU value derived from the density
2

method are based on underlying homogeneous traffic concepts such as strict lane discipline,
car following and a vehicle fleet that does not vary greatly in width.
2.4

Simulation Method

This is one of the most important technique to make use of digital computer in traffic and
transportation model building. Based on certain field studies the real traffic is simulated to
build the computerised traffic laboratory wherein mixed traffic is generated and placed and
moved in time increment to note the traffic flow behaviour and to underline the vehicle
interactions. The required traffic parameters are measured and outputs are noted for analysis.
2.5

Speed Ratio to Area Ratio Method

The Chandras model is on based Speed to area of reference vehicle. The basic concept used
in this method is that the PCU value is directly proportional to the speed ratio and inversely
proportional to the space occupancy ratio with respect to standard design vehicle that is car.
In this model for calculation of PCU speed and dimensions of vehicles are required.
The variable of speed ratio in the equation is a function of roadway and traffic conditions.
Any change in these conditions will affect the speed of vehicles, which is duly reflected by
changes in the speed ratio.
2.6

Multiple Regression Method

The saturated green time is regressed against the number of each category of vehicles
crossing the stop line during the saturated green time, assuming linear relationship between
the variables. The vehicles are grouped into five categories viz, NMT, HCV, car, auto
rickshaw and motor cycle. Further studies are carried on these with reference to dynamic
variation of projected areas. Even one can convert the mixed traffic for his proposed design
vehicle in place of car.

NEED OF DPCU FOR SIGNALISED INTERSECTION

The traffic operation at signalized intersection would be very much easier and simplified if all
vehicles in the traffic stream were of an identical size and traveled straight ahead only. In
practice, however, the operations are complicated because the traffic stream normally
consists of an inseparable mixture of different types of vehicles having different maneuvers at
the traffic intersection. It is needed to note the effects of traffic composition on saturation
flow calculation. Traffic capacities and saturation flows at the signalized intersection are
mentioned normally mentioned in static PCU per hour. For realistic mixed traffic
consideration dynamic passenger car equivalent are required to account variation in traffic
volume and composition at the approaches of signalized intersections. DPCU conversion
helps in comparison of road capacities or saturation flows under mixed traffic conditions.
Level of services and designing of roads and intersection can be based on DPCU rather than
static PCU.

TRAFFIC VOLUME AND COMPOSITION OBSERVATIONS

The studies are carried at two important intersections, namely Rushabh intersection and RTO
intersection situated on two main corridors of Surat city. Rushabh intersection is of 6-lane
divided four arm intersection, whereas RTO intersection is also of 6-lane divided Teeintersection with separate left turning lanes. The traffic volume data is extracted from the
videographic footage and following results are obtained.
4.1

Volumes Observed

4.2

Composition of Vehicles

The hourly traffic volumes observed at RTO intersection are nearly 5800 vph on main
approach and 800 vph on Nanpura approach.
The hourly traffic volume observed at Rushabh intersection for Navyug, Adajanpatia,
GGC, Diwalibag approach are 5700,2800, 2100, 750 respectively.
The total intersection traffic volume at RTO is nearly 12500 vph, whereas at Rushabh
it is 11500 vph during morning peak periods.

The share of two wheelers at RTO intersection on each approach in the morning peak
period varies from 60 % to 75 %, whereas at Rushabh intersection it varies 55-80%.
The share of three wheelers ranged from 10% to 20 % of the total traffic on main
roads of both the intersections.
The contribution of four wheelers in the total composition varies from 7 % to 15 % at
Rushabh Intersection. At the RTO intersection 4W is 10-20%.
The share of LCV, Buses and NMT are 2-3% at Rushabh intersection, whereas it is 35% at RTO intersection.

TECHNIQUE ADOPTED: SPEED AREA RATIO MODEL

5.1

Model Concept

In the present study both Chandra model and multiple linear regression models are used to
determine DPCU at the urban signalised intersection. Chandras model considered the ratio
of speeds and projected area of two vehicles under reference such as scooter and car or auto
rickshaws and car to find the DPCU for two wheelers and auto rickshaws. The model is

DPCU) m =

Where,
(DPCU) m - DPCU for the mode m in the traffic
m - Mode to be converted in PCU equivalent
and - speed and projected area of car

and - Speed and projected area of mode under reference.

Dimensions of various modes in Indian context and their projected areas are shown below
4

Vehicular Dimensions
L (m)
B (m)
1.9
0.72
2.6
1.4
4.0
1.6
5.0
1.9
10.3
2.5
7.5
2.5
1.9
0.5

Vehicle
2W
3W
4W
LCV
BUS
TRUCK
BICYCLE
Source: Ref. 2

A (Sq.-m)
1.37
3.64
6.40
9.50
25.75
18.75
0.95

The area ratios for 2W, 3W and Car considering Car as reference vehicles are as under.
Area Ratios
Vehicle
2W
3W
4W
Area Ratio
4.68
1.76
1.00
Speed ratios for for 2W and 3W for peak and off-peak situations at the study intersections
are as under.
Speed Ratio for Rushabh Intersection
V C /V M
Vmin
Vmax
Vavg.
Vehicle
2W 3W 2W 3W 2W 3W
Peak hour
1.28 1.25 0.51 0.67 0.83 0.93
Off-Peak hour 2.02 1.63 0.69 0.79 1.12 1.11

V C /V M

Speed Ratio for RTO Intersection

Vmin
Vmax
Vavg.

Vehicle
2W 3W 2W 3W 2W 3W
Peak hour
1.46 1.39 0.61 0.77 0.89 1.02
Off-peak hour 1.61 1.59 0.64 0.87 0.97 1.1
5.2

Observed Model Values

Using the speed and area ratios as mentioned above the DPCU factors have been computed
for both Rushabh and RTO intersection for peak and off-peak periods. Same are shown as
under
5.2.1

Rushabh Intersection
DPCU Values
Vehicles Type Min. Max. Average 85th Percentile
Peak hour DPCU Values
2W
0.11 0.27
0.19
0.22
3W
0.38 0.71
0.54
0.60
Off-Peak hour DPCU Values
2W
0.15 0.43
0.25
0.29
3W
0.45 0.93
0.66
0.75

It is quite distinct that the DPCU values high in case of off-peak periods as car have
better speed value compared to scooter at the time of discharge at the stop line and that is not
5

the case in peak period. Variations in DPCU values for two wheelers and three wheelers are
found quite high value of 0.28 and 0.48 respectively indicating the traffic interaction at queue
discharging level.
5.2.2 RTO Intersection
The speed variation for the two wheelers, auto rickshaw and car are also noted at 6-lane RTO
T-junction situated on ring road and DPCU are computed for both peak and off-peak periods
by using speed and area ratios as explained earlier. DPCU values are shown in the following
Table
DPCU Values
Vehicles Type Min. Max. Average 85th Percentile
Peak hour
2W
0.13 0.31
0.19
0.21
3W
0.43 0.79
0.59
0.68
Off-peak hour
2W
0.14 0.34
0.22
0.24
3W
0.49 0.91
0.64
0.69

In this case also one can observe higher PCU values in off-peak period. The other trends
are same as in Rushabh intersection. As there is higher percentage of cars in traffic stream the
impact has been on DPCU values giving higher PCU value for 3W as far as 2W are concern
there is not much variation from the Rushabh intersection.
The percentage composition of 2W and traffic volumes ultimately matter in deciding the
DPCU factors. Similar observations are made by Chandra and Molla in their study on the
saturation flow. Arasan and Jagdish have reported slightly higher PCU value around 0.30 and
0.60 for 2W and 3W at signalised intersection in their study carried at Cennai.

DPCU VALUES: REGRESSION MODEL APPROACH

In this study PCU values have been found out by regression method. The signal green time is
regressed against the number of each category of vehicles crossing the stop line during the
signal green time, assuming linear relationship between the variables. The vehicles are
grouped into three categories viz, two wheelers, three wheelers and car. Non-motorized
vehicles are almost absent and as well other vehicles are negligible and hence not considered
in this study. The study regression model is
g = 22.064 + 0.047 2W + 0.167 3W+ 0.253 4W

(R2 = 0.89)

Where,
g = Signal green time (sec),
2W, 3W and 4W are in numbers.
Following are the statistics obtained from the discharge rate model developed.

Variables Coefficients Standard Error

t Stat
P-value Adjusted R2
Intercept
22.065
0.667
33.069
0.000
2W
0.047
0.018
2.532
0.018
0.87
3W
0.167
0.036
4.632
0.000
4W
0.253
0.164
1.544
0.135
The PCU values are obtained by dividing the coefficient of 2W, 3W and 4W by 0.253
coefficient of 4W. The same are shown below.
PCU Value of 2W, 3W and Car
Type of Vehicle
PCU
2W
0.18
3W
0.66
CAR
1.00
The computed values of DPCU can be compared with earlier model and they are within
the range.

OBSERVATIONS ON DPCU VALUES

Following are the main observation and DPCU value determined at the signalised intersection
under mixed traffic conditions.

It is observed that DPCU values of a particular vehicle are not constant as they vary
with traffic situations, queue formation and queue discharge behaviour at the
approaches.
PCU values for both 2W and 3W are lower in peak hour compared to off-peak hour
traffic, as speed of the car are lower than the 2W at discharging operation.
The percentage 2W if increases the DPCU for the 2W reduces and it is almost 0.12 at
90% 2W and it increases to 0.29 when the %2W reduces to 40-50%.
The presence of 2W in front of the car at the queue dissipation matters on DPCU
values.
DPCU values for the 3W are ranged between 0.38 to 0.70 during peak hour and 0.45
to 0.93 during off-peak hour.
In case traffic composition details for 2W not available it is recommended to use of
85th value of the PCU for calculating the intersection saturation value.
Speed ratio to area ratio technique is simpler to other methods.

CONCLUSION

The mixed traffic flow observed on metropolitan cities in India need special treatment to
transform to comparative standard units of PCU and it can be carried through established
PCU. However the values specified by IRC are static in nature and its application is rather
questionable. The dynamic kinetic behaviour of the auto modes emphasize on determination
of dynamic passenger car equivalent (DPCU). Numbers of research project are going on the
issue at present for varied traffic situation and conditions. Different methods are adopted in
their projects. Determination of DPCU for mixed traffic dominated by 2W on arterial road is
the subject matter for the work carried. The speed ratio to area ratio method is found simpler
7

and predicting the PCU values. The study indicates the presence of higher percentage of 2W
and queue mixing pattern of 2W, 3W and cars. At the signalised approaches have profound
impact on DPCU values. The present study indicates lower DPCU values for the 2W with
high percentage of 2W and it increases other way of the presence of 2W. DPCU of 2W is
observed as low as 0.12 and as high as 0.30 and for 3W minimum value is 0.38 and
maximum value is 0.71 during peak time. During off-peak period as there is scope of higher
speed of the car the values of the DPCU for both the 2W and 3W are on higher side that is in
range of 0.45 to 0.93. Now further effort is required to streamline the value for different level
of services

REFERENCES
Aggarwal Praveen (2008), Passenger Car Unit Concept, Significance and affecting Factors,
Indian Highways, Vol.36, pp. 23-31.
Arasan, T. V. and Jagadish, K. (1995), Effect of Heterogeneity of Traffic on Delay at
Signalized Intersections, Journal of Transportation Engineering, pp. 397-404.
Chandra Satish and P.K. Sikadar (2000), Factor affecting PCU in mixed traffic situations on
urban roads, Roads and transport research, Vol-9, No 3, pp 40-50.
Chandra, S., Zala L. B. and Kumar, Virendra (1997), Comparing the Methods of Passenger
Car Unit Estimation, Journal of the Institute of Engineers (India), Vol.-78, pp. 13-16.
Justo, C. E. G. and Tuladhar, S. B. S. (1984), Passenger Car Unit Values for Urban Roads,
Journal of the Indian Road Congress, Vol.45, pp. 183-238.
Leong Lee Vien, Wan Hashim Wan Ibrahim and Ahmad Farhan Mohd. Sadullah (2006),
Passenger car equivalents and saturation Flow rates for through vehicles at Signalized
intersections in Malaysia, 22nd ARRB Conference Research into Practice.
Satish Chandra and D. Molla (2010) Change in Vehicular Interaction and Saturation Flow at
Signalised Intersections over Time, Indian Highways, pp. 20-29.

Study of Bus Rapid Transit System

Khobragade M.U.,
Assistant Professor,
Civil Engineering Department
College of Engineering, Shivajinagar, Pune
(An Autonomous Institute of Government of Maharashtra)
Email: minivpce@rediffmail.com
Kamble S.V.
Ex, Student
Civil Engineering Department
College of Engineering, Shivajinagar, Pune
(An Autonomous Institute of Government of Maharashtra)
Email:kamblesv@gmail.com
ABSTRACT:
Pune metropolitan region
comfort critical policy
challenges that result in
greater
transportation
congestion. The regions
quality of life and
economic vitality will
depend
on
effective,
sustainable
planning
approaches that link land
use, development and
transportation. When a
city bursts at its seams,
one
of
the
first
symptomatic indications
of its failing health is the
choking of its arteries, its
roads. Unable to fully

handle the gush of

heterogeneously joisting
traffic, the arteries start
getting blocked at vital
points and effect can be
felt every aspect of the
citys
industrial,
professional and personal
life. When this happen the
negative effect on work,
productivity,
family
bonds, health, happiness,
environment and quality
of living is hard to control.
Bridges, new rules, heavy
fines racing against ever
growing
operational
demands the city begins to

thirst for long term

solutions. Thus design and
implementation of Bus
Rapid Transit (BRT)
initiative along corridor
could become the best
alternative solution to
address above pressing
problem. By engaging in
joint land use and
transportation planning, a
BRT
system
could
generate new approaches
for affordable work force,
housing
and
spawn
tremendous mixed use
development
opportunities. BRT design
and its implementation
can make a fast, reliable,
energy
efficient
transportation alternative
and this can contribute
upto certain extent in

reducing the air pollution

problem. Great design and
modest increase in density
could easily accommodate
growth while preserving
neighbored
character
along BRT corridor more
residential areas. Hence
this study was taken up
with a view point to serve
as
a
catalyst
for
implementing the new
transportation plans in
order to protect and
prevent the deterioration
of air quality throughout
the Pune city and also to
provide the comfortable
and enjoyable lifestyle.
More importantly this
study can start an honest
and
open
regional
dialogue on the need for
sustainable transportation.

1.1 INTRODUCTION
In todays circumstances, private vehicles and public
mass transport vehicles (PMTV) or buses move along the
same lanes. The parameters like time, flexibility are almost
equally matched. People wont mind spending a bit more for
their comfort by traveling in their private vehicles. Therefore
the first requirement is to have a right of way for PMTV.
This is accomplished by having a dedicated lane for the bus.
This allows a bus to travel faster. Since the bus will never be
stuck in traffic, it also allows it to travel as per schedule. A
large number of buses can run in the dedicated lane thereby

increasing the frequency of buses too. This system helps in

rapid transport of commuters. BRT buses must have be large
capacity, with low-floor, and large doors. Also bus-shelters
have a raised platform, so that passengers can aboard and
alight a bus quickly and easily. BRT bus shelters are
supposed to be modern, clean and comfortable for the
commuters. BRT buses are fitted with global positioning
system (GPS) which enables real time information to be
transmitted to each bus shelter so that a commuter always
knows when the next bus will arrive. Simple to understand
maps are displayed so that using the bus becomes easy even
for a first time user. BRT should also have off-bus ticketing,
just like for trains, so that commuters can buy tickets at the
bus-shelter before boarding the bus. In this fashion, the
simple bus-based public transport system can be made to run
almost like a metro, at a fraction of the cost.
1.2 NEED OF STUDY
It is evident from the character of the city that Pune
city is the cultural capital of Maharashtra. Pune city has a
reputation as a Pensioners Paradise and is one of the biggest
educational centers of Maharashtra. Due to rapid
development in economic, industrial and commercial
activities, there is an enormous increase in traffic, causing
traffic congestion, pollution and other related problems. The
basic theme of development of the city has to be carved out
with the most important thing in the mind that the city must
get its status as the Queen of Deccan.
1.3 STUDY METHODOLOGY
The BRT Corridor Study was started from Pune
station to Wagholi via Ahmednagar road comprised of steps
such as collection of best practices and BRT Models,
collection of data and analysis, Discussion and interviews

with regional authority representative and synthesis of data

and generation of recommendations.
1.4 TRAFFIC VOLUME
The data of traffic volume were collected at
important location in morning hours and evening hours along
with the proposed BRT (i.e. Pune station to Wagholi Via
Ahmednagar) route are given in Table 1.1, Table 1.2, Table
1.3, and Table 1.4, Table 1.5, Table 1.6, Table 1.7, and Table
1.8
Table 1.1: Traffic volume at Wadia College
Time
( Morning)

2
Wheelers

3
Wheelers

4WL(
Four
Wheeler
Light)
9.00 - 10.00
1765
141
638
10.00- 11.00
1843
182
870
Table 1.2: Traffic volume at Yerwada Bridge
Time
2
3
4WL(
( Morning)
Wheelers Wheelers
Four
Wheeler
Light)
9.00 - 10.00
1842
203
381
10.00- 11.00
1801
254
465
Table 1.3: Traffic volume at Wadia Bungalow
Time
2
3
4WL(
( Morning)
Wheelers Wheelers
Four
Wheeler
Light)
9.00 - 10.00
1851
229
768
10.00- 11.00
1767
169
633
Table 1.4: Traffic volume at Kharadi Bypass
Time
2
3
4WL(
( Morning)
Wheelers Wheelers
Four
Wheeler
Light)
9.00 - 10.00
1986
244
417
10.00- 11.00
1523
240
439

4WH(
Four
Wheeler
Heavy)
103
72
4WH(
Four
Wheeler
Heavy)
94
61
4WH(
Four
Wheeler
Heavy)
106
72
4WH(
Four
Wheeler
Heavy)
101
73

Table 1.5: Traffic volume at Wadia College

Time
2
3
4WL(
( Evening)
Wheelers Wheelers
Four
Wheeler
Light)
5.00 - 6.00
1975
113
598
6.00- 7.00
1833
150
707
Table 1.6: Traffic volume at Yerwada Bridge
Time
2
3
4WL(
( Evening)
Wheelers Wheelers
Four
Wheeler
Light)
5.00 - 6.00
1963
139
612
6.00- 7.00
1875
126
756
Table 1.7: Traffic volume at Wadia Bungalow
Time
2
3
4WL(
( Evening)
Wheelers Wheelers
Four
Wheeler
Light)
5.00 - 6.00
1918
118
559
6.00- 7.00
1956
152
703
Table 1.8: Traffic volume at Kharadi Bypass
Time
2
3
4WL(
( Evening)
Wheelers Wheelers
Four
Wheeler
Light)
5.00 - 6.00
1935
142
525
6.00- 7.00
1964
162
884

4WH(
Four
Wheeler
Heavy)
105
84
4WH(
Four
Wheeler
Heavy)
123
113
4WH(
Four
Wheeler
Heavy)
94
84
4WH(
Four
Wheeler
Heavy)
70
64

From the above survey it has been seen that the

growth of vehicle is increasing at each junction even at faster
rate. So to avoid the difficulties going to be arrive for the
peoples effective commutations and the transport network
need to be modified. The modified c/s of existing road as
shown in figure 1.1

Figure1.1: Modified cross section of existing road

1.4 Design of BRT
The estimation include development of high capacity
mass rapid transit (HCMRT), widening of existing roads and
structures, construction of missing links as well as non
existing DP links, construction of elevated roads, flyovers,
subways (vehicular and pedestrian) and road over bridge
ROBs. The existing roads comprise of variable pavement
types (mostly BT roads) and pavement configurations.
Keeping in view the above factor the cost per km is Rs
1531.62 lakh for improving and or constructing the road
network and is given in Table 1.9
Table 1.9: Cost of BRT per km
Sr. Particulars
Cost / km
No.
(Lakh)
01. Concrete pavement
85
02. Bituminous pavement
69
03. Bituminous pavement for service roads
55
04. BT e strengthening (for Poor
15.1
Pavements)
05. BT strengthening (for fair pavement)
4.75
06. Cost of paver block pavement
41
07. Cost of bus platform
13.5
08. Major Bridge
750
09. Pedestrian subways(30mx4m)
180

10.
11.
12.
13

Concrete drain
22.5
Footpath(2m)
22.5
Median(1.5m)
18.0
Other work 20% which includes street
255.27
lighting, landscaping, relocating utilities
etc
The proposed network will thus fulfill various
objectives such as meeting transport demand by the horizon
year, reduction in travel time, least cost solution and relief to
road system.
1.5 Socio economic impact assessment
Socio economic impact study of the propose BRT
system has been basically conceived with the objectives to
identify the people affected by the project in terms of their
socio economic characteristics. Two categories of people
have been identified. One is persons who will be put to
inconvenience and hardships due to environmental pollutions
and due to disruptions in the supply lines of essential
services and traffic diversions because of their proximity to
proposed alignments and other is project affected people
(PAPs), who will be losing their personal economic
resources because of the alignments of proposed routes.
There is another category of people who may not be
adversely affected but they could be potential users of the
proposed BRT system affected but they could be potential
users of the proposed BRT system.
1.6 Environment assessment
The concern for air pollution emanates primarily due
to its adverse impact on health of population in urban areas.
Studies have shown that population exposed to high air
pollution suffers from higher levels of eye irritation,
dyspnoea (labored breathing), hypertension, cardiac
ailments, respiratory illness and higher mortality rate.
Besides the pain and suffering of ill health and death, there is
an economic loss to the country due to loss of productivity
and of health care. Public transport system like BRT can
provide high road carrying capacity that will minimize the

use of private vehicles on roads and thereby reduce

pollution.
CONCLUSION
There is a low public awareness about BRT which
has made the pilot project unpopular. However a public
awareness drive may bring about a change in their thinking
and steps in this direction have been initiated by the
authority. Charter a regional BRT planning and development
organization with representatives from all local jurisdictions
is must .Ensure each jurisdiction's comprehensive plan
reflects regional priorities for BRT routes. Further in the
traffic survey was carried out at critical points along the
route from which we inferred that the majority of the
population was not properly served. Hence, a need for
effective and economical transport system was necessitated.
Upon comparison of BRT with the metro, BRT was feasible
owing to less construction time and cost with services
comparable to that of metro. We studied the route segment
between two junctions. Likewise, we studied all such
segments. Using this data, there is need to relocate the old
stops and plan new stops having significances like proximity
to commercial establishments, residential zones, etc. and
propose to provide mixed flow lanes up to Wadia College
considering two major hospitals in this segment. Further,
from Connaught junction to Bund Garden, segregated lanes
with simple stops is to be provided. There is a bridge under
construction parallel to the existing one which will cater to
the traffic going towards Khadki. Hence, the central two lane
of the existing bridge (Yerwada Bridge) can be used for the
purposed BRT. Later on this route is a 8 lane concrete road
passing through residential zone and sufficient width is
available for central arterial lanes. Enhanced stops may be
provided in this segment. Designated stops may be provided
at critical points (Yerwada, Wagholi and GPO) and enhanced
stops may be provided at the remaining places. Looking into

all the issues discussed, we can infer that BRT is feasible on

Pune Station- Wagholi route and should be implemented for
the strengthening of public mass transport system. This
system is the best possible solution to the avoid further
deterioration to Pune traffic.
REFERENCES
1.
2.

3.

4.

5.

Bus Rapid Transit (July 2003), Volume 1: Case

Studies in Bus Rapid Transit.
Federal Transit Administration United States
Department of Transportation (August 2004), Bus
Rapid Transit Project No: FTAVA- 26-7222-2004.1
Office of Research, Demonstration and Innovation
for DecisionMaking
Federal Transit Administration (2004), TCRP
Report 90: Transit Cooperation research program
Volume 2: Implementation Guidelines Sponsored by
the PROGRAM Project No: FTA-VA-26- 72222004.1
Transportation Research and injury prevention
programme: Indian Institute Of Technology, Delhi
First Delhi BRT corridor: A design summary
Ambedkar Nagar to Delhi Gate.
Virginia Tech Urban Affairs and Planning Program
Alexandria (Dec 2006), Virginia USA Route 50
BRT/TOD Corridor study Linking Land Use and
Transit in Northern Virginia.

BRISBANE AND AHMEDABAD:

COMPARING THE MOST `STATE-OF-THE-ART BUS RAPID TRANSIT
SYSTEM OF THE WORLD WITH ITS PROGENY WHICH IS THE MOST
FUNCTIONAL IN INDIA

Juremalani J. R.
Student of M.E. [ Transportation Engineering ],
Parul Institute of Engineering and Technology, Waghodiya, Vadodara.
jayesh1575@gmail.com
Juremalani D. R.
Student of M.Arch. [ City Design ],
Sarvajanik College of Engineering & Technology [ SCET ] Surat.
juremalani@hotmail.com

ABSTRACT: As the Urbanization trend is picking up across the world; more and more
cities are expanding their boundaries like never before. This very phenomenon opens up a
great challenge of weaving various components of the city together; and also connects the
newly added areas in to the network. The Ecological concerns and the influence of the
satellite settlements around the major Hub also demands for a Public Transportation
Service which delivers on all the fronts i.e. connects the city well, emits less carbon and
extends the network to the satellite destinations. Bus Rapid Transit System [ BRTS ] is
one of the few other alternatives which is being preferred by the Planners and Policy
makers across the world as it appears to be a viable alternative with respect to many
urban design and administration criteria. This study focuses up on comparing two Light
Rapid Transit [ LRT ] systems from the two different parts of the World. The Ahmadabad
BRTS which is influence by the Transmillenio system built in Bogota and the BRT
system of Curitiba and which is looked up on as the most functional BRT system in place
in the country with the South East Bus way of Brisbane, Australia; which is considered as
the most State-of-the-art LRT system of the world. Apart from the technical aspects
like route planning, infrastructure planning and design, run way standards, station design,
vehicles, route structure, fare collection, organizational structure etc.; it would be
interesting to compare the concept development and rationale, performance, its impact on
the urban development, challenges etc. The methodology adopted for this study is the
conventional comparative analysis. The idea behind this study is to enlist the findings of
this study to be shared with the fraternity and to resist the temptation of drawing any
conclusions and making suggestions.

1. INTRODUCTION OF CASE STUDY ONE :

AHMEDABAD BRTS [ JANMARG ], INDIA.
Ahmedabad, today, is on the threshold of transforming into one of Indias leading
cities. It is Indias seventh largest city and poised to be a financial hub in western India. It
has the infrastructure and the ingredients required to realize this dream uninterrupted
power supply, excellent road network, reputed educational institutes and above all, the
famous Gujarati entrepreneurial spirit Ahmedabad has been futuristic in city planning. It
realizes that only with a long term vision, it can sustain its growth and enhance the
quality of life desired for its six million citizens. Worldwide, the best and the most
successful cities are seen to have efficient public transport systems. Ahmedabad too has
taken up this path of transformation and is heading for a sustainable transport system,
which will enhance the quality of life of Amdavadis and promote competitiveness of the
city itself. The BRT is a logical conclusion of this vision.

Figure 1Map showing BRTS routes. source : http//www.ahmedabadbrts.com dated 19th March 2011

The concept of Janmarg is influenced by the successful Transmilenio system built in

Bogota and the BRT system of Curitiba. However, its planning and design is adapted to
suit Ahmedabads specific conditions. The system gives top priority to buses, pedestrians
and non motorized transport and this is achieved by segregating these modes from fast
moving motorized traffic. Buses run on dedicated lanes provided in the centre of the road
while bicyclists get their own dedicated track and pedestrians get wide footpaths
Ahmedabad is a city with present population of 72 lakhs (7.2 million), which is likely to
be 11 million by the year 2035. This would lead to agglomeration of surrounding
settlements like Naroda and other smaller villages, which ultimately increases the area of
the city, which may become 1,000 km2 in the year 2035. Moreover, about 1/3 of total as
well as student population reside within walking distance from the proposed BRTS
network. Thus, there is a growing need for greater accessibility to basic amenities and
opportunities for mobility in the city. In such a state of rapid urbanization, it is very
essential to have an efficient and rapid transit system, which will sustain and accelerate
the growth of the city. In order to cater this future demand, the city and State Government
has initiated a Plan for Integrated Public Transit System, in which Bus Rapid Transit
System (BRTS) is one of the components. This will facilitate the major mobility need of
the people. In future, this system will get integrated with Ahmedabad Metro by the
addition of two lines running through east to west and north to south..

Figure 2. Network Map of BRTS. source : http//www.ahmedabadbrts.com dated 19th March 2011

Unlike other Indian BRTS projects, this project is on full-swing and the system
designs are quite similar to Curitiba's Rede Integrada de Transporte and Bogota's
TransMilenio which are exceptionally better than Delhi BRTS and Pune BRTS. By
following this system Chennai BRTS and Bangalore BRTS are also under
implementation.
Currently Ahmedabad BRTS carries more than 100,000 passengers
dailyThe patronage towards a public transport system at present is very limited (7-8%).
Hence the prime objective of the initiative at this stage is to develop a market for public
transport. As of now, capacity is a secondary issue. Hence this project focuses on
providing a reliable, affordable and quality service, which is also rapid. Based on an
analysis of the socio-economic factors, travel demand patterns, road network
characteristics, proposed metro plan and existing AMTS route network as the criterions, a
network of roads covering about 155 kilometers in length have been identified for
developing the Bus Rapid Transit System within Ahmedabad. The BRTS network has
been prioritized for implementation giving due consideration to the factors such as travel
demand, ease of implementation and potential of the route to operate as an independent
route (operated by the private operator). Integration with other proposals is taken as a key
input.
2. INTRODUCTION OF CASE STUDY TWO :
SOUTH EAST BUS WAY SYSTEM. BRISBEN,AUSTRALIA.
Most people have never seen Bus Rapid Transit done in a way that provides the complete
"rapid-transit" experience that we expect from urban rail transit, with complete separation
from traffic. So I thought I'd offer a tour of Brisbane's South East Busway, which does
exactly that.Length 16.5km Route Brisbane CBD to Eight Mile Plains Stations 10
Elevated Roadway 2km Tunnels 1.6km Used by 117 scheduled routes
2.1 Main Features.

Fully separated bus right-of-way, with almost no interaction between buses and
other traffic.
Stations built to the level of amenity that would be expected of rail transit
stations.
Very few signalized intersections, because the busway runs mostly along
segments that were already grade-separated, as parts of freeways or rail lines.

2.2 Network Planning

The third element is hard to replicate in other cities. Brisbane was fortunate to
have segments of right-of-way already protected, notably the space along the southeast
freeway that had been reserved for future road expansion. As with most firstintroductions of new service concepts, Brisbane started with this corridor because it was
the easiest and cheapest place to build a high-impact facility. This means, of course, that
each new extension will be harder, and involve more compromises, than the initial one.
A future busway to the east, for example, will be largely at-grade in the median of a
boulevard, so it will involve more at-grade intersections. Starting with the easiest

corridor is a common strategy in first-introductions, whether of busway or rail, because

the political future of any technology in a city is always based on the performance, cost
and public opinion of the first line.
2.3 Integrity of Urban Design.
The underground platforms at Queen Street form an unphotographable labyrinth
entangled with the surrounding multi-level shopping centers, but the pedestrian mall
above the station is a great space, bustling for many hours after most of the stores have
closed. Note the interesting canopy structure, which makes the mall a surprisingly nice
place to be during Brisbane's warm tropical thunderstorms The view of the skyline, of
course, is also what greets arriving passengers on the buses. It's a great aesthetic
experience that you won't get in a subway, though of course that's not, in itself, a reason
to build on the surface. Operationally, this segment is the busway's Achilles Heel.

Figure 3. Network Map of South East Bus Way System Brisben source : http//www.urbanist.typepad.com dated 16th March 2011.

2.4 Impact.
Brisbanes South East Busway was an immediate success in terms of operations
and ridership. The first week of full operation saw BT record a 26 percent increase in
core busway service use; after six months, the increase had reached 40 percent. Gains
continued until all available buses were operating with standees; further promotion has

been held in abeyance pending acquisition of additional buses. Passengers are changing
long-held travel patterns to use the new transfer and stopping opportunities. The system
carries up to 60 percent of the crowd to sports events at Woolloongabba Stadium,
Brisbanes major venue, up from 10 percent prebusway. Busway extensions and further
service improvements yet to come will continue to draw new travelers to this mode. The
impact of the busway on its surroundings has yet to be strongly felt, apart from those
stations that were integrated into existing development. Nevertheless, some sites do have
(re)development potential. An analysis of property values eight months after the busway
opened showed that values in residential neighborhoods served by the South East Busway
had grown at a rate up to two to three times faster than in nonbusway suburbs.
3. COMPARISON BETWEEN THE TWO RAPID TRANSIT SYSTEM.

3.1 Technical Comparison.

3.1.1

Concept development and Rationale

Brisbane Busway

Ahmedabad BRTS

In the face of continued

substantial growth in the 1980s and
1990s,Brisbane City Council and
Queensland Transport collaborated on an
Integrated Regional Transport Plan
(IRTP) (Queensland Transport 1997) in
the mid-1990s. Senior Brisbane staff and
politicians had been impressed with the
Ottawa approach to bus-based rapid
transit and came up with a busway
strategy for Brisbane
which was
incorporated in the IRTP. Corridor
studies followed as part of the IRTP
process. In the southeast corridor, the
government was quick to take advantage
when a controversial proposal for a new
highway to the Gold Coast was rejected
in favor of widening the existing route.
The States commitment to upgrade the
freeway through the urban area was met
in the form of two bus lanes (i.e.,
busway). Under that rationale, the State
government funded and built the South
East Busway, while planning continues
in the other corridors

Ahmedabad has been futuristic in city

planning.. Ahmedabad too has taken up
this path of transformation and is
heading for a sustainable transport
system, which will enhance the quality
of life of Amdavadis and promote
competitiveness of the city itself. The
BRT is a logical conclusion of this
vision. The concept of Janmarg is
influenced
by
the
successful
Transmilenio system built in Bogota and
the BRT system of Curitiba. However,
its planning and design is adapted to
suit Ahmedabads specific conditions.
The system gives top priority to buses,
pedestrians and non motorized transport
and this is achieved by segregating these
modes from fast moving motorized
traffic. Buses run on dedicated lanes
provided in the centre of the road while
bicyclists get their own dedicated track
and pedestrians get wide footpaths

3.1.2

Route Planning
Brisbane Busway

Ahmedabad BRTS

A Busway Strategy for Brisbane

City also identified five potential BRT
corridors reflecting Brisbanes radial bus
service pattern, but available rights-ofway were much more constrained than in
Ottawa. With six radial rail routes
already in place, the bus corridors
avoided service area overlaps by
locating between rail lines and providing
intermodal transfer stations where
technologies intersect. Within built-up
corridors, a mix of grade-separated and
on-street bus lane operations were
contemplated in the concept plan, but
most of the on-street segments in the
South East corridor were replaced with
tunnels during detail design, leading to a
greater per-kilometer construction cost.
The subsequent Inner Northern Busway
makes more extensive use of existing
roads. Brisbanes
preexisting
underground CBD bus station provided a
logical meeting point for the busway
network. In time, the City intends to
convert this terminal to an on-line station
busway. Getting the busways to the
CBD was a higher priority than
undertaking the costly link through the
CBD itself.

Ahmedabad is a city with present

population of 72 lakhs (7.2 million),
which is likely to be 11 million by the
year 2035. This would lead to
agglomeration
of
surrounding
settlements like Naroda and other
smaller villages, which ultimately
increases the area of the city, which may
become 1,000 km2 in the year 2035.
Moreover, about 1/3 of total as well as
student population reside within walking
distance from the proposed BRTS
network. Thus, there is a growing need
for greater accessibility to basic
amenities and opportunities for mobility
in the city. In such a state of rapid
urbanization, it is very essential to have
an efficient and rapid transit system,
which will sustain and accelerate the
growth of the city. In order to cater this
future demand, the city and State
Government has initiated a Plan for
Integrated Public Transit System, in
which Bus Rapid Transit System
(BRTS) is one of the components. This
will facilitate the major mobility need of
the people. In future, this system will get
integrated with Ahmedabad Metro by
the addition of two lines

3.1.3

Runway Standards [ Roads ].

Brisbane Busway

Ahmedabad BRTS

Brisbanes basic transit way is

nothing more than a two-lane roadway
with paved shoulders. The travel lanes,
at 4.0 m wide, are wider than typical
general traffic lanes to provide an extra
safety margin and reduce the air pressure
disturbance between buses passing at 80

Service Lanes are used to access

adjacent properties, parking & loading
facilities, while letting through traffic
pass by without hindrance. On wider
streets, service lanes aid in segregating
local & through traffic. They also allow

km/h. Vertical alignment, structural

design,and clearance envelopes are
governed by LRT constraints to protect
for possible future conversion.At
stations, the road widens to four lanes to
allow express buses to pass stopped ones
at 50 km/h.Bus deceleration and
acceleration lanes at stations are
trimmed to 20 m in length. It has turned
out that the full length lanes provided in
Ottawa (in the absence of operating
experience, based on highway standards)
were not used in real operating
conditions;
Key to transits success
and cost-effectiveness was the initial
development of a region-wide BRT
service that made selective use of
existing roads, on-street bus lanes, and
freeway bus ramp-stations
3.1.4

access & turning into by-lanes.

Minimum width of service lane should
be 3.5 M. Preferably 6.0 M wide service
lanes should be provided for passing of
vehicles reversing & merging into the
lane from adjacent properties & parking.
Access to service lanes from main
carriageway should be provided at
regular intervals, using merging bays.
Parking bays should ideally be provided
such that there is no obstruction to
adjacent lanes when opening vehicle
doors or loading. For parallel parking, a
preferred width of parking bay should be
3.0 M. Minimum width of 2.5 M is
required There are certain locations
along the BRTS corridor, which would
necessitate larger parking lots for
bicycles

Station Design.
Brisbane Busway

Ahmedabad BRTS

The general approach to stations

in Brisbane isa substantial, distinct,
identifiable,
functional,
modular
architecturebut design focuses more
on protection from subtropical sun and
rain, with broad canopies over open
platforms. The platforms are 6 m wide x
55 m long. Highly visible elevator
towers linked by an enclosed pedestrian
bridge mark most stations. The tropical
green and horizontal elements help the
stations blend in to their surroundings
much more than in Ahmedabad. Each
station precinct was subject to an urban
design effort. Park-and-ride facilities
were consciously limited to the
outermost station. This represents a
significant break from Brisbanes
traditional reliance on park-and-ride
provisions at rapid transit (i.e., rail)
stations.

The stations are designed by

CEPT university based on following
design considerations.
1. Bus station uses materials and
aesthetics that makes a mark on the
urban chaos and stands out as a distinct
entity.
2. Low maintenance, wear and tear,
durability.
3. Safety, accessibility for all kinds of
people,
ease
of
movement
4. An open structure that could also be
controlled
5. Good ventilation and natural light
6. Climate consideration of heat and rain
as
safer

3.1.5

Vehicles.
Brisbane Busway

Ahmedabad BRTS

Brisbanes South East Bus way is

used by several operators, although the
vast majority (approximately 80%) of
the buses are part of the City-owned
Brisbane Transport (BT) fleet. BT, like
OC Transpo, has a fleet of standard and
articulated diesel-powered vehicles,
although there are only 22 artics in use at
present. Many of the other operators
serve
long-distance
(2030
km)
suburban areas and use single-door
highway coaches. Most buses use the
underground Queen Street bus station in
central Brisbane. Platforms there are
enclosed to prevent migration of
emissions to the adjoining retail areas.
All bus operators undergo a training
course before being authorized to use the
bus way.

On several dimensions the choice

of technology is limited by the
governing legislation (Indian Motor
Vehicle Act and Gujarat Motor Vehicle
Rules). However, there are certain
critical decision elements influencing the
transit operations where choices exist.
These include: The type of bus
(Minibus, Standard Bus, Articulated
Bus) determining the capacity of the
system
Factors such as number of doors, size
of doors, location of doors; floor height
(Low Floor, Semi-low Floor and High
floor) affecting operating efficiency
Positioning of the Engine (Front or
rear) affecting driver comfort, door
space, noise and vibration.
Choice of Fuel

3.1.6

Route Structure
Brisbane Busway

Ahmedabad BRTS

Brisbanes established pattern of

suburb-to-CBD express services was
supplemented by new busway trunk (allstop) runs to accommodate transit
demand. Trunk service now operates at
2.5-minute headways in the peaks. The
frequent trunk busway service will allow
development of new neighborhood
feeder
services.
Unlike
Ottawa,
Brisbanes
busway
accommodates
several different operators. Suburban
contractors stop at one or two outlying
stations then run express to the CBD,
while BT picks up everything in
between. Express passengers can
transfer to the frequent all-stops services
to gain access to intermediate stations.

In terms of routes following three types

of routes are structured to operate
transit services.
BRT Trunk Routes
Complementary Routes (AMTS)
BRT Feeder Routes
Based on an assessment of the existing
routes and travel desires, alternate set of
BRT trunk routes, BRT feeder routes
and complimentary routes have been
analysed. Of this following set has been
adopted. In this set there are 10 BRT
trunk routes, 21 BRT Feeder and 60
complimentary services have been
identified
for
operation

4. FINDINGS.
The Brisben Busway is a enjoying the comparative lower population density hence
serving well at all front whereas the Ahmedabad Janmarg inspite of all promises is facing
very high traffic which shows its success but demands for a big increase in frequency in
order to come in terms with the livability standards in the city followed worldwide.

5. REFERENCES.
1.
2.

3.
4.

Currie G, Bus Rapid Transit in Australasia: Performance, Lessons Learned and

Futures, Monash University.
Rathwell S and Schijns S, Ottawa and Brisbane: Comparing a Mature Busway
System with Its State-of-the-Art Progeny, McCormick Rankin Corp., Journal of
Public Transportation, Vol. 5, No. 2, 2002
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki Dated dated on 21st April, 2011.
http://www.ahmedabadbrts.com Dated dated on 21st April, 2011.

URBAN PUBLIC BUS TRANSPORTATION SCENARIO AND OBSERVED MODAL

SHIFT IN LAST THREE DECADES USING REVEALED PREFERENCE DATA: A CASE
STUDY OF VADODARA CITY IN GUJARAT STATE
Mrs. Desai N A
Research Scholar , S.V. National Institute of Technology, Surat
Assistant Professor, Civil Engineering department,
Babaria Institute of Technology, Varnama, Vadoadra.
nipa_adesai@yahoo.co.in.
Dr.Joshi G.J
Associate professor, Civil Engineering department.,
S.V. National Institute of technology, Surat-395007
gj@ced.svnit.ac.in
ABSTRACT : Urban public bus transportation is the paramount for the growth and development
of any city. However compared to major cities of world, statistics of Indian cities are showing very
less percentage share of public transport almost in all major cities except few. In recent years a
huge decrease in the usage of public transport is observed, especially in Indian metro cities. This
paper provides an overview on public bus transportation scenario in last three decades as a case
study of Vadodara city in Gujarat state. The ups and downs in the usage of urban bus facilities
have been studied using past records and data collected from the operating authorities. Earlier city
bus services are operated by GSRTC, State government authority for Vadodara city which had
been transferred and presently operated by VTCOS private services. Detail study has been carried
out for both the operating authorities regarding bus fleets, schedules, bus routes, fares, services,
occupancy and other important parameters. Mode choice and modal shift trend for last three
decades have been observed. Finally commuter behaviour has been analyzed through comparison
of services and important attributes for travel mode choice and modal shift have been identified.
1. INTRODUCTION
Urban public bus transportation is the paramount for the growth and development of any city. In
last few decades transport demand in most Indian cities has increased significantly, due to
increases in natural population and migration from rural areas. Easily available motor vehicles,
increase in household income, change in peoples lifestyle and change in commercial, recreational
and industrial activities have further added to transport demand. The demands have so increased
that it has exhausted road capacities which leads to greater congestion, delays, air pollution and
road accidents. The main reasons for these problems are the prevailing imbalance in modal share.
Compared to major cities of world, statistics of Indian cities are showing very less percentage share
of public transport almost in all major cities except few. In recent years a huge decrease in the
usage of public transport is observed, especially in Indian metro cities. This paper provides an
overview on public bus transportation scenario in last three decades as a case study of Vadodara
city in Gujarat state.
2. LITERATURE REVIEW
As outlined by ITPS/WCTRC(2004)Worlds urban transportation policy trend has been
continuously changing in order to respond the emerging issues at the given time. Banister
(
2005 ) said that transports planners have to think more imaginative about the conditions in the
future. A deep knowledge regarding many aspects of the community is beneficial to provide a
more adaptive service of public transport. Many studies show that passengers characteristics,
behaviors, perceptions etc. are very important as basics of transportations policy development.(
-1-

Refer Friman and Garling, 2001, Hensher, 2003, Winder, 2005 ). In order to encourage more road
users to use the public bus service, an improved public transport system should be developed,
particularly great attention is needed for the public buses. The system should then be updated from
time to time. This is to ensure that the public bus system is always in its optimum condition that
will, as an end result, attract more and more road users to switch to public transport. When
planning for a better public transport system, changes are un avoidable and for changes to happen,
the sources of the inefficiency of the current system must be identified, therefore efficiency
analysis would come as an advantage ( Avkiran 2009), The reason for the efficiency analysis is to
identify what attributes would influence the users choice in public transport ( DAcierno, Carteni et
al. 2009). More number of buses does not actually mean that it would result in a better system. In
fact, sometimes a lower number of buses can result in a better system if certain attributes, such as
bus scheduling, routes etc are improved ( Fiigenschuh 2009). For the public bus system, the
efficiency of the system is usually measured by the time spent waiting for the bus as well as
boarding time for the whole journey ( Pacheco, Alvarez et al. 2009).
In general the study about service quality employed data from developed countries, but it is a fact
that there are so many things differentiate the characteristics, behaviors, needs of people between
developed and developing countries. Studies carried by Koushki et al. ( 2003), Kim et al. ( 2005),
Moriyama et al. ( 2005), Senbil et al. ( 2005), Desai N.A & Vashi B.D ( 2008), has explored data
from developing countries.
3. CASE STUDY : AN INTRODUCTION
Vadodara city is the 4th largest city of Gujarat State having population of more than 2 million
people. It is a major industrial, business and educational centre and is growing very rapidly. The
pace of growth of urbanization of Vadodara city is very high which is mismatching with the
present mass transit system i.e. Bus Network. In Vadodara various large-scale industries such as
Gujarat State Fertilizers & Chemicals, Indian Petrochemicals Corporation Limited etc are located.
The industrialization of Vadodara has attracted entrepreneurs not only from Gujarat but also from
all over India and abroad. Vadodara also known as Baroda, is synonymous with education and it is
known as one of the educational hub in Gujarat State. The city is on the major rail and road arteries
joining Mumbai with Delhi and Mumbai with Ahmedabad. Vadodara is known as a Gateway to the
Golden Corridor. National Highway No-8 passes through the city. Vadodara also has an airport
which is very well connected with the other major airports of India.
Urban mobility and economic development of a city depends largely on an efficient traffic and
transportation network which efficiently control various activity locations such as workplace,
educational institutions, recreational areas etc even though in the city there are several issues like
insufficient road ways in the city, traffic congestion, parking difficulties, crowding of vehicles,
narrow roads, unreliable bus service, proliferating auto-rickshaws and two wheelers, road accidents
and traffic indiscipline of road users that make the citizens unhappy and helpless. Usage of private
vehicles on city roads are tremendous at the same time many passengers who do not own their own
vehicle prefer to travel by sharing auto than to travel by public transport buses, even though
sharing auto services are not safe. Earlier city bus services are operated by GSRTC, state
government authority for Vadodara city which had been transferred and presently operated by
VTCOS private services.
3.1 Need Of The Study
In last few years, the ownership and usage of private vehicles brings many negative effect to the
quality of life. Researches have shown that if there is no improvement actions, than the
sustainability of the system will be kept in a very critical situation. As a matter of fact the
transportation policies and management in Indian cities has not strongly taken side to support
increased usage of public transport and decreased usage of personalized vehicles. Deterioration in
-2-

quality of transport service and probable shift is observed almost in all Indian metro cities, which is
an alarming situation for decision making authority. The study has been taken with a view to
evaluate, where the existing public transportation of Vadodara city stands today in association with
user demand and what are the changes observed in peoples preference in travel mode choice in
last two decades. The findings from the study can be useful to government bodies and decision
making authorities to provide more sustainable transportation plans and policies.
3.2 Objective Of Study
The study has been taken with four major objectives as under.
1. To evaluate performance of existing public transport system of Vadodara city operated by
VTCOS private operator.
2. To compare public transport bus services earlier operated by State Govt. Authority GSRTC and
presently operated by private operator VTCOS.
3. To evaluate modal share of existing public transportation system of Vadodara city.
4. To calculate percentage shift in usage of public transport mode in last three decades.
3.3 Data And Information Gathered For The Case Study
To study the performance of existing private bus services operated by VTCOS and previously
operated GSRTC bus services, relative informations and data have been gathered from various
sources like VTCOS head office ( Year of data collection 2011) , Vadodara, GSRTC, S.T Bus
division office statistics department Vadodara ( Year of data collection 2004), RTO Vadodara
etc. Traffic and Transportation surveys conducted previously by CIRT Pune for Vadodara Urban
Development Authority has been reviewed and this is useful in identifying the data gaps as well as
areas of more detailed study.
4. DATA ANALYSIS
Information gathered from various sources are evaluated and findings are presented in the
following articles.
4.1 Performance Evaluation Of Existing VTCOS, Privatey Operated City Bus Service.
VTCOS, as private transport operators was formed in the year 1997, as a co-operative society.
Gradually this organization has been changed their organization setup. The VTCOS has been
started the private city bus Service from the year 2001 with only 14 buses and than gradually
introduced more buses. For Vadodara city the operations has been started from 18th May
2008.Gradually VTCOS has introduced mini buses as the part of the fleet, and this endeavor
proved highly beneficial as it incurred less operative expenditure and more convenient for the
routes having lesser densities. Earnings rose by 10% a day for the initial month which greatly
enthused the operators. Total 100 buses are running on Vadodara city road on major 55 routes. The
routes are designed in such a manner that almost all the major destinations of city are covered and
at the same time required frequency of 10 to 20 minutes in peak hours and 20 to 30 minutes in offpeak hours are maintained. Special efforts are made by the company to plug ticket less travel by
the commuters by engaging three to four checking squads with vehicles. A fine of Ra 20/ is levied
on passenger traveling without tickets and strict warning is given to the conductor for the
negligence and even dismissed abruptly if found indulging in wrong doings repeatedly. Vehicle
breakdown receives immediate attentions and stand by vehicle is immediately put into service,
averting any disruption in traffic. Repeated announcement over microphone pertaining to arrivals
and departures of the buses at the central bus station keeps the people attentive and reduce their
fatigue to go and inquire about the bus.
-3-

Citizen of Baroda city have given very good response and are very much pleased from the city bus
services. In connection with this VTCOS have taken initiative to start instant response facility .i.e.
SMS system for information and complains and suggestion from the citizen. Due to facilities and
punctuality of city bus National Award 2008 is awarded to VTCOS. To provide such facilities
highly skilled & technically qualified staff have been appointed which attend the problems / repairs
& other administrative quarries. Reliability and punctuality is one of the most positive point of the
bus services.
4.2 Performance Evaluation Of Previously Operated GSRTC City Bus Services.
The earlier public bus transport system in Vadodara city is operated by Gujarat State Road
Transport Corporation, (GSRTC), registered under RTC Act as a State Transport Undertaking. The
system had started operations in 1953 with a limited fleet. Ever since that day the system is striving
for existence. Although the public bus system is operating in more than 1000 routes, but not single
route has the desired frequency, hence, based on travel pattern in the city, Intermediate Public
Transport (auto-rickshaw) has been operating in the less frequent routes with an illegal sharing
system which curtails number of passengers traveled by bus. Public bus transport service with a
total fleet of 89, the total daily kilometerage has more than 40,000 kms. As per S.T Div office,
statistics department - Vadodara a single bus performed an average of 180 to 200 Km operation per
day. Average running cost of public transport buses is 11.2 Rs./Km. The quality of buses is very
poor and they need repeated maintenance. Mostly 70% of the buses used for public transport are
15-20 years old, and because of that high maintenance cost has to be beard by the state
Government. The reason behind unpopularity of bus services is lack of punctuality which ends up
with very huge decrease in number of passengers travelled and ultimately brings losses.
4.3 Observed modal shift in last three decdes.
In recent years travel mode choice has gain very much attention as it is one of the key factors to
made developments towards sustainability. Increase in the share of modes such as public transport
and other environmental friendly modes viz. bicycle, walking etc., are important to reduce usage
of natural resourvces and to curtail environmental pollutions. The TRRL survey of household and
travel demand characteristics in three Indian cities ( Vadodara, Jaypur and Patna) carried out in the
year 1984, CIRT Pune has carried out the study in the year 1996, Desai N.A and Vashi B.D has
carried out the performance evaluation and modal share study for public transport of the city in the
year 2005. Present and other previous records of mode share are tabulated below to draw changes
in travel behaviour in last three decades.Table 1 presented below shows observed modal choice
and shift trends in last three decades and Figure-1 shows graphical representation for the same.
Table 1 Observed modal share and modal shift in last three decads
Year wise percentage
share
Sr.No.
Mode
1985 1996 2005 2011
2
Public bus
25.8 8.68 0.89
5.5

Others (2W, Car,

IPT, walk , Bicycle
etc.)

74.2

91.32 99.11

94.5

Source : TRRL, CIRT,Pune reports, GSRTC and VTCOS survey findings

-4-

Percentage of mode share

Observed modal shift in last three decads

120
100
80
Public bus

60

Other modes

40
20
0
1985

1996

2005

2011

Year

Fig 1 Observed modal share and modal shift in last three decads

As shown in figure -1 the share of other transportation modes are increasing,while the share of
public transportatin mode is decreasing. From the data of 1985 and 1996 it is clear that in the decad
travellets inclination towards motorised vehicles and other modes of transport has increased.
According to CIRT, Pune report in that period share of 2-w has been increased from 11. 6 % to
23.62 % almost doubled. The decline in the usage of public bus services is still continue till the
year 2005, but with implementation of private services again there is a rise in the usage and modal
share. There may be many reasons behind increase in the usageof the public transport buses in last
4 to 5 years like better and reliable services by new operators, properly planned routes which are
convenient for more number of travellets, increased traffic congestion, air pollution and fatigue in
self driving etc.
4.4 Comparison Between Services Provided By Two Different Operators, VTCOS And
GSRTC.
Data pertaining to type of buses used, bus capacity, operational characteristics, fuel consumprion,
salary expenditure, maintenance and other expenditure, bus loading factor i.e occupancy details
etc. are collected from important sources and a comparative is made for public ( GSRTC) and
private ( VTCOS) both operators.
Table-1 shows comparison between earlier city bus
services operated in Vadodara city by GSRTC and present city bus service operated by VTCOS.
From the comparison between both services ( Refer Table-2), it is concluded that event though in
both the services almost same number of buses are used to serve commuters of Vadodar city
VTCOS bus operation is running profitable business. In GSRTC bus services the operational,
mainantenance and other expenditure are quite high compared to the VTCOS services. One major
drawback with GSRTC services was number of routes were too many to maintain service quality
like frequency and reliability. One important observation made regarding VTCOS operations is
remarkable increase in number of passengers using public transport bus facility though the
operations are on limited routes it shows that if properly manages and little improvements are
made in the system with understanding of commuters behaviours, their demand, their likes and
dislikes than public transport bus in vaddoara city has a gereat potential to shift more and more
travellets who are using personalised or other tranaport modes to public transport.

-5-

Table 2 Comparison between GSRTC and VTCOS bus services.

DESCRIPTION

GSRTC

VTCOS

Basic Information
Year of data collection
Total number of buses
Number of spare buses out of total buses
Type of buses
Seating capacity

2004
89
1 or 2
Diesel
50 seater

2011
101
5
CNG
50 seater &
32 seater

Physical condition
Operational Analysis
Number of routes
Operating frequency in minutes on important routes in
peak hours

Very Old

New

1000
35 to 40

55
10 to 15

Operating frequency in minutes on less important routes

in peak hours

60 to 120

20 to 40

Operating frequency in minutes on important routes in

off-peak hours

40 to 50

NA

Operating frequency in minutes on less important routes

in off- peak hours

only two times NA

in a day

Total daily kilometer travel per day by a single bus

200 to 250

275 to 300

Total number of trips per day

Loading or average bus occupancy in peak hours in
percentage

4 to 8
40 to 60

5to 15
100 to 120

Loading or average bus occupancy in off- peak hours in

percentage

35 to 40

60 to 80

Average passengers traveled daily

10,000 to
12,000

1,00,000

Financial analysis
Average fuel +maintenance cost in Rs. /kilometer

11.4

Average staff salary /kilometer

Average office and other cost/kilometer
Total operational cost /kilometer

7.11
2.33
21

3.75
2
13.75

Total Monthly Profit/losses

loss of Rs. 2.2

lacs

Not
Available

Fare structure charges in Rs.

2 to 6

2 to 8

10,000 to
12,000

1,00,000

1% to 2 %

8% to 10%

Modal share Analysis

Average passengers traveled daily
Modal share in percentage

Source : Data collected from GSRTC, S.T Bus division office statistics department Vadodara & VTCOS
main office , Vadodara

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5. CONCLUSION.
Earlier Public bus transport in Vadodara city operated by GSRTC, was primarily lagging
adequate bus fleet to meet the passengers demand. The inherent flexibility in bus operation
enables it to reach the remotest areas and bus services can be designed to meet practically
every type of requirement. Being a public service industry, the focus in bus management has,
traditionally, been on its supply oriented management rather than demand oriented
management. This has resulted in inefficient and inadequate use of public transport system.
As a result, a substantial amount of traffic from public transport has been shifted to
personalized or intermediate public transport. However with implementation of new
privatized public bus services ( VTCOS ) in Vadodara city one important observation made is
remarkable increase in number of passengers using public transport bus facility though the
operations are on limited routes which shows that if properly little improvements are made in
the system with understanding of commuters behaviours, their demand, likes and dislikes and
properly managed than public transport bus in vaddoara city has a gereat potential to shift
more and more travellets who are using personalised or other vehicles to public transport.
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with UAE banks,Omega 37(4): 930-941.Data Supplement Report prepared by
Central Institute of Road Transport (CIRT) Pune 1997 for VUDA.
B.Raghavendra & N.V.Ramamoorthy Simplified transportation planning process
the state of the art Technical paper published in HRB Journal , Paper No- 60, June
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Banister, D. ( 2005), Unsustainable transport :City transport in the new centyry,
Routledge, London.
D'Acierno, L., A. Carten, et al. (2009), Estimation of urban traffic conditions using
an Automatic Vehicle Location (AVL) System European Journal of Operational
Research 196(2): 719-736.
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Pune 1997 for VUDA.
Friman, M. and Garling T. ( 2001) satisfaction with public transport related to service
performance. Hensher D ( ed.) " Travel behavior research, the leading esge,
international association for travel behaviour research, Pergamon, Elsevier Science,
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Fgenschuh, A. (2009), Solving a school bus scheduling problem with integer
programming, European Journal of Operational Research 193(3): 867-884.
Githui John Nagatia, Okamura Toshiyuki & Nakamura Fumihiko " The structure of
users' satisfaction on urban public transport service in developing country : the case of
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IRC : SP -- 43 -- 1994. Guidelines of low cost traffic Management technique for
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Kim, N., Lee, C.,Kim. J., and Kwon Y. ( 2005) " Critical measures of transit service
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Koushki, P.A., Al-saleh, O.I ., and Al-Lumaia. M. ( 2003), " On management's
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Lee Vien Leong, Younes Bagheri, Nurikhwani Idayu Zainal Abidin & Ahmad Farhan
Mohd. Sadullah " Sensitivity Analysis of Passenger Volume for Public Bus Services:
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Pacheco, J., A. Alvarez, et al. (2009), A tabu search approach to an urban transport
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Mass Rapid Transit System A Way Forward for Energy

Sustainability
Vimal Gahlot 1, B.L.Swami2 M.Parida 3, P.Kalla 4
1
2

Research Scholar, Malaviya National Institute of Technology, Jaipur-302017

Professor of Civil Engineering, Malaviya National Institute of Technology, Jaipur-302017

3

Professor of Civil Engineering & Associated Faculty, Centre for Transportation Systems

(CTRANS), Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee, Roorkee 247667

4

Asst. Prof. of Civil Engineering, Malaviya National Institute of Technology, Jaipur-302017

ABSTRACT
Due to unprecedented urban growth and economic development in the country all the
metropolitan cities are under demand of sustainable public transport. In last two decades there
is tremendous increase in toll of personal vehicles due to absence of or poor public transport
system and low loan interest rates from banks vehicle purchase. Simultaneously the demand of
fuel and prices are increasing day by day. To make progress in reducing our dependence on
foreign oil and impacting climate change, public transportation must be a part of the energy
crisis solution. Public transportation reduces energy consumption and harmful carbon dioxide
and other greenhouse gas emissions that damage the environment. Traveling by public
transportation uses less energy and produces less pollution than comparable travel in private
vehicles. Presently, India is going through infrastructure development phase in which different
type of mass rapid transit system are being developed. This paper advocates the use of mass
rapid transit system for energy sustainability with the related literature reviews and case studies.
Keywords Mass rapid transit, Energy, Sustainable, Bus Rapid Transit, and Metro
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Transport sector is the life line, and the economic growth of any country is vitally linked to the
health of its transport sector. India is likely to become the most populous country in the world by
2031, overtaking Chinas population (U.N report 2006). The urban population is likely to reach
40% from 30% presently. Indias per capita income has risen to Rs 33,283 in 2007-08 (up 60 %
in last 5 years) and has reached a tipping point in personal ambitions of western life style, and
ownership of personal transport. The explosive growth of two wheelers and cars will lead to a
massive demand for road infrastructure, urban planning and availability of fuel. India has also
received seventh position in sale of cars and trucks in year 2008, See Figure: 1. As one of some quick
and positive steps by the Government in having Mass Rapid Transit Systems and High Speed
Trains may help reduce the gap to some extent [1].

(Source : www.icct.org)

Fig: 1 Top Ten Vehicle Markets (2008)

The other following options exist before us to substitute oil are:

Industrial use of Naptha, Fuel Oil, High Speed Diesel Oil and domestic use of LPG and
Kerosene should be replaced by natural gas. Gas should be used for Power Generation only after
meeting the above demand (gas availability is expected to be much better than oil).
Increase use of Bio Fuels.
Encourage blending of Ethanol with petrol.
Extend electrification of Railways.
Improve Railways freight service for a larger share in transport.
Promote urban mass transport.
Improve fuel efficiency of motorized vehicles.
Encourage use of hybrid vehicles.
The transport sector is extremely energy-intensive. In 2005, world transport consumed the
equivalent of 2,141 million tons oil equivalent (Mtoe). In France, transport is the second-ranked
sector for energy consumption, with 31% of the total [2]. The rapid growth in transport activity,
based primarily on private motorized vehicles, generates social, environmental and economic
costs. Transport accounts for more than half of global liquid fossil fuel consumption and nearly a
quarter of the worlds energy related carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) emissions (IEA, 2009). Transport is
also typically responsible for around 80% of developing cities local air pollution and more than
2

1.3 million fatal traffic accidents worldwide, most of which occur in developing countries
(WHO, 2009). If current trends continue, transport related CO 2 emissions are expected to
increase by 57% worldwide between 2005 and 2030, mainly as a result of rapid motorization in
developing countries [3]. These unsustainable patterns of transport are expected to worsen under
the continuous and rapid trend of motorization. There is a growing consensus by experts, policy
makers and the general public that these trends cannot continue without seriously affecting the
economic viability and environmental quality of their cities and countries. Developing countries
can benefit from leapfrogging to a new sustainable and low-carbon paradigm that avoids the
costly, unsustainable levels of motorization seen in the developed world, in particular North
America. By investing in sustainable low carbon mass rapid transit systems today, developing
countries would reap various economic, social and environmental benefits during the next half
century and beyond. The key characteristics of unsustainable and sustainable transport are
contrasted in Table 1.
Table: 1 key characteristics of unsustainable and sustainable transport
Unsustainable Transport

Sustainable Transport

Transport
Volume

Requires high level of numbers of

trips and trip distances, due to
sprawled urban development and
inefficient logistics networks.

The
demand
travel
is
minimized and journeys are
short, owing to compact urban
development, mixed land use
and optimized

Transport
Modes

Reliance on private motorized Most passenger trips are made

transport for passenger, and heavy by public or non-motorized
transport, and freight is carried
goods vehicles for freight.
by rail and other low-carbon
modes.

Transport
technologies

Vehicles rely on inefficient, fossil-fuel Low

carbon
vehicle
engines.
technological
are
mainstreamed,
including
highly
efficient
engines,
hybrids, plug-in hybrids and
electric vehicles.
The
transport
networks
inefficiently managed.

are
New Technology such as
Intelligent Transport System
and Smart Logistics help
manage transport.

Transport
Pricing

The prices paid by users for vehicles,

fuel, parking and road spaces do not
cover the full external costs to society.
Encouraging motorized vehicle use at
the experience of more sustainable
choices.

The price paid by transport

users fully internalizes the true
costs managing growth in
motorized vehicle use and
encouraging environmentally
friendly alternatives.

systems
are
highly Transport assets are screened
Reliance
to Transport
against vulnerability criteria,
climate change vulnerable to changes in the climate.
and developed in a way that
resilient
towards
climate
change.

2.0 Governments Step towards Energy Sustainability: Move People, Not the Vehicles
The Government of India is addressing the issue of transportation in light of sustainability with aim
to move people, not the vehicles. The Ministry of Urban Development (MoUD), has emphasized in
National Urban Transport Policy, 2006, to recognize and answer the increasing urban road
congestion and its associated air pollution, the policy strategy puts primary emphasis on the need to
increase the efficiency of use of road space by favoring public transport in form of mass rapid transit
and by the use of traffic management instruments to improve traffic performance and by restraining
the growth of private vehicular traffic. The MoUD has taken a step forward by taking transportation a
key element in the nations ambitious Jawhar Lal Nehru National Urban Renewal Mission
(JnNURM) infrastructure development scheme. Under the JnNURM, 1, 20,536 crore INR (28
billion USD) of investment is being done for urban infrastructure development in 63 cities across
the nation [14]. In India, Bus Rapid Transit (BRT), Metro and Monorail, has been identified by
the Ministry of Urban Development as having a major role to play in addressing Indias
transportation infrastructure needs. The Ministry wants to build mass rapid transit networks in all
of Indias major cities, and has identified BRT as the core rapid transit mode for cities with
populations under five million, with rail-based technologies Metro earmarked for cities with
populations over five million. In the cities where rail-based rapid transit Metro is already
planned, BRT will play a supporting role, enhancing the coverage of the Metro rail network.
Table no.2 below provides a summary of the different Indian cities that have had their BRT
proposals successfully sanctioned by the Ministry of Urban Development under Jawhar Lal
Nehru National Urban Renewal Mission (JnNURM).

Table 2: BRT System Sanctioned Under JnNURM

City

Total Length(km)

Sanctioned
Length(km)

Capital Cost (Cr.)

Pune

101

101

807.13

Indore

89

15

98.45

Bhopal

40

22

237.76

Ahemdabad 217

58

493.88

Jaipur

138

42

467.50

Vijaywada

46

16

152.64

Vizag

160

43

452.93

RajKot

64

29

111

Delhi

308

15

153

(Source: http://www.jnnurm.nic.in)

3.0 Transport Demand in India: Motorization and Modal Split

As shown in Figure 2, about 55 million vehicles were plying on Indian roads in 2001. The annual
rate of growth of motor vehicle population in India has been about 10% during the decade (19912001), it is seen that two wheelers are growing faster than cars.

(Source: MoUD)

Fig: 2 the Growth of Vehicles in India

The basic problem is not the number of vehicles in the country but their concentration in a few
selected cities, particularly in metropolitan cities. It is alarming to note that 32 percent of all
vehicles are plying in metropolitan cities alone; these cities constitute about 11 percent of
countrys total urban population. During the year 2000, more than 6.3 million vehicles were
plying in mega cities, which constitute more than 13 percent of all motor vehicles in the country.
Mumbai is carrying the highest vehicles compared with other mega cities. The average growth
rate of vehicles in the mega cities like Bangalore, Hyderabad, Jaipur, Nagpur, Pune is more 10
percent [15].All the mega cities are facing bottlenecks on all the major roads and average
running speed has comedown to less than 25 kmph.

(Source: MoUD)

Fig: 3 Mode Share in India

On evaluating the modal share of different vehicles used in India it is found that after walk, two
wheelers have major share followed by the cars and public transport is the least preferred mode
having minimum share in all the major cities Figure: 3. The world scenario of transport share has
the same trend having maximum passenger travel by cars then followed by buses Fig: The
motorized two wheelers and cars are highest consumer of the fossil fuels but unfortunately the
higher guzzler of the same. The usage of the two wheelers and cars are high due to the alarming
increase in travel demand and easy availability of vehicles, see Figure 4.

(Source: IEA, 2009)

Fig: 4 Share of Total Passenger Travel by Mode

4.0 ENERGY AND TRANSPORT SECTOR

Energy consumption in the transport sector currently represents a small share of the total energy
consumption in India (15%), Figure 5. However, motorized vehicle ownership is increasing very
rapidly as well as the need to transport goods across the country. Car ownership in India remains
very low compared to developed countries indicating that the rate of growth will continue to
accelerate. Nearly all motorized vehicles necessitate the combustion of petroleum-based fuels.
Indian transport accounted for nearly half of petroleum products considered in 2005 [17]. The
growth in transport demands directly weigh on the country needs for oil imports. Growth in
vehicle ownership has contributed to energy and environmental issues, and an energy strategy
incorporating efficiency improvement and other measures needs to be designed.
Lots of energy is wasted during the congestion and idling at signal. Central Road Research
Institute, New Delhi conducted studies to estimate the fuel loss on a corridor and at the total
signalized intersections of Delhi, the capital of India. The study results indicated that on a stretch
of 1 kilometer at Chelmsford road (connecting New Delhi Railway Station and outer circle of
Cannaught Place, (a Central Business District)), 66,000 vehicles ply in a day. , on an average
running speed of 18.60 Km. /hr. Stopped delays were observed to be as high as 158.82 sec.
/vehicle. The low running speeds and delay accrue a fuel loss of Rs.2, 38, 43,231/-and Rs. 71,
80,694/- annually. At 600 signalized intersections of varying traffic volumes, 135 million
Kilograms of CNG, 47 million Liters of Diesel, and 147 million Liters of Petrol worth Rs. 9945
million is being wasted during idling of vehicles waiting for green signal.

(Source: IEA, 2009)

Fig: 5 Transport Energy Use by Mode

5.0 ENERGY SUSTAINABLE STRATEGY
Moving people and freight in an environmentally and energy sustainable manner will be one of
the biggest challenges for the 21st century. The first ever national urban transport policy of India
(NUTP) envisages the path for environmentally and energy sustainably movement of people with
mass rapid transit system. Under the JnNURM scheme Govt. is planning to develop and promote
different kinds of MRTS including Metro rail, Mono Rail and BRT in metropolitan cities. This
section covers the case study of Jaipur, Ahemdabad and Delhi where mass rapid transit systems
are being implemented and showing promising results in reducing the numbers of two wheeler
users on roads.
5.1 Jaipur
Under the JnNURM scheme for alleviating the congestion, Govt. of Rajasthan has planned
Metro and Bus Rapid Transit (BRT) corridor in Jaipur as follows, figure 6:

138 km of Bus Rapid Transit (BRT) (Green Line)

28 km of Metro (Blue & Orange line)

8

Fig: 6 BRT & Metro Corridor in Jaipur

In the process of the travel demand modeling it has been projected that there will be a major shift
of 18 percent in year 2021 of personal vehicle user, after the introduction of BRT as follows and
simultaneously vehicle mile traveled (VMT) will also decrease in coming years, resulting in
reduction in demand of fuel and pollution.
Table 5 Summary of Forecasted Peak Hour Passenger Demand for the horizon years 2011 & 2021 in
Different Scenario
Year
2011

2021

MODE

Business as Usual

Integrated BRT

Personal Vehicle

237825 (72%)

191582 (58%)

Public Transport

92488 (28%)

138731 (42%)

TOTAL

330313

330313

Personal Vehicle

440403 (75%)

334706 (57%)

Public Transport

146801 (25%)

252498 (43%)

TOTAL

587204

587204

5.2 Ahemdabad
Municipal Corporation (AMC) and Ahmedabad Urban Development Authority jointly drafted a
comprehensive urban mobility plan keeping in mind the needs of Ahmedabad as a mega city, and
included in this, the implementation of the Bus Rapid Transit System (BRTS) and the planning
of the regional rail and metro in future years. The first phase of 65kms of the project, named
Janmarg the path of the people , was developed by the Ahmedabad Municipal Corporation
and built under JnNURM of the Ministry of Urban Development (MoUD), Government of India.
With a 25Kms route in operation and deploying of 39 buses by now, higher ridership is observed
due to extension of the corridors. The total ridership has increased from 17,000 to 70,000 on an
average since the start of operation and will rise further. More than half of total passengers travel
on BRTS for the purpose of travelling to the workplace. About 50% of total commuters have
shifted from city bus service (AMTS), around 28% from auto rickshaws and about 21% of
passengers have moved from two-wheelers and cars to BRTS.

Fig: Modal Shift to BRTS

5.3 Delhi
After the introduction of Delhi Metro, considerable amount of modal shift has been taken place
from other modes to metro. The Metro has been constructed in four phases. The phase I consists
of 3 corridors divided into eight sections with a total route of 65.1 km out of which 13.17 km has
been planned as an underground corridor, 47.43 km as elevated corridor and 4.5 km as at-grade
rail corridor. The phase II covers 53.02 km of which underground portion 8.93 km, grade 1.85
km and elevated 42.24 km. Phase III and IV will cover most of the remaining parts of Delhi and
extend in some area like Noida and Gurgaon. Study conducted by Delhi Metro Rail Corporation
(DMRC) draw attention towards the dependency of people more on personal vehicles as
compare to public transport. Table 3 enlists the benefits of the Metro in past years [18].

10

Table 3 Benefits of Metro Operation in New Delhi

Benefits In
Previous Years

2006

2005

2004

2003

2002

Cumulative

Annual Costs of
saved time by
Metro pass in Cr.
Rs.

265.18

83.74

29.74

24.81

11.33

414.79

Annual fuel cost

saved in

68.04

17.01

5.85

5.23

2.22

98.35

Cr. Rs.

6.0 CONCLUSIONS
From the study it is concluded that mass rapid transit has enormous benefits as it reduces CO 2
emissions, saves fuel, reduces an individuals carbon footprint, and reduces congestion. It also
provides an immediate option that individuals can take to reduce their energy consumption and
greenhouse gas emissions. It provides an affordable alternative to driving. Present study reveals
that Delhi Metro and BRT in Jaipur & Ahemdabad has resulted in shift of personal vehicle users
,time saving, fuel saving, saving in vehicle operation cost and reduction in environmental
damage and accidents .The travel demand modeling projected that introduction of BRTS in
Jaipur, will increase the patronage of mass rapid transit in terms of ridership and Ahemdabad
BRT ridership has increased significantly ,BRT has become first choice of 21 percent of personal
vehicle user . The shift of users to mass rapid transit is very promising in reducing fuel demand
and in curbing pollution ,further studies should be taken up to precisely quantify the benefits of
commuter shifting. Lessons learned from the above case studies build the path for mass rapid
transit System to be given priority in urban transport planning for upcoming cities for energy and
environmental sustainability.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The authors would like to thank AICTE for Nationally co-ordinated project on Integrated
Development of Public Transport System being executed at IIT Roorkee and MNIT Jaipur.

11

REFERENCES
[1] K.P. Singh (2009). Energy scenario in transport sector in India, RITES Journal.
[2] Panorama 2009 (2009),http://www.ifp.com
[3] A Paradigm Shift Towards Sustainable Low-Carbon Transport ,Financing the Vision ASAP, K Sakamoto ,
H Dalkmann and D Palmer,2010
[4] IEA (2009) World Energy Outlook
[5] WHO
(2009)
Global
status
report
on
road
safety.URL:
http://www.who.int/violence_injury_prevention/road_safety_status/2009/en/
[6] Levinson, H et al. (2003) Bus Rapid Transit. Transit Cooperative Research Program (TCRP) Report 90.
Transportation Research Board.
[7] Embarq (2010) ,Are VMT and GDP Really Correlated? URL: http://thecityfix.com/are-vmt-and-gdp-reallycorrelated/
[8] International Energy Agency, http://www.iea.org
[9] Ministry of Non-conventional Energy Sources ,http://mnes.nic.in
[10] Tata Energy Research Institute ,www.teriin.org
[11] The South Asia Regional Initiative for Energy Cooperation and Development ,http://www.sari-energy.org
[12] Centre for Monitoring Indian Economy (CMIE) Pvt. Ltd, www.cmie.com
[13] Jawaharlal Nehru urban Renewal Mission, Government of India, http://www.jnnurm.nic.in
[14] Traffic and Transportation Policies and Strategies in Urban Areas in India. Final Report, Ministry of Urban
Development, Government of India, New Delhi, 2008
[15] The Energy and Ressource Institute (TERI), 2009, TEDDY: TERIs energy data directory and yearbook
,New Delhi: Tata Energy Research Institute, www.teriin.org
[16] de la Rue du Can (2009), Residential and Transport Energy Use in India: Past Trend and Future Outlook,
Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, http://www.escholarship.org/uc/item/2gt9w2ft
[17] Society of Indian Automobile Manufacturers (SIAM), 2007, Automobile Domestic Sales Trends.
www.siamindia.com
[18] CRRI (2007), Quantification of Benefits Achieved from the Implementation of Phase-I of Delhi Metro
Final Report, Central Road Research Institute, May -2007.
[19] American Public Transportation Association (APTA) Publications, Retrieved September 14, 2010 from the
World Wide Web: http://www.apta.com
[20] Central Pollution Control Board, Retrieved October 14, 2010 from the World Wide Web:
http://www.cpcb.nic.in
[21] Gahlot V. K. ,Swami B.L., Kalla P.,(2009), BRTS: A Sustainable Transportation System, Nov.20-21.2009,
Proceedings of National Conference on Energy Management, NCEM-09, Engineering College Bikaner,
Bikaner.
[22] Key World Statistics, International Energy Agency, 2008, Retrieved September 14, 2010 from the World
Wide Web: http://www.iea.org
[23] National Sample Survey Organization (NSSO), 2008, Household Consumer Expenditure in India, 200506, Ministry of Statistics & Programme Implementation, January 2008Government of India, NSS 62nd
Round (July 2005 June 2006) Report No. 523(62/1.0/1).
[24] Robert Priddle ,(2002), BUS SYSTEMS FOR THE FUTURE :Achieving Sustainable Transport
Worldwide, IEA PUBLICATIONS
[25] Singh, S.K., (2006), Future mobility in India: implications for energy demand and CO 2 emission. Transport
Policy 13, 398412.
[26] T.V. Ramachandra (2009), Emissions from Indias transport sector: State wise synthesis, Atmospheric
Environment xxx (2009) 18.
[27] Delhi Metro Rail Corporation ,http://www.delhimetrorail.com,
[28] Ministry of Statistics, http://www.mospi.nic.in

12

DRIVERS BEHAVIOUR AT STOP AND SPEED SIGNS

Chandra, Satish
Professor,Department of Civil Engineering,
Indian Institute of Roorkee,Roorkee, India
E-mail satisfce@iitr.ernet.in
R Das, Vivek
Research Scholar,Department of Civil Engineering,
Indian Institute of Roorkee,Roorkee, India
E-mail vivekdurgadath@gmail.com

ABSTRACT: Road accidents have become a serious threat to human survival. This is
mainly due to negligence of drivers to traffic rules and poor road geometrics. India holds
the dubious distinction of registering the highest number of road accidents in the world.
According to the experts at the National Transportation Planning and Research Centre
(NTPRC), the number of road accidents in India is three times higher than those
prevailing in developed countries. This paper deals with a study conducted at Chandigarh
for drivers observance at Stop and Speed limit signs. Speed data was collected by radar
gun and the stop sign violation was recorded by visual observation. The study reveals that
within the city the speed limit are observed but the stop signs are totally ignored. The
percentage violation of stop sign is above 80% for all categories of drivers. The violation
is mainly made by middle aged and male drivers. With respect to the type of vehicle auto
and two wheeler drivers violate stop sign more.
Keywords- Stop sign, Speed limit sign, Driver observance.
1. INTRODUCTION
Traffic accidents kill thousands of people every year. India holds the dubious distinction
of registering the highest number of road accidents in the world. The number of accidents
for 1000 vehicles in India is as high as 35 while the figure ranges from 4 to 10 in
developed countries. Most accidents are the result of inattentive drivers. Whenever a
driver takes his eyes off the road, even for a few seconds, he puts his life and others lives
at risk. Traffic regulations are invariably based upon observations of the behavior of
groups of travelers under various conditions. Traffic laws that reflect the behavior of the
majority of vehicle operators are found to be successful, while laws that arbitrarily
restrict the majority of drivers encourage wholesale violations, lack public support, and
usually fail to bring about desirable changes in driving behavior. For the smooth flow of
traffic in a network the drivers should obey rules of various traffic controlling devices
like signs, signals, markings, etc. The major traffic regulatory signs are speed limit and
stop signs. One type of sign prohibits (speed sign) whereas other (stop sign) makes it
necessary to perform certain action. Speed limit signs are used to slow the speed of traffic
and it also helps in decreasing the accident rate and increase safety. Stop signs help to
slow down drivers from going too fast and endangering precious human lives. When a
stops sign is installed, people have a tendency to drive slower and look out for people
walking in the middle of roads. Drivers behaviour has an important stand as far as design

as well as monitoring performance of traffic signs is considered. Generally it was found

that driver tend to ignore them for maintaining the same speed throughout the journey or
due to impact of vehicle characteristics This paper deals with a observance study
conducted at six locations of Chandigarh to find drivers behaviour at stop and speed
limit signs.
2. LITERATURE STUDY
Dewar (1988) formulated several criteria for traffic sign symbols through a questionnaire
survey that allowed determination of the importance, or weighting, that should be
assigned to each symbol in the design and evaluation of signs. Understandability was the
factor rated most important, with conspicuity second. Learn ability was considered least
important, while reaction time, legibility distance, and glance legibility were rated
equally but were determined to be more important than learn ability. Kanellaidis et al.
(1990) studied passenger car speeds on horizontal curves of two- lane rural roads in
Greece. Drivers who tended to violate speed limits rated all types of signage (e.g.,
warning signs) significantly lower than speed limit observers. Speed limit offenders also
paid less attention to roadway design. Cooper (1997) used binary logit models to
investigate the relationship between various violation convictions (e.g., exceeding the
speed limit and disobeying signals) and crash involvement based on data for British
Columbia, Canada. In order to reduce serious and fatal crashes, he concluded that the
focus should be on excessive speeders (40 km/h or more over the speed limit). Simply
exceeding the speed limit, while statistically significant, was not a primary predictor of
increased risk of serious injury. Vaa (1997) found statistically significant and somewhat
large reductions in average speeds and fraction of speeders due to increased police
enforcement on Norway highways. Koushki et al. (1998) reported that Kuwaiti drivers in
the same age group, who did not wear seat belts, violated traffic regulations more than
twice as often as those who wore seat belts. They also found that seat belt non-users were
mostly young and female among Kuwaitis, and their driving behaviors frequently
involved changing lanes without signaling and changing travel speed. Their findings
confirm that drivers who are reluctant to wear a seat belt tend to be more dangerous
drivers and/or take more risks, in general. Eck and Biega (1998) conducted studies at
West Virginia municipality in which three intersections were regulated by two-way stop
sign control during the winter months and then converted to four-way stop sign control
during the summer. The experimental design was a before-and-after analysis with control
intersections.. A delay analysis found that the use of four-way stop control was 2.6 times
less efficient than use of two-way control. The driver observance study showed that the
stop sign violation rate increased by 11 percent after installation of four-way control.
Liang et al. (1998) found considerable reductions in mean speed and significant increases
in speed variance under foggy and snowy conditions on Interstate 84 in Idaho, while
Edwards (1999) only reported small reductions in both mean and variance under rainy
and foggy conditions on the M4 Motorway in the U.K. Schechtman et al. (1999)
attempted to relate drinking habits with speed limit obedience. They found no evidence to
link drinking habits with speed limit obedience. Haglund and Aberg (2000) examined
drivers attitudes towards speeding and the influence of other drivers on speed choices.
Data were collected on Swedish highways, with a speed limit of 90 kilometers per hour
(km/h) (56 mph). They concluded that drivers decisions regarding speeding are highly
correlated with their view of other drivers behaviors. Drivers usually overestimated the
fraction of high-speed drivers (i.e., those traveling at least 10 km/h over the speed limit);
their estimates averaged 50.7%, while the observed percentage was 22.9%. Furthermore,

high-speed drivers believed that a high proportion (58%) of other drivers also qualified as
high-speed drivers, indicating a false impression of speed consensus. Shinar et al. (2001)
used more recent Prevention Magazine survey data to investigate associations between
seat belt use, speed limit observance, drunk driving, and four demographic characteristics
(gender, age, education and income). Their four-way ANOVA models using 1994-1995
data indicated that females reported more law obedience than males in all behavioral
categories. Kockelman et al. (2006) found average speed increases in cross-section to be
double those in before/after studies of speed-limit increases, and modeled optimal speed
choices as a trade-off of crash, speed limit violation, and delay costs. They also found
instantaneous speed variations (across individual vehicles) to hardly depend on speed
limits and roadway design attributes, and they concluded that higher speed limits have
their greatest effect on crash outcomes, in terms of injury severity.
3. DATA COLLECTION
Six locations were selected in and around the Chandigarh city in North India for the study
as given in Table 1. Data were collected for both types of studies in their respective
performa. Spot speed was measured using radar gun. Data collection was done based on
age and gender. Entries for stop sign inventory were divided into four major groups on
the basis of vehicle entries at the intersection. These are slow speed entry, fast speed
entry, practically stopped and stopped by traffic. For speed study the data is classified
into a tabular form representing speed interval on one axis and vehicle type, age and
gender on the other. Same procedure was followed for stop sign study also. Percentage
numbers of violating vehicles were counted for each category and for both types of
studies. Figures 1 and 2 show the typical locations of speed and stop sign at NH 21.

Figure 1. Speed limit sign at NH 21

Figure 2.Stop sign at NH 21

TABLE 1 DETAILS OF THE LOCATION

Sl Location Name
No

Type of study

NH 21, Near ITBP Head quarters

Speed violation

NH

Sector 28, Udyog path, Near Junction 40

Speed violation

Arterial

Sector 24 Udyog path, Junction 25

Speed violation

Arterial

NH 21, Industrial Area Phase II, Stop

Ramdarbar S4
violation

sign

Road
Category

NH

Sector 26, Near Golf Club

Stop
violation

sign

Arterial

Sector 15, Near Old Age Home

Stop
violation

sign

Sub
Arterial

4. DATA ANALYSIS
Data were analysed at macro (intra-site) and micro (inter-site) levels.
4.1 Intra site Analysis
The data obtained was analyzed for finding out the percent number of violators (for
respective signs) for three types of categories as following:
Based on vehicle type: car, two wheeler, auto, bus, truck, tractor
Based on gender: male, female
Based on age: young, middle aged, old
Analysis involved the percent number of speed limit defaulters with respect to above
categories. Graphs were drawn showing the respective number of percent violators for
each category. Wherever sufficient amount of data for a particular category was not
available, it was not considered. Due to difficulty in recognition of drivers at higher
speeds only two age categories middle aged and old were considered for the analysis.
Trucks and tractors were found in sufficient number on NH 21 only. Sector 24 and 28 are
located within the city of Chandigarh and no violation of speed limit was observed at
these two locations. However, the third site, NH 21, had some violators as shown in
Figure 3.
14

12.12

% Violators

12

10

10
8
6
3.6

4
2
0
Car

Two wheeler

Truck

Vehicle Type

Figure 3. Speed limit violations on NH 21

All the speed violators at this section were male young drivers. The percent violation
was varying from 3.6 to 12.12. As may be seen, car drivers top the list of violators
followed by truck drivers and two wheelers. Other categories of drivers were found
moving within the speed limit. Figures 4 to 6 show the violation of stop sign for different
categories of drivers at three locations.
Figure 4 shows the percentage violation at NH 21. Based on type of vehicle the major
violators are auto. Violation by truck drivers was found to be less as they usually reduce
their speed before entering into a junction as turning radius required is more for this type
of vehicle. All other types of vehicles violation is above 60% and it is a case of serious

disobedience. Based on the age it was found that the old pedestrians are more cautious
than others but their violating percentage is also above 50%.

Figure 4. Stop sign observance on NH 21

Stop sign observance was very poor in sector 26 and 15 as shown in Figure 5 and
6 respectively. The maximum violation was for two wheeler (95.29 %) and minimum
was found for auto (75 %) in sector 26. Compared to middle aged violation of old
pedestrians are more than middle aged. They are not purposefully avoiding but this is
mainly due to their inability judge the sign boards. The % violation varies from 92 to 100
%. Among type of vehicle two wheelers drivers violates more. This mainly due to their
relative size, which help in easy manoeuvring in the traffic. An interesting result found

Figure 5. Stop sign observance in Sector 26

out those female drivers violates more stop sign than male pedestrians. This may be
mainly due to their lack of observance regarding the stop sign. The % violation was
found to vary from 92 to 94 %. Study concluded that most of the drivers are unaware of
the importance of stop signs.

Figure 6. Stop sign observance in Sector 15

4.2 Inter site analysis
Inter site analysis was done by preparing a tabular chart defining the percent number of
violators for respective categories for both types of signs. These are given in Table 2 and
3. Comparing three sites for speed violation, NH is found to have more violators whereas
the other two sites do not have any violation. The violation at NH is also less than 15%.
The violation on other two sites is zero as the two roads are within the city with various
traffic frictions like parking, signals etc. The maximum violations are made by car drivers
and minimum by two wheelers. Based on age and gender young and male pedestrians
violate speed limit more. Female and old drivers are found to be quite obedient.
TABLE 2 SPEED LIMIT SIGN VIOLATIONS (%) AT DIFFERENT
LOCATIONS
Vehicle Type
Location
Car

Two
Wheeler

Age
Truck

Young

Gender
Old

Male

Female

NH 21

12.12

3.6

10

7.49

6.51

SECTOR 28

SECTOR 24

Table 3 gives a comparison of stop sign violations at 3 locations. Among different

types of vehicles, two wheelers were found to disobey the stop sign maximum at all
locations. NH 21 had relatively lesser number of car drivers disobeying the stop sign than
other types of vehicles. Autos were few in number but they were found to violate the stop
signs most. Sector 26 intersection leads to the golf course area and is categorized as less
trip making path. Therefore autos were not at top of violators there. Between middle aged
and old people, the old aged drivers violated the stop sign at all locations. Similarly,
female drivers were found to violate the stop sign at all locations except at NH 21 where
no female driver was spotted. More than 75% of male drivers were found to disobey the
stop sign at all locations.
TABLE 3 STOP SIGN VIOLATIONS (%) AT DIFFERENT LOCATIONS

Female

Male

Gender

Old

Middle
Aged

Age
Truck

Car

Auto

Location

Two
Wheeler

Vehicle Type

NH 21

92

63

93

15

78

76

77

SECTOR 26

75

84

95

80

90

100

90

94

SECTOR 15

100

89

92

100

91

91

91

92

5. CONCLUSIONS
NH 21 has violators for both types of regulations whereas within the city, drivers tend to
violate stop sign only. This may be due to lesser number of police checks on NH. Within
the city the police checks are made for speed limit violators only. Another reason for
speed violation could be the narrow cone of peripheral vision at high speed and if speed
limit sign is not placed properly and is hided by any object like tree leaves then driver
may not be able to see it properly. Car drivers tend to violate speed limit signs more often
than the stop signs at all locations studied here. This may be due to the type of maneuver
required at intersections. Drivers generally reduce their speeds considerably before
entering the intersection and come to stop automatically, whereas at long continuous
stretch of a highway they have the tendency to move with greater speeds without caring
for signs. Two wheelers drivers have more violations at stop signs (they have maximum
figure at all stop sign locations) than at speed signs. It is attributed to the availability of
better sight distance for these vehicles as compared to other closed vehicles. Gender
classification tells that female drivers violate stop signs more often than male drivers.

However female drivers invariably reduced their speeds before entering the intersections
which was not done by the male drivers. At speed limit signs, females drive slowly as
compared to males and no female driver was found violating the speed limit. The old
aged drivers tend to ignore stop signs more often. Though it was also found that middle
aged drivers tend to enter the intersection faster than old aged drivers.
REFERENCES
Cooper,P.J. (1997) The Relationship Between Speeding Behavior (as Measured by
Violation Convictions) and Crash Involvement. Journal of Safety Research 28 (2),
pp.83-95.
Dewar,R.(1988) Criteria for the design and evaluation of traffic sign symbols
Transportation Research Record No. 1160 - Transportation Research Board, National
Academy of Sciences, pp.1-6.
Eck,W.R., J. A. and Biega,J.A. (1988) Field Evaluation of Two-way versus four-way
stop control at low-volume intersections in residential areas (With discussion and
closure) Transportation Research Record No. 1160 - Transportation Research Board,
National Academy of Sciences, USA, pp.7-13.
Haglund,M. and Aberg,L.(2000) Speed Choice in Relation to Speed Limit and
Influences from Other Drivers. Transportation Research Part F 3 (1), pp.39-51.
IRC 67:2001, Code of Practice for Road Signs. Publication of Indian Roads Congress,
pp.5-15.
Kanellaidis, G., Golias, J. and Efstathiadis.,S. (1990) Drivers Speed Behavior on Rural
Road Curves. Traffic Engineering & Control 31 (7), pp.414-415.
Kockelman, K., Bottom,J., Kweon, Y.J., Ma, J.and X. Wang, X. (2006) Safety Impacts
and Other Implications of Raised Speed Limits on High-Speed Roads. NCHRP Final
Report, Project 17-23.
Koushki,P.A., Yaseen, S. and Al-Saleh, O. (1998) "Road Traffic Violations and Safety
Belt Use in Kuwait: A Study of Driver Behavior in Motion." Transportation Research
Record 1640 - Transportation Research Board, National Academy of Sciences, USA,
pp.17-23.
Liang,W. L., Kyte,M., Kitchener, F. and Shannon, P. (1998) Effect of Environmental
Factors on Driver Speed: A Case Study. Transportation Research Record 1635Transportation Research Board, National Academy of Sciences, USA, 1998, pp.155-161.
C.A. O Flaherty. (2006) Transportation planning and traffic engineering. Regulatory
measures for traffic management, Butterworth-Heinemann, Elsevier imprint, New
Delhi, pp.450-452.
Schechtman,E., Shinar,D. and Compton,R. (1999) The Relationship Between Drinking
Habits and Safe Driving Behaviors. Transportation Research Part F 2 (1), pp.15-26.
D. Shinar, E. Schechtman and R. Compton. Self-reports of Safe Driving Behaviors in
Relation to Sex, Age, Education and Income in the US Adult Driving Population.
Accident Analysis and Prevention 33 (1), 2001, pp.373-385.
T. Vaa, Increased Police Enforcement: Effects on Speed. Accident Analysis and
Prevention 29 (3), 1997, pp.373-385.

ROAD ACCIDENT SCENERIO OF URBAN AREA: A CASE STUDY OF SURAT CITY

Ashish Dhamaniya
Asst. Professor, Civil Engineering Department, SVNIT, Surat
&
Paresh Patel
PG Student, PG Centre of Transportation Engineering & Planning, SVNIT, Surat
Abstract
One Gujarats densely populated city is Surat, is noisy, crowded and polluted. The roads in the
city are congested and encroached by other activities. The result not only in restricting the traffic
flow, but also putting the road users life at a great risk. The total no of accidents as well as
related fatality in the city has been increasing over the years. Present study focuses on the
analysis of accident data based on the mode involved in accident, analysis based n the time of
accident in a day. Further the accident severity index is calculated which shows the seriousness
of accident and it is found it is observed that accident severity index rate is increasing
significantly but in 2008 it goes down. Fatality rate is increasing significantly but it decrease
from 2007. It is also observed that two wheelers contribute maximum per cent of the traffic
composition and the involved in accident in about 34 per cent cases in year 2008. Heavy vehicles
like truck/bus are involved in second maximum number of accidents in Surat city. It is estimated
that a heavy vehicles is involved in accident almost 29 per cent. Most accident prone locations
are also found out it is suggested that individual road safety audit for these location needs to be
carried out by a multi- disciplinary team of experts to suggest corrective measures.
Introduction
Road traffic accidents and their causalities on human being is a major scourge in both developed
and developing societies in the latter half of the twenty century. Traffic accident is one of the
major social problems adversely affecting the welfare and prosperity of developing countries.
The incidence of road traffic accidents (RTA) is rising world-wide. Now days it is proved that
number of accidents cases in urban areas are increasing day by day. Due to rapid growth of
urbanization, there is significant growth in no of vehicles. One of the is that there are increasing
number of employment opportunities available in urban areas and the people living in rural area
are trying to migrate from rural areas to urban area. Standard of living condition of people in
urban areas are going to be increases which partially reflects on vehicles ownerships and finally
outputs reflects as traffic congestion problem, encroachment, reduction in vehicular speed, create
unnecessary delay and significance increase number of accidents. In Heterogeneous traffic
condition chances of vehicular Road accidents or traffic accidents are become very high.
Accidents are called for the improvements in road geometrics by the Engineer. Their occurrence
indicates a failure of transportation facility, road network, system degradation, vehicle and
vehicle operator separately or jointly. By the year 2020 forecasts suggests that road accidents as
a cause of death or disability lie at the sixth place out of hundred separately identified causes.
It has been estimated that over 3, 00,000 persons die and 10-15 million persons are injured every
year in road accidents throughout the world. Detailed analyses of global accident statistics
indicate that fatality rates per licensed vehicle in developing countries are very high in
1

comparison with the industrialized countries. Hence it is necessary to incorporate steps, which
can reduce road accident rates and implement mitigating actions, which can be taken to reduce
the number and severity of road accidents. (Baguley et al, 1994).
Table 1 shows road accident scenario of India it also shows the person killed and person injured
in India (1970-2001)
Table 1: Road Accidents in India 1970-2001 (Figures in Thousands)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8

Years
1970
1975
1980
1985
1990
1995
2000
2001

Road Accidents
114.1
116.1
153.2
207.0
282.6
348.9
391.4
394.8

Persons Killed
14.5
16.9
24.6
39.2
54.1
70.6
78.9
80.0

Persons Injured
70.1
77.0
109.1
163.4
244.1
323.2
399.3
382.7

Transportation system in Surat

As per the approved Development Plan, the roadway system of Surat is around 1150 Kms. Other
than the National Highway Authority, which maintains National Highways, the State Roads and
Buildings Department, the two urban local bodies; SMC and SUDA, are responsible for
developing, operating and maintaining road infrastructure.
All roads in the walled city are congested due to high volumes of traffic and constrained widths
varying from 12m to 18m. Presently the ring road around the Walled City with a width of 60m
carrying more than 10,000 PCU/hr is the only road that facilitates mobility from the congested
streets of the walled city and connects to the other parts of the city. Road length of Surat city is
shown in table: 2.
Population growth
Surat is experiencing the fast urbanization, so the population growth. The spatial and temporal
population growth of a city is one of the most important indicators of urban development.
Growth of population over the time period of 1971 to 2001 has been shown in table no 2.
Table 2: Population Projection for Surat City
Sr No

Year

1
2
3
4
5
6

1921
1931
1941
1951
1961
1971

Population
(lakhs)
1.174
0.989
1.714
2.231
2.880
4.717
2

Decadal Growth

% Decadal Growth

------0.185
0.725
0.517
0.649
1.837

-------15.76
73.30
30.16
29.10
63.78

7
1981
7.766
8
1991
14.98
9
2001
14.946
11
2011
24.330
12
2021
35.230
13
2031
46.680
(Source: City Corporate Plan of SMC)

3.049
7.214
7.180
9.384
10.90
11.45

64.43
62.29
92.40
62.79
44.80
32.50

Vehicle growth
The vehicles registered in Surat RTO area has raised from four lakh in 1994 to thirteen lakh in
2007. Two wheelers comprise nearly 80% of the total number of vehicles while cars constitute
about 9.5%. In terms of composition, there is a significant shift towards space consuming modes
of transport. This shift is from bicycles to scooters and three wheelers; and from scooters to four
wheelers. Presently there are about ten lakh two wheelers and 65,000 Auto Rickshaws registered
with Surat RTO. The percentage of personalized vehicles has increased from 70% to 88% within
a span of twenty five years. The Table 3 below provides the break-up of the vehicular
composition in the city over the past three years.
Table 3: Vehicle Composition in Surat from year 2005 to 2007

Sr.
No

Type of
Vehicle

1
2

Motorcycle
Auto
Rickshaw
Jeep
Private
Auto
rickshaw
Motor Car
Taxi Cab
Maxi Cab
Stage
Carriage
School Bus
Private
Service
Vehicle
Police Van
Goods
Truck
Tanker
Tempo
Other Light

3
4

5
6
7
8
9
10

11
12
13
14
15

Vehicles Composition in Surat

Number of Vehicles
%Vehicles
2005
2006
2007
2005 2006 2007

Growth Rate
2005- 20066
7
11.1
10.2
13.9
9.7

868476
50769

964843
57851

1062949
63456

79.7
4.7

79.7
4.8

79.6
4.8

9197
1889

9885
1902

10890
1929

0.8
0.2

0.8
0.2

0.8
0.1

7.5
0.7

10.2
1.4

95465
1632
338
1059

108334
1674
429
1081

121862
1743
555
1113

8.8
0.1
0.0
0.1

8.9
0.1
0.0
0.1

9.1
0.1
0.0
0.1

13.5
2.6
26.9
2.1

12.5
4.1
29.4
3.0

234
307

346
285

443
313

0.0
0.0

0.0
0.0

0.0
0.0

47.9
-7.2

28.0
9.8

121
13866

128
14713

131
16189

0.0
1.3

0.0
1.2

0.0
1.2

5.8
6.1

2.3
10.0

646
34
22260

673
29
24721

691
29
27472

0.1
0.0
2.0

0.1
0.0
2.0

0.1
0.0
2.1

4.2
-14.7
11.1

2.7
0.0
11.1

16
17

18
19
20

Vehicles
Transport
Trailer
Non
Transport
Trailer
Tractor
Ambulance
Others
Total

8945

9130

9370

0.8

0.8

0.7

2.1

2.6

57

57

57

0.0

0.0

0.0

0.0

0.0

13327
247
832
1089701

13814
262
988
1211145

14410
276
1247
1335125

1.2
0.0
0.1
100.0

1.1
0.0
0.1
100.0

1.1
0.0
0.1
100.0

3.7
6.1
18.8
11.1

4.3
5.3
26.2
10.2

(Source: RTO Surat)

Road accidents in Surat city
Accident scenario of Surat city is shown in table 4. It is noted that in Metropolitans cities of
India, Surat has also significant contribution in accidents. It is noted down that since 2000-2003
have lesser amount of accident and particular in 2001 have minimum accidents. The reason
might be in 2001 because of earthquake so many people were shifting out sides of a city for a
few time period which cause reduction in traffic volume so chances of accidents are less.
Maximum accidents found in year of 2007. Figure no 1 shows the accident pattern from 1995 to
2008.
Table 4: Accident scenario of Surat city
Year

Types of accidents
Fatal
Serious
1995
154
413
1996
130
450
1997
147
487
1998
148
500
1999
173
489
2000
138
369
2001
116
392
2002
139
425
2003
144
418
2004
168
481
2005
219
525
2006
253
527
2007
247
551
2008
196
544
(Source: Athwalines College chapatti traffic police station)

Total
Minor
696
586
586
559
436
408
359
375
385
397
408
345
424
386

1263
1166
1220
1207
1098
915
867
939
947
1046
1152
1125
1222
1126

Fig 1: Accident Scenario of Surat city

(Source: Athwalines College chapatti traffic police station)
Accident severity index
The accident severity index measures the seriousness of the accident and the availability of
medical facilities in the city. Table 5 shows accident severity index and fatality rate of Surat city
during 2003-2008. It is observed that accident severity index rate is increasing significantly but
in 2008 it goes down. Fatality rate is increasing significantly but it decrease from 2007
Table 5: Accident Severity Index and Fatality Rate
Sr No
1
2
3
4
5
6

Year
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008

Accident Severity Index

10.79
11.52
16.12
19.45
21.21
17.40

Fatality Rate
0.17
0.17
0.21
0.22
0.18
0.13

Accident Severity Index = {(Fatal accidents/Total Accidents)*100}

Fatality Rate = {(Fatal accidents/Vehicles population)*1000}
Vehicle registration data is not available for the year 2008 but previous data shows the growth
rate nearly 10 % so here adopting 10 % growth rate and take vehicle population for 2007 and
work out population of 2008 and it is 1468638.

Figure 2 Accident severity index

Figure 3 present the fatality rate in Surat city for selected year (2003-2008). It is observed that
the maximum fatality rate in year 2006 and minimum fatality rate in year 2008.

Figure 3 Road accident fatality rates

DATA ANALYSIS
Year wise data analysis
Comparisons of accident data for Surat city and Central zone of Surat city are mentioned in table
6 and 7. It is clearly shows that percentage comparisons for Surat city and central zone are
almost same. Table 9 shows day and night analysis for central zone.

Year

Fatal

2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008

Case
144
168
219
253
247
196

Table 6: Road Accident data in Surat city

Serious Minor Total
% Fatal
% serious
Case
418
481
525
527
551
544

Case
385
397
408
345
424
386

947
1046
1152
1125
1222
1126

15
16
19
22
20
17

44
46
46
47
45
48

% minor

Total
%

41
38
35
31
35
34

100
100
100
100
100
100

Table 7: Road Accident data (including Time period) in Central zone of Surat city
YEAR
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008

Fatal
Total
Serious
Total
Minor
Total
fatal
serious
minor
Day Night
Day Night
Day
Night
20
8
28
62
19
81
47
29
76
14
6
20
66
29
95
52
37
89
20
12
32
51
34
85
44
28
72
25
13
38
68
24
92
58
21
79
21
16
37
65
41
106
60
34
94
25
9
34
54
30
84
62
40
102
(Day Time 06:30 am to 06:30 Pm and Night Time 06:30 pm to 06:30 am)

Total
accident
185
204
189
209
237
220

In table no 7 shows the analysis in terms of day and night category and it is noted down that in
night period less number of accident registered.
Analysis according to responsible and effected factor
In the following table from 8 to 11 analyses is made based on the mode of vehicles that are
responsible for accidents. It is clearly shows that nearly 30 percents accidents are takes place
because of heavy vehicles and share of two wheeler and three wheeler are almost same that is 35
and 25 percent respectively. Cars are also responsible but its contribution is nearly 10 to 15
percents only. Here heavy vehicles mean goods vehicles and passengers vehicles and some
others vehicles and out of them goods vehicles means Truck, Tempo etc. While in passengers
vehicles means Bus, Matador, etc while others vehicles means some construction vehicles like
Crane, JCB, Paver etc.

Table 8: Responsible modes for an

accident (year 2005)
Responsible mode
Contribution
for an accident
value percentage
2w
60
32
3w
48
25
Car/ Jeep / Sumo
28
15
Heavy Vehicles
53
28
Total
189
100

Table 9: Responsible modes for an

accident (year 2006)
Responsible mode
Contribution
for an accident
value percentage
2w
72
34
3w
51
24
Car/ Jeep / Sumo
29
14
Heavy Vehicles
57
27
Total
209
100

Table 10: Responsible modes for an

accident (year 2007)
Responsible mode
Contribution
for an accident
value percentage
2w
90
38
3w
57
24
Car/ Jeep / Sumo
26
11
Heavy Vehicles
64
27
Total
237
100

Table 11: Responsible modes for an

accident (year 2008)
Responsible mode
Contribution
for an accident
value percentage
2w
75
34
3w
55
25
Car/ Jeep / Sumo
26
12
Heavy Vehicles
64
29
Total
220
100

Table 12: Effected modes for an

accident (year 2005)

Table 13: Effected modes for an

accident (year 2006)

Effected mode
for an accident
Pedestrian
2w
Cyclist
Car
Auto
Total

Effected mode
for an accident
Pedestrian
2w
Cyclist
Car
Auto
Total

Contribution
value percentage
66
35
42
22
38
20
23
12
20
11
189
100

Table 14: Effected modes for an

accident (year 2007)
Effected mode
for an accident
Pedestrian
2w
Cyclist
Car
Auto
Total

Contribution
value percentage
65
27
74
31
59
25
19
8
20
8
237
100

Contribution
value percentage
76
36
51
24
30
14
26
12
26
12
209
100

Table 15: Effected modes for an

accident (year 2008)
Effected mode
for an accident
Pedestrian
2w
Cyclist
Car
Auto
Total
8

Contribution
value percentage
77
35
55
25
44
20
17
8
27
12
220
100

In table no 12 to table no 15 shows that pedestrian contribution in effect of the accidents and it is
nearly 35 percent. Cyclist contribution is nearly 20 percent. 2w contribution is also near most
same and it is nearly 25 percent. That means this figure shows that pedestrian and 2w are more
affected due to accident while Cyclist and others are less affected due to accidents.
Analysis according to age and Sex of driver
Age group and sex of driver are also playing an important role and their analysis is shown in
table no 16 to 19. It is noted down that majority accidents are taking place between 15 to 30
years and 30 to 45 years of age group. While 5 to 15 years have very less contribution that is
nearly 5 percent and it is mostly NMV (Non Motorized Vehicles) but 5 percent is not purely
NMV it include motorized vehicles but they dont have licensed. Age group more than 45 years
has comparative less contribution and it is 20 percent. That means 15 years to 30 years and 30
years to 45 years having nearly same contribution but out of both 15 to 30 years having more in
comparison to 30 to 45 years.
Table 16(a&b): Sex and age group of driver who responsible for an total accident in 2005
Table 16 (a)
Table 16 (b)
Sex
Value Percentage
Age Group
value
Percentage
Male
123
65
0-15 years
6
3
Female
66
35
15-30 years
93
49
Total
189
100
30 -45 years
66
35
> 45 years
24
13
Total
189
100
Table: 17 (a&b): Sex and age group of driver who responsible for an total accident in 2006
Table 17 (a)
Table 17 (b)
Sex
Value Percentage
Age Group
value
Percentage
Male
149
71
0-15 years
10
5
Female
60
29
15-30 years
89
43
Total
209
100
30 -45 years
78
37
> 45 years
32
15
Total
209
100

Table 18 (a&b): Sex and age group of driver who responsible for an total accident in 2007
Table 18 (a)
Table 18 (b)
Sex
Value Percentage
Age Group
value
Percentage
Male
172
73
0-15 years
5
2
Female
65
27
15-30 years
92
39
Total
237
100
30 -45 years
90
38
> 45 years
50
21
Total
237
100

Table 19 (a&b): Sex and age group of driver who responsible for an total accident in 2008
Table 19 (a)
Table 19 (b)
Sex
Value Percentage
Age Group
value
Percentage
Male
140
64
0-15 years
11
5
Female
80
36
15-30 years
92
42
Total
220
100
30 -45 years
86
39
> 45 years
31
14
Total
220
100
It is clearly shows that male driver are more responsible as compare to female driver. e.g. in case
of total accidents 5 percent are take place in the range of 5 to 15 years but in them only 2 percent
involvement of female while male driver have 3 percent contribution. Same way 15 to 30 years
age group total accidents nearly 40%and out of it 26 percent male driver are responsible while
female driver is only 14 percent. That means it prove that male driver are more responsible for
the accidents. One of the reasons is ratio of male and female driver on the moving traffic have
major contribution is for male only while female have less contribution or say number of female
driver are less. RTO also reported registration of female driver is in less number while male
drivers are registered more. These reasons show that in case of accidents also contributions of
male driver are more as compare to female driver.
Analysis according to nature of accident
Table no 20 shows the analysis according to cause of an accidents and it shows that maximum
accidents are taking place because of the Head on collision and Rear on Collision similarly Hit
and Run are also found of more Weightage . During the data collection it was found those police
departments were not reported accident data properly so whose reason is not known that are
considered in to the others reason and their Weightage are also more. It is also noted that
minimum accident found because of Skidding and right turn collision. It means skidding problem
is not much serious in to the CBD area.
Table 20: Accident scenario according to nature of accident in 2008
Nature of Accident
Overturning
Head on collision
Rear end collision
Collision brush
Right angled collision
Skidding
Right turn collision
Hit & run
Others
Total

Fatal
6
2
13
2
0
0
1
4
6
34

10

Serious
5
14
18
8
3
7
5
9
15
84

Minor
8
14
23
8
10
8
6
10
15
102

Total
19
30
54
18
13
15
12
23
36
220

Accident Prone Location in Surat city

From data analysis there are eight locations where numbers of accidents are repeatedly occurs
and names are identified as follows.
Table 21: Accident Prone Locations
Sr no
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8

Location
Falsavadi
Delhi gate
On Sahara
Udhna Gate
Textile Market
Bhagal Char Rasta
Chowk Bazaar , Char Rasta
Vrusabh Petrol Pump

Table 22: Accident Prone Location with type of accidents in 2008

Sr No Location
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8

Fatal Fatal Serious Serious Minor Minor

Total
Day Night
Day
Night
Day
Night Accidents
Falsavadi
3
1
4
0
3
3
14
Delhi Gate
0
0
3
1
0
3
7
On Sahara
5
3
3
3
0
0
14
Udhna Gate
1
0
5
2
2
0
10
Textile Market
2
0
7
2
6
4
21
Bhagal Char Rasta
0
0
0
0
1
0
1
Chowk char Rasta
0
0
1
1
1
1
4
Vrusabh Petrol Pump
1
2
0
0
1
3
7

CONCLUSION
It is needs to be realized that traffic enforcement needs to be scientific so that road users utilize
the facilities within the frame work of low, engineering and normal courteous behaviour and
respect for other co-users. This science needs to be based on continuous research and analysis of
road related accidents and conflict potentials. From this study following conclusions have been
made:
1) The Police authorities are not using the format given by Indian Road Congress as this
format is cumbersome and lengthy. Thus there need to come up with a simple and
compact format in conformity with education level of traffic police to bring uniformity in
accident records throughout the country.
2) Two wheelers contribute maximum per cent of the traffic composition and the involved
in accident in about 34 per cent cases in year 2008. They collapsed public transport
system of the Surat city should be improved immediately to reduce two wheelers traffic
on road.
11

3) Heavy vehicles like truck/bus are involved in second maximum number of accidents in
Surat city. It is estimated that a heavy vehicles is involved in accident almost 29 per cent.
4) Age group of 15-30 and 30-45 year drivers are involved in maximum number of
accidents in Surat city. It is estimated that a 15-30 and 30-45 year drivers are involved in
accidents are 42 and 39 per cent respectly.
REFERENCES
Singh S.K and Misra A. Road accident analysis: A case study of Patna city Member of
Faculty, Central Institute of Road Transport, Pune, 60-75.
Baviskar S.B. (1999) Road Accident in Nasik Municipal Corporation Area: A case study
Indian journal of Transport management, 23(9), 543-555.
Chand M. (1992) A Statical Analysis of Accidents in India Cities Indian Journal of Transport
Management, 16, 15-22.
Joshi A.M and Gundaliya P.J (2008) Road Accident Scenario of Urban Area: A case Study of
Rajkot city in Gujarat state Highway research journal, special issue, 56-79.
Murthy et al (1991) Analysis of accident rate and black spots in Bangalore city. Indian
Highways, 19(2), 17-24.
Prasad R. and Shinivasan.(1994) fatal accident rate in Delhi. Indian highways, 22(9), 35-39. 29
Shrinivasan, P.L.L.(2003) Study undertaken to identify Critical Causes of Accidents in
Highways of Tamilnadu, Indian Highways, 31(8), 11-22.
Tuladhar S. B.S and Justo C.E.G (1981) analysis of accidents rates Highway research bulletin,
Indian road congress, 16, 35-59.
Vaishnav M.J and Parikh S.J (1997) study of road Accident on National Highway-8B Indian
highway 25(8), 35-46.

12

FEASIBILITY OF PROVIDING A SKYWALK FOR PEDESTRIANS IN

CHANDNI CHOWK, DELHI
Parida Purnima (Dr.)
Scientist, Transport Planning & Environment Division,
Central Road Research Institute, New Delhi
punam31@gmail.com
Shah Jiten
Assistant Professor, Parul Institute of Technology
Baroda
jitenshah_civil@yahoo.co.in
ABSTRACT: In urban areas a significant proportion of trips up to 1-2 kms in length
are performed on foot. Moreover, every journey necessarily starts and ends as a walk
trip. Still little attention has been devoted to study the pedestrian behavior, flow
characteristics, etc. and to use such data in the integrated design of transport
infrastructure with due consideration to walking as a mode of transport. Provision of
grade separated facilities make the pedestrian movement safe, comfortable and also
reduces the travel time. A study was conducted in Chandni Chowk area of Delhi to
assess the feasibility of providing a grade separated facility (skywalk) for a distance
of 1305 meters. The study results are presented in this paper.
1. INTRODUCTION
Pedestrian is important because almost every trip either start or ends as a walk trip.
Walking requires less space as compared to other modes of transport. Moreover,
walking is quite economical, costing much less than any other mode of transport, both
in direct user cost and public infrastructure costs Walking is still a major mode of
transport in cities of India. Despite fast growing number of vehicle users and
negligence of pedestrian facilities a good percentage of the total trips are still made by
foot still little attention has been devoted to study the pedestrian behavior, flow
characteristics, etc. and to use such data in the integrated design of transport
infrastructure with due consideration to walking as a mode of transport. Due to
inadequate facilities provided for the pedestrians, movement there exists a constant
conflict between pedestrians and motor vehicles in sharing the limited space of the
road, resulting in pedestrian being involved or being the cause of most of the road
accidents.
2. NEED OF PEDESTRIAN FACILITIES
The transportation studies conducted in various cities like Delhi, Mumbai, Surat,
Bangalore, Jamshedpur etc. have revealed that exclusive walk trips constitute 30-40
percent of the total trips. Further, walk trips are considerable for journeys to education
and shopping especially when the distance of the trip is less than 1 km. In urban areas,
people should be able to walk with reasonable comfort and safety, as walking is an
essential part of a wide variety of activities. The freedom with which a person can
walk about and look around is a guide to the civilized quality of an urban area. It is
distressing that the pedestrian traffic has not received adequate attention in providing
the facilities such as walkways, sidewalks and pedestrian crossings.

Due to the absence of appropriate facilities, pedestrians are left to fend for
themselves on urban streets, and Delhi is no exception to this. There is a need to study
the demand, and flow characteristics of pedestrians in scientific manner and
incorporate the results in planning, designing and upgrading the various pedestrian
transport infrastructure/facilities.
3. OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY
A study was undertaken in Chandni Chowk area of Delhi with a view to understand
the pedestrian flow characteristics and on the basis of pedestrian travel pattern and
flow characteristics a skywalk facility is proposed and is also evaluated for economic
viability. The objectives of the study are as

To Study the traffic characteristics of main stretch of Chandni Chowk from

Jain Temple to Fateh Puri. (1305 m).
To study socio-economic characteristic & travel pattern of pedestrians.
To propose a skywalk facility on the basis of travel pattern of pedestrians.
Economic analysis of the proposed skywalk facility

4. STUDY AREA
Chandni Chowk in Delhi, built by Shahjahan (Moghul Emperor), was the widest
avenue (22 meter carriageway) with 3 meter of side walk on either side. This formed
the commercial axis during Moghul times. The glory of yesteryears has been now
reduced to totally congested corridor of mixed traffic. The carriageway is not fully
available to vehicles because of encroachment and parked vehicles. Sidewalks are
occupied by informal sector making pedestrians journey difficult as well as unsafe, as
they are forced to share the carriageway with vehicles.
For the purpose of convenience entire stretch of Chandni Chowk was divided
in to four sections namely Lal Quila to Nai Sarak, Nai Sarak to Fateh Puri, Fateh Puri
to Nai Sarak and Nai Sarak to Lal Quila. Figure 1 shows the study area and the survey
locations. The five points selected for conducting surveys are Lal Quila, Guru Dwara,
Metro Station, Nai Sarak and Fateh Puri Chowk.

Figure 1: Layout of Chandni Chowk and location of survey points

To estimate the pedestrian flow characteristics pedestrian volume count and
questionnaire based survey was conducted. The pedestrians were asked about their
socio- economic profile, origin and destination of the walk trip in Chandni Chowk and
also willingness to use the proposed skywalk facility. A physical inventory was also
done to ascertain the availability of space to construct a skywalk.
Travel time survey of pedestrians was also conducted to observe the time
taken in reaching their destination. Travel time in free flow and congested state
conditions were taken.
5. SURVEY RESULTS
5.1 Pedestrian Volume Count
The pedestrian volume count was done at two locations i.e. Jain Mandir and Fateh
Puri Chowk. At Jain Mandir the total number of pedestrian was 65,146 per day in
both direction in10 hours. Total volume of pedestrian towards Jain temple to Nai

Sarak is 33,627 and during peak hour (5:00 6:00 pm) volume is 3,746 and in
opposite direction that is Nai Sarak to Lal Quila volume is 31,519 and peak hour
volume (4:00 5:00 pm) is 3,962.
At Fateh Puri Chowk the total number of pedestrian was 55,054 per day in
both direction Total volume of pedestrian towards Fateh Puri to Nai Sarak is 28,026
and during peak hour volume (6:00 7:00 pm) is 3379 and from Nai Sarak to Lal
Quila pedestrian volume is 27,028 and peak hour volume (6:00 7:00 pm) is 3395.
5.2 Questionnaire Based Survey
The pedestrians walking on the study stretch were asked a set of questions to
understand their trip purpose, frequency and willingness to use the proposed skywalk
facility.
The needs and perception of females are different from male. Keeping this in
view, an equal emphasis was made while selecting the respondents. The people from
various age groups were asked to give responses; The pedestrians were mainly in the
age group of 15 years to 50 years. In that 27% of the respondents were from 30-35
years, and 18% in 25-30years of age, 14% in 20-25 years of age, and 11% 35-40 years
of age.
The profession wise distribution of pedestrians shows that 35 percent of the
total pedestrians are in private service, 23 percent students, 17 percent house wife, 14
percent in business, and 4 percent in government job.
The purpose for which a walk trip is made can be many. But for the sake of
objectivity they are broadly classified into work, education, shopping, home,
recreation etc. Chandni Chowk being a wholesale market the trip purpose for
shopping is predominant. Distribution of the trip for shopping, work, home,
educational, recreation, and other are 48%, 21%, 6%, , 19% 3%, and 3% respectively.
The query pertaining to frequency of walk trip revealed that occasional walk
trips on the study stretch were 40% of the total trips, 31% of the trip were weekly, and
21% daily. While 8% of the trip were either many times a day or alternate day
From the analysis of questionnaire survey it was deduced that pedestrians face
difficulties in ascending and descending the stairs. But in Chandni Chowk area due to
heavy vehicular traffic, pedestrian volume, and encroachment it becomes very
difficult to travel, therefore skywalk was a welcome alternative to 91 percent of
pedestrians.
5.3 Origin & Destination Pattern
The OriginDestination pattern of pedestrian formed the basis for estimating the
number of pedestrians who will be using the proposed skywalk facility. The study
area was divided into 13 zones for ascertaining the O-D pattern of pedestrians. The
survey results reveal that a total of about 60,655 pedestrians enter and almost an equal
number of pedestrians leave the study area (Lal Quila to Fateh Puri) on an average
normal working day. It can also be noticed that 42% of the pedestrians are using the

roadway for walking, which was direct trip to the different destinations and they dont
like to use the sidewalk, and another 58% of the pedestrians are using the sidewalk
facility, they are passing through bazaar for shopping to reach the destination.
Table 1 shows the O-D matrix for all pedestrians. About, 1,20,200 trips/day
were performed on typical working day on study corridor.
Table 1 O-D Matrix for pedestrians Trips
D

Gr.

10

11

12

13

4565

6086

4057

1014

1014

2029

3043

4565

7100

3550

37024

4565

507

1014

507

507

507

507

507

1014

9636

3550

3043

2029

507

1522

2029

12679

3043

8622

2536

1522

507

507

2029

1014

3043

2536

3550

28909

507

507

10

11

12

3043

5072

1522

2029

6086

507

1014

4565

2029

3043

2536

31445

13

14708

21301

10651

8622

9636

2029

507

4565

11158

3550

10651

12679

10144

120200

G.
tot.

Total

Majority of the trip were concentrated between zones 1, 2, 3, 5, 9,11and 12

which are in close vicinity of the study area.
Since most of the trips(>4000-<10000) were performed from Lal Quila to Nai
Sarak, Nai Sarak to Fateh Puri and Fateh Puri to Metro and vice versa,
therefore at these points, the access for pedestrians in grade separated structure
in form of stair / escalator is taken in to account .
The survey results showed that pedestrian were willing to use grade separated
structure constructed parallel to the road, with descending and ascending
facilities in between.

5.4 Travel Time of Pedestrians

Pedestrian travel time study conducted during peak and off-peak hours at the stretch
starting from Lal Quila to Fatehpuri Chowk revealed that it takes 24.00 minutes to
cover a distance of 1.3 kilometers during morning peak hour and 26.30 minutes
during afternoon and 30.34 minutes during evening peak hours. Table 2 shows the
pedestrian waking time and speed at the stretch. It is apparent from the survey results
that throughout the day there is not much change in travel time. Pedestrian free speed
was carried out at three identified location for a length of 1305m (equal to the study
stretch distance), Table 3 shows travel time and speed of pedestrians at identified
locations and delays experienced by pedestrian on study corridor. In free flow
conditions a pedestrian take 1291 seconds to cover a distance of 1305 minutes, but in
congested state conditions it takes 1591 seconds to travels the same distance. In a
distance of 1.3 Km a delay of 500 seconds is experienced by the pedestrian, which is a
time loss to them
Table 2: Travel Time in congested state condition

Time

Length

10:00 1:00
12:00 1:00
3:00 4:00
5:00 6:00
Average

1305
1305
1305
1305
0:00

Starting
Time
0 .0
0.0
0.0
0.0
26:31

End Time
(min)
24:00
26:30
25:00
30:34
1591

Journey
Time(sec)
1440
1590
1500
1834
0.82

Journey Speed
(m/sec)
0.90
0.82
0.87
0.71

Table 3: Travel Time in Free Flow conditions

Location/Length
Chandni Chowk (1305m)
Kalka Mode (1305m)
Ashram Chowk (1305m)
Average time/speed
Journey Time

Time taken
(sec)
1098
1109
1065
1091
1591

6. ECONOMIC EVALUATION OF PROPOSED FACILITY

Speed
(m/sec)
1.18
1.17
1.225
1.19
0.82

For the purpose of economic evaluation cost benefit analysis has been carried out and
Economic Internal Rate of Return (EIRR) has been calculated in order to assess the
economic viability of the project. In this analysis components of cost and benefits are
as follows:
a) Cost of construction and maintenance of Skywalk
b) Benefit due to saving in time cost to pedestrians
For estimating the construction cost the width of the skywalk was ascertained
on the basis of available codes. To estimate the width of skywalk the peak hour
pedestrian flow was taken. A growth rate of 2% per annum for a period of 20 years
was taken for pedestrians. It was estimated that in the horizon year 2029 the peak hour
flow of pedestrians will be 5987 (Table 4). As per the Guidelines for Pedestrian
facilities: IRC103; 1988 and Highway Capacity Manual (HCM) a width of 4 meters is
required for pedestrian volume in horizon year. This width corresponds to level of
service C.
Table 4: Recommended Value for various width of sidewalk
Year
2009
2014
2019
2024
2029

Peak hour
Flow rate
3962
4374
4830
5332
5887

Desirable width (in Meter)

IRC
HCM
4.0
2.5
4.0
2.5
4.0
2.5
4.0
3.0
4.0
4.0

6.1 Project Cost.

The project cost consists of two main components:

Capital cost
Maintenance costs

The capital cost of the project consists of cost incurred during the construction
period. The total estimated construction cost will be Rs. 13.63 crores. The cost of sky
walk was worked out as per cost of construction of Skywalk at Bandra Mumbai.. It is
assumed that the proposed Skywalk will be operational in the year 2011. From the
year 2011 onwards, maintenance costs will be incurred. Maintenance costs are
recurring costs, comprising of routine and periodic maintenance components. The
routine maintenance, involving day to day repairs and periodic maintenance, aimed at
maintenance of structure periodically, condition of the structure components is
proposed to be undertaken in years 2015, 2020, and 2025 i.e. after every five years of
opening of traffic.

6.2 Project Benefits

The project benefit is worked out mainly from the time saving to the pedestrians.
Travel time of pedestrians will be reduced after provision of new facility. Per capita
income was used to convert excessive time taken in traversing a distance of 1305
meters into monetary terms.
6.2.1 Pedestrian Time Saving
The time saving of user is worked out from the pedestrian travel time survey results.
Average time saved for pedestrians worked out to be 8.33 minutes (0.139 hr)
compared to the earlier route (from Lal Quila to Fateh Puri Chowk).
6.2.2

Per Capita Income

Per capita income of the pedestrian is obtained from the Economic Survey of Delhi,
2007-2008 as Rs. 77,405/- per annum, and considering the per capita income time
saving per pedestrian per day is Rs.2.92/-.
6.2.3

Estimated Users of Skywalk

The results of direct interview showed that about 70% of the respondents were willing
to use the grade separated facility. But with a view not to exaggerate the benefits,
three scenarios have been taken, Scenario I with 70% , Scenario II with 50% and
Scenario III with 30% of the total pedestrians on study corridor using the proposed
skywalk facility. These pedestrians are those who have no business in the market, and
make direct trip to the destination by using the grade separated facility (Skywalk).
In scenario-III cost of construction, annual and periodic maintenance cost is
same, but pedestrian using the Skywalk is assumed as 30% of the total pedestrians,
and total delay is taken about 5 minute (0.083 hr). Per capita income is Rs.21/- for10
hr. and time saving per pedestrian per day is Rs.1.75/-. From above consideration total
time saving per day is Rs.63, 105/- , and annual time saving is estimated to be
Rs. 2, 30, 33,325/-. The results of scenario III i.e. with least benefits are presented in
Table 5.
An EIRR value of 12 percent was obtained. This is equal to the required rate
of 12% prescribed by the World Bank and other funding agencies. Thus the provision
of pedestrian skywalk is economically justified. This EIRR is achieved taking into
account the time savings to the pedestrians. There are other tangible and non tangible
benefits also; like increased availability of carriageway widths for vehicular
movements will culminate in fuel savings. If they are also included into the benefit
string then the economic rate of return would have been much higher. The safety of
pedestrians is also an important aspect. Moreover this is the scenario where the
benefits were squeezed, but in scenario I & II the EIRR value was 46% and 16%
respectively.

Table 5: Economic Viability Analysis

Year

Time
Savings

2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
2014
2015
2016
2017
2018
2019
2020
2021
2022
2023
2024
2025
2026
2027
2028
2029

23,033,325
23,148,492
23,264,234
23,380,555
23,497,458
23,614,945
23,733,020
23,851,685
23,970,944
24,090,798
24,211,252
29,053,503
29,053,503
29,053,503
29,053,503
29,053,503
29,053,503
29,053,503
29,053,503
29,053,503
29,053,503

Capital +
Maintenance
cost
136,300,000
1,363,000
1,363,000
1,363,000
1,363,000
3,407,500
1,363,000
1,363,000
1,363,000
1,363,000
3,407,500
1,363,000
1,363,000
1,363,000
1,363,000
3,407,500
1,363,000
1,363,000
1,363,000
1,363,000

Cumulative
cost

Cumulative
Benefit

Benefit

136,300,000
-136,300,000
137,663,000 23,264,234
-114,398,766
139,026,000 46,644,789
-92,381,211
140,389,000 70,142,247
-70,246,753
141,752,000 93,757,193
-47,994,807
145,159,500 117,490,213
-27,669,287
146,522,500 141,341,898
-5,180,602
147,885,500 165,312,841
17,427,341
149,248,500 189,403,640
40,155,140
150,611,500 213,614,892
63,003,392
154,019,000 242,668,395
88,649,395
155,382,000 271,721,898
116,339,898
156,745,000 300,775,401
144,030,401
158,108,000 329,828,904
171,720,904
159,471,000 358,882,407
199,411,407
162,878,500 387,935,910
225,057,410
164,241,500 416,989,413
252,747,913
165,604,500 446,042,916
280,438,416
166,967,500 475,096,419
308,128,919
168,330,500 504,149,922
335,819,422
EIRR
12%

7. CONCLUSIONS
The transport planning should be aimed at moving people and not vehicles. The
pedestrians are human beings therefore the facilities for movement across and along
the carriageway should not be planned and provided the way they are done for
vehicles. Besides level of service the Quality of service is also an important aspect
which is totally ignored.
This study takes into account the time savings to the pedestrians and has
successfully demonstrated that the projects for pedestrians are also economically
viable. Besides tangible benefits there are other non tangible benefits also, like
comfort safety and security which also has to be considered while providing any
facility for pedestrians. The provision of skywalk facilities in congested areas will
provide a safe and comfortable journey to the pedestrians.

Theme: Intelligent Transport Systems Application for Traffic Management

Urban Road Network Management and Congestion Evaluation using

Geographical Information System (GIS)
Patel Robin D.
ME (Civil) Transportation Engineering,
L.D.College of Engineering, Ahmedabad, India
E-mail:robin_visnagar@yahoo.com
Dr Zala L.B.
Assistant Professor, B.V.M College of Engineering,
Vallabh Vidyanagar, India
E-mail:lbzala@yahoo.co.in

Abstract:
Geographical Information System (GIS) is found to be a multipurpose tool that can be
employed for a variety of tasks related to bus transport. GIS network provides a set of
tools to build network data sets consisting of the features and their attributes necessary to
model the flow of resources through the network. Transport problems are getting more
and more dynamic due to changes in our complex social, economical, and physical world.
Transport researchers and managers around the world have been under increasing
pressure to improve understanding about these changes and act efficiently to make
decisions in transportation field considering the data and knowledge generated due to
spatio-temporal and socio-economic changes. The range of models that need to be
employed has expanded rapidly and the integration of transport models and technologies
such as GIS has become major requirement in process of transport planning. GIS can be
applied to service network like water supply, power, supply, sewage etc. In this paper a
case study of Mehsana city intra-city road network for determining the congested links
with an objective to study the existing capacity supply of road network. The congested
network is identified based on V/c ratio and volume data have been presented using
TransCAD-GIS.

Key words:
GIS, network, capacity, TransCAD-GIS,

~1~

Theme: Intelligent Transport Systems Application for Traffic Management

Introduction
In India due to rapid urbanization travel
demand is increasing, urban transport system
development is not keeping pace with the
demand and the negative impact of such
unbalance development is actually felt today.
The quality of life in these centers is adversely
affected. There is an urgent need for setting
direction of growth, allocation of resources,
and co-ordination of action and operations
through a well defined and comprehensive
national urban transport policy. Urban public
transport in the Indian context is the bus transit
services in mega metropolis like Bombay,
Calcutta, and Delhi along with local train,
tramway and metro rail respectively.
Economic activities
In cities require large scale movement of
persons which is at present largely based on
personalized transport in developing countries
like India it is easy to increase vehicle
ownership but it is not so easy to develop
infrastructure. The key to solve the problem
lies in how to create a road based public
transport
system
and
road
network
management and congestion evaluation.
Therefore by knowing capacity of existing
road network the scenario of public transport
and private transport for number of person
carrying as quickly as possible, efficiently and
comfortably from their origin to variety of
destinations, generated.
Mehsana city is currently facing
several transport problems like insufficient
road widths, traffic congestion, parking
problems, undesirable public transport
services,
unorganized
intermediate
transportation system and inadequate mass
transit. Total length of road network of
Mehsana city is 38.61 km. Traffic volume on
city road range from 800 pcu/day to 11120
pcu/day.
Literature Review

A modern society can be viewed, in

part of a system of networks for transportation
communication and distribution of energy,
goods, and services. The complex structure
and cost of these sub systems demand that
existing facilities be rationally designed.
Network analysis techniques can be of great
value in the design, improvement, and
rationalization of complex large scale systems.
The road network management problem faced
by country is becoming complex. In the total
road network of nation, the problems are of
inadequate capacity,
immediate repair
operation, management and addition of new
links at crucial locations. The services and
performance levels of existing road in the
country lag far behind the advantage in motor
vehicle technology. The maintenance cost of
existing road structure rising, which is serious
concern for authorities responsible for their
upkeep under tight budgetary constraints. The
road users movement and safety on these
roads is complex problem. To understand this,
the network database created in GIS makes
integrated highway information system for
various network management purpose
including safety and efficiency of passenger
and fright/goods movement.
GIS database brings information
related to networks spatial spread, capacity,
inventories, quality and traffic attributes like
traffic volume, speed and crash events. The
description of a transportation network in a
computer model can be undertaken at different
levels of details and requires the specification
of its structure, its properties or attributes
relationship between those properties and
traffic flows. (Ortuzar et al 2001). The
elements of the network data model are
divided in to two main themes or group
(Ubomir, F, 2006).
Methodology
The methodology developed for present study
is presented in Fig 1.

~2~

Theme: Intelligent Transport Systems Application for Traffic Management

Data Collection and Analysis

Identification
of the
problem

Based on above methodology the detailed

classified traffic volume data have been
collected and converted in to pcu/day. The
volume is compared with design capacity in
pcu/day, volume capacity (V/c) ratio have been
calculated. The links with V/c 0.80 is
considered congested links. The data is given
in Table 1.
Table 1 Traffic volume, capacity and
Volume capacity (V/c) ratio

Formation of
goals and
objectives
Legacy
data base
Secondary
data base

Digitization

Data
collection

Primarydata
Volume
Total
Length of
Route

Existing road
network
Creation
from line
layer file

Geo
referencing
Select path in
TransCAD
Scanned
image
Volume/Capacity

Congested
link if V/c
0.80

Proposal
for
YES improve
ment

NO
Uncongested

Fig 1 Methodology Developed for Present

Study

~3~

Sr.
No

Capacity
(c)

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
33
34

10000
10000
1500
1500
1500
10000
1500
1500
1500
1500
1500
1500
10000
1500
1500
1500
1500
1500
1500
10000
10000
1500
10000
2500
2500
2500
2500
2500
2500
2500
10000
10000

Traffic
volume
(V)
10530
10530
1140
1140
1140
10530
1250
1350
1350
1350
1350
1350
10530
1350
1350
1120
1230
1320
1320
10530
10530
1400
10530
2550
2550
2550
2550
2550
2550
2550
10530
10530

V/c

Congested
link

1.05
1.05
0.76
0.76
0.76
1.05
0.83
0.9
0.9
0.9
0.9
0.9
1.05
0.9
0.9
0.75
0.82
0.88
0.88
1.05
1.05
0.93
1.05
1.02
1.02
1.02
1.02
1.02
1.02
1.02
1.05
1.05

1
2

6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
33
34

Theme: Intelligent Transport Systems Application for Traffic Management

35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
55
56

1500
1500
1500
1500
1500
1500
1500
1500
1500
6000
6000
6000
2500
2500
2500
2500
2500
2500
10000
4000
4000
4000

1180
1180
1180
1180
1180
1180
1180
1180
1180
7800
7800
7800
1510
1510
1510
1510
1510
1510
10530
3240
3240
3240

0.79
0.79
0.79
0.79
0.79
0.79
0.79
0.79
0.79
1.3
1.3
1.3
0.6
0.6
0.6
0.6
0.6
0.6
1.05
0.81
0.81
0.81

44
45
46

53
54
55
56

Fig 2 Traffic Volumes /Capacity Ratio

Traffic Volume
Volume of traffic on different link has been
obtained by secondary survey at different
location of study area. There is large difference
of volume on different link ID. Link ID no
53,70,80,82,88,89,127,135,136,139,140,143,
has maximum traffic volume and link ID no
278,279, has minimum traffic volume. Volume
capacity ratio (V/c) shown in Fig 2. Traffic
volume on different link is shown in Fig 3,
Volume Capacity ratio greater than 0.80
indicate congested links.

Fig 3 Maximum Traffic Volume Link on

Various Links
Final Results
Out of 279 links with 206 node points have
been studied. Congested link are listed as

~4~

Theme: Intelligent Transport Systems Application for Traffic Management

1,2,6,7,8,9,10,11,12,13,14,15,20,21,22,23,24,25
,26,27,28,29,30,33,34,44,45,46,53,54,55,
56,57,58,59,62,63,64,65,66,67,68,69,70,71,72,7
3,74,75,77,80,82,83,84,85,86,87,88,89,93,94,95
,102,103,104,105,106,107,108,109,121,122,123
,124,127,128,129,130,131,132,133,134,135,136
,139,140,143,157,162,169,170,171,172,173,174
,175,176,179,180,181,182,183,184,185,186,187
,188,189,190,191,195,196,200,205,207,208,211
,212,214,235,259,265,266,267,268,270,272,273
,274,275.
To remove/reduce congestion on identified
links traffic management strategies to be
adopted or capacity enhancement measures to
be taken. Alternatively bus transport/ mass
transport shall be adopted to reduce number of
vehicles to move persons.

2. Kadiyali, L.R (1998) Traffic Engineering

and Transportation Planning Khanna
Publishers, Delhi.
3. Harder C (1998) Serving Map on Intranet:
Geographic Information on the World Wide
Web, Redlands, Califonia; Environment
Systems Research Institute, INC
4. Pater A Burrough. Rachael A Mc Donnell.
(1998)
Principal
of
Geographical
Information Systems Oxford University
Press, USA
5. Census of India 2001
6. Website: www.gisdevlopment.com

Conclusion:
Use of TransCAD helps easy identification of
congested links on network map. Decision
makers have ease of decision making due to all
data available at a time in map.
Recommendations
Detailed O-D survey to be carried out to
decide desire of movements of people
for optimization and use of road links.
Route adjustment to be made based on
change in demand by continuous study
of transportation used by people of area.
References
1. Advani Mukti, B Srirama. Pathan, SK.
(2005) Improvement in Transit Service
Using GIS Case Study of Bhavnagar
State Transport Depot ESRI National
Conference Noida, India

~5~

Confernce Theme: Urbanisation & its Impacts

TRAFFIC MANAGEMENT TO IMPROVE LEVEL OF SERVICE FOR A CBD OF

UDUPI CITY.
Mr.Raviraj H. Mulangi,
Assistant Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, National Institute of Technology
Karnataka, Surathkal, Mangalore. email: ravirajmh@rediffmail.com
Dr. A.U.Ravi Shankar,
Prpfessor, Department of Civil Engineering, National Institute of Technology Karnataka,
Surathkal, Mangalore 575025. email: aurshankar@yahoo.com

Abstract: Udupi is amongst the most prominent places of pilgrimage in India and is famous for
its Lord Krishna and many other deities. It is having population of 1.476 lacks in the year 2002,
with floating population 100000 to 200000 per day. In view of growing importance of the Udupi
city in the region of Central Business District (CBD), this is an urgent need for a comprehensive
approach to tackle the short range and long-range traffic and transportation problems. To study
the existing traffic and transportation system and prepare traffic management plan various traffic
surveys have been carried out, and alternate proposal have been made. The proposals have been
analysed for Level of Service (LOS) along the urban roads and LOS of turning traffic at
junctions for next ten years. In present study an attempt is made to provide traffic management
for CBD area.
Keywords: Level of Service (LOS), Traffic Management, CBD

Introduction
Udupi City is situated in Karnataka state. Udupi is the district and Taluk headquarters for udupi
district and Udupi Taluk respectively. Udupi is amongst the most prominent places of pilgrimage
in the Country and is famous for its Lord Krishna and many other deities. It is having population
of 1.476 lacks in the year 2002[19], with floating population 100000 to 200000 per day[15].
To study the existing traffic and transportation system and prepare traffic management plan to
provide solution to the present problems and to optimise the use of infrastructure in the city. At
present the commercial activities in the city are haphazardly situated in CBD and hence the
distributions of the shopping trips is not uniform and are concentrated towards one or more
shopping regions and that is the main path for devotees of Lord Krishna Temple[14]. Since these
locations are not planned in a scientific manner so the management skills are to be applied, in the
present study an attempt is made to provide traffic management for CBD area.
Objectives
This study attempts to develop a traffic management for CBD area, to ensure better traffic
circulation in terms of reduced delays, and to provide safety to devotees of Lord Krishna
Temple. The objectives of the study are enlisted below.
1

Confernce Theme: Urbanisation & its Impacts

To Regularise Traffic and Speeds

To reduce the traffic congestion on major roads
To provide necessary junction improvements
To provide pedestrian and parking facilities in CBD area.

Literature review
In review the past studies made on traffic management are studied, with a view to boost up the
present study with past studies. The literature review includes.

Traffic management plan for the central area of Trivandrum[16].

Traffic and Transportation Improvement Priorities for Road Corridors of Bangalore[1].

Traffic management Plan for Mysore City[5].

Comprehensive Traffic and Transportation Plan for Nagpur[4].

Transportation network for Madras metropolitan area[2].

From the above studies it is seen that the traffic movement problems are more at central zone
(CBD) compare to other zones, so it is decided to take up CBD area along with temple routes of
Udupi city for present study.
Delineation of the Study Area
After collecting the land use, population and Socio-Economic data. It is necessary to
define the area for which the traffic management studies are to be carried out. From land use data
it is seen that at present commercial activities, Bus Stands and Temple are situated very near in
an unplanned manner, in the CBD area. The schematic representation of CBD area is shown in
Fig 1.

Confernce Theme: Urbanisation & its Impacts

Field Studies
To solve the above problems and achieve the objectives, various traffic surveys have been
carried out. Relevant data have also been collected from traffic police department and various
other government departments.
Data collection
The following traffic surveys have been conducted,

Identification of junctions needing improvements

Turning volume counts at junctions

Speed and Delay study

Pedestrian volume counts

Parking demand survey

Secondary data
The following secondary data have also been collected

Inception report[18]

Land use data

Accident data
Identification of junctions needing improvements
The study area is first surveyed to find the junctions having more traffic flow, more
pedestrian conflicts for existing island features. By preliminary survey the following 4 junctions
are selected for improvements, namely, Diana junction, Triveni junction, Sanskrit college
junction, Kalsanka junction.The IRC recommendations have been used to improve this junction;
the parking and pedestrian survey have been carried out in the CBD area. The improvements
have been suggested as per IRC recommendations.
Results and discussions
The various data collected from field are analysed to solve the traffic manoeuvre problems of
CBD and to achieve the objectives. Depending on the analysis three Traffic management
proposals have been made, the different proposals made are as follows.

Traffic Management Measures

Shifting of Bus Stand near ABCo steel junction

Shifting of Bus Stand near ABCo steel junction along with traffic management measures.
The above proposals are carefully studied and finally best proposal is selected, the analyses of
different proposals are made with respect to existing Level of service (LOS) and improved LOS
with each proposal. The existing and improved Los are tabulated from table no.1 to table no.6 as
below. Also the existing road width and classified vehicle count is considered.
Traffic Management Measures
Following traffic management measures are suggested to have streamline flow of traffic and to
improve the LOS of road network.
3

Confernce Theme: Urbanisation & its Impacts

The K.M.Road from Diana Junction to Bus Stand, and Sanskrit College Road from Bus Stand to
Road connecting Kalpana Residency road are to be made one way.
There should be restriction of the buses flowing from Udupi leg and Kundapur leg at morning
and evening peak at Kalsanka Junction.
The vehicles coming from the Manipal leg at Kalsanka junction are diverted to temple through
the road connecting the temple and mud road.
At Kalsanka Junction vehicles moving to temple are diverted on mud road to avoid congestion
and parking problem at temple
The vehicles moving to temple through Sri Ram Residency leg are to be diverted to temple
through the Deen Dayal junction.
Shifting of Bus Stand near ABCo steel junction
It is observed that the buses are moving through ABCo steel junction to Bus Stand from
Kundapur and Manglore and returning to the Kundapur and Manglore on the same route. So it is
proposed to shift the Bus Stand from CBD area to near ABCo steel junction. Further the buses
entering the CBD area junctions through the ABCo steel junction.
Shifting of Bus Stand near ABCo steel junction along with traffic management measures.
Observing to Traffic Volume/Traffic Capacity (V/C ratio) of roads (refer table 1 and table 3), it
is thought to implement both the proposals together to maximum streamline flow. The possible
V/C ratio after implementing traffic Management Measures and shifting of Bus Stand near
ABCo steel junction along with LOS are tabulated in table 2 and table 4.
Proposed road widening.
The above proposals have been analysed for LOS along the urban roads and LOS of turning
traffic at junctions, they are tabulated as below. And it is found that the third alternative.
Shifting of Bus Stand near ABCo steel junction along with traffic management measures
provides good LOS and the number of roads which are not providing LOS C are four only
compare to the other two proposals. The following roads are proposed for widening.
The road from Bus Stand to Kalpana Residency is proposed to be made 4 lane divided.
The Manipal leg road from Kalsanka junction is to be widened to 9.0M up to 1Km from
Kalsanka junction and the Udupi leg is to be widened to 9.0M up to Janta hotel.
Conclusions and Recommendations
Traffic Management for CBD of Udupi city has been intended to include traffic and
transportation problems of the city. Proposed Traffic Management Measures and proposals are to
be implemented in short and long-term.
The following conclusions and recommendations may be made.
It is proposed to shift Bus Stands near ABCo steel junction and the K.M.Road from city Bus
Stand Up to Diana Junction and Sanskrit College road from city Bus Stand Up to Kalpana
Residency Road is to be made one way, so that the congestion of CBD area will be reduced.
There should be restriction of the buses flowing from Udupi leg and Kundapur leg at morning
and evening peak at Kalsanka Junction. It is proposed to divert them on by pass road.
The vehicles moving to temple through Kalsanka junction are to be diverted to temple through
the road connecting the temple and mud road.
4

Confernce Theme: Urbanisation & its Impacts

The vehicles moving to temple from Manipal are to be diverted on mud road (1Km) before
reaching at Kalsanka junction to avoid congestion and parking problems at temple leg.
The vehicles moving to temple through Sri Ram Residency leg at Sanskrit college are diverted
to temple through the Deen Dayal junction.
The road from Bus Stand to Kalpana Residency is proposed to be made 4 lane divided.
The Manipal leg road from Kalsanka junction is to be widened to 9.0M up to 1Km from
Kalsanka junction and the Udupi leg is to be widened to 9.0M up to Janta hotel.
Restrictions like one-way on K.M. road, Sanskrit college road, and restriction on flow of buses
on Kundapur leg and Udupi leg at morning and evening peak at Kalsanka Junction are to be
implemented gradually and at the earliest with strict enforcement. The turning movements are
controlled by police person at the junctions. This will ensure that the congestion at intersection
will be reduced; which will take care of desired LOS at six intersection legs which have Los
>C, as per table 2.
References
[1] CRRI New Delhi, Transport operations planning and informatics centre, Banglore, and,
centre for Transportation engineering Banglore university (1999): Traffic and
Transportation Improvement Priorities for Road Corridors of Banglore, final report of
Karnataka Urban Infrastructure Development and Finance Corporation Banglore.
[2] CRRI New Delhi (1992):Development of Transport network for Madras metropolitan
area .
[3] CRRI New Delhi (1995):Traffic Management Studies for Tuticorin town (pearl city).
[4] CRRI New Delhi, (1996): Comprehensive Traffic and Transportation Plan for Nagpur.
[5] Dalal Consultants and Engineers Ltd (2002): Traffic management Plan for Mysore City,
final report of Karnataka Urban Infrastructure Development and Finance Corporation
Banglore.
[6] Highway Capacity Manual.
[7] IRC: 35 (1970),Code of practice for road markings, published by Indian Road Congress.
[8] IRC: 65 (1977),Space standards for roads in urban areas, published by Indian Road
Congress.
[9] IRC: 79 (1981),Recommended Practice for pedestrian facilities, published by Indian
Road Congress.
[10] IRC: 103 (1980),Guidelines for capacity of urban roads in plain areas , published by
Indian Road Congress.
[11] IRC: SP 41(1994),Guidelines for the design of at-grade intersections in rural and urban
areas, published by Indian Road Congress.
[12] IRC: SP 43 (1994),Guidelines for low cost traffic management techniques for urban
areas, published by Indian Road Congress.
[13] Karnataka Urban Development and Coastal Environmental Management Project
(KUDCEMP) draft final report
[14] Karnataka Urban Development and Coastal Environmental Management Project
(KUDCEMP) inception report (1998) for Udupi.
[15] Udupi Development Authority,Land use proposal.
[16] Srinivas N.S and Herur Arun (1982),Traffic management plan for the central area of
Trivendrum, published by Indian Road Congress.

Confernce Theme: Urbanisation & its Impacts

Table 1 : Level of Service For Turning movements of existing Traffic Scenario

Junction Name
Triveni

Diana

Kalsanka

Sanskrit College

Turning Movement

level of service

Temple-Bus Stand
Temple-Diana
Diana-Temple
Muncipal office -N.H
Muncipal office -Kalpana Residency
Kalpana Residency-Muncipal office
Kundapur-Udupi
Kundapur-Temple
Kundapur-Manipal
Udupi-Temple
Sri Ram Residency-Gokul
Sri Ram Residency-Auto emporium
Sri Ram Residency-Temple
Sri Ram Residency-Auto emporium
Gokul -Temple

F
F
E
F
B
F
F
F
F
F
F
F
F
F
F

Table 2 : Level of Service For Turning Traffic after Applying the (third) Traffic
Management Proposal
Junction
Name
Triveni

Diana

Kalsanka

Sanskrit
College

Turning Movement

Level of Service(LOS)

Temple-Bus Stand
Temple-Diana
Diana-Temple
Muncipal office -N.H
Muncipal office -Kalpana Residency

F
__
A
__
__

Kalpana Residency-Muncipal office

Kundapur-Udupi
Kundapur-Temple

F
F
F

Kundapur-Manipal
Udupi-Temple
Sri Ram Residency-Gokul

A
F
E

Sri Ram Residency-Autoemporium

Sri Ram Residency-Autoemporium
Gokul -Temple

__
__
__
6

Confernce Theme: Urbanisation & its Impacts

Table 3 : V/C ratio and LOS for existing Traffic Scenario

Junction
Name

Diana

Triveni

Kalsanka

Sanskrit
College

Name of the Leg

Kalpana Residency Leg
Municipal Office Leg
National Highway Leg
Bus Stand Leg
Temple Leg
Diana Leg
Udupi Leg
Kundapur Leg
Manipal Leg
Temple Leg
Temple Leg
Sri Ram Residency Leg
Auto Emporium Leg
Gokul Leg

Peak Hour
Traffic
Volume in
PCU V
1495
2908
3394
2111
1519
1522
1978
984
2430
2794
2339
4204
4466
2390

Capacity
C
1500
1850
2250
2300
2250
2350
1000
1000
1350
650
1000
1500
1350
1350

V/C Ratio
Level of
Service(LOS)
2002
0.997
>1
>1
0.918
0.675
0.648
>1
0.984
>1
>1
>1
>1
>1
>1

2007
>1
>1
>1
1
0.903
0.867
>1
>1
>1
>1
>1
>1
>1
>1

2012
>1
>1
>1
>1
>1
1
>1
>1
>1
>1
>1
>1
>1
>1

E
F
F
E
C
C
F
E
F
F
F
F
F
F

Confernce Theme: Urbanisation & its Impacts

Junction
Name

Diana

Triveni

Kalsank
a
Sanskrit
College

Table 4 : V/C ratio and LOS After Shifting The Bus Stands near ABCo,steel Junction and Applying Traffic
Management Measures.(Third proposal)
Peak Hour
V/C Ratio
Level of
Capacity
Traffic
Name of the Leg
Service(L
201
C
Volume in
2002
2007
2
OS)
PCU V
Kalpana Residency Leg
3000
1853
0.618
0.826
1
B
0.9
2250
1234
0.548
0.734
A
Municipal Office Leg
82
National Highway Leg
3200
2027
0.633
0.848
1
B
0.4
3200
841
0.263
0.352
A
Bus Stand Leg
70
0.4
1200
321
0.268
0.358
A
Temple Leg
79
0.4
3600
853
0.237
0.317
A
Diana Leg
24
Udupi Leg
1200
1617
>1
>1
>1
F
Kundapur Leg
1200
760
0.633
0.847
1
B
Manipal Leg
1200
1228
>1
>1
>1
F
Temple Leg
900
659
0.732
0.980
1
B
Sri Ram Residency Leg
1500
927
0.618
0.827
1
B
Auto Emporium Leg
1500
2404
>1
>1
>1
F
Gokul Leg
1200
1745
>1
>1
>1
F

Road Surface Image Segmentation, Texture Analysis and

Classification using Image Processing
Ms.Vidya.R
Research scholar,
Department of Civil Engineering,
National Institute of Technology,
Tiruchirappalli 620015, India.
e-mail: vidyarajesh123@gmail.com

Dr. Moses Santhakumar S

Professor and Head,
Department of Civil Engineering,
National Institute of Technology,
Tiruchirappalli 620015, India.
e-mail: moses@nitt.edu

Dr. Samson Mathew

Associate Professor,
Department of Civil Engineering,
National Institute of Technology,
Tiruchirappalli 620015, India.
e-mail: sams@nitt.edu

ABSTRACT

Transportation Infrastructure needs special concern with the increasing population day by
day. It becomes the duty of Transportation Planners to devise strategies for effective
pavement management to safeguard the existing network and plan new networks.
Construction Work zones are inevitable during such process. It is necessary that the
pavement condition is maintained ensuring safety, Speed and comfort of road users.
Conventional methods of finding the roughness are time consuming and difficult .This study
aims to quantify the road surface distress, and classify it through Image Processing. This
could help decision makers and transportation planners in effective Pavement Management.

Key words: Work zones, Pavement Roughness, Image Processing

INTRODUCTION

Pavement distress study is nearly four decades old. Numerous research works have been
conducted to evaluate the pavement condition. Image processing has great variety of
applications in Transportation engineering. Ritchie (1990) detected pavement cracks for
visual shadowing and showed cracked or damaged regions in an image have low pixel values,
due to shadowing. Koutsopoulos (1993) examined the difficulties in pavement distress types,
especially between block and alligator cracks. Koutsopoulos (1993) discussed the
segmentation approaches such as thresholding and edge detection and made comparative

analysis of different threshold methods. Mustaffar et.al (2008) developed Automated

Pavement Imaging Program (APIP) and found to be capable of identifying type of cracking
and its severity level with an accuracy of about 90% when compared to the traditional
method. Yi-Chang Tsai et.al (2010) quantitatively evaluated and compared diverse set of
pavement images with varying lighting conditions, shadows, and crack positions to
differentiate their performance. An attempt has been made to study the smoothness of the
pavement using Image processing. Road Surface Image Segmentation and Texture Analysis
are done using Image Processing Technique.

STUDY AREA
The Thanjavur (Chainage 80+000) to Trichy (Chainage 136+490) section of the National
Highway 67 is of 56.490 kilometres length. The Images analysed in this study were taken at
Ariamangalam of NH 67 stretch of Thanjavur to Trichy. The Images were taken during
different stages of construction so that the pavement conditions in different stages can be
analyzed.

Figure 1 Photos of view showing the Study Stretch

METHODOLOGY
Digital camera was used for capturing of images. The acquired images were converted HSI
(Hue, Saturation and Intensity) for the computational ease. After which pre-processing of
images were done with due generation of boundary signatures and analysis of texture is done
finally. The study methodology is shown is Figure 2.

Image Acquisition

Conversion of RGB image to

into HSI (hue, saturation and
intensity)

Pre-processing of Images

Regional description in terms

of length, breadth, and Area

Texture analysis and

classification of images

Figure 2. StudyMethodology

DATA COLLECTION
Measurements of longitudinal profiles were conducted along sections during different
stages of construction in the study area using MERLIN (A Machine for Evaluating
Roughness using Low-cost Instrumentation). International roughness index were determined
from the manually collected data. The survey yielded Mean IRI of 9.933m/Km in the study
stretch. The images of the stretch were taken perpendicular to the road surface from chainage
134+730 to chainage 135+230 using digital camera of 12 mega pixel resolution.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Road roughness level is analysed by texture analysis of the road surface images. The
analysis has been done through MATLAB software. Texture Analysis means the
characterization of regions in an image owing to their texture content. Texture level of road is
estimated by the statistical parameters specified in Table 1. An attempt has been made to
classify the roughness by Texture Analysis were in the qualities are described by terms such
as good, moderate and severe. The images are named severe_1.JPG. Likewise there are 4
severe, 8 moderate, 5 good images as specified in Table 2. Figure.3 shows the MATLAB
results of the developed coding of road texture analysis and classification.

Table 1 Statistical Parameters used for Texture Analysis

S .No
1

Parameter
Gray Level Entropy
Matrix

Description
This matrix is useful to determine the statistical
variation in gray levels

Mean value of Gray Level

Entropy Matrix

This matrix gives the average value of the entropy

matrix

High Entropy Emphasis

Long Run Emphasis

This parameter gives the extent of scattering and

uniformity measure
This parameter is based on measuring consecutive
pixels with the same gray level in a specified direction

High Gray Level Run

Emphasis

Same as above, werein the high gray level run is taken

projected.

Gray Level NonUniformity

This parameter is the derived parameter from transpose

of run length matrix.

Figure 3 MATLAB results of road texture analysis and classification

Table 2 Classification results for Texture Analysis
Sample
Image

Severe_1.JPG
Severe_2.JPG
Severe_3.JPG
Severe_4.JPG
moderate_1.JPG
moderate_1.JPG
moderate_2.JPG
moderate_3.JPG
moderate_4.JPG
moderate_5.JPG
moderate_6.JPG
moderate_7.JPG
good_1.JPG
good_2.JPG
good_3.JPG
good_4.JPG
good_5.JPG

Mean
value of
entropy
matrix
(rmu)
254
259
262
257
259
237
248
247
248
266
265
263
226
222
227
225
228

High
entropy
emphasis
(heemp)

Long run
emphasis
(lre)

High gray
level run
emphasis
(hgre)

Gray level
non
uniformity
(glnu)

31001424
29008320
29855655
28879708
31607136
33846605
31587401
25872362
26740620
32456047
29723242
28164456
41084459
42150768
40456228
41429763
40379779

-5401
-4491
-5290
-4364
-5780
-6600
-6600
-6771
-6824
-5902
-6575
-5215
-15032
-15643
-15931
-12937
-15102

11689
10287
11054
11127
8061
8604
8729
12307
12433
8381
8350
9085
9420
9493
9816
8987
9654

1910
1914
1370
1353
2241
2095
2066
1135
1164
2266
1893
1920
2353
2524
2294
2501
2201

CONCLUSION
The potential of Image processing is employed for the estimation of road texture analysis
from pavement condition for effective management of construction work zones. The texture
analysis by image processing will definitely overcome the pitfalls of exhaustive labour and
time consumption. High gray level run emphasis parameter gave results that were closer and
comparable to the manual results. The coding gave satisfactory classification accuracy. The
snapshot of variance and smoothness (texture) of the road surface is obtained.

REFERENCES
Image Processing Toolbox Users Guide For Use with Matlab, The Math Works, 2009.
Joonkee Kim, (2000) Statistical Analysis of Video Images for Evaluating Pavement
Distress. KSCE, Journal of Civil Engineering 4(4) , 257-264.
Koutsopoulos, H. N., and Downey, A. B, (1993) Primitive-based classification of pavement
cracking images. Journal of Transportation Engineering, ASCE, 119(3).
Koutsopoulos, H. N., El Sanhouri, I., and Downey, A. B, (1993) Analysis of segmentation
algorithms for pavement distress images. Journal of Transportation Engineering; ASCE,
119(6)
Mustaffar. M, T. C. Ling, O. C. Puan, (2008) Automated pavement imaging program (APIP)
for pavement cracks classification and quantification. a photogrammetric approach, The
International Archives of the Photogrammetry, Remote Sensing and Spatial Information
Sciences. Vol. XXXVII. Part B4. Beijing.
Ritchie, S. G. (1990) Digital Imaging Concepts and Applications in Pavement Management,
Journal of Transportation Engineering, ASCE, 116(3)
Yi-Chang Tsai, Vivek Kaul, and Russell M. Mersereau (2010) Critical Assessment of
Pavement Distress Segmentation Methods Journal of Transportation Engineering, 136(1).

Intelligent Transportation Systems: Application for Traffic Management

INTELLIGENT TRANSPORTATION SYSTEM (ITS) APPROACH FOR ROAD

SAFETY IN INDIA
Dave Yagnesh D.
P.G. Student, Department of Civil Engineering,
L.D. College of Engineering, Ahmedabad, India.
E-mail: yddave@gmail.com
Patel Dhruv U.
P.G. Student, Department of Civil Engineering,
L.D. College of Engineering, Ahmedabad, India.
E-mail: dhruv2222@gmail.com
Joshi Chirag
Design Engineer,
Feedback Ventures Pvt. Ltd., Gandhinagar
E-mail: chiragjoshi_83@yahoo.com

ABSTRACT: In its first ever global status report on road safety presented in 2009, World Health
Organization (WHO) revealed that more people die in road accidents in India rather than anywhere in
the world. About 10% of global road fatalities occur in India. There were 114,590 fatalities in India due
to road traffic crashes. India ranks 1st among all the countries in world for number of persons killed in
road crashes. Poor traffic discipline, poor design and low level of enforcement are the major reasons for
poor road safety in the country. Road crashes cause about 342 fatalities per day in India. This rate is not
expected to reduce until a concentrated effort in engineering, education and enforcement is applied by
the Indian Government. Blinker Signals, camera, variable message signs, studs, vehicle tracking, speed
limit violation detection system, etc. are some of the specialized equipments in ITS. Providing such
equipments of ITS at hazardous locations will only improve road safety of project corridor, with the help
of which number of accidents and fatalities in India can be minimized to a great extent. Further ITS
helps in managing traffic flow at congested locations and thereby reducing the delays experienced by the
road users. Use of ITS provides benefits to the society and environment through enhanced operation of
traffic, support information and advance communication which results in improvement of travel speed,
capacity, efficiency and safety of roadway corridors. Thus the road and traffic system should be
designed to cater human limitations providing better & clearer information creating forgiving road
environment.

SUTRIMS11

Intelligent Transportation Systems: Application for Traffic Management

KEY WORDS:

Example: Intelligent Transportation System

(ITS), Road Safety.
INTRODUCTION
Today, road transport is by far the most prevalent
mode of transport but serious accidents occurring
on roads is a matter of great concern for all of us.
As per traffic surveys, the number of deaths per
year, per 10,000 motor vehicles in India is 10 to
15 times more than that in developed countries.
The number of motor vehicles in the country is
increasing day by day. Though this is a sign of
growing economy of the country, it is also a
harsh truth that this might also add to more
accidents on roads, if some corrective steps are
not taken in time. Broadly, the causative factors
of road accidents are, increasing speed limits,
lack of driver training, a rather slack system of
issuing driving licenses, impractical working
hours imposed by greedy transporters resulting in
driver fatigue, drunken driving, indiscipline
driving etc. One can go on and on listing reasons
of accidents due to drivers faults. In order to
minimize or overcome these lapses mostly on the
part of the drivers, new systems like Intelligent
Transport System (ITS) can be implemented
INTELLIGENT
(ITS) WHY?

TRANSPORT

SYSTEM

ITS provides benefits to traveller, environment

and society through use of intelligent
infrastructure, operation supports, information
and advanced communication for improving
speed, capacity, efficiency and safety of road
way corridor.
In some of the developed countries modern
information and communication technology or
ITS is all ready being used extensively. The ITS
technology makes traffic flexible, dynamic and
adjustable to prevailing circumstances, The
various ITS application available now are mainly
aimed at driving comfort and accessibility.
OBJECTIVE OF ITS
1.

2.

Improve collision recording on the

highway to provide a reliable database to
investigate causes for past accidents and
reduce future accidents.
Improve road safety by providing local

SUTRIMS11

3.

4.

dynamic advance warning of hazards

such
has
bad-bands,
no-priority
intersections, pedestrian crossings, built
up areas and blind summits in an effort to
increase driver awareness and reduce
vehicle speed.
Improve road safety by providing
strategic real-time, dynamic warning of
hazards such as flooding, animals, road
works, large and slow moving vehicles
and debris in an effort to increase driver
awareness and reduce vehicle speed,
reducing the chances of initial and
secondary incidents.
Real time, dynamic information on the
status and condition of routes, advising of
congestion, incidents closures, road works
and delays enabling them to make
intelligent route choices.

ELEMENTS OF INTELLIGENT TRANSPORT

SYSTEM
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.

Variable Message Sign (VMS)

Vehicle Activated Sign
Sparkle Studs
Blinker units
Fixed Camera Enforcement
Journey time Monitoring
CCTV Camera systems
Traffic Monitoring

Variable Message Sign (VMS)

Variable Message sign come in many forms and
have varying functionally, but their core purpose
is to provide real time information to drivers
through the use of alpha-numeric or pictogram
legends.
Vehicle Activated Sign
Vehicle Activated Sign use LED displays to
provide alit replication of a standard type sign
face design or alpha-numeric legends in response
to detect vehicle presence, vehicle type or vehicle
speed
Sparkle Studs
Sparkle studs act in a similar manner to standard
reflective studs but as they are independently lit,
2

Intelligent Transportation Systems: Application for Traffic Management

they are able to provide an output even when

approaching vehicle does not have their
headlights switched on
Blinker units
Blinker units Provides a Visual warning of
upstream hazards. They are normally mounted on
poles in the median or verge and flashing lights.
Fixed Camera Enforcement
Fixed camera enforcement technology used at
hazardous locations primarily in relation to speed
or traffic signal compliance. These are especially
beneficial to the town and villages where the
accident rate is high.
Journey time Monitoring
Journey time monitoring systems monitor the
movement of vehicles through the route and time
taken to travel a given distance. The most
common technique is use to automatic number
plate recognition technology to use cameras to
identify and log vehicle registrations at point
along the route and by comparing the time logs,
therefore identify the journey time for each
vehicle. Collection of this data for many vehicles
enables the system to determine an average
journey time for the portion of route between
each detection site.
CCTV Camera systems
The provision of CCTV enables operators to
view real time images of the route or at least key
element of the route.
EXAMPLES OF ITS APPLICATION IN
INDIA
ITS technologies like ECB & Smart cards
deployed on selected sections of highways and
expressways e.g. Kotputli-Amer section of NH8,Noida Toll Bridge, Mumbai-Pune Expressway,
Delhi - Gurgaon Expressway.
Variable Message Signs (VMS) for giving
advance Information to motorists and improving
safety: Delhi - Jaipur Section of NH-8
Installation of online GPS system on 110 buses
SUTRIMS11

by
Bangalore
Metropolitan
Corporation (BMTC)

Transport

Advance Parking Management Systems

(APMS) has been installed at Palika Parking to
disseminate information on parking lot usage
through Variable Message Signs (VMS). Having
installed the APMS, a study was undertaken to
know the effectiveness of APMS installed at
Palika Parking.
APMS obtain information about available
Parking spaces, process and present to drivers by
means of VMS
Conclusion
ITS applications for traffic are in full
development. There are high expectations of their
road safety effects. However, as yet there is
insufficient empirical data to make correct
quantitative statements about the effects of large
scale implementation. In general, however,
theoretical analyses, simulation studies and
small-scale practical tests confirm that the effects
can be substantial. The possible unintended side
effects of the applications should also be
examined. Furthermore it is important for road
safety to also study the possible road safety
effects of the ITS applications which do not
primarily aim at road safety. A continuous
collective effort from all parties involved is
essential if the development and implementation
of ITS are to stay on the right course.
The introduction of new technologies should
have to be managed by ensuring they are part of
national safety plans and strategies. Such an
approach assures a high level of Government
commitment to the safety focus and stresses the
importance of the technologies in question. Basic
infrastructure needs to be provided by
Government to ensure the most rapid and
successful
deployment
of
ITS
safety
technologies. Government should be involved to
ensure new products have real safety benets and
are not unsafe. Whether such involvement comes
in the form of setting standards, product testing,
research or otherwise is less important at this
stage, then the acknowledgement of the role and
a commitment to fulll that role. Government
should set priorities for the deployment of
infrastructure related technologies that will
3

Intelligent Transportation Systems: Application for Traffic Management

facilitate more rapid technological development

and deployment by the private sector and other
independent sources.

Road safety, Indian highway.

REFERENCES

OECD (2003). Road Safety; Impact of new

technologies. Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development OECD, Paris.

Wegman, F. & Aarts, L. (eds.) (2006).

Advancing Sustainable Safety; National road
safety outlook for 2005-2020. SWOV Institute
for Road Safety Research, Leidschendam.

Velumurgan.S (2008).Application of ITS For

Parking Management, CRRI, Delhi.

ETSC (1999). Intelligent transport systems and

road safety. European Transport Safety Council
ETSC, Brussels.

Indoria, R.P (2009).Intelligent Transportation for

SUTRIMS11

TRAFFIC SIMULATION MODELS SUPPORTING ITS DEVELOPMENT

AN EVALUATION FOR SUSTAINABLE ENVIRONMENT
Darji R.H.
Research Scholar,
S.V.National Institute of Technology, Surat 395007
rajukumar.darji2010@gmail.com
Dr. Shah N.C.
Professor & Section Head (TEP and Urban Planning),
S.V.National Institute of Technology, Surat 395007
ncs@ced.svnit.ac.in
ABSTRACT: Tools to evaluate traffic networks under information supply are a vital
necessity in light of the systems being implemented as part of the Intelligent Transportation
Systems (ITS) deployment plan. One such tool is the traffic simulation model. This paper
presents an evaluation of the existing traffic simulation models to identify the models that can
be potentially applied in ITS equipped networks. The traffic simulation models are
categorized according to type (macroscopic, microscopic, mesoscopic, or nanoscopic), as
well as functionality (highway, signal, integrated). The entire evaluation is conducted through
two steps: initial screening and in-depth evaluation. The initial step generates a shorter but
more specific list of traffic simulation models based on some pre-determined criteria. The indepth evaluation identifies which model on the shorter list is suitable for a specific area of
ITS applications. It is concluded from this paper that presently DynaMIT, INTEGRATION,
CORSIM, AIMSUN, PARAMICS, MITSIMLab and VISSIM appear to have the highest
probability of success in real-world applications. It is also found that by adding more
calibration and validation in the various models will be brought to the forefront in the near
term for use with ITS applications. In this paper suggests a wide range of technological
developments fall under the ITS system design and assessment.
Keywords: traffic simulation models, microscopic, mesoscopic and macroscopic simulation,
ITS

INTRODUCTION
The growth of urban vehicular traffic has led to serious traffic congestion in most cities.
Since travel demand increases at a rate often greater than the addition of road capacity, the
situation will continue to deteriorate unless better traffic management strategies are
implemented. One of the most attractive remedial measures for addressing the congestion
problem is the deployment of Intelligent Transportation Systems (ITS). ITS is the application
of current and evolving Information & Communication technologies to transportation
systems and the careful integration of system functions to provide more efficient and
effective solutions to multimodal transportation problems. A wide range of technological
developments fall under the ITS agenda. The rapid growth of ITS applications in recent years
is generating an increasing need for tools to help in system design and assessment. Traffic

simulation models have proven to be one of the most cost-effective tools to reach these
objectives. Evaluating integration of traffic networks and traffic modeling studies equipped
with ITS technologies are a vital necessity in the overall design of ITS systems.
Tools are needed to improve the increasingly complex and rapidly deteriorating
transportation systems of today. Therefore, the ability of traffic simulation models to simulate
ITS technologies and operations such as real-time control strategies, route guidance
capabilities, real-time graphics displays, environmental and safety measures of effectiveness,
effects of in-vehicle navigation systems, vehicle/path selection capabilities, and user interface
must be evaluated.

NEEDS FOR TRAFFIC SIMULATION MODELS

Simulation models are becoming an increasingly important tool for traffic control. Simulators
are needed, not only to assess the benefits of ITS in a planning mode, but also to generate
scenarios, optimize control, and predict network behavior at the operational level. They can
give the traffic engineer an overall picture of the traffic and the ability to assess current
problems and project possible solutions immediately. Experimental or new techniques can be
tried and tested without any disruption to traffic in a real network. Traffic shows some
characteristics of a complex system. There are stable and unstable states, deterministic,
chaotic or even stochastic behavior with phase transitions, fractal dimensions and selforganized criticality. In handling such a complex system, simulation can be a good tool. In
the global warming debate, political decisions reckon on computer simulations. Likewise,
computer models can be used to simulate the influence of governmental measures like road
pricing or building of new streets.
However, since the technological advances and concepts underlying ITS in urban
networks were not envisioned when many simulation models were developed, the existing
models may not be directly applicable to networks with ITS components such as Advanced
Traveler Information Systems (ATIS), Advanced Traffic Management Systems (ATMS) and
Advanced Vehicle Control Systems (AVCS) especially at an operational level.
Traffic simulation models can be classified as either microscopic, mesoscopic, or
macroscopic. Microscopic models are models that continuously or discretely predict the state
of individual vehicles. Microscopic models measures are individual vehicle speeds and
locations. Macroscopic models aggregate the description of traffic flow. Macroscopic
measures of effectiveness are speed, flow and density. Mesoscopic models are models that
have aspects of both macro and microscopic models. In addition, simulation models are
classified by functionality i.e. signal, freeway, or integrated.
RESEARCH OBJECTIVE
The objective of this research is to evaluate traffic simulation models to determine their
suitability as an evaluation tool in the framework of ITS benefits assessments. Techniques
used in this study rely in part on previously published data relating to traffic simulation

models. After compiling these data, a comprehensive categorized list of traffic simulation
models is documented. This information will then be used to create a series of evaluation
criteria. The criteria focus on what features of a simulation model are important to ITS
applications. With this series of criteria, an initial screen of the models will be conducted to
create a shorter more specific list. Each model on the shorter specific list will be evaluated
based on the common standard/criteria. Finally, an in-depth evaluation of the shorter list will
be conducted.

DESIGN OF THE STUDY

The study in this paper will primarily based on the published literature including scientific
papers, technical reports and Internet WebPages about various traffic simulation models. The
entire evaluation will be conducted through two-steps: initial screening and in-depth
evaluation. The initial screening will generate a shorter but more specific list of traffic
simulation models. The in-depth evaluation of each model on the shorter list will eventually
identify which model is suitable for what part of ITS applications. The evaluation of traffic
simulation models for ITS development needs a series of criteria to be based upon. Key
points within the criteria identify user requirements that were included in the listed criteria.
These requirements include functionality, relevance, and ITS modeling ability. The following
provides the criteria that will be used in the two-step process in this study.
Criteria for Initial Screening
A general research of traffic simulation models yielded more than 80 models. In order to
screen models with no potential for use with ITS applications, criteria for initial screening
were developed. Models were judged based on their ability to meet or be modified to meet
these standards. These criteria are listed as follows:
1. Credible theories used in the model.
2. The model has been tested for real-world applications.
3. The ability to output measures of performance such as delay, travel times and speeds.
4. Documentation has indicated incorporation of at least one ITS feature
5. Model is obtainable by the public.
Criteria for In-Depth Evaluation
In-depth evaluation attempts to identify more specific features and limitations of models
selected from the initial screening process. The following criteria were established for in
depth evaluation:
1. Must be capable of incorporating in the model the corresponding traffic devices such as
detectors, traffic lights, VMS, GPS, Surveillance system etc.
2. Must also be able to imitate the functions of traffic devices, which includes providing the
specific traffic measurements at the required time intervals, increasing the phase timing in a
given amount of time and implementing a traffic calming strategy.

3. Must realistically reflect driver behavior and vehicle interactions.

4. Must have the ability to model different traffic flow conditions at a higher level of detail
(e.g. uncongested, congested, and incident).
5. Must simulate the variability in traffic demand in time and space, and model the
growth/interaction and decay of traffic queues, as well as capacity reductions due to incidents
and bottlenecks.
6. Must be capable of evaluating various control strategies (e.g. fixed/actuated/adaptive
control, and ramp metering).
7. Must be capable of interfacing with other control algorithms of ITS applications.
8. Must make reliable estimates of network traffic conditions.
9. Must predict network flow patterns over the near and medium terms in response to various
contemplated information dissemination strategies.
10. Must provide routing information to guide travelers through the network.
11. Must have the ability to model both freeway and surface street traffic.
12. Must be well documented.
In this evaluation, the most desirable model would encompass all the above criteria.
However, some of the features, although desirable, can be considered optional while others
are strictly essential. In Table 1, the criteria are rated based on their relative importance.
Table 1: Ratings for In-Depth Evaluation Criteria
Sr.No.
Criteria
1
Model Traffic Devices
2
Imitate Traffic Device Function
3
Simulate Variability of Traffic Demand
4
High Level Modeling of Traffic Flow
5
Realistic Reflection of Driver Behavior and Vehicle Interaction
6
Interface With Other Control Algorithms of ITS Applications
7
Evaluation of Control Strategies
8
Model both Freeway and Surface Street Traffic
9
Provide Routing Information to Travelers in Network
10
Reliable Estimates of Network Traffic Conditions
11
Obtainable by Public
12
Well Documented
(Crucial = 5, Important = 4, Useful = 3, Not Important = 2, Missing = 1)

Rating of
Deliverables
3
2
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
4
5
3

EVALUATION RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

Initial Screening Results
This section will briefly suggests main characteristics of each simulation model followed by a
summary of the models selected as a result of the initial screening. A brief description of all
identified traffic simulation models has revealed that many of them were not developed for
the purpose of supporting ITS applications. The following table (Table 2) summarizes all

models based on the five criteria developed in section for Initial Screening. The unchecked
box represents that either the model does not meet this criteria or available documentation did
not show this feature. Table 2 shows that the following nine models have passed the initial
screening process and deserve an in-depth evaluation: AIMSUN, CONTRAM, DynaMIT,
CORSIM, MITSIMLab, TRANSIM, INTEGRATION, PARAMICS and VISSIM.
Table 2: Summary of Models Based on Initial Criteria
Model
Criteria
Model
1
2
3
4
5
AIMSUN
Y Y
Y
Y Y
PARAMICS
AVENUE
Y
Y
PASSER-II
CARSIM
Y
Y
PASSER-IV
CONTRAM
Y
Y
Y
Y PHAROS
CORFLO
Y
Y
Y
PLANSIM-T
CORSIM
Y
Y
Y
Y ROADSIM
DRACULA
Y
Y
SATURN
DYNAMIT
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y SHIVA
DYNASMART
Y
Y
Y
SIGSIM
DYNEMO
Y
Y
SIMCO 2
FLEXYT II
Y
Y
Y
TRANSIM
FRECON 2
Y
Y
Y TRANSYT 7F
FREFLO
Y
TRANSYT 10
FREEVU
Y
Y VEDENS
FRESIM
Y
Y
Y VISSIM
MIMC
Y
Y
WATSIM
MITSIMLab
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y SIMTRAFFIC
NETSIM
Y
WEAVESIM
NETFLO
Y
Y TRANSMODE
INTEGRATION
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y LER

Criteria
2
3
4
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y

Y
Y
Y

Y
Y
Y

1
Y
Y
Y

Y
Y
Y

Y
Y

Y
Y

5
Y
Y
Y

Y
Y
Y
Y
Y

In-Depth Evaluation Results

The in-depth evaluation of the selected nine models in earlier section consisted of a review of
the models documentation with emphasis on the model strengths, weaknesses and suitable
areas for applications with respect to ITS. Table 3 lists the selected nine models and their
evaluations based on specific ITS application areas.
Strengths and Weaknesses of Selected Models
Traditional traffic simulation models often treat traffic as homogeneous platoons that obey
simple speed/flow relationships. Such models find it difficult to assess the effectiveness of
ITS which often requires, among other things, interaction between individual vehicles and the
new systems (systems under information) to be modeled. The selected models are evaluated

in this section according to their strengths (ability to assess the effectiveness of ITS) based on
the in-depth criteria specified in earlier section In-Depth Evaluation.

Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y

Y
Y

Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y

Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y

Y
Y
Y
Y
Y

Y
Y

Y
Y

Y
Y

Y
Y
Y

Y
Y
Y

Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y

Y
Y
Y
Y
Y

Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y

Y
Y

Y
Y

Y
Y

Y
Y

Y
Y

Y
Y
Y
Y
Y

Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y

Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y

VISSIM

Y
Y

Y
Y
Y
Y

TRANSIM

MITSIMLab

Y
Y
Y
Y

PARAMICS

Y
Y

CORSIM

DynaMIT

Traffic devices
Traffic calming
Traffic information
Driver behaviour
Vehicle interaction
Congestion pricing
Incident management
Queue spillback
Ramp metering
Coordinated traffic signals
Adaptive traffic signals
Interface with other ITS
algorithms
Network conditions
Network flow pattern
predictions
Route guidance
Integrated simulation
Transit priority
Variable Message Signs
Dynamic Assignment
Efficiency: Modal split
Parking guidance
Support for pedestrians &
cyclists
Other Properties
Run on a PC
Graphical network builder
Animation properties
Well documented

CONTRAM

AIMSUN

ITS Features Modeled

INTEGRATION

Table 3: Summary of Models Based on In-Depth Criteria

Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y

Y
Y

Y
Y
Y
Y

Y
Y
Y
Y

Y
Y
Y

Y
Y
Y

Y
Y
Y

Y
Y
Y
Y

Y
Y

Y
Y

Y
Y
Y
Y

Table 4: Strengths and Weaknesses for Simulation Models

Strengths
Detailed statistical output: flows, speeds, travel
AIMSUN
times, etc.
User friendly interface/ Can be run on a PC
Can deal with different traffic networks & control
Weaknesses Not widely used in the US
Route guidance and VMS are taken into account but
the information or signalization to implement them
must come from an external system
Strengths
CONTRAM
User friendly interface/ Can be run on a PC
Models networks of extensive scope
Models different types of traffic control
Weaknesses Little exposure
Does not model incidents or driver information
Strengths
DynaMIT
Operation of ATIS and ATMS
Component models are well established
dynamic route guidance modeling
Weaknesses Background model implicit, non modular
Strengths
CORSIM
Explicit modeling of freeway, arterial intersection
designs, Comprehensive set of outputs
Comprehensive set of performance measures
Weaknesses No ramp metering control
Strengths
MITSIMLab
Operation of ATIS and ATMS
Can make comparisons on different control strategies
Weaknesses No assignment
Small networks
Strengths
TRANSIM
Capture complex flow dynamics
Designed for Planning context
Weaknesses No exposure
Time consuming to use
INTEGRATION Strengths
Can perform HCM level intersection analysis
Models vehicles at an individual level
Provides extensive route guidance capabilities
Weaknesses Background model not in wide use
Cannot perform multi-path assignment
Strengths
PARAMICS
Real time simulation of hundreds of vehicles
Comprehensive visualization system
Provides intelligent route guidance capabilities
Weaknesses Only a few number of parameters for calibration
Strengths
VISSIM
Covers a wide range of traffic situations
Operation, Planning & Traffic signal corridor studies

Weaknesses

Transit Priority studies

Continuously upgraded and hotline supported
Coding of input data is extremely time consuming
No Highway capacity output format

STUDY FINDINGS AND CONCLUSIONS

This study identified, selected and evaluated traffic simulation models for ITS applications.
The recommendations for selecting the most promising models to address the various ITS
applications needs are based on the evaluation criteria using the most current information at
the time of the study. It is also recognized that this model evaluation needs to be repeated at
frequent intervals in the future to assure that the best candidate models are brought to the
forefront. It is obvious from the previous evaluation that at present no one model fully or say
hundred percent meets the needs of ITS applications. None of the models is capable of totally
simulating the effects of the ITS applications such as real time control, ATIS and ATMS
traffic management operations and interactions on control and traveler information systems.
The findings of this evaluation are summarized below for each model from the final
selection:
The findings from the evaluation indicate that presently DynaMIT, PARAMICS,
CORSIM, AIMSUN, INTEGRATION, MITSIMLab and VISSIM appear to have the highest
probability of success in real world applications. These models have continued development,
research and enhancements are on-going, and more applications by non-model users. It is
prudent to add that with more calibration and validation in the real field conditions can give
better results. Presently, DynaMIT, AIMSUN, PARAMICS and VISSIM models will be
brought to the forefront in the near term for use with ITS applications.
REFERENCES
[1] Jayakrishnan, R., Hani Mahmassani, and Ta-Yin Hu. , (1994) An Evaluation Tool for
Advanced Traffic Information Systems in Urban Networks. Transportation Research Record
C, Vol. 2, No. 3, pp. 1929-2147.
[2] Mahmassani Hani, and Peeta Srinivas. Network Performance Under System Optimal and
User Equilibrium Dynamic Assignments: Implications for Advanced Traveler Information
Systems. Transportation Research Record 1408
[3] Quadstone Paramics, (2006) V5.2 Modeller Reference Manual Quadstone Limited.
[4] VISSIM (2005) 4.20 User Manual,
[5] Zhang, Y. and Owen, L.E. , (2004) Systematic Validation of a Microscopic Traffic
Simulation Program.Transportation Research Board, Washington, DC.
[6] Taylor, N.B. The CONTRAM Dynamic Traffic Assignment Model. Networks and
Spatial Economics 3, (2003): 297-322.
[7] Hourdakis, J., Michalopoulos, P.G. Kottommannil, J.V (2003) A Practical Procedure
For Calibrating Microscopic Simulation Models, TRB Annual Meeting, January 2003.

Modelling for sustainable urban and transport planning:

A case study of Ahmedabad
Dr Bhargav Adhvaryu
ABSTRACT
An urban planning policy usually has two key components: the urban form and transport. There
can be a variety of theoretical possibilities of these two components and also how they can be
combined. Some typical urban forms and transport policies and their combinations are shown
schematically in Fig-1.

Fig-1: Alternative planning policies (urban form + transport)

1

Planners are usually faced with the decision of what planning policy to pursue in order to achieve
the best possible future! Using models that simulate urban dynamics, it is possible to test and
assess alternative planning policies, thereby making the decision process more objective and
transparent.
A suite of modelling tools called SIMPLAN has been developed for the city of Ahmedabad (for
details see Adhvaryu, 2010). The SIMPLAN contains four modules:
[1] Tools for analysing the evolution of the spatial structure of a city
[2] A simplified econometric residential location model for estimating population distribution
as a function of employment location for future planning policy alternatives
[3] A modal split model, and
[4] A framework for assessing planning policy alternatives.
The main land use inputs to the modelling process are employment and dwelling floorspace by
zones and transports inputs are average speeds and road and public transport networks. Also,
committed schemes like the BRTS have been incorporated in the model for all policy
alternatives. As mentioned in the figure above, a better version of the BRTS for the compaction
policy and enhanced road capacity for the dispersal policy have been tested, with relevant
employment and dwelling floorspace inputs. A trend policy is also developed to compare the
radically different policies with it and hence better understand the what-if implications.
Outputs can be easily mapped using any standard mapping and GIS software. As part of
developing SIMPLAN, a critique of the current Development Plan (DP) was also carried out,
which is available in Adhvaryu (2011).
The main advantages of using this type of approach are:
1. It allows planners to prepare policy alternative with drastic variations and test these to see its
effects in the future, enabling them to make more informed decisions for before arriving at
the most suitable policy to be pursued in the DP.
2. Being an econometric model, average housing rents and transport costs outputs can be used
to do preliminary economic assessment of policy alternatives.
3. Outputs from the model are disaggregated within AMC area (which in the current DP is
treated as one zone). This ties in well with the next spatial level of planning, ie the TP
Scheme.
4. Quite importantly, since the model is spreadsheet based, it is simple to understand and run.
Therefore, all of the testing could be carried out in-house by city planning officials on their
PCs or laptops! This avoids the black box approach (usually prevalent in planning projects
involving mathematical modelling), wherein specific tasks are outsourced to private
consulting firms.
Key model outputs for Ahmedabad indicate that dispersing cities proves to be economically
benecial to society as a whole. Compact city development may prove to be better in terms of
environmental and social aspects, but it may be possible to tackle the undesirable effects of
dispersal by appropriate combinations of planning and management measures. The modelling
2

outputs informed the wider debate on compact vs. dispersed urban forms. It was shown that
neither of these diametrically opposite forms provide an outright winwin solution. They are
likely to perform differently in different economies and sociocultural contexts. Therefore, it
would appear that each city needs to test out the pros and cons of such alterative urban planning
policies before pursuing a plan for the future. Learning from such modelling exercises, cities can
prepare their own tailor-made policy that best satises their objectives, making the planning
process more rigorous and transparent.
In a developing country like Indian obtaining disaggregated data by zones and by socioeconomic
groups can be a major constraint in model development. SIMPLAN is developed bearing this
constraint in mind. This approach, in the Indian context, can be considered innovative as it goes
beyond the conventional realm in search of simple yet powerful tools, developed with due
regards to the data and resource constraints posed by the local planning context.

References
Adhvaryu, B. (2010). Enhancing urban planning using simplified models: SIMPLAN for
Ahmedabad, India. Progress in Planning, 73(3), 113207.
Adhvaryu, B. (2011). The Ahmedabad urban Development Plan-making process: A critical
review. Planning Practice and Research, 26(2), 229250.

TOWN PLANNING SCHEME AN EFFECTIVE TOOL OF URBAN LAND

MANAGEMENT
Pandya R.J.
Town Planner, Town Planning Department
Surat Municipal Corporation, Surat
rajeshjpandya@yahoo.co.in
Dr.B.K.Katti
Professor Emeritus, Department Of Civil Engineering,
Sardar Vallabhbhai National Institute of Technology, Surat
ABSTRACT: Rapid urban population expansion in the developing nation has created
the need for effective land management in urban areas. Effective urban land management
is important because of its implications in social and economic development. Public
intervention and control of land markets is generally viewed as one of the best means of
ensuring the effective management of land. Most cities in developing countries of the
region suffer from land market distortions caused by poor land development and
management policies including poor planning, slow provision of infrastructure and
services, poor land information systems, cumbersome and slow land transaction
procedures, leading to unplanned development of land in the urban periphery.
Obliviously the situation necessitates appropriate planning and management techniques
on part of Urban Planners. So as to coordinate a number of tools so that land supply and
land demand can be brought into balance.
Various land management models are in vogue. Land readjustment also known as
land consolidation, land re-plotting, land pooling etc.is consider as powerful technique in
this regard. Town Planning Schemes belong to their family of Land Management.
In India, different states adopt different models of urban land management.
Gujarat and Maharastra State have adopted Town Planning Scheme as an effective tool of
Urban Land Management and have been successful in implementation of such schemes.
This paper mainly highlights the theme, methodology, pros and cons of T.P.Scheme.
Control regulation and legal framework etc are also briefed. Implementation of such
scheme as a case study touched upon.
1. INTRODUCTION
Urbanization is rapidly increasing with the advancement of science and technological
development. The trend of urbanization is observed and studies with great interest by the
experts like economists, sociologists, geographers, architects, engineers and town
planner, lawyers as well as the administrators and policy makers. Every human
settlement, large, or small, grows like a living organism. It's growth and decay is
inevitable like an individual whether one likes it or not. Every settlement undergoes the
different stages of development, good or bad, in the process of it's growth. The process of
urbanization is inevitable as stated earlier and therefore it has to be accepted and
welcome. The urbanization trend and the increasing population make it difficult to
resolve the issues of urban areas. The increasing basic need of the people for the
Roti,Kapada and Makan requires to be satisfied on priority basis. The magnitude of

this problem is very high. The result is the deterioration of urban centers all over with a
number of unfulfilled demands. The financial constraint is a major hurdle along with
other constraints to resolve these demands.
According to Census, it is estimated that in year 2000 about 47% of world
population live in urban areas. Also United Nations indicates that by the year 2015,
Seven cities among the fifteen largest cities of the world will be in Asia, excluding China
and Japan. This exercise suggests that urban growth in Asia, including India would be
extremely high during next couple of decades. This is partly due to natural growth of
population and partly due to rural-urban migration.
Table 1.0 explain the total population, urban population, rural population and
degree of urbanization measured in terms of percent urban population and urban rural
ratios for all census years for India starting from 1901. It shows that percentage of urban
population is increasing from last three decades and urban rural ratio also increasing,
which means that rural population is comparatively decreasing due to migration.
Census

Population

Degree of

Year

Total

Urban

Rural

Urbanization (%)

1901

238,396,327

25,851,873

212,544,454

10.8

1911

252,093,390

25,941,633

226,151,757

10.3

1921

251,321,213

28,086,167

223,235,046

11.2

1931

278,977,238

33,455,989

245,521,249

12.0

1941

318,660,580

44,153,297

274,507,283

13.9

1951

361,088,090

62,443,934

298,644,156

17.3

1961

439,234,771

78,936,603

360,298,168

18.0

1971

548,159,652

109,113,977

439,045,675

19.9

1981

983,329,097

159,462,547

523,866,550

23.3

1991

846,387,888

217,551,812

628,836,076

25.7

2001

1,027,015,247

285,354,954

741,660,293

27.8

Table: 1 Population Data

2.0 RESPONSIBILITY OF URBAN LOCAL BODIES

Now it is recognized that cities are the engines of the growth at both regional and national
level. To facilitate and sustain this growth, cities have to provide both a high quality of
life and an efficient infrastructure for economic activities. At local level there are certain
objectives of urban planning:
a. Protect Natural Environment.
b. Conservation of Areas of Cultural Heritage.
c. Optimize Land Use And Land Utilization.
d. Provide Services And Infrastructure.

e. Participatory Approach for Supply of Land Infrastructure Development.

The rapid urbanization is a great threat to the statutory authorities like Urban
Development Authorities and the Local Bodies when the quality of life in urban areas is
deteriorating. The quantification of the future requirements for the projected population
along with the backlog for various urban centers of India at local level, will throw some
light on their future responsibilities and obligations of these authorities. In fact all urban
centers face this deficiency on various fronts. The degree of deficiency may vary but the
fact will still remain same that supply will always be less than the demand. The backlog
thus will go on increasing with increasing population. A very high financial outlay may
be required for fulfilling this gap along with many other things. This is almost an
impossible task for the concerned authorities unless some drastic actions are taken. Till
then we have to continue and be satisfied with the prevailing situation either by shutting
our eyes or by lowering down the standards.
The respective changes in the regulations in terms of plot area, percentage of
built-up area, height of the buildings, room sizes etc are the examples of lowering down
the standards. Regularizing the unauthorized construction by charging the 'Impact Fee' is
the glaring example of shutting our eyes with respect to implementing the provisions of
the Act. Our helplessness to enforce the rules and regulations leads to such forced
undesirable actions like amending the Act or changing the Rules or Regulations etc.
Urban planning is basically resource generation, resource development and resource
management exercise. The efficiency of urban settlements largely depends upon how
well they are planned, how economically they are developed and how efficiently they are
managed.
No local government or the State or Central government will be effective to
resolve the issues of urbanization with their limited resources and various other
obligations. They must have to have the support from the people at large as well as the
other public and semi public organizations including the NGO and the private
organization. This approach will eliminate the inherent weaknesses in planning and
implementation of various projects by the Government or local Authorities.
3.0 CHARACTERISTICS OF URBAN LAND MANAGEMENT
The urban economy comprises of three basic markets: the urban land market, the urban
capital market, and the urban labour market. From these markets, the land market most
directly affects the urban environment and the quality of life in cities. These markets are
inexorably linked and dependent on each other. Land is a special component because
unlike labour and capital it is finite.
Most cities in developing countries of the region suffer from land market
distortions caused by poor land development and management policies including poor
planning, slow provision of infrastructure and services, poor land information systems,
cumbersome and slow land transaction procedures, as well as under regulation of private
land development, leading to unplanned or ribbon / corridor development of land in the
urban periphery. Land speculation occurs when the demand for land, at the present time
or in the near future, outstrips the supply of land. This can be caused by several factors
both on the demand side and on the supply side.

Land management has two basic components, which need to be managed

simultaneously. One, the physical planning aspect of the land, and secondly, the financial
aspect related with the implications of the physical planning. The rapid urban
development process taking place in developing countries leads to swift and drastic
changes in the physical, economic, social political and administrative structures of the
cities.
Governments have a wide variety of tools available to implement their objectives
of regulating land market within its boundaries. These include.
Planning tools, like comprehensive general plans, master plans, strategic plans, landuse zoning and building at micro level, to guide the development of the city for a
specific time period.
Zoning ordinances to regulate specific purposes for which a person can use the land
for and what can be built on that land.
Building regulations and by-laws to secure socially accepted minimum standards.
Permits, inspections and penalties.
3.1 Land resource development:
Mobilization of land for urban development activities is on of the important task
on the part of the government in association with local government and is normally dealt
as under:
(a) Tools for land mobilization:
(i) Land Acquisition:
Compulsory acquisition of land through Land Acquisition Act is the conventional
approach to land acquisition but it has, even for public purpose, become a time
consuming process. Sometimes it leads to unending litigation and encourage speculative
tendencies.
(ii) Land pooling/readjustment:
The concept of land readjustment is to assemble small land parcels into a large land
parcel, provide it with infrastructure in a planned manner and return the reconstituted
land to the owners, after deducting the cost of the provision of infrastructure and public
spaces by the sale of some of serviced land.
(iii)Guided land development:
Guided land development uses the provisions of infrastructure as a mechanism to guide
urban development. It is done in partnership with landowners who pay for the cost of
serving their land through donation of land for public infrastructure and payment of a
betterment levy.
(b) Legislative tools:
Governments can use legislative and fiscal' measures to combat land speculation.
However, these measures are politically difficult to implement and may in certain cases
prove counter-productive. One legal measure is limiting land that a single juridical person
(individual or corporation) can own. The intent behind such land ceiling acts is to ensure
equitable distribution of urban land. However such acts can fragment urban land
ownership to such an extent that land assembly for larger urban development projects
becomes difficult. In this contest it is worthwhile mentioning the urban land ceiling act

which was enacted in India in the year 1976 and subsequent repeal of the Act, for its
failure.
(c) Fiscal tools:
Direct land acquisition is often used by governments to provide infrastructure and
services which are needed for the well being of a city. The "power of eminent domain"
agricultural land around urban peripheries, acquired at prices lower than the market,
developed and rezoned it to urban land use and sold it to urban investors at much higher
prices. Land banks are created by buying rural lands around the city. Governments can
use land banks to guide urban development, to fight land speculation, to redistribute the
land to the poor and to finance infrastructure investments. Another approach is to make
owning of vacant land unprofitable by increasing property taxation on vacant land. The
intent is to discourage land speculation and encourage capital investment on land to
utilize it to its full potential.
3.2 Land supply augmentation:
In order to extract the public lands for regularized planning instead of unplanned
encroachments and also to encourage enabling environment for better access to lands,
following core issues need to be examined;
(a) Conditions to improve access to land, by promoting a conducive environment for
improving the exposure as well as access to the supplied land and housing, is must if the
programme is to attain success.
(b) Making Better Use of Existing Public Land, especially the land reserves of public
institutions that have accumulated in cities over the years which are not always efficiently
or appropriately used.
(c) Spreading costs and lowering initial costs, through incremental land development by
gradual improvement in infrastructure which can lead to affordable land supply from the
point of view of the supplier as well as low-income families.
(d) Development of the undeveloped lands, by substantially reducing the time between
the allocation of land and its development for specified purpose by the local body /
development authority.
(e) Adoption of innovative design solutions, such as low-rise high density patterns and
cluster patterns of residential development, which would minimize the need for large area
under open spaces and promote shared open spaces.
(f) Reconsideration and evolving realistic standards /code, like increase in the FAR,
re-densification etc
(g) Decentralized systems of environmental service, in respect of water supply,
sewerage treatment or soiled waste disposal mechanisms. In addition to relieving the
pressure on the centralized strained system, this would help development of selfcontained conglomeration of neighborhoods at a rapid pace.
(h) De-freezing of Vacant Lands, a large part of vacant lands can be released for urban
development purposes through an appropriate re-organizational process.

(i) Increasing Effective Demand, by organization and access to finance.

3.3 Land supply models
In the recent post, several urban development authorities and state governments have
applied checks and balances and used the regulatory framework to make land available to
the poor while allowing the market to operate. Different states like Hariyana, M.P., U.P.,
Punjab and Tamilnadu have formulated Land Supply Models Keeping in focus the land
requirements for urban poor. They have exceeded to certain extend and some of them are
named below:
(i) Hariyana Joint Development Model
(ii) Lucknow Development Authority Model
(iii)Guided Urban Development: Madras Metropolitan Development Authority Model.
(iv) Town Planning Scheme: The Gujarat Model
(v) City and Industrial Development Corporation
a. Vasai-Virar Sub-Region-Transfer of Development Rights
b. Waluj Model.
(vi) Public Private Partnership
4.0 TOWN PLANNING SCHEMES: THE GUJARAT MODEL
The Town Planning Scheme is being followed as an alternative method to
assemble the land for urban development activities in a faster and financially affordable
manner without taking recourse into compulsory acquisition of land. Town Planning
Scheme (TPS) is in operation in some of the states of Indian Union in the form of plot
reconstitution. It is basically an area planning technique patterned on the concept of land
re adjustment. In the state of Maharashtra, which is a pioneer in the field of TPS, it is
implemented under the Maharashtra Regional and Town Planning Act-1966. In Gujarat,
it is implemented under the Gujarat Town Planning and Urban Development Act-1976.
Gujarat adopted the Town Planning Scheme (TPS) to expedite the process of land
development, which was constrained by the then existing method of land acquisition and
development as it was both time consuming and expensive because of legal problems and
the heavy compensation the local authorities had to pay to land owners. To overcome
such difficulties the state adopted the technique of land pooling (followed in Eastern Asia
by Japan, South Korea and Taiwan), whereby irregular plots of land are pooled together,
serviced and reconstituted into systematic plots before returning a proportion of improved
land to the owners. A fraction of the retained land is used for public use, and another
portion is sold to buyers to generate funds for development. The method, thus, becomes a
self-financing technique and is less costly for the local authorities, as no payment has to
be made for land acquisition. Besides, a portion of the cost of infrastructure is realized
from the land owner. It was believed that with less of financial transactions, this
technique of land development would work out to be faster and cheaper. For the
satisfaction of the land owners, the method involved a kind of community participation in
which the judgement of the owners was sought at all stages of development.
The Town Planning Scheme is the unique feature of the land development at
micro level planning under the provisions of GTP & UD Act-1976. It is based on the

concept of land pooling with land adjustment and land reconstitution. The T.P. Scheme
are prepared by the authorities generally for an area of about 80 to 100 Hect. In nutshell
T.P. Scheme can be explained as under. The unplanned area of about 100 Hectors is
taken for planning. Planning this area in detail it may require about 40% of land for road
network, public purpose like school, hospital, market, park, playground etc and for plots
for sale and the remaining 60% area can be utilized to formulate final Plots for the
allotment to land owners as plots. As a result of this planning exercise 40 percent of land
is deducted from the ownership of all the land owners proportionately and allotted to the
authority to undertake the respective development works for public as per the T.P.S.
proposals. The remaining 60 percent. land in form of plots is given back to the land
owners on proportionate basis. The land owner will loose 40% of land and will get back
60% land in form of Final Plot. All the land owners will have this kind of adjustment.
The entire area is now well planned. It should be appreciated that no body is deprived of
his land. Everybody is contributing to for the public purpose land proportionately. Every
land owner is contributing is paid compensation for the land he is contributing (about
40% land area) and pays the incremental contribution authority for the betterment of his
land by virtue of this planning. There is no land acquisition and no body is deprived of
his land. On the sanction of the preliminary scheme under section 67 of the Act, the land
readjustment will come into force as per the scheme documents. Accordingly all the
original boundaries of the Original Plot will be changed automatically to the new
boundaries of the Final Plot. The roads, public purpose plots and the plots for sale will
vest in the authority.
5.0 APPICATIONS OF TOWN

PLANNING SCHEMES:

Town Planning Scheme in itself is a tool/system which is applicable at micro level for
fulfillment of the objectives / provisions made at macro level (development plan) for the
overall development of area/region. The making sanctioning and implementation of a
Town Planning Scheme involves its application in different fields and operation for
various functions and most important ones are;
5.1 Land acquisition:
The original method of land acquisition through compulsory acquisition, through Land
Acquisition Act, is both time consuming and expensive because of legal problems and
heavy compensation the local authorities have to pay to land owners. Moreover as the
land owners lose all (100%) of their land, besides creating other problems this causes the
affected person to resist and fight tooth and nail against the establishment. Town
Planning Scheme pacifies the situation helps in acquisition/ obtaining land for the
appropriate authority for road network as well as for different public purpose & because
due to re-allotment of final plots no body is deprived of his entire land. Every land owner
is contributing for the public purpose land proportionately. Since no person is fully
deprived of land, the resistance is least and the authority gets land for public purpose
development and for road network as well on the operation of scheme.

5.2 Fiscal applications:

The financial aspect of Town Planning Scheme is also noticeable since the incremental
charge as a result of the betterment of the land by virtue of proposed scheme is charged
by the development authorities. These incremental charges can be utilized to carry out the
infrastructure dvelopment as planned in the Scheme area. The benefit of the increased
land potential can be tapped in favour of the Development Authority particularly in the
context of the amendment in Section 40 of Town Planning Act, as under ;
" (jj) The allotment of the land to the extent of 10% or such percentage as near
there to as possible of the total area covered under the Scheme for the purpose of sale for
residential, commercial or industrial use"
The amendment if self makes it clear that the sale of land and earning under T.P.
Scheme is an inherent feature of the T.P. Scheme
Moreover, the method of T.P. Scheme becomes a self- financing technique and is
less costly for the local authorities, as no payment has to be made for land acquisition.
Besides, a portion of the cost of infrastructure is also realized from the land owner. With
less of financial transactions, this technique of land development works out to be faster
and cheaper.
5.3 Guided land development:
The T.P. Scheme with detailed planning at micro level and provisions for infrastructure
acts as a mechanism to guide development. It is done in partnership will land owners who
pay for the cost of servicing their land through donation of land for public infrastructure
and payment of a betterment levy. It acts as a mechanism for guiding the conversion of
privately owned land in urban periphery from rural to whom urban users.
5.4 Land supply augmentation:
Land is a special component of urban economy because it is a finite element and
exhaustable. T.P. Scheme helps to extract land for regularized planning instead of
unplanned encroachment by promoting a conductive environment for improving the
exposure as well as access to the supplied land, making batter use of existing public land
and spreading the costs.
5.5 Resource mobilization, land pooling/ readjustment:
The development of land and its reconstitution increase the guidability of land and
thereby the value of the plot. Initially the plots of land are irregular in shape which
makes planning and effective utilization difficult. Moreover, many of the plot do not have
even a proper access to public roads and the roads in themselves are irregular and do not
have adequate right of way. By the operation of T.P. Scheme the plots become regular in
shape, their accessibility increases, more facilities are available and the quality of
environment improves. The land pooling also helps in amalgamation of smaller plots to
larger ones and sharing of benefits of scale.

5.6

Regulation of development :

T.P. Scheme are incorporated with guiding principals which act as means of regulating
land use. The width of roads, depth/frontage and their relation to area of plots and other
norms regulate development. Moreover each T.P. Scheme statutorily has the building by
laws or development control regulations whose main objective is to secure socially
accepted minimum standards.
6.0 ANCILLIARY TOOLS/PROVISIONS:
The Town Planning Scheme is an effective mechanism in itself for planning but for a
better and more effective utilization of this tool the Gujarat Town Planning and Urban
Development Act has made provisions for some additional procedures/applications which
act as supplementary/ complementary tools and help for speedy implementation of T.P.
Scheme in a more effective and efficient manner and thus help in achieving planned
urban development. These also act as guides for the T.P. Scheme during planning
preparation as well as implementation stages. Some then:
6.1 Development plan :Provisions have been made in Gujarat Town Planning and Urban Development Act for
preparation and periodic revision of development plans for an Urban/Area Development
Authority. These are regional level master plans and proposed with due consideration of
regional linkages & planning. These are plans at the higher-macro level and these act as
guide and are to be followed while preparing T.P. Scheme at micro level i.e. development
plans help in moving from whole to part.
6.2 Zoning regulations: Are to be statutorily made in all of the scheme to dictate to the land owner the purpose for
which to or she can use the land for and what and how much can be built on the land.
Zoning regulates the use of land in areas for residential, commercial, industrial,
agricultural and other land use.
6.3 Development control regulations:
Are another means of regulating land use. Their main objective is to secure socially
accepted minimum standards. Although originally mainly concerned with fire protection,
structural safety and sanitation; modern codes are very comprehensive. Lately, there has
been a tendency in many countries to ease building standards by reducing lot sizes and
eliminating amenities.
6.4 Regularization of unauthorized development: The growth and development of unauthorized housing has been an age-old phenomenon.
This takes place mostly in industrial belts and it nearby areas. It is a need that motivates
people more than any other reasons. There are poor provision of housing by the mills and
other industrial/commercial setup. which causer growth of unauthorized housing.

Unauthorized/illegal developments occur under the nose of development

authorities and in an effort to bring them under the umbrella of regularization at least
those which can be reasonably legalized without of serious/major breach of provisions
and detrimental effect to public safety regulations and ordinances have been enacted and
implemented. Gujarat Regularization of unauthorized Development Act is one of them.
6.5 Transfer of development rights:Under the scheme of TDR, the owner (or lessee) of a plot of land which is reserved for
public purpose is eligible for the award of Transferable Development Rights in the form
of Floor Space Index equal to the gross area of the reserved plot to be surrendered. Such
FSI is made available to the land owner in the form of a Development Rights Certificate
(DRC), as a negotiable instrument, which may be used by the owner or transferred to
other persons. The entire requirement of land for public uses and under reservation for
roads, housing and community facilities can come from owners willingly, as the
development rights of the land will in fact be still available with the owners, to be used or
traded in the market.
7.0 TOWN PLANNING SCHEME IN SURAT MUNICIPAL AREA:
Town Planning Scheme (TPS) is being operated in some of the states of Indian Union in
the form of Plot Reconstitution. In the state of Maharashtra, which is a pioneer in the
field of TPS, it is implemented under the Maharashtra Regional and Town Planning Act,
1986. T.P. Scheme has been in practice in Gujarat for the past seven decades, with a legal
backing of the Bombay Town Planning Act of year1915. This Act provides for the
planning and implementation of the T.P. Scheme within the limits of urban local bodies.
The 1915 Act was modified in 1954 and subsequently replace in 1976 to take up T.P.
Schemes within and outside the limits of the urban local bodies. The approach has been
successfully employed in many cities like Ahmedabad, Vadodara, Surat, Rajkot etc.
In the city of Surat the practice of T. P. Scheme had been adopted way back and
the first T. P. Scheme No.1(Lal Darwaja) and 2 (Nanpura) were prepared in the year 1964
under the Bombay Town Planning Act. Later on procedure for more and more schemes
were initiated but the process was slow because of non-corporative attitude of land
owners as they had apprehensions towards the new system and also because of the delay
in procedure & by authorities due to un adaptability to new system. Latter on due to
expansion of municipal limits and fast development of more areas procedure for more
schemes was started and recently the entire municipal area has been covered under T. P.
Schemes. The areas that remained without T.P. Schemes were the areas where T.P.
Schemes could not be proposed / were not requited to be proposed such as walled city
area, gamtal areas, notified areas like GIDC, Housing Board, SVNIT and fully
developed/built up areas and rest of the approximately 170 Sq.Km. has been covered by
T.P. Schemes
7.1 Coverage of scheme:
125 Town Planning Schemes have been prepared which covers an area of 170 Sq. Km.
out of the 334.07 Sq. Km. urban area. Out of these 3 schemes are at initial stage, 26 draft

schemes are submitted to SG for approval, 50 schemes are at the draft stage, 22 schemes
are at preliminary stage while 24 schemes have been finalized.
7.2 Land Allotted for public purpose
Due to preparation / implementation of the above schemes municipal corporation has
been allotted a number of plots for various public purposes. Surat Municipal Corporation
has been divided into seven zones for administrative purposed and if we consider the T.P.
Scheme in these Zones then we find that in the T.P. Schemes whose draft, preliminary &
final schemes have received sanction of the State Government about 2202 number of
plots have been allotted to municipal corporation and the total area of these plots works
out to be 11092 Hectare. Out of which 318 Hectare of land comprising 544 number of
plots has been acquired by municipal corporation without paying for it.
7.3 Network for infrastructure:
The rapid growth of surat a rate exceeding the national level is due to many factors and
one of the important one is adequate infrastructure facilities, which in turn have been
made possible due to widespread road network with sufficient right of way.
The regular, rapid and planned development of the city of Surat has been made
possible only because of the proper use of the T.P. Scheme modernism and its
effectiveness as well as efficacy at all stages and in all procedures. The success is also
due to the unquestionable faith / confidence shown by land owners towards the
authorities and an unquestionable support extended by the office bearers and members of
local as well as state governments.
8.0 CONCLUSIONS
Due to rapid and uncontrolled urbanization, the cities in India face lot of problems in all
spheres of urban development. The availability of suitable land for the purpose is utmost
importance, if the problem is to be controlled. Mobilization of land Resource and
distribution of the same is the key factor in this respect. Various efforts have been made
in different States to mobilize the Land Resource, which have met with limited success
only.
Development of land by T.P. Scheme is in practice in Gujarat since many decades
under the provisions of the then Bombay Town Planning Act, 1915. Unfortunately, as a
result of limitations in working and inherent weaknesses of the concerned organizations,
this process of T.P. scheme is slow but a strong will with bold dynamic actions may lead
to the speedy implementation of the T.P. Scheme. The amendment in section 48, of the
GTP & UD Act, 1976 in 1999 has made it possible to take the possession of the T. P.
Scheme roads on sanction to the Draft T.P. Scheme by the State Government. This has
accelerated the process of T.P. Scheme implementation. The recent fast development
carried out by SMC through T.P. Scheme is a remarkable example of such development.

9.0

REFERENCES

1. Ansari J. H., "Land Management and Urban Development in India-Critical Issues &
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.

Management" UMP Asia Occasional paper No. 7 June 1994.

Dattatri Gangadhar Rao "Urban Land Management in India: Some Critical Issues",
UMP Asia Occasional paper No. 10 Octobar-1994.
Gaikwad Nishant S., " Urbanisation and Urban Planning ", UHIDES-2004.
Garg Leena, " Urban Land Management and Land Augmentation Strategies for
Housing the Poor ", UHIDES-2004
Jain A. K., " Metropolitan Land Management-Issues and Reality", ITPI Journal 1992,
Vol 10. No.4(150)
Mehta Upendra, "Impact of Urbanization and Statutory Provisions", UHIDES-2004.
Ribeiro E. F. N., " Urban Growth Trends in India and Role of Central State local
Government ", 1991.
V. Suresh, " India Vision-2020", website: www.hudcoindia.com
e CENSUS India-2001

Study of Impact of urbanization on the small town, VallabhVidyanagar

Prof.Thakar S.M.* , Neha Patel1, Hemal Parekh**, Urvij Dave**
*Associate Professors, Civil Engineering Department, B.V.M. Engineering college,
** PG Students of Environmental Engineering , B.V.M. Engineering college
Address: Vallabh Vidyanagar- 388120, Gujarat India
Phone no: (02692)230104
e-mail: smthakar@bvmengineering.ac.in
e-mail: nrpatel@bvmengineering.ac.in 1
e-mail: **hemalparekh2808@yahoo.co.in
e-mail:**swezlana@yahoo.com
ABSTRACT
Urbanization is global phenomena. Urbanization leads to environmental pollution.
Environmental pollution is one of the serious problems faced by the people in the country,
especially in urban areas, which not only experiences a rapid growth of population due to high
fertility, low mortality and increasing rural-urban migration, along with rapid industrialization
and ever growing transport needs has increased the number of vehicles. In India, the rapid
increase of human numbers combines with desperate poverty depleting and polluting local
resource based on which the livelihood of present and future generations depends. Though the
relationship is complex, ever growing population size tend to expand and accelerate these
human impacts on the urban environment. Present study describes the urbanization of small
town Vallabh Vidyanagar, an education centre in Gujarat. The researchers have observed the
increase in human population, and vehicles numbers and thus increase in pollution levels in the
small town. The study includes the water supply system, wastewater treatment, disposal of
treated waste, ambient air quality, noise quality, solid waste generation and hazardous waste
generation in the town.
Keyword:
Urbanization,
Vallabh
vidyanagar

Corresponding Authors: Associate Professor, Birla Vishvakarma Mahavidyalaya (Engineering College), Vallabh
Vidyanagar, 388120, Gujarat, India.
(M) +91 9408190976
e-mail: nrpatel@bvmengineering.ac.in

INTRODUCTION
Vallabh Vidhyanagar is located at 2234N and 7256E.The city is a residential cum
Educational center.
The concept of establishing Vallabh Vidhyanagar an educational campus was considered by late
sardar patel as rural university. It remained as rural for long duration. But in recent years there
is sudden increase in number of education institutes in and around Vallabh Vidhyanagar. This
has resulted in phenomenal growth of town to city. People migrate to cities not only for jobs but
also for better opportunities, children education and better social quality of life compared to rural

areas.
Courtesy: ( Google Map)
This has resulted in sudden increase in pressure on the infrastructure of vallabh vidyanagar
which was not envisaged.
The paper describes the impact of urbanization in vallabh vidyanagar and its impact on
infrastructure, economics and envrionement.
Impact of Urbanization On Infrastructure
V.V.Nagar is mainly a land lock area. Low-lying newly developed areas have raised the ground
levels by earth filling resulting in to a blockage of storm runoff. During monsoon many low
lying areas under go severe inundation during heavy rains. The water supply and sewerage
systems were designed considering 6 persons/plots. That has almost risen to ten times the design
population. Also there is a floating population of students and shopkeepers and their helpers
worker who Commute from out side that number is more than 30,000 persons. The population is

approx. 30,000 in 2001 now it has increased to 1,00,000 and rest of the population is more than
30,000.
Piped water supply is given for 4 hours in a day, which cost Electricity Bill of 25.34 lakhs and
Total cost at 39 lakhs inclusive of Electricity Bill and maintenance.
Due to saucer shape topography, there is no natural out let for waste water disposal and hence a
unique disposal system has come in operation, that a treated waste water is pumped against
gravity to a distance of 7 km to a natural drain, 3 pumps of 40HP and 4 Pumps of 60HP operates
24*7 costing at 54 lakhs as electricity bill, maintenance and auxiliary power cost etc. are extra.
During power failure breakdown maintenance there is sever flooding of sewerage system.
Coming to road infrastructure, there are large number of road intersection almost at every 2 plots
distance of 120- 150 feet there is blind crossings resulting in increased possibilities of
accidents. Due to increased in two wheelers, three wheelers and four wheeler the traffic density
has increased. Auto rickshaw is very high this has resulted in severe increase in near of road
accidents. Either fatal or resulting in severe injuries.
Impact of Urbanization on Economics
Due to increase in salary of faculties and students belonging to affluent groups , there is increase
in vehicles, multiplexes and chain of restaurants, super stores , malls etc. the cost of living has
increased. The house rents , property prices, taxes are increased. People have to leave away from
workplaces and need to travel longer. These has led to increase in need of personal
transportation. There is sudden increase in construction activity.
Impact of Urbanization on Environment
Ecology: Earlier there were large no of huge neem trees where birds like parrots lived on it.
Today ecology is so disturbed that both numbers of trees and parrots have reduced drastically.
Water resources: Ground water resources also under severe pressure due to increased need.
Ambient Air Quality And Noise
Air Pollution and noise pollution have also increased due to traffic and construction activities.
Surveys of air pollution and Noise are carried out at major city center revels that there is increase
in SPM level range 200-1200g/m3 and Noise range between 39.4dB to as high as 86.6 dB
intermittent. The SPM level found to be very high due to lots of construction activity is going in
vallabh vidyanagar. It may lead to

increase respiratory & abdominal disorder like Asthma, Cough and cold, Hyper tension,
Abdominal disorder .frequent gastritis water borne diseases almost endemic

Property damage need frequent color

Curtain & Textile need to be checked frequently and need cleaning & maintenance. Loss
in man-hours due to illness reduced work efficiency

Increased driving tension and fatigue leads to Increased Number of Accidents

Conclusion
As vallabh vidyanagr is planned education centre, the population has increased in last few years
that the natural resources will not be sufficient and may lead to deprive the environment in
coming years. Still complex research is required to know the impact of urbanization.
References:
1.Datta Pranati(2006),Urbanization in India, paper submitted at regional and sub- regional
dynamic population process in Urban Areas, European Population conference.
2.Dr. Nagdeve (2002), Envrionment and Health in India, IUSSP Regional Population
conference, Bangkok, Thailand.10-13.
3. Maiti Supata & Agrawal P.K.,(2005), Environmental Degradation in the context of Growing
Urbanization: A Focus on the metropolitan Cities of India*, J. Hum.Ecol.,17(4): 277-287.
4. Country Report On Impact of growing urbanization and air pollution on the regional climate
over india.
5 A technical article on Urbanization and Urban Air Pollution

Study of Traffic Induced Air and Noise Pollution in Class III City, Vallabh Vidynagar in
Gujarat state.
Prof.Neha Patel1, Prof.S.M.Thakar, Prof.L.B.Zala, Urvij Dave, Hemal Parekh
Civil Engineering Department, Birla Vishvakarma Mahavidyalaya (Engineering college),
Vallabh Vidyanagar, Gujarat, 388120, India
Phone No: (02692) 230104
e-mail: Neha Patel: nrpatel@bvmengineering.ac.in
e-mail: S M Thakarsmthakar@bvmengineering.ac.in
e-mail: L B Zala: lbzala@yahoo.co.in
e-mail: **hemalparekh2808@yahoo.co.in
e-mail:**swezlana@yahoo.com

ABSTRACT
The growth of urban population has resulted in increased transport demand. The growth of
vehicles has increased 130 times in the last 50 years. Vehicles are the major source of pollution.
Air and noise are two undesirable impacts of vehicular traffic. Suspended Particulate Matter,
Nitrogen Oxide , Sulphur Dioxide, Carbon monoxide and hydrocarbon are major contributors of
air pollution from vehicle emission. Road traffic noise is one of the most widespread and
growing environmental problems in urban area.
Vallabh Vidyanagar is a well established educational center state of Gujarat. Due to increase in
population and thus increase in automobiles increases the air and noise pollution in the area. So
study of measuring ambient air quality by using high volume sampler was carried out at selected
traffic junction in Vallabh Vidyanagar. The concentration of the major gases and Suspended
Particulate matter which are responsible for air pollution was measured and found to be higher
than CPCB criteria. The sound level was also measured at traffic junction with precision sound
level meter 2031 and found to be much higher than prescribed limit.
Key words: Traffic Pollution, Air Pollution, Noise Pollution, Vallabh Vidyanagar

1. Introduction
In recent years there has been great
interest in environment and many new words
have been a part of our vocabulary the words
such as ecology, environment, acid rain,
ozone layer depletion, photo chemicals,
smog, global warming, and green house
effects are common. Simultaneously we have
been made aware of environmental problems
which include effects of air pollutants on
human beings, plants and animals. Air
pollution causes increased respiratory illness
to the old and young, decreasing visibility,
damage to plants and animals and has
possibly catastrophic effects on the global
scale. Problems due to air pollution crop up
especially in urban areas and areas of high
industrial activities which includes the rural
areas were industrial development is
encouraged. Another major cause of air
pollution is the automobiles or vehicle
pollution.
The WHO/UNEP report (1992) reveals
air pollution problems in metropolitan cities
of India as Some of these are among the most
polluted cities of the worlds. India has 23
major cities of over 1 million people and
ambient air pollution exceeds the WHO
standards in many of them (Gupta et al.,
2002). The main reason for deterioration of
air quality in the cities is growing number of
vehicles. Vehicular pollution contributes
70% of total pollution in Delhi, 52% in
Mumbai and 30% in Calcutta (C.P.C.B.,
2003) . Urban air pollution poses a
significant threat to human health, property
and the environment throughout the
developing and developed parts of the world.
The United Nations (UN) estimates that 4.9

billions inhabitants out of 8.1 billion will be

living in cities by 2030 (UNSD, 2001). The
rapid industrialization, fast, drastic increases
in vehicles on the roads and other activities
of human beings have disturbed the balance
of natural atmosphere (Chauhan, 2008). Over
the years there has been a tremendous
increase in human population, road
transports, vehicular traffic and industries
lead to air and noise pollution.[1,2,3,4] This
paper is an attempt to investigate the air
quality status and noise level at Vallabh
Vidyanagar.
2. Measurement of air quality and noise
Vallabh Vidyanagar is the largest
education city in Gujarat. The major part of
population is floating population which
consist of student and faculty. The traffic
study was carried out on various roads at
different cross section. The traffic flow was
found to be mixed type consisting of bicycle,
cars,
bus/truck,
twowheeler
and
autorickshaw having proportion of 10.21%,
19.89%, 12%, 685 and 21.11% respectively
as shown in fig. 1

Fig 1: Traffic Volume composition

Vallabh Vidyanagar falls under

category of silence zone. Based on the
sources of pollution six sampling sites were
selected in the city. Ambient Air Quality and
Noise levels were measured at bhaikaka
statue, mota bazar, iskon mandir, university
circle, nana bazaar traffic cross section. Air
quality was measured with High Volume Air
Sampler, Noise pollution survey was
conducted in the study area at different
timings for different duration with Precision
Sound Level Meter 2031 . At each junction
the sound level was measured at a height of
1.2 from the-ground-level. The location of
study is shown in Fig 2.

Table II: Average Noise Pollution Levels

At Various Sampling Locations
Location

Max

Min

Leq
dB
(A)

Bhaikaka
Circle
Mota
Bazar
Iskon
Temple
Universit
y Circle
Nana
Bazar

82.6
5
80

66.6
7
62.6

76.0

80.2
5
80.4
8
82.0
1

63.0
7
52.2
3
64.6
7

72.8
8
73.8
9
72.2
4
74.5
3

Are
a
Cod
e
D

Le
q
dB
(A)
50

50

50

50

50

The results of Noise pollution level indicate

that the pollution levels were highly variable
at different sampling stations depending on
the density of vehicles plying on the roads.
The noise levels in different area exceeds the
standards. The noise ranges between 62-82
dB except at university circle, the noise level
was 52.23 dB.
2.2 Air Monitoring
2.1 Noise Measurement
The standard noise levels according to
MOEF and GPCB is presented in Table 1.
TABLE I: Ambient Noise Standards as BY
MOEF AND CPCB

Area Category of Area Limits

in
Code area/zone
dB(A) Leq day
time
A
Industrial
75
B
Commercial Area 65
C
Residential Area
55
D
Silence Zone
50

Air pollutants (SO 2 , NOx, SPM) monitoring

data for above mention location was measured
with high volume sampler for 24 hours for 15
days and after air monitoring it procured into
lab and analysis for the concentration level.
The sampling
period was March April,
2011. Mainly the super adiabetic situation was
prevailing.

Table III: Results of Air Quality Analysis

Location

Bhaikaka
circle
Nanabazar
University
circle
Motabazzar

SPM
g/M3
266
400
600
400

ISCON
200
Temple
Air Quality
100
Standards(
g/m3)
Time
24
weighted
average
Methods of Gravim
measuremen etric
t

SO 2
g/
M3
0.0
0
0.1
3
0.0
62
0.0
62
0.0
62
80

NO 2
g/M

24

24

Improv
ed
West
and
Greeke
method
Except, SPM the SO 2 and NO 2
permissible limits

0.00

accidents followed by furious quarrelling.

The SPM level exceeds the permissible
levels. This may cause respiratory diseases,
irritation in eyes and mucous membranes
Fatigue, headache and Nuasea can frequently
disturb people which leads to deficiency in
work efficiency.
References

0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
80

Modified
Jacob and
Hochheis
er

are within

Conclusion
From the above study, it is concluded that the
noise levels varies between 60-80 dB(A)
which is intermittent and hence more
annoying and irritating. People find difficulty
in concentrating the work. People get tired.
Students find difficult to concentrate in
studies.
It increases the possibility of

1.Chauhan Avinash et., (2010), Ambient air

quality status in uttarakhand (India): A case
study of Haridwar and dehradun Using Air
Quality Index., Journal of American
Science, 6(9).
2. Chauhan Avinash et., (2008), Air Quality
index and its variation in Haridwar, Journal
of Environment and Bioscience. 22(2), 2226.
3.CPCB(2009). National Ambient Air
Quality Statics India. Central Pollution
Control Board, Parivesh Bhavan, Delhi,
India.
4.Tang.U.W., Wang Z.S. (2007)., Influence
of urban forms on traffic induced noise and
air pollution: Results from a modeling
system. Environmental modeling and
software, 1.15.
5. S.B.Kankal and Gaikwad R.W.C.(2011) ,
Studies on noise and air quality at Shirdi ,
India, Advances in Applied Science
Research, 2(1): 63-75
6. Banerjee D.etl., (2009), Appraisal and
mapping the spatial temporal distribution of
urban road traffic noise. International
Journal
Environment
Science
and
Technology 6(2), 325-335.

Built Environment Sustainable Construction Strategies for

Urban India
Devansi H. Nagarsheth
Research Scholar, M.Tech (Planning),
Department of Civil Engineering,
SVNIT, Surat
devansi30@yahoo.co.in

Dr. J. E. M. Macwan
Asso. Professor, PG Incharge
Department of Civil Engineering,
SVNIT, Surat
jemm@ced.svnit.ac.in

Abstract
In recent years Indias GDP growth (around 8% in 2005) has been far above the growth rates
of European countries or the USA. The strong development of the economy is also visible in
the increase of foreign direct investment, which will reach more than 5 billion US dollar in
2012/2013. Despite these favorable developments in GDP growth, it has to be questioned
how these trends are transformed into a sustainable development of Indias mega cities. In
this paper sustainability of cities is defined as the transformation of growth developments into
built environmental and sustainable building materials (especially consumption of energy) of
the existing mega cities. Therefore this paper addresses certain issues pertaining to energy,
environment, alternative building technologies and sustainable building construction. It
includes discussions introducing developments in building materials, details on energy efficient sustainable building technologies, specific strategies for sustainable design and
construction of buildings and energy in sustainable building materials.
1. Introduction
Building industry is one of the fastest growing and a major energy consuming sector in India.
Housing and building conditions reflect the living standards of a society. Stones, mud,
thatch/leaves and timber represent the earliest building materials used for the construction of
dwellings. Hardly any energy is spent in manufacturing and use of these natural materials for
construction. In context of the alarming rate of energy consumed in various sectors, building
designs apart from their structural and functional requirements also need to be planned and
designed for energy conservation. Bricks, cement, steel, aluminum, plastic products, paints,
polished stone, ceramic products, etc. are the commonly used materials of construction today.
These materials are energy intensive and are transported over large distances before being
used for construction. The following points require attention, regarding the use of modern
building materials: Energy consumed in the manufacturing processes energy intensity;
Problems of long distance transportation; Natural resources and raw materials consumed;
Recycling and safe disposal; Impact on environment, and Long-term sustainability. Thus the
issues related to energy expenditure, recycling, biodegradable and environmental
sustainability with respect to future demand need to be addressed during the manufacturing
and use of any new building material.

Built Environment Sustainable Construction Strategies for Urban India

2. Green building opportunities: India

In recent years, India has emerged as one of the worlds top destinations for green buildings
and has implemented a number of home-rating schemes and building codes, which open up a
wide range of opportunities in construction, architecture and engineering design, building
materials and equipment manufacture.
Indias green building footprint has grown from 1858 sq. m in 2003, to projects covering
12.54 million sq. m by 2008. A variety of green building projects are planned or have been
completed, including exhibition centres, residential complexes, hospitals, IT parks,
educational institutions, laboratories, airports, corporate offices and government buildings.
National shortages of water and power are significant factors encouraging Indias focus on
green building. The major drivers for the green building sector in India are coming from the
private sector, spurred by the introduction of the Indian LEED rating system, and investor
and occupier demand for more amenable and efficient living and working space.
Year
2007
2008
2012

Projected certified green

building (number/year)
50
150
1000

LEED rated estimated

market potential in A$M
250
625
5000

(Source: Indian Green Building Council)

3. Energy efficient sustainable building technologies

Building materials typically considered to be sustainable which includes rapidly renewable
plant materials like insulated concrete forms, dimension stone, recycled stone, recycled
metal, and other products that are non-toxic, reusable, renewable, and/or recyclable (e.g.
compressed earth block, baked earth, rammed earth, clay, etc). Building elements should be
manufactured off-site and delivered to site, to maximise benefits of off-site manufacture
including minimising waste, maximising recycling, less noise and dust. A large number of
alternative building technologies have been developed like stabilized mud blocks, steam
cured blocks, fine concrete blocks, rammed earth blocks, mud concrete blocks, composite
mortars for masonry, composite beam and panel roofs, reinforced brickwork/tile-work roof,
ribbed slab construction, filler slab roofs, rammed earth foundations, reinforced block-work
lintels and precast chajjas, solar passive cooling techniques and containment reinforcement
for earthquake-resistant masonry. A large number of buildings have been built using these
alternative building technologies. Salient features of some of these technologies are
highlighted below.
Stabilised mud blocks - The stabilised compressed earth block offers a cost effective,
environmentally sound masonry system and have a wide application in construction for
walling, roofing, arched openings, corbels etc. They are manufactured by compacting raw
material earth mixed with a stabilised such as cement or lime under a pressure of 20 40
kg/cm by using a number of manual and hydraulic machines are available in India.
Compressed earth blocks are sundried and use cement as stabilisation for gaining the required

Built Environment Sustainable Construction Strategies for Urban India

strength. The most important factor that affects the quality of a compressed earth block is the
composition of the soil mix used to manufacture the blocks. They include colour, particle size
break-up, structural stability, adhesion, bulk density capillary, porosity, specific heat,
moisture content, permeability, linear contraction and dry strength.
Steam cured blocks - A mixture of lime, industrial waste products like fly ash or expansive
soils like black cotton soil and sand can be compacted into a high-density block of any
convenient size can be manufactured. Compressive strength of the block depends upon the
composition of the mix, density of the block and percentage of stabilizer (cement/lime). A
combination like 25% fly ash, 6% lime and 2% cement. Advantages of using these blocks
are: (i) Ideal process for a small-scale or cottage industry, (ii) utilization of industrial waste
products like fly ash and problematic soils like black cotton soil and high clay soils, (iii)
energy efficient and environment friendly, and (iv) higher strength for the blocks.
Autoclaved aerated concrete blocks (AAC) - AAC blocks consist of Quartz (Silica) which
is the largest of the dry material involved. They are ideal for the entire building structure and
possess high structural integrity. The Products light weight and easy work ability means that
it is very quick to install on site, thereby saving in steel, cement, mortar and plastering costs.
Customers enjoy an additional carpet area, by using a 150 mm block instead of 200 mm
block without compromising on its inherent qualities. The additional carpet area gained is
more than the cost of blocks.
- AACs excellent thermal efficiency makes a major contribution to environment by sharply
reducing the need for heating and cooling in buildings and easy workability allows
accurate cutting, which minimizes the generation of solid waste during use.
- AACs light weight also saves energy in transportation. The fact that AAC is up to five
times lighter than concrete leads to significant reductions in CO2 emissions during
transportation. In addition, many AAC manufacturers apply the principle of producing as
near to their consumer markets as possible to reduce the need for transportation.
Composite beam and panel roofs - The roofing system consists of partially precast or castin-situ ribs/beams at certain spacing covered with panels which are connected through shear
connectors to achieve composite action. Varieties of options are available for beams (precast
reinforced concrete, rolled steel sections, trussed steel members, timber, steel, concrete
composite, etc.) and panels (precast concrete, reinforced brickwork, stone slabs, hollow tile,
reinforced SMB panel, etc.). Advantages of this type of roofing system are: (i) prefabrication
and quick erection, (ii) better quality due to prefabrication, (iii) savings in volume of
materials and cost effectiveness, (iv) use of hollow panels to increase thermal comfort.
Filler slab roofs - normal RCC slab where the bottom half (tension) concrete portions are
replaced by filler materials such as bricks, tiles, cellular concrete blocks, etc. These filler
materials are so placed as not to compromise the structural strength, result in replacing
unwanted and non-functional tension concrete, thus resulting in economy. These are safe,
sound and aesthetically pleasing pattern ceilings and also need no plaster. The main features

Built Environment Sustainable Construction Strategies for Urban India

of the filler slab are: slab thickness minimum 112.5 mm, enhances thermal comfort inside
the building due to heat-resistant qualities of filler materials and the gap between two burnt
clay tiles, makes saving on cost of this slab compared to the traditional slab by about 23%
and reduces use of concrete and saves cement and steel by about 40%.
4. Embodied energy in various sustainable building materials
All elements of the building shell; foundation, framing, roof structure and windows play key
roles in defining the potential energy savings for a house. Energy use inside the home is the
second tier of consideration. Mechanical equipment sized to the actual loads of the house,
natural day lighting and ventilation greatly impact how much energy will be used to provide
comfort and convenience. The energy required extracting, manufacturing and transport
building materials is known as embodied energy. Producing stone, glass, and clay--common
building materials--makes up 6.9 percent of the industrial sectors 37% of total energy use.
Cement production worldwide accounts for 8% of all carbon released into the atmosphere.
Energy in conventional and alternative building technologies are discussed in the following
Table 1 which indicates that: (a) Energy content of mud blocks masonry and steam-cured
block masonry are about one fourth and two thirds of that required for the commonly used
burnt brick masonry respectively, (b) Alternative roofing systems like filler slab, composite
panel roof, ribbed slab roof, etc. can be used in place of conventional reinforced concrete roof
saving about 2040% of energy, (c) Ferroconcrete tile roof consumes 30% less energy when
compared to conventional tile roof. Thus it is clear that use of alternative building
technologies results in reduction of considerable amount of embodied energy in building
systems.
Table 1 Embodied energy in various walling and roofing systems
Building element
Walling systems
Burnt brick masonary
Mud blocks masonary
Steamed curved block masonary
Autoclaved aerated concrete blocks
Roofing system (for 3.6m span)
Reinforced concrete slab
Stabilised filler slab
Composite panel roof
Brick masonary vault roof
Stabilised mud vault roof

Energy per unit (MJ)

Unit

2141
550

m3
m3

1396
250

m3
m3

730
590
560
575
418

m2
m2
m2
m2
m2

(Source: IISC, Bangalore2)

5. Specific strategies for sustainable design and construction

Creating a healthy built environment: a healthy facility requires consideration of the
interfaces between the built environment and the natural environment, use of materials that
are non-toxic in their manufacture, use, and disposal.

Built Environment Sustainable Construction Strategies for Urban India

 Avoiding the need for new infrastructure: making better use of sites and facilities which
have already been used, rather than green sites for new development, reduces negative
impacts on the natural environment, minimizes costs and transportation systems to green
facilities, and reduces travel time for users.
Reusing and rehabilitating existing facilities: by using techniques such as adaptive reuse,
rehabilitation, or retrofitting, old facilities can be modified or improved to meet new use
criteria, at a much lower consumptive cost than building a new facility.
Recovering waste: reducing, reusing, and recycling: by using techniques such as
reduction, reuse, or recycling, resources and energy that would traditionally be considered
waste can be used in new productive ways.
Improving effectiveness and efficiency of existing construction technologies: improving
the technological efficiency of construction materials, construction equipment, and
construction methods and processes can minimize the consumption of resources and energy.
Developing new sustainable technologies: creating innovative sustainable technologies
which do not rely on traditional types, sources, or quantities of materials and energy can
significantly reduce consumption of resources and energy.
6. Conclusion
The use of alternative building units like hollow concrete blocks for masonry
construction reduces the energy consumption by 60% as compared to brick masonry.
The energy consumption in single storied buildings remains unchanged irrespective of
the structural system adopted. However it is better to adopt a load bearing structure as it
encourages decentralized products like bricks which supports the rural economy.
Materials like Cement, Steel and Bricks and Glass are the major contributors to the
total energy consumption in RC buildings. Buildings with lesser number of storeys are
more energy efficient than multi-storeyed buildings.
Attempts in minimizing or replacing the conventional high energy materials like
cement, steel, bricks with cheaper and local alternatives will lead to reduction in the
embodied energy in buildings.
References
1. A.K. Jain (October 2010), A Sustainable Vision for Urban India Institute of Town
Planners, India Journal 7 - 4, 74 89, New Delhi.
2. B. V. Venkatarama Reddy, October 2004, Sustainable building technologies current
science, vol. 87, no. 7.
3. Crawely D. and Aho Ilavi (1999), Building environmental assessment methods:
application and development trends Building Research and information, 27(4/5), 300
308

Built Environment Sustainable Construction Strategies for Urban India

4.

5.
6.
7.

Jong-Jin Kim 2006, Qualities, Use, and Examples of Sustainable Building Materials
National Pollution Prevention Center for Higher Education, 430 E. University Ave., Ann
Arbo.
Krishnakedar. S. Gumaste, Embodied energy computations in buildings Advances in
Energy Research (AER 2006).
Lunt, M. G. (1980), Stabilized soil blocks for building construction Overseas Building,
184.
Venkatarama Reddy, B. V. and Jagadish, K. S. (2002), Embodied energy of common
and alternative building technologies Energy Build, 35, 129137.

Built Environment Sustainable Construction Strategies for Urban India

Indian Urban land Management Models for Sustainable Development

A.P.satashia
M.Tech. (Planning) - II, CED, SVNIT-SURAT,
Gujarat (India), satashia_avinash8187@yahoo.co .in
Dr. J .E.M. Macwan
P.G. In Charge, M.Tech (Planning)
SVNIT-SURAT,
Gujarat (India) jemm@ced.svnit.ac.in

ABSTRACT
Land is a resource and at the same time, it is non-renewable. So it should utilize very
carefully. The constitution of India grants the right to acquire hold and dispose of property to
every Indian citizen. It, however, allows the state to impose restrictions on property and its
acquisition in public interest. Different states like Haryana, M.P., U.P., Punjab and
Tamilnadu have formulated Land Supply Models Keeping in focus the land requirements for
urban poor. In this paper, different ULM techniques used in different region of India are
study by ULM models and Experts reviews are taken for the study of T.P. Scheme
Mechanism for Gujarat State for Sustainable Development.

KEY WORDS: Urban land, Land Policy, Land Banking, Land Assembly, Land
Acquisition.
1. Introduction
The most common means of public control on urban land is through zoning, density and
building regulations. These provisions are spelt out in master plans prepared for each city. In
contrast to the acquisition of small parcels of land, in a few Indian cities, the local authorities
have resorted to large-scale acquisition of land. In the city of Delhi, and for New Bombay,
bulk land acquisition was resorted to by public agency. In many states, especially Haryana
and Gujarat, public agencies have guided private and development through licensing scheme
or land readjustment schemes. The urban Land Ceiling and Regulation Act, 1976 aimed at
reducing the concentration of urban land holdings by imposing ceiling on urban land holdings
in 72 major cities and regulating transfers of land.
2. Practices In India
In India, urban land management is done with using of following basic three land
management techniques:
Land Acquisition:
Compulsory acquisition of land through Land Acquisition Act is the conventional approach to
land acquisition but it has, even for public purpose, become a time consuming process.
Sometimes it leads to unending litigation and encourage speculative tendencies.
Land pooling/Readjustment:
The concept of land readjustment is to assemble small land parcels into a large land parcel,
provide it with infrastructure in a planned manner and return the reconstituted land to the
owners, after deducting the cost of the provision of infrastructure and public spaces by the
sale of some of serviced land.
Guided land development:
Guided land development uses the provisions of infrastructure as a mechanism to guide urban
development. It is done in partnership with landowners who pay for the cost of serving their
1

land through donation of land for public infrastructure and payment of a betterment levy.
3. Land Supply Models
In the recent past, several urban development authorities and state governments have applied
checks and balances and used the regulatory framework to make land available to the poor
while allowing the market to operate. Different states like Haryana, M.P., U.P., Punjab and
Tamilnadu have formulated Land Supply Models Keeping in focus the land requirements for
urban poor. They have succeeded to certain extent and some of them are listed below:
(i) T.P. Scheme: The Gujarat Model
(ii) Haryana Joint Development Model
(iii) Madras Model (GUD)
(iv) TDR Model
4. Haryana Joint Development Model
The Haryana Development and Regulation of Urban Area Act (HD RUAA), 1985 provide for
certain planned areas to be specially designated to allow private developers to assemble
parcels of land that exceed the limits set by the Urban Land Ceiling Act (ULCER). In
designated areas, the act provides for the licensing of private developers to assemble land
directly from landowners and develop such land for residential purposes according to
stipulation which include (financial contributions to the development authority for attributable
off-site infrastructure costs); and the reservation of a portion of the developed land for lowerincome housing to be allotted through the development authority. The developer must also
prove that he is bonafide and has a good track record. The license granted has mandatory
provisions, such as:
The developer must pay external development charges to HUDA on a gross area basis
(net m2 bases for water) to cover the off-site infrastructure costs.
The developer must reserve an additional 25 percent of created plots to be sold on a noprofit no-loss basis.
The developer must pay other servicing/administrative costs to HUDA on a net m2
bases.
The developer must build certain community facilities and / or provide land for such free
of charge.
The developer must put 30 percent of the proceeds of land sales into a separate account
to be used for development.
The developer must maintain the completed colony for five years.
The developer must return any excess profit to the state (a ceiling of 15 percent profit on
total project costs is imposed).
To ensure compliance with these conditions the developer must take out a bank guarantee in
favour of HUDA.
5. Madras Model (GUD)
Prior to the concept of guided Urban Development, the MMDA (Madras Metropolitan
Development Authority) undertook its land development schemes through compulsory
acquisition under the Land Acquisition Act (1894). However, due to various reasons given
below MMDA has not been particularly successful in providing access to land for a wide
range of socio-economic groups.
Significant quantities of urbanizable land are registered as agricultural land, and thus
not covered by the ULCA until a change of use is requested.

Developers do not perceive the ULCAs EWS exemption as sufficient incentive to

develop for lower-income groups.
Surplus land potentially available for lower-income development is tied up for years
in court litigations.
Partnership Typology
Public Sector
formulating GUD guidelines and physical development standards that are patterned
on those used on prior sites and services projects;
advertising, evaluation and selection of private developers based on a predetermined
set of criteria;
Providing essential off-site infrastructure such as roads, water supply and access to
electricity.
Purchasing the EWS and LIG plots from the developers at a fixed price, and
marketing and allotting these plots to the target group.
Private Developers
carry out land assembly;
provide performance bond not to exceed 10 percent of on-site development costs to
guard against default;
provide on-site services including water supply, sewerage, roads, drainage, street
lighting, etc.;
Handover project roads and open space to the MMDA.
provide free of charge all land reservation for institutional use;
construct primary schools specifically for EWS households;
Dispose of all non-LIG and EWS plots at prices fixed by the developer.
6. TDR Model
The Municipal Corporation of Greater Mumbai has been adopting the practice of Transferable
Development Right (TDR) under Regulation 34 of the Development Control Regulations for
Greater Bombay, 1991. Under the TDR concept, the development potential of a plot of land
partly or fully reserved for public purpose can be separated from the land itself and be made
available to the owner of the land by way of TDR in the form of Floor Space Index. Such
award entitles the owner a Development Right Certificate (DRC), which he may himself use
or transfer to another person. If the FSI granted cannot be used on the land not covered by
acquisition, the landowner is free to use the additional FSI on the lands located in other parts
of the city. This way the exorbitant costs of acquisition of urban land for public purpose can
be met by a system of compensation in kind rather than in cash.
7. T.P. Scheme: The Gujarat Model
The Town Planning Scheme is being followed as an alternative method to assemble the land
for urban development activities in a faster and financially affordable manner without taking
recourse to compulsory acquisition of land. Town Planning Scheme (TPS) is in operation in
some of the states of Indian Union in the form of plot reconstitution. It is an area planning
technique patterned on the concept of land readjustment. In the state of Maharashtra, which is
a pioneer in the field of TPS, it is implemented under the Maharashtra Regional and Town
Planning Act, 1966. In Gujarat, it is implemented under the Gujarat Town Planning and Urban
Development Act. -1976.
Gujarat adopted the Town Planning Scheme (TPS) to expedite the process of land
development, which was constrained by the then existing method of land acquisition and
3

development as it was both time consuming and expensive because of legal problems and the
heavy compensation the local authorities has to pay to land owners.
To overcome such difficulties the state adopted the technique of land pooling (followed in
Eastern Asia by Japan, South Korea and Taiwan), whereby irregular plots of land are pooled
together, serviced and reconstituted into systematic plots before returning a proportion of
improved land to the owners. It was believed that with less of financial transactions, this
technique of land development would work out to be faster and cheaper. For the satisfaction
of the land owners, the method involved a kind of community participation in which the
judgment of the owners was sought at all stages of development.
Analysis of Experts Reviews
For this study samples are collected from Ahmedabad, Surat & Vadodara city. In this Survey
reviews taken from the government officers & Private Consultants.
Table.1 land use structure for Ahmadabad, Surat & Vadodara city.
SR.
UDPFI ABAD SURAT
Type of Land use
No.
%
%
%
1.
Residential
35-40
47.08
57.53
2.
Commercial
4-5
1.38
2.44
3.
Industrial
12-14
14.63
17.74
4.
Educational & public Purpose
14-16
2.03
3.4
5.
Recreational & Garden
20-25
8.61
0.62
6.
Transportation & Communication
15-18
11.10
9.18
7.
Water bodies & Agriculture
--15.17
9.09
100
100
100

VADODARA
%
35.25
3.33
4.31
7.21
1.17
15.35
33.38
100

Table.2 For all three cities Experts Reviews are as follows:

Type of Land use
Residential
Commercial
Industrial
Recreational
Transportation

Best
4
0
4
4
4

Good
25
12
8
8
8

Reasonable
29
25
21
25
42

Need Improvement
42
63
67
63
46

8. CONCLUSION:
From the study of national ULM models, it is concluded that all national urban land
management models are satisfied in some proportion according to their local, environmental
& political situation. In CIDCO model based on TDR (Transferable Development Rights)
mechanism is also used for metro cities existing in India. For mega cities & for those cities,
which is in under developing conditions, which have a sufficient land than T.P. Scheme
mechanism is also good in present condition. Haryana model & Madras model are also
satisfy all urban development condition for fast growing cities. TDR model is generally used
when land availability is very less and city development done in vertical direction.
From the above analysis of T.P. Scheme mechanism 40% to 70% opinion says that
improvement is needed in all land use parameters like Residential, Commercial, Industrial,
Recreational, etc. only 4-5% can say that present land use is in good proportion. 20-40% can
say that all parameters are reasonable proportion. From this opinion Sustainable Urban
Development is to be achieved in better way particularly in the T.P. Scheme mechanism for
Gujarat State.
REFERENCES
Er. A. P. Satashia, Dr. J. E. M. Macwan (June-2010), Study of Urban Land
Management Models & Practices in India, CED, SVNIT, Surat.
The Government of Gujarat, Gandhinagar, The Gujarat Town Planning and Urban
Development Act 1976.
Mistry D., (1995), The Land Market Assessment Surat City Context, SVNIT, Surat.
A.K. Jain, (2008), Urban Land Policy and Management Reforms, ITPI Journal, India.
K.T. Gurumukhi, (2003) Land Pooling Technique : A tool for plan implementation - An
Indian experience, Chief Planner, Town & Country Planning Organization, Government
of India, New Delhi , India.
5

Dr. Khurana (2004), Need for National Urban Land Policy, National cooperation
housing federation of India, New Delhi.

MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES FOR PRESERVATION OF URBAN WATER

BODIES- CASE STUDY OF BHEDWAD CREEK IN SOUTH ZONE- SURAT
Patel Anand G.
Consulting Planner and Engineer
anandpatel191@live.com/rediffmail.com

Dr. J. E. M. Macwan
Asst. Professor, P.G.Incharge (Planning)
Civil Engineering Department, S.V.N.I.T. Surat
jemm@ced.svnit.ac.in

ABSTRACT: Creeks being an important natural surface drainage system in any urban area
are getting damaged very intensively by through rapid urbanization with development of
industries around it, ultimately such process has lead to no functioning or less functioning
creeks. Development of creeks as recreational spots in urban area could solve many problems
as far as its preservation is concerned. If creeks get their due important while preparation of
town planning schemes (developmental concept of urban area in planned manner) in urban
areas it also could reclaimed a lots of urban land as well. So in this paper one such creek
named Bhedwad khadi which is located in South zone of Surat city, Gujarat; is selected as
study area and two development proposals are worked out. Such development proposals
could be a footprint towards the development of creeks in urban area.
2. OBJECTIVES
1. INTRODUCTION
As discussed creek is damaged with some
Surat city is one of the cities in India
industrial development as well as
which has experienced a tremendous
unauthorised residential encroachments
amount of urbanization in last decade.
around it, and lots of urban land around
As a main source of water city has a
the creek is undeveloped mostly due to an
perennial river Tapi flowing through it,
unhygienic atmosphere. So study aims
the development of creek and reclamation
population of city have crossed twenty
of valuable urban land of the selected
eight Lacs according to the 2001 census
data. A city has a very nicely distributed
study area. Following are the objectives
creek network in it. Surat city is divided
of the study.
in to seven main administrative zones by To identify the extent of undeveloped
local authority and the selected study
urban land in the delineated creek area.
area of creek is laid in south zone. South Exploring option for development with
zone have mainly noticed a industrial
realignment of creek by discussing with
growth and creek flowing through the
experts.
zone is much more damaged through the Preparation
and
evaluation
of
industrial waste, water carrying capacity
development proposal and analysis.
is reduced and polluted water of creek To estimate preliminary feasibility of the
have disturb an environment around the
proposal.
creek area, so as to preserve the
character of the creek two development
proposals are prepared one is with Re- 3. STUDY AREA PROFILE
sectioning of the creek and the other is
Study area South zone of surat city is
Re-Alignment of the creek. Both the
mostly developed with an industrial
proposals
mainly
aim
towards
development and thus it has attracted a
preservation of creek and reclaiming
large amount of population in it, zone
urban land through development of creek
has 408 thousand of population (almost
as recreational as well as for non
16% of whole city) and area of 61.76
motorised transportation link, by
Sq.Km. (almost 19% of whole city),
adopting the integrated approach of
referring this statistics zone is playing an
planning.

Important role in cities growth. Apart of

this almost all creeks of city has some part
of them in the zone. So it is clear that zone
is not only an important part of city as far
as economical activity is concerned but also
it has natural value too. Surat citys growth
have been controlled with a town planning
scheme concept, the creek stretch of study
area is falling in to two different town
planning schemes (No.58 and 72) of south
zone. Creek is originating from village of
Bhedwad and meets the river Mindhola
outside the city limits.

Figure 1 shows the creek as well as

surrounding area of it. The creek stretch is
further divided into the three different
phases, the first phase has experienced a
large amount of development around it
both industrial as well as residential, where
as second and third phases do have vacant
land around it. All three phases are has
completely different cross sectional area at
different intervals. Creek is basically faces
the issues of pollution, Satellite image
below shows the creek phases,

Figure1 (Development plan)

TPS 58

Sh

Creek

Industrial
area

TPS 72

Phase 2

Main Creek
Kankra

Phase 1

Phase 3

Bhedwad
Creek

Undeveloped
land parcels

Figure2 : Satellite image of study area(courtesy Google)

There are various issues through which

creek is seriously damaged and have lost its
self purification functioning. Polluted water
without any kind of treatment from
industrial area in to phase-1 makes the
water quality real too polluted and phase-1
is up stream part of creek so such water
flows up to the main creek of Kankra.

Figure2 shows that Residential development

have encroached a lot which have reduced
the top width and thus the cross sectional
area for flow of water. Figure 3 shows There
is illegal dumping of the solid waste as well
as untreated soiled wastes through outlets of
residential areas have also reduced the purity
of creek water.
Figure 4 (dumping of
untreated waste)

Figure 3(phase 1)

4. SUSTAINABILITY OF WATER BODIES

Urbanization is becoming somewhat
uncontrollable process for present urban
areas because of high population which gets
attracted towards cities for better living.
Cities generally face the problem of
demand, demand of water at the same time
resources available are getting inadequate.
So if batter management of water bodies
available to the cities in any form such as
river, lake, pond, creek etc are not done
than there will be a huge gap between
demand and supply of fresh water. At the
same time water bodies in urban area are
not only important as far as demand of
drinking water is concerned but also has
some social values too.

Mostly all the ancient development have

taken place near to the water bodies, in
todays date also people who are migrated as
labour class they encroached land near to
water bodies, and from there pollution of
water bodies starts with untreated waste.
Once water gets polluted the ecosystems
within and surround it gets disturbed which
leads to unhealthy atmosphere around them.
So the source of water as well as important
part of nature gets polluted, and becomes an
unused damaged part of city.
If water bodies in urban area are properly
addressed with such issues and efforts are
made to solve them, defiantly they could
provide a batter sustainable environment to
the cities.

5. PROPOSALS FOR CREEK DEVELOPMENT

There are two proposals which are worked
out for creek development. In both of the
proposals reclaimed area of urban land is
calculated and creek area has been given
more importance. At different intervals the

creeks width have been measured in the

drawing and average width of all three
phases have been taken, so that we can have
a batter picture of reclaimed land along with
the cut-off made to the private land owners

plots near to the creek, if maximum cross

section of creek is considered. A first
proposal is of Re-sectioning, in this
proposal creeks alignment is kept as it is
only cross sectional area of creek is made
uniform throughout the length of study
stretch. As per the town planning act water
bodies alteration is not permitted while
preparing the town planning scheme, so in
this concept creek has kept with original
alignment. Resectioning proposal have
unique feature of NCB (No Construction
Belt), in which margin of half of the width
of creek is kept as NCB where no
construction
is
permitted.
Other
components are gardens, jogging track,
dense tree plantation areas, one the best
feature of this proposal is dual carriage
cycle track which joins some important
road links between both town planning
schemes.
A second proposal is Re-alignment, in this
from the phase one completion point creeks
alignment is completely changed and have
made straight. This proposal provides well
shaped plots for development of
recreational facilities around the creek, side
margin of one side of creek is used as road
of 40mt wide where as other side margin is
used with gardens, jogging track and
shopping area. This proposal have unique
feature of shopping area, which can be used
as revenue generating alternate for local
authority.
6. CONCLUSION
From various field studies, literature review
and discussions the creek site was selected
and two different alternatives are prepared to
have batter view towards development of
creek. Both alternatives serve the sustainable
development
of
water
bodies
by
understanding an approach of integrated
planning. In both the proposal comparative
analysis of reclaimed land is worked out
which is as follows,

Table 1: Approximate benefit in terms of

rupees for TPS 58 with both proposals
App.
Total
Area in
Rate
S Vacant
Value
Hector
per
N Land
Rs. in
s
Hector
Cr.
s in Cr.
As/Draft
1
14.80
5.00
74.00
Scheme
As/Re106.6
2 Sectionin
21.32
5.00
0
g
As/Re100.0
3 Alignmen 20.00
5.00
0
t
Table 1 shows that town planning scheme
No.58 is well benefitted with resectioning
proposal, amount of reclaimed land is 21.32H
which stands with 106.60Cr of rupees.
Table 8. 4 Approximate benefit in terms of
rupees for TPS 72 with both proposals
App.
Total
Rate
Value
Vacant
Area in
per
SN
Rs. in
Land
Hectors
Hectors
Cr.
in Cr.
As/Draft
1
20.29
5.00
101.45
Scheme
As/Re2
35.50
5.00
177.50
Sectioning
As/Re3
35.03
5.00
175.15
Alignment

Table 2 shows that in town planning scheme

No.72 amount of reclaimed land is 35.50H
which has a value of 177.50Cr of rupees.
Though the detail study with hydrological and
Environmental parameters may check the
proposal with different aspects and angles,
but it could be a good approach of
development overall. For such a development
proposal many alternatives and options can be
thought and best of them can be selected for
implementation. On the studies carried out
some of the recommendations are presented
in this chapter.

7. REFERENCES
-

The Gujarat Town Planning and

Urban
development
Act-1976
published by Government of Gujarat.
Surat City Development Plan (200612) published by Surat urban
development authority.
Dr.Mrs.Prabha Shastri Rande (2004)
J. ICFAI, Managing lake tourism:
Challenges ahead. ICFAI business
school,
Ahmadabad
(www.joensuu.fi/skk).
Dr. Vijay Bedekar (2004) Seminar
on Pollution Water bodies in urban
areas. By VPM poly techniques,
Thane, Bombay.
S. Janakrajan et al (2003) National
seminar on water J. centre for
economic and
social
studies,
Hyderabad. (www.cess.ac.in).
Mohit
Kumar
Ray
(2004)
Evaluating economic sustainability
of urban and peri-urban water bodies
a case study from Kolkata ponds.
By Ed Nirmal Sengupta and Jayanta
Badyopadhyay Macmillan, New
Delhi, 2005.
Abdul Shaban, (2008) Water
poverty in Urban India: A study of
major cities by Tata Institute of
Social Science, Mumbai.
Managing
water
resources:
Communities and markets (2003) J.
by centre of civil society, New Delhi.
(www.ccsindia.org)
Cathy Johnson (2005) Plum creek
development plan, Moosehead lake
region. By, Natural resource council
of
Maine.
(www.maineenvironment.org)
Eric Banks (2006) Jacksons creek
Huxley
to
Cameron
street
development proposal, by planner of
parks and water ways, Christchurch.
(www.ccc.govt.nz)

Claire Bloxon (2008) Watters creek

development, Montogomery farm,
USA by TBG architectural and
planning
firm,
Texas.
(www.montgomeryfarm.com)
Beth Grosen (2007) Request for
development proposals for linden
yards & impound lot parcels located
in Bassett creek valley Minneapolis,
Minnesota by Minneapolis CPED
department.
(www.ci.minneapolis.mn.us)
Steve Barg (2005) Housing and Mix
used Development of Silver Creek
Property, Ripon, Wisconsin by City
Administrative department, Ripcon.
(www.cityofripon.com)
Craig carson (2007) Sligo Creek
Recreation Centre by Department of
Environment
and
protection
Montogarmy Country, Maryland.
(www.montgomerycountymd.gov)
Token Creek development proposal,
Wiconsin (2005) By Paulson
development, LLC, sun prairie,
Wisconsin. (www.appliedeco.com)
Rowing lake development proposal,
Bedford, UK (2007) by Bed ford
Rowing
lake
CIC,
Bedford.
(www.bedfordrowinglake.com)

THE CONCEPT OF BRANDING FOR SUSTAINABLE PUBLIC

TRANSPORTATION
By
Dave Nitya*
nityadave@gmail.com
Doriwala Hiral*
hiradoril@yahoo.com
Dr. N C Shah**

ABSTRACT

With more and more people coming to live in cities, and increased affordability, vehicle
ownership is growing rapidly. There is a recognized need for mass transportation by the
government. The setting up funds and advisory bodies to support urban local bodies to
develop mass transportation in Indian cities is a huge step towards making cities self
sustainable.
It is an accepted fact that a collective way of transportation is more effective, less time
consuming, economic and sustainable solution than private travel. The real challenge lies
in achieving these benefits lie in making public travel the preferred mode of choice
among other options available. This is a remarkable opportunity to develop a longlasting, greener economy, supported by a sustainable transportation system.
Mass transportation being a new concept in India, poses certain questions, the most
important one being whether the desired ridership and modal shift can be attained
through provision of city buses, BRTS or LRTS. This paper deals with the issues of
modal shift and ways to achieve it, emphasizing on brand development as a method of
developing a sound and sustainable ridership. This shall make the efforts and the funds
gone into building these expensive infrastructures in many cities in India a success.

*Research Students, Department of Civil Engineering, S. V. National Institute of Technology, Surat.

** Professsor, Department of Civil Engineering, S. V. National Institute of Technology, Surat.

1.

INTRODUCTION

All around the world, governments invest in public transport in recognition of the broad
benefits it can bring to the citizens. These benefits are often grouped as economic,
environmental, social, safety and health benefits. It is being recognized by more and more
societies, institutions and research that an effective and accessible public transport underpins
a healthy, equitable and sustainable future for the cities.
The demand for transportation has increased in India simultaneous to increase in
employment opportunities in cities and affordability. This demand is mostly met by increased
vehicle ownership in cities, which eventually increases traffic to more than what the cities
can handle. The relationship between home, work, recreation, education and experiential
travel becomes complex and travel becomes frequent. It is increasingly being realized that
collective transport is more economic and sustainable than private transport particularly in
cities. The challenge lies in positioning this public transport for successful delivery of its
manifold benefits.
Brands often have more to do with the psyche of the prospective buyer rather than with
providing information about the actual product. It is the basic interface of the company with
the public or prospective user similar to a logo or monogram. This interface however is of a
pseudo nature, operating more in the minds of the reader long after they have seen the
symbolic representation of the brand in the form of a series of logos, colour usages, sounds
or ambassadors.Successful branding creates and emotional environment for the general
public ensuing an impression of dependability, predictability, trust upon the usage/ presence
of the brand.
In the instance of any for-profit company, the aim is to generate maximum profit through
attracting the maximum number of consumers.Some requirements for successful branding
are impact value, location, multiplicity, simplicity of understanding, universal aesthetics or
appeal. Branding of some kind is generally used in all products but not all turn successful to
generate following amongst consumers.
This paper looks at one aspect of the approach to go beyond the conventional approach of
customer service to make public transport the mode of choice, namely branding and the use
of colour, etc as basic tool. This can begin effectively position and promote public transport
in urban areas in cities.

2.

URBAN PUBLIC TRANSPORT: A CONSUMER PRODUCT

Transportation services, namely urban mass transport in India is a new concept trying to be
developed by the government of India through JnNURM funding for BRTS, metro projects
and city bus systems in various cities across the country. The requirement of these projects
have already been felt and proved time and again. But the key to the success of these
expensive ongoing projects is the achievement of the expected ridership.
If any mass transport system is considered to be a product as a service, to be sold to the
consumer, the public, it is realized that it is a rather inexpensive product. In addition to this,
as a service, it needs to be repeatedly and continuously used for its utilization and
maintenance. In marketing terminology, public transport is a low value, repeat purchase

product. For this, it is important to make the consumers (the public) to purchase the product
on most if not all the occasions they travel within the city.
This places a strong obligation on part of the service designers and providers (the city
corporations) to provide a reliable and predictable service (product) to sustain its repeat
purchase. A faulty service cannot sell time after time. Hence the challenge lies in maintaining
quality, timely delivery on a daily basis. Marketing cannot compensate for poor service or
design, but it can build awareness, loyalty, appreciation and increase business on a strong
foundation of good service design and customer focussed delivery.

3.

NEED OF BRANDING FOR TRANSPORTATION SERVICES

Similar to any other type of consumer service, transportation is also a service for the public,
whether of goods, passenger transport, which can be a government undertaking, a private
service provider undertaking or a PPP. Urban pass transport is also a commodity to be
consumed by maximum number for public, it is actually a product to be sold and re-sold to a
vast majority of people.
To be motivated to make a decision to opt for public transport instead of travelling by car or
two-wheeler, a consumer, to purchase a bus ticket or a metro ticket needs to be sufficiently
aware of the product or service. Usually when a new metro service or BRTS is launched in a
city, people are generally aware that this service is operational, but do not have sufficient
information to make a decision to use it, or enough incentive to drive them to make a change
from their private car. While the rising cost of fuel and congestion in city roads do pose a
challenge for the private vehicle user every day, lack of information still remains one of the
most important challenges of most public transport systems. The barriers between the system
and the users remain to be question like where are the tickets available, where is the bus or
metro to be boarded from, what are the different routes, etc. The purpose of branding is to
bring together all the information related to the use of the product and offer this to the
customer in a useful and familiar way. The brand gives familiarity, reassurance and comfort
to the traveller, leading to the outcome of more and more usage.

4. BUILDING BRAND IDENTITY FOR URBAN PUBLIC TRANSPORT

It is an established fact that cities need to create high-quality public transport systems to
improve the urban environment. However, not until recently has it become clear that cities
must also convince the public that these high-quality systems are in fact high-quality. The
purpose of the branding is to help transit agencies develop strong and successful strategies to
achieve three important goals:
1. Attract new users that currently use private transport, such as cars and motorcycles,
2. Retain existing public transport users who might feel compelled to buy a private
vehicle, and,
3. Secure political and financial support from government officials.

By taking a cue from the private sector, which routinely and successfully influences
consumer behavior, some branding, marketing and communications tactics to the public
transport sector are:

Brand and identity

Internal communication

User education

User information systems

Marketing campaigns

Public relations and external communications

User feedback systems

Online engagement

4.1.

Basics of brand perception in transport

Passenger perception of public transport has been the subject of much research in recent
years. Questionnaire-based passenger surveys along with measurement and analysis methods
are used to determine the relative importance of quality factors. The relative valuation of
individual quality factors represents a challenging task perceived quality is based on the
totality of the user experience, which may be influenced by myriad other factors occurring at
the same time, not just the quantities measured but also emotion, memory or association. The
potential or actual user of public transport is a consumer of travelling services whose choices
may quite extensively be influenced through brand building. Since perceptions are often just
as abstract as the word implies, the user, when asked, may find it difficult to even itemise the
occasionally infinitesimal elements that give rise to the perception.

Fig. 1 standard look of bus system

User-driven planning requires acceptance of the fact that not all elements of the calculations
can be established in advance to provide an optimal cost-benefit ratio. Instead, the planners
need to trust that the coherent communication of user-driven values and visions will create a
user-friendly operating environment of high quality.
4.2.

Creating a standard look and feel

Generally the branding of any public transport system involves a 3-stage process of study of
status quo public mindset (media analysis is a tool used for this), user-data collection (usually
done by the operator), putting the user data obtained to use, whether in procurement of a new

information system, competitive tendering of new fleet vehicles or design of a new public
transport logo.

Fig. 2 easy recognition by branding

Table 1
No.
1

Dimension
reference
1D:

2D:

3D:

4D:

of Description

How to achieve

factors identifiable
first glance

at colour
material
texture
surface
odours
printed
shape
material and emblematic pattern
symbolism
graphics
outline
logo
physical
world: 3-dimensional shape
equipment and tools
function
service content
ergonomics
touch
values communicated to mission
users
tradition
philosophy
spiritual
cultural
emotional

As given in above table, the thing first observed about a brand is the surface (1D), which
gives the first impression of the essence of the product or service. The comparable qualities
in the public transport brand would include modernity and recognisability. After the first
impressions come actual operations and the operating environment inclusive of user
interfaces (2D and 3D). The overall perception of the service is further influenced by the
fourth platform (4D), which communicates the values and philosophy behind operations and
serves as a link between the past, present and future.

Fig. 3. Indore city bus: new branded version

Fig. 4. Bogota: Transmileno BRT, a brand of BRTS in itself

Fig.5. London bus services

Fig. 6. Easily recognizable branding

5.

BRANDING IN CUSTOMER INFORMATION

Branding in customer information needs to cover different types of information,

communicated through more than one forms. The bottom line for successful communication
of a large amount of information in a very limited space is to create simplicity of
understanding. The challenge here lies in minimizing confusion. Application of architectural
anthropological signs, universally recognizable symbols can be adopted, and be extended to
road use too, for complete integration of public-transportation and traffic.

Fig.7. Use of colour in branding: Los Angeles metro

Besides the above, there is also an opportunity of enhanced embedded information in
public transport systems. Colour coding has also been extensively used in various systems
like underground metros (e.g. Delhi, Paris, London metro systems). Colours are used to
identify routes, differentiate parts of the systems and to eliminate the need for timetables
which are often more difficult to interpret. Colour coding offers a highly cost-effective way
of communicating, allowing the service providers to concentrate information services at
places and to those most in need, especially in areas of low service supply.

6.

ACHIEVEMENT IN BRAND RECOGNITION

Like any other brands, public transport brands need time and prolonged, effective repetition
to achieve the desired public recognition and following. The advantage of public transport
system is that every element of the system is an opportunity of promoting the brand. For e.g.
in a BRTS system, the bus stations, buses, ticketing counters, tickets, information signage,
web portal, and all small and big infrastructure associated with the system can be constituents
of the unique image of the system as a whole. It is also possible to convey messages through
an established brand. These messages may be aimed at influencing public behaviour, and
building customer loyalty.

Fig.8. Use of brand in customer information

7.

CONCLUSION

Public transport is a public service that needs to make a good impression on its customers.
Every time is the first time for some first-time user, while an impression on daily users
should be made every single day. User-centric brand thinking and brand management
provides an excellent tool for the comprehensive fine-tuning of public transport service.
Branding provides the basic tool for building marketing and promotional products to position
public transportation beyond basic functionality, to offer a combination of community

satisfaction. It is important to avoid having unsustainable cities with sharp divisions between
private vehicles and public transport. This can be achieved through creating access and
penetration in the public mindset by branding the public transport systems.

8. REFERENCES
1. Canadian Urban Transportation Association (2005), Marketing Transit in Canada:
Meeting the ridership challenge, Issue Paper 14.
2. DAlessandro, David, Brand Warfare: 10 Rules for Building the Killer Brand, McGrawHill Companies, 2001.
3. Elmore-Yalch, R. (1988) Using market segmentation to increase transit ridership.
Transit Cooperative Research Program Report No. 36. Washington, DC: National
Academy Press.
4. Falbel, Stephen, Pilar Rodriguez, Hebert Levinson, et al., Bus Rapid Transit Plans in
New Yorks Capital District, Journal of Public Transportation, Volume 9, No. 3, 2006.
5. Federal Transit Administration, Characteristics of Bus Rapid Transit for DecisionMaking,
2009.
http://www.nbrti.org/docs/pdf/Low%20Res%20CBRT%202009%20Update.pdf
6. Federal Transit Administration, New Starts Project Planning and Development.
http://www.fta.dot.gov/planning/planning_environment_5221.html
7. Federal
Transit
Administration,
Small
http://www.fta.dot.gov/planning/newstarts/planning_environment_222.html

Starts.

8. Haig, Matt, Brand Failures: The Truth About the 100 Biggest Branding Mistakes of All
Time, Kogan Page, 2003.
9. Henke, Cliff, Parsons Brinckerhoff Inc., How Customer-Appealing Design and
Branding Win New Riders: Data and Best Practices, 2007 APTA Bus Conference.
http://www.nbrti.org/docs/pdf/APTA_Bus_2007_Branding_and_Image_Henke.pdf
10. Hess, Daniel and Alex Bitterman (2008) Bus Rapid Transit Identity: An Overview of
Current Branding Practice. Journal of Public Transportation, Vol. 11, No. 2, 2008
11.J Hawthorne, Sinclair Knight Merz (Europe), UK, 2008, Branding and mode choice
Webster heath, Singapore Nov 2008, What Cololor Is Your Journey.

PUBLIC TRANSPORT AND SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT

Parikh Hina J.
Urban Planning Officer, Surat Municipal Corporation, Surat
Email : hinajparikh@gmail.com
Parikh Jaydeep N.
Assistant Town Planner, Surat Municipal Corporation, Surat
Email : jaydeepparikh@gmail.com

ABSTRACT

Among the several issues that the growth of cities has brought to the force, transport has
emerged as a core concern. Its criticality itself keeps mounting as we move towards the
larger cities. While transport would be a key element in the context of any town, in the
instance of the largest cities, there is scarcely any other sector that draws as much
attention. As mobility slows down and citizens spend hours meandering through tortuous
journeys from home to workplace and back home, the state of the cities transport system
come under escalating censure. The problem impacts not merely the car owners or the
drivers of commercial vehicles but all sections of society including the poor who traverse
longer distances and commute longer hours to earn their livelihood.
Despite the innate strengths that public transport provides, it is not always strong enough
to self finance its development. It therefore requires governmental support in order to
make it sustainable. One of the further reasons for non sustainability of public transport is
popular insistence on low fares that are not related to real costs. No wonder, therefore,
that public transport is one of the most recurrent themes in workshops around the world
and also for sustainable development.

1.0 INTRODUCTION
Transportation is the backbone to the development of urban areas. It enables functioning
of urban areas efficiently by providing access and mobility. Passenger transport has an
overriding influence on the functioning of the city. With growth, the mobility needs
increases. Peoples personal choices and freedom get expressed in increased ownership
and use of personalized vehicles. The public agencies operating public transport systems
often fail to restructure service types to meet with the changing demand pattern. As a
result public transport becomes financially less viable, speeds reduce, and congestion
levels increase and the transportation becomes a source of environmental problem.
Vehicles are major sources of urban air pollution and greenhouse gas emissions. There
are economic consequences as well. Vehicles are major sources of urban air pollution and
greenhouse gas emissions. Traffic, Transportation service, Mass Transportation, and
Road network are key indicators to provide the image of city.

2.0 PUBLIC TRANSPORT

DEVELOPING COUNTRIES

AND

SUSTAINABLE

DEVELOPMENT

IN

In the 21st Century, humanity has made great progress in the fields of science and
technology, thereby making human life more comfortable.
Public transport is an area directly linked to sustainable development. Talking about
India, the public transport system has nothing to boast about. It is almost non-existent
except in the metro cities. Just recently the capital, New Delhi has developed a subway
system (still only on a few routes, and yet to be completed) which London, New York,
and Washington to name a few cities, have had long before. Mumbai has a dated
suburban railway system, however for a novice it can be a nightmare. The exponentially
increasing population has lead to the overburdening of the system. Peak hours can see
people on the rooftops of the train dangerously close to the overhead electric lines. In no
other country would this be acceptable. Security on the trains is not assured there is an
increase in crime against women on these trains, in addition to the usual pickpocketers.
Due to an exponential increase in population, most of the local trains people standing
neck-to-neck and even leaning outside. As a result there are more private vehicles- which
eventually increase pollution. Ahmedabad is one of the most polluted cities in India.
Driving a vehicle during peak hours can be an unpleasant experience with vehicle
fumes as company. Adulterated fuel does not help the cause either. As far as public
transport is concerned, India is a failed state.
What is more shameful is that it takes orders by the Supreme Court for the central
government to ensure public health and safety. It was only after that the courts intervened
that it was made compulsory for public vehicles on roads in the capital to run on CNG
(Compressed Natural Gas), a non-polluting fuel, to be followed suit by other cities. Again
it is the courts which have made wearing a helmet while driving a two-wheeler
compulsory only recently.
Developing an efficient public transport system is a bare necessity as it is beneficial on
both counts lesser fuel consumption and therefore a cleaner atmosphere. We could have
more vehicles running on alternative fuel and replace fuel guzzling machines with more
economical ones. It is high time we became more aware and concerned about our
surroundings.

3.0 IMPORTANCE OF PUBLIC TRANSPORT

The transport system of the city has been commonly compared to the circulatory system
of the human body, comprising the heart, the blood, and the blood vessels. Ailments in
the system may seriously impair human performance and a seizure may result in fatality.
The transport system has equal significance in terms of a citys life. A good and efficient
transport system would enhance efficiency, productivity, environment, public health and
quality of life. A substandard system would diminish its economic performance,
aggravate problems of energy security, create environmental hazards, increase public
health problems and overall subtract from the quality of life available to the citizens.
3.1 Five Heads of Public Transport
Transport may be defined as the movement of the people and goods from one place to
another. In its widest form, it comprises air service, rail and bus service, ferry service,
through water, taxi service and personalized travel by cars or any other kind. All such

transport services that are not personalized fall into the realm of public transport. Services
that are personalized move into the territory of private transport.
Public transport may be treated under five heads. The first is the realm of an overall plan
in regard to question of transport. The second of the area of strategy in regard to
implementation of the plan and various transport modes. Thirdly the modal stratergy
needs to be backed by appropriate and sufficient infrastructure. Hence an infrastructure
plan is essential. Fourthly, instruments have to be identify to locate resources to fund that
infrastructure in a time frame. Lastly, regulatory mechanism (lows, rules etc.) for
regulation, operation and coordination must be put in place.
3.2 Impact of Public Transport on the Urban Poor
For the urban poor, the cited transforming scenario is fraught with grave consequences.
The cost of traveling for them in search of livelihood opportunities within the city center
is rising and the time spend on the traveling is climbing as the poor get push out on the
periphery of cities and in the peri urban areas. The cheaper modes of non motorized
transport such as walking and cycling have become hugely perilous. Further, on account
of air pollution cause by automobile emissions, the poor suffer maximum explorer and
this severely impact their health.
3.3 Socio Economic Context
Any public transport system also needs to take into account the socio economy profile of
the city and the kind of commuters it must service. Universal availability and cross
spectrum affordability are the whole marks such a transport system. Since the urban poor
are vital service provider, the system must actor in their requirements and provide public
transport at cost affordable to them. While service provision must at all times be
commercially viable, subsidization of service in respect of the poor, if required, can still
be provided through the viability gap root.

4.0 BUS RAPID TRANSIT SYSTEM (BRTS)

Bus rapid transit (BRT) is a term applied to a variety of public transportation systems
using buses to provide faster, more efficient service than an ordinary bus line. Often this
is achieved by making improvements to existing infrastructure, vehicles and scheduling.
The goal of these systems is to approach the service quality of rail transit while still
enjoying the cost savings and flexibility of bus transit. The expression BRT is mainly
used in North America; in Europe and Australia, it is often called a busway, while
elsewhere, it may be called a quality bus.
Bus rapid transit takes part of its name from rail rapid transit, which describes a highcapacity urban public-transit system with its own right-of-way, multiple-car trains at
short headways, and longer stop spacing than traditional streetcars and buses. BRT,
however, uses buses on a wide variety of rights-of-way, including mixed traffic,
dedicated lanes on surface streets, and busways completely separated from traffic.
Typical transit speeds of BRT systems range from 17 to 30 miles per hour (27 to 48
km/h), which can compare with surface running light rail.

4.1 Main features Bus Rapid Transit System

An ideal bus rapid transit service would be expected to include most of the following
features:

Bus only, grade-separated (or at-grade exclusive) right-of-way: A dedicated bus lane
allows the bus to operate separately, without interference from other modes of traffic.
Although buses have a long turning radius, busways can be engineered to tighter
standards than an open roadway, reducing construction costs while still assuring safe
operation.

Comprehensive coverage: BRT systems can also share existing roadways with other
traffic or use bus lanes that restrict other traffic from a portion of the roadway.
Service along public roadways can be improved by taking advantage of bus priority
methods.

Serves a diverse market with high-frequency all day service: A BRT network with
comprehensive coverage can serve a diverse market (all income ranges) by moving
large numbers of people between locations quickly and reliably throughout the day,
while maintaining a comfortable riding experience. These characteristics are essential
to satisfying the demands of a diverse market or offering high-frequency service
without heavy subsidy.

Bus priority: Preferential treatment of buses at intersections can involve the extension
of green time or actuation of the green light at signalized intersections upon detection
of an approaching bus. Intersection priority can be particularly helpful when
implemented in conjunction with bus lanes or bus streets, because general-purpose
traffic does not intervene between buses and traffic signals.

Stations: High-quality BRT systems feature significant investment in enclosed

stations which may incorporate attractive sliding glass doors, staffed ticket booths,
information booths, and other more standard features listed above.

4.2 Cost of the Project

The capital costs of implementing BRT lines in general is more cost-effective than
constructing LRT lines. Costs vary considerably due to factors such as cost of the
roadway, station structures, park-and-ride facilities, traffic signal systems and vehicles.
4.3 Environmental problems
The typical diesel engine on the bus causes noticeable levels of air pollution, noise and
vibration. With hybrid vehicles and the new forms of trolleybus, BRT designers hope to
increase ride quality and decrease pollution. As the energy use for acceleration is
proportional to the vehicle mass, electric traction allows lighter vehicles, faster
acceleration and energy that can be fed back into batteries or the grid through
regenerative brakes. Regenerative braking is standard on many modern rail systems.
A BRT system can use trolley-buses to lower gaseous and noise emissions. The price
penalty of installing overhead lines could be offset by the system's environmental
benefits potential for savings from centrally generated electricity, especially in cities

where electricity is less expensive than other power sources. In addition, most trolleybus
applications can be converted to light rail with the only extra expense being the laying
and maintenance of tram tracks in the street.

5.0 TRANSPORTATION AND SUSTAINABILITY

Transportation, as a core component supporting the interactions and the development of
socioeconomic systems, has also been the object of much consideration about to what
extent it is sustainable. Building upon the Brundtland Commission sustainable
transportation can be defined as: "The ability to meet todays transportation needs
without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their transportation
needs."
Most studies agree that automobile dependence is related to an unsustainable urban
environment. Other transport alternatives commonly do not measure up to the
convenience of the automobile. Private and flexible forms of transportation, such as the
automobile, are thus fundamental to urban mobility and should not be discarded as
options for the sake of sustainability. A bias is observed in the transport community
towards an emphasis for public transit and non-motorized transportation as the dominant,
if not sole, strategy towards sustainable transportation. Yet, almost all public transit
systems are financially unsustainable, imposing burdens on the society.
Transportation and sustainability for both passengers and freight must also contend with
mitigation versus adaptation issues.
Mitigation concerns the improvement of productivity and efficiency of existing modes,
terminals and managerial approaches so that environmental externalities are reduced.
They tend to be short to medium term strategies.
Adaptation is a change in the level of use and the market share of respective modes to
better reflect a long term trend, such as higher energy prices and stricter environmental
regulations.
In any cases, the challenges of sustainability lean on coping with changes in transport
demand while improving transport supply.
5.1

Coping with Transport Demand

In order to effectively reduce the adverse impacts of current transportation systems,

existing transportation / land use development patterns must adapt. A higher level of
integration between transportation and land use often results in increasing levels of
accessibility without necessarily increasing the need for automobile travel. There are
several ways in which transportation systems can adapt to cope with transport demand
and reach a better level of sustainability.

The densification of urban landscapes where high densities encourage the use of public
transport and pedestrian or bicycle travel as cost-effective alternatives. This can involve
mixed and compact land use patterns are clustered together and can result in reduced
automobile trips and increase some of the sustainable transport alternatives.

Pricing strategies that remove artificial signals such as subsidies and let the users
assume the real cost of transportation. Once the pricing of transportation is sent as a
clearer signals to users, they are likely to adapt their usage in accordance to their capacity
to afford them. If unsubsidized transportation is inexpensive (of that its price is
declining), it is a good signal of its sustainability. Increasing transport costs, and the
pressure to subsidized them to keep them are a signal that they may be unsustainable.
Some of the most easily implemented policies to help reduce urban travel demand
include full-cost pricing and traffic bans. Each of these strategies will produce variable
results depending on the urban context in which they are implemented:

Full-cost pricing involves the full (or partial) recovery of costs related to the public
investments incurred by varying levels of government in relation to constructing,
repairing and operating road networks. It includes road pricing, pollution taxes and fees,
and parking controls. Motorists are charged a floating fee (depending on the variability of
demand in peak and off peak hours) for using targeted roads. Can be implemented
through a variety of techniques such as tolls, or licensing fees. The main objective of this
strategy would be to discourage automobile use during peak periods and to promote the
use of alternatives modes of transport.

Taxes and pollution fees are other methods of recovering transportation costs while
attempting to reduce heavy traffic loads. They would involve the implementation of
increased taxes on vehicle and fuel purchasing as well as imposing fees on vehicle
owners who operate at low levels of energy efficiency. However, taxes are a form of
coercion and the question remains about how their proceeds are allocated.

Parking controls, either in raising parking prices or reducing the amount of parking
areas, can be used to deter the use of privately owned vehicles in areas of highest demand
by raising the price of commuting to high density areas. Again, the expected result of this
strategy is to encourage (or force) commuters to seek cheaper alternatives either in mass
transit or carpooling.

The strategy of traffic bans is a more direct method of reducing traffic demand. Through
traffic bans (in the form of license number restrictions), the responsible regional or
municipal institutions would exert direct control over the allowable limit of vehicles in a
given urban area depending on measures of transport supply-demand functions or
arbitrary estimates of carrying capacity.

5.2

Improving Transport Supply

Reconciling public and private transport. Both forms of transportation have roles to
fulfill. The long term trend has been a substantial growth of private transport in spite of
all the efforts made to promote public transportation. The expansion and development of
mass transit systems which must not only satisfy a niche demand but also make effective
use of urban space by conforming to a number of factors including urban form, density,
and modal preferences. In doing so, the fleets and networks must ensure a level of
flexibility while ensuring low ridership costs which would reduce per-passenger pollution
levels and traffic congestion alike. Comparatively, methods of improving and upgrading

existing public transit services should include the improvement of service coverage and
quality as well as increasing frequency where and when it is most needed (during peak
hours). Also, the chosen modes of mass transit transportation whether bus, light rail,
subway, trams, "group" taxis, or a combination of two or more should be designed,
implemented, and operated in a way that will facilitate and predicate complementarity
and interchangeability while remaining cost-effective. Most of the time, such goals are
simply wishful thinking.
One of the most important and most often overlooked element in improving urban
transport systems is the ability to provide safe and ample access to non-motorized
transport modes to the urban population. The integration of individual modes of nonmotorized transport such as walking and cycling, if properly promoted and encouraged,
can provide access to shopping, schools, and work for a growing proportion of the
population. Also, for cities struggling with serious traffic congestion and air pollution,
non-motorized transport should be considered as an indispensable and beneficial
alternative to private vehicles while serving as a crucial link in an integrated public
transportation system.
Subsequently, where urban transport priorities are manifested and dictated by poverty,
traffic congestion, and pollution from motor vehicle emissions, efforts to improve the
transportation supply should emphasize the need to reduce the externalities of motorized
transport through the expansion and improvement of mass transit and, most of all,
encourage the proliferation of non-motorized means of urban transport. Such a goal is
however in contrast with the modal choice reality of many cities, particularly those
experiencing rapid growth. The issue of sustainable transport thus remains elusive.

6.0 CONCLUSION
Development of efficient Public Transport system to ensure safe, affordable, quick,
comfortable, reliable and sustainable access for the growing number of city residents to
jobs, education, recreation and such other needs within our cities. It is sought to be
achieved by:

Incorporating urban transportation as an important parameter at the urban planning stage

rather than being a consequential requirement.
Encouraging integrated land use and transport planning in all cities so that travel
distances are minimized and access to livelihoods, education, and other social needs,
especially for the marginal segments of the urban population is improved.
Improving access of business to markets and the various factors of production.
Bringing about a more equitable allocation of road space with people, rather than
vehicles, as its main focus.
Encourage greater use of public transport and non motorized modes by offering Central
financial assistance for this purpose.
Enabling the establishment of quality focused multi-modal public transport systems that
are well integrated, providing seamless travel across modes.
Establishing effective regulatory and enforcement mechanisms that allow a level playing
field for all operators of transport services and enhanced safety for the transport system
users.

Establishing institutional mechanisms for enhanced coordination in the planning and

management of transport systems.
Introducing Intelligent Transport Systems for traffic management.
Addressing concerns of road safety and trauma response.
Reducing pollution levels through changes in traveling practices, better enforcement,
stricter norms, technological improvements, etc.
Building capacity (institutional and manpower) to plan for sustainable Public transport
and establishing knowledge management system that would service the needs of all urban
transport professionals, such as planners, researchers, teachers, students, etc.
Promoting the use of cleaner technologies.
Raising finances, through innovative mechanisms that tap land as a resource, for
investments in Public transport infrastructure.
Associating the private sector in activities where their strengths can be beneficially
tapped.
Taking up pilot projects that demonstrate the potential of possible best practices in
sustainable urban transport.

7.0

REFERENCE

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dominant logic for marketing, Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, Vol. 36,
No. 1, pp. 39-53

Amann, D and Sieber, N. (2005), Transport in developing countries: Renewable energy

versus energy reduction, Transport Reviews, Vol.25, No. 6, 719-738

Demirag, I., Barry, J. and Khadaroo, I., (2005), Concluding remarks on emerging
governance structures and practices: the state, the market and the voice of civil society; in
Demirag I. (Ed.), Corporate Social Responsibility, Accountability and Governance:
Global Perspectives, Greenleaf Publishing, Sheffield, pp.351-360.

Edvardsson, B., Enquist, B. and Hay, M. (2006), Values Based Service Brands:
Narratives from IKEA, Managing Service Quality, Vol.16, No. 3, pp. 230-246

Edvardsson, B. and Enquist, B. (2009), Values-based service for sustainable business

Lessons from IKEA. Routledge, London.

Enquist, B., Edvardsson, B., and Sebhatu, S. P. (2008), Corporate Social Responsibility
for Charity or for Service Business?, The Asian journal of Service Quality Management,
Vol. 9, No. 1, pp.55-67.

Grnroos, C. (2006), What can a service logic offer marketing theory? In Lusch, R. F and
Vargo, S. L. (Eds.) The service Dominant Logic of Marketing, M.E. Sharpe, Inc. New
York

Hart, S. L. (2007), Capitalism at the Crossroads: The Unlimited Opportunities in Solving

the Worlds Most Difficult Problems, 2nd Edtn., Wharton School Publishing, Upper
Saddle River, NJ.

Harrison, J. and Freeman, E. (1999), Stakeholders, social responsibility and performance:

empirical evidence and theoretical perspectives, Academy of Management Journal, Vol.
42, No. 5, pp. 479-485

Hook Walter (2006) Urban Transportation and the Millennium development Goals,
Global Urban Development, Vol. 2, No. 1

Kenworthy, Jr. (2003) Transport Energy Use and Greenhouse Gases in Urban Passenger
Transport Systems: A Study of 84 Global Cities, Presented to the international Third
Conference of the Regional Government Network for Sustainable Development, Notre
Dame University, Fremantle, Western Australia, September 17-19
Web sites:
http://www.iea.org/
http://www.jakarta.go.id/
http://dishub.jakarta.go.id/
http://www.transjakarta.co.id/
http://instran.org/
http://www.detik.com

HOUSEHOLDS CHARACTERISTICS OF THE SURAT CITY

Vaghani A. M.
M-tech Research Scholar, Planning,
SVNIT, Surat.
amvaghani325@gmail.com
Patel C. R.
Asst. Prof. CED, SVNIT, Surat
crp@ced.svnit.ac.in
Tailor R. M.
Asst. Prof. CED, SVNIT, Surat
rmt@ced.svnit.ac.in
ABSTRACT: Urbanization is rising at the rapid pace. The rise of population in city
demanding more infrastructure facilities. It is challenging task for the urban planner to have
the policy decision in absence of the data. The present behavior and characteristics of the
citizen will play vital role in the decision making process for planner. The home interviews
survey with the appropriate sample size will truly represent the overall city characteristics.
With this reference the present paper focused on the house hold characteristics of the Surat
city. The home interview survey was carried out of 647 household and it is statistically
checked to have representation of the city characteristics.
1. INTRODUCTION
Household characteristics (HC) played very important role in the planning field. Urban
Planning, transportation planning, Infrastructure planning, Town planning, Rural planning
etc. done very effectively for developed area when planner knows the present Household
characteristics of that area. Household characteristics (HC) will cover a data like Family size,
Income Per month, Number of Working member, Number of school going member, Number
of children, Number of Adults, etc. HC played major roll in developed of any infrastructure
facilities for any city. The Paper focus on the HC for the fastest growing city of Surat in
Gujarat state of India. This study is carried out as the part of the research work for studying
the travel behavior. For the study purpose Surat city (Figure 1.1) is divided in to the 7 zones
and each zone comprising 5-9 study wards. The study observed that avg. family size at city
level is 4.27, max. family size 9, min family size 1, Avg. monthly income is 28.83 thousand,
and 2W ownership is 72% in surat city.
2. STUDY AREA PROFILE
The area of Surat city is divided into 7 zones: Central, North, East, South, South-East,
South-West and West. The Seven Zones are further divided in 47 study wards comprising of
2 to 3 census wards each.

Figure1 Study area ward wise: Surat City.

The existing census ward boundaries are considered, while delineating the study wards, as
data is available on census ward basis. Zone wise and Ward Wise Distribution of Study area
shown in table no. 1 & 2.
Table 1 Zone Wise distribution of Study Area
Zone
No.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7

Zone

Study ward No.

Central Zone
North Zone
East Zone
South Zone
South West Zone
West Zone
South- East Zone

1,2,3,4,5,6
7,8,9,33,34
10,11,12,13,14,35,36,37
15,19,20,21,23,39,40,41
24,25,26,27,28,42,43,44,45
29,30,31,32,46,47
16,17,18,22,38

Area
(Sq km.)
8.89
43.90
27.14
55.95
116.05
51.27
19.88

Population
2001
2011
416951
384245
177972
261836
762471
1134758
426048
684824
381975
549840
135775
189190
575182
905241

Density
(ppha)
432
60
418
122
47
37
455

3. HOUSEHOLD STRUCTURE
Due to joint family in India the family size is higher. In the study area the family pattern is
observed between 4 to 6. Table 2 shows the range of household size for various zones of
Surat city. The household size varies from minimum 1 to maximum 9 with an average of
4.27. Fig. 2 shows maximum, minimum and avg. Household Size of different zones.

Table 2 Households structure

Zone No.

Min H.H
Size

Max H.H
Size

Avg H.H
Size

* Avg
Children

Avg.
Adults

Avg
Working
Members

Avg School
going member

2.00

9.00

5.03

1.06

3.98

1.57

1.56

1.00

9.00

3.86

0.96

2.91

1.44

1.11

2.00

9.00

4.58

1.27

3.42

1.56

1.45

2.00

9.00

4.27

1.21

3.04

1.37

1.29

2.00

6.00

3.90

0.76

3.14

1.60

1.08

1.00

7.00

4.16

0.93

3.21

1.51

1.36

1.00

7.00

4.08

1.22

2.85

1.38

1.18

* Age less than 18 years.

Figure 2 Family size Distribution

The average HH size, no of adults and children in a family are 4.27, 3.22, 1.06 respectively.
The average working member and average school going members in a households are 1.49
and 1.29 respectively. The zone wise average composition of households, adult, children,
working member and school going members are shown graphically in Fig. 3. The analysis
of family size observed during the home interview survey reveals that about 75% of the
families have more than three members (Table 3) in individual category. Household size of
four has been observed for the highest number of samples i.e. about 37%. Fig. 4 illustrates
the percentage of households for different Family sizes.

Figure 3 House Hold Structure

Table 3 Family Size Analysis.
Family Size
(No)
<= 3
4
5
6
>=7

Samples

% OF Total

Cumulative %

163
250
155
58
41

24.44
37.48
23.24
8.70
6.15

24.44
61.92
85.16
93.85
100.00

Figure 4 Family Size Analysis of Study Area

4. INCOME STRUCTURE
Information gathered for the income structure of all seven zones is presented in Table 4. It is
observed that the minimum monthly income per household varies from Rs.2000/- to

Rs.5000/- where as the maximum monthly income per household ranges between
Rs.100000/- to Rs.300000/- in various zones. The zonal average family income is showing a
variation from Rs.20000/- per month to Rs.38000/- per month. On the whole, a household in
the city is found to have an average income of Rs.28400 /-. The income structure is
graphically presented through Fig.5.
Table 4 Income Structure
Zone no.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7

Min. Income
(in thousand/month)
4.00
2.50
5.00
2.00
5.00
1.90
3.50

Max. Income
(in thousand/month)
100.00
120.00
300.00
221.00
200.00
200.00
250.00

Avg. Income
(in thousand/month)
28.91
27.64
31.44
20.70
38.14
30.91
24.12

Figure 5 Income Structure

5. VEHICLE OWNERSHIP PATTERN
The information gathered for the household ownership of vehicles viz bicycle, two-wheeler
and four-wheeler is analyzed sector wise and presented in Table 5 (illustration in Fig. 6). It is
observed that two wheeler ownership in the households is in the range of 1.22 for Zone-7
(South- East- Limbayat) to 1.9 for Zone-1 (Central Zone) showing that every household
possesses more than one 2-wheeler. Households of four-wheeler is also quite high with
minimum one household out of four households in Zone-7 (South- East- Limbayat)
possessing a car, whereas two households out of four households have cars in Zone-1
(Central) and Zone-5 (South-West-Athwa). The highest no. of bicycles/HH is observed at
0.30 bicycle / hh in the Zone-1 (Central). Out of average 2.13 vehicles owned per family,
72% are two wheelers reflecting them as the major mode of city passenger travel. Fig. 6
shows proportion of vehicles owned by households in the study area.

Table 5 Vehicle Ownership Pattern

Zone no.

Bicycle/HH

2W/HH

4W/HH

Avg.
Vehicle/HH

1
2
3
4
5
6
7

0.30
0.27
0.24
0.27
0.08
0.26
0.26

1.90
1.31
1.39
1.20
1.84
1.69
1.22

0.49
0.26
0.30
0.10
0.65
0.44
0.26

2.67
1.84
1.93
1.57
2.62
2.46
1.79

City level

0.24

1.51

0.36

2.13

Figure 6 Vehicle Ownership Pattern

Figure 7 City level Vehicle Ownership Profile

6. CONCLUSION
The present characteristic of the citizens will governing factor in any planning policy
decision and providing any infrastructure facility without that data planning may fail and
planner does not have any futuristic planning decision. To have household characteristic of

citizen is very difficult task as it is not possible to have the survey of all people. Home
interview survey with appropriate sample size will helpful in collection of data which
represent the city level characteristic. The presented scenario of the Surat city is collected
with 647 sample size of Household. The collected data is statistically checked to have
representation of the whole city.
7. REFERENCES
1. Aggarwal Vaibhav and Ashish Verma (2010), Trip-end Models for the City of
ThaneA
Comparative Study, Indian Journal of Transport Management, pp.
96-110
2.
Ajay Kumar and David Levinson(1992), Specifying, Estimating, and Validating a
New Trip Generation Model: A Case Study of Montgomery County, Maryland,
Transportation Research Record #1413, p107-113.
3.
Anant Pradhan and Kara Maria Kockelman(1999), Uncertainty Propagation in an
Integrated Land Use-Transportation Modeling Framework: Output Variation via
UrbanSim, Annual Meeting of the Transportation Research Board.
4.
Ata M. Khan, Jennifer M. Armstrong, Sarah J. Taylor(2007), Urban Transportation
Planning and Management in a GIS Environment, Jurnal Alam Bina, Jilid 09,No: 01.
5.
Balakrishna Kannemadugu, Sandhya Nadimpalli and Krishna Rao K V(2010),
Evaluation of Development Scenarios Towards Sustainable Urban Transportation: A
Casestudy of Pune, 12th WCTR, July 2010 Lisbon, Portugal.
6.
Crane, Randall and Crepeau et.all (1998), Does Neighborhood Design Influence
Travel? A Behavioral Analysis of Travel Diary and GIS Data, Center for Activity
Systems
Analysis,
Institute
of
Transportation
Studies,
UC
Irvine, http://escholarship.org/uc/item/5qq985sv
7. Howard R. Kirby and Jillian E. Beardwood (1975), Zone Definition and the Gravity
Model -the Separability, Excludability and Compressibility Properties, Transpn Res.
Vol 9. pp 363-369. Great Britain.
8. John L. Bowman and Moshe Ben-Akiva (1996), Activity-Based Travel Forecasting
US Department of Transportation and the Environmental.
9.
K. M. Lakshmana Rao and K. Jayasree (2008), Multidimensional Spatial Planning
and Road Orientation for Urban Area, Indian Highways September-2008.
10. Kevin J. Krizek (2003), Neighborhood services, trip purpose, and tour-based
travel, Transportation 30: 387410, Kluwer Academic Publishers, Netherlands.
11. Louis de Grange, Rodrigo Troncoso and Angel Ibeas et.all (2009), Gravity model
estimation with proxy variables and the impact of endogeneity on transportation
planning, Transportation Research Part A, www.elsevier.com/locate/tra
12. McNally and Michael G.(1996), An Activity-Based Microsimulation Model for
Travel Demand Forecasting, Center for Activity Systems Analysis, Institute of
Transportation Studies, UC Irvine, http://escholarship.org/uc/item/4z11d19q
13. Michael J. Wills (1984), A Flexible Gravity-Opportunities Model for Trip
Distribution, Transpn. Res.4 Vol. 208. No. 2, pp. 89-111, Great Britain.
14. Narkhede P.G. and Gokhale Medha (2010), Impact of Changing Land use on
Transportation System, National Seminar on Sustainable lifelines: Transportation
Planning and Management, Guru Ramdas school of Planning, Amritsar.

LAND MANAGEMENT TECHNIQUES

Bhagat Sejal S.
M-tech Research Scholar, Planning
CED, SVNIT, Surat.
sejalplanner@gmail.com
Tailor Ravin M.
Asst. Prof., CED, SVNIT, Surat.
rmt@dec.svnit.ac.in

ABSTRACT: Land is a resource and at the same time it is non renewable. So it should be
utilized very carefully. Land is a base for all the development activities. Land can be broadly
classified as urban and rural land. The urban land is more valuable than rural land, because
concentration of activities is relatively higher than rural areas. There is competition between
activities for space and therefore the supply of land is relatively inelastic in urban areas.
Urban land management means organization of land survey, zoning, classification in to type
& create a land use pattern to do the town planning in the batter manner. This paper focus on
the various land management techniques like master plan approach, development plan, land
acquisition, and land pooling and readjustment methods. At the conclusion authors has
specify that out of these methods which method is more suitable and convenient for the better
development.

1. INTRODUCTION
Urbanization is rapidly increasing with the advancement of science and technological
development. Urbanization is an important aspect in a process of economic and social
development and is closely connected with many other problems such as migration from
villages to towns, level of living in urban and rural areas, relative cost of providing economic
and social services in town of varying size, provision of facilities like water supply,
sanitation, transport and electricity pattern of development etc.
The rapid urbanization is a great threat when the quality of life in urban areas is deteriorating.
To facilitate and sustain this growth, cities have to provide both a high quality of life and an
efficient infrastructure for economic activities. The Town Planning Scheme is being followed
as an alternative method to assemble the land for urban development activities in a faster and
financially affordable manner without taking recourse to compulsory acquisition of land. It is
basically an area planning technique patterned on the concept of land pooling with land
adjustment and land reconstitution. The Town Planning Scheme is the unique feature of the
land development at micro level planning under the provisions of GTP & UD Act-1976.
Town planning scheme is a legal document that is basis for assessing and determining
proposals for the use and development of land in town. The state of Gujarat practicing the
land acquisition method and land pooling readjustment method since 20th century to
manage the process of new growth in fairly successful manner. This is called the town
planning scheme.
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2. LAND MANAGEMENT TECHNIQUES

Land management is defined as an activity on the ground, using appropriate technologies in
the respective land use systems. Supply of urban land as a resource not only limiting but also
localized and at the same time every activity needs urban land. Therefore land management is
required to create healthy growth of towns and cities. One of the greatest challenges to
engineers, planners and decision-makers is the assurance of Sustainable Land Management
(for both Urban and Rural Lands). This concerns exploration and exploitation of a Nations
natural and Environmental resources, provision of food, social services, education, health,
infrastructure development, transportation (road and railway networks), communication and
telecommunication, industrial development, population control and protection of the
environment for the accelerated and orderly development of a country and its economic
recovery efforts without destroying the environment for the generations to come.
Land management aims to secure the legal rights to land, while simultaneously upholding the
social and productive functions of land. Problems related to land are very complex. Land has
always been the prime resources for planning and development of any area. Land is sucha
resources, which is constant and cannot be created. Therefore the importance of optimum
usage of land in a developing city is obvious. The main challenge of physical planners is the
proper and effective landuse planning with the allocation of all the physical and social
amenities for existing and the growing population of the area and its hinterlands. The
requirements are definitely guided by the UDPFI and other guidelines.
2.1.1

Master Plan Approach

The concept and methods of Master Planning in India owe their origin to the British town
planning laws. The Master Plan, which was perceived to be a process rather than a conclusive
statement, provides guidelines for the physical development of a city or town and guides
people in locating their investments and residences in the city. In short, Master Plan is a
design for the physical, social, economic and political framework for the city, which greatly
improves the quality of urban governance also. A Master Plan is concerned with land uses for
public infrastructure, which should overlap with national socio-economic development
priorities.
Master Plan approach currently in vogue is an important instrument of spatial planning
process which aims at channelizing the built urban form and directing the growth of urban
areas, implementation of Master Plan for various towns and cities may not be very
encouraging on the whole but certain development schemes taken up as part of Master Plan
or as prelude to development are successful experiments in many states. Town Planning
Scheme on land pooling technique has been successfully used for plan implementation in
Maharashtra, Gujarat, Tamil Nadu, Punjab and some other states. This facilitated assembly
and development of urban land without resorting to compulsory land acquisition under Land
Acquisition Act 1894. Through the mechanism of Town Planning Scheme urban local bodies
launched land pooling and redistribution process in urban areas.
Scope of Master Plan has clearly defined in various Town Planning Acts and other relevant
legislation. Basically it is a statutory instrument for controlling, directing and promoting the
sound and rational development and / or re-development of urban areas with a view to
achieving maximum economic, social and aesthetic benefits.

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Figure 1 Relationship between Master Plan and Town Planning Scheme

The Master Plan is followed by preparation of Zonal Development Plan, Development
Schemes, Town Planning Schemes, etc. which indicates details and specific location of
various activities, facilities and services as suggested in the Master Plan. Such detailed plans
and Town Planning Schemes are necessary for smooth enforcement and implementation of
Master Plan. The concept of Accommodation Reservation (AR) and Transfer of Development
Rights (TDR) are the new policy instruments for resolving the problems of land acquisition /
land assembly to some extent.
2.1.2

DP-TP Approach

There is Development plan approach to understand town planning scheme mechanism and
build urban infrastructure. Cities in India are facing three distinct challenges in the
development of urban infrastructure. The first challenge is to adhere to a development plan in
the face of a strong tendency towards unplanned growth. Second, when land is acquired
under the Land Acquisition Act, 1894, a major equity issue arises relating the disparity
between those who lose land for a given project and those who do not. Finally, city
authorities do not have adequate resources to finance infrastructure. The Gujarat Town
Planning and Urban Development Act (GTPUDA), 1976 provides for an effective
mechanism that addresses these challenges through a process called Development Plan
Town Planning Scheme mechanism. Managing urban expansion in the periphery of cities is
only one use to which the DPTP mechanism can be put.
The DPTP mechanism Promotes and enables the Development Authority to think and plan
at both the macro level and at the micro level. The bane of a lot of infrastructure planning is a
geographically focused view. The DPTP mechanism requires planners to think at a citywide level and then allows them to undertake very detailed planning.
This mechanism is a spatial planning tool that promotes a comprehensive approach. When
developing a spatial plan, a planner is forced to simultaneously deal with all the complexities
of an urban arearoads, variety land uses, buildings, infrastructure, traffic, rights of way,
and so on. Thinking in a sector-based engineering fashion in the urban context and not
anticipating how one piece of infrastructure is linked with the rest and how all the
infrastructure connects with living environments in an area.

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2.1.3

Land Pooling And Readjustment Technique

In this method, the public planning agency or development authority temporarily brings
together a group of landowners for the purpose of planning, under the aegis of the state-level
town or urban planning act. As there is no acquisition or transfer of ownership involved, there
is no case for paying compensation. A master plan of the area is prepared, laying out the
roads and plots for social amenities. The remaining land is reconstituted into final plots for
the original owners. The size of the final plot is in proportion to the size of the original plot,
and its location is as close as possible to the original plot. A betterment charge based on the
cost of the infrastructure proposed to be laid is levied on the landowners. Infrastructure is
then provided utilizing these funds.
The merits are as follows:
Infrastructure development and social amenities are provided.
The increment in land value resulting from the development accrues to the original
owner whenever the land is sold and developed for urban use. Thus the benefit of
development goes to the original owner instead of the development agency.
The original owner is not displaced in the process of land development and continues
to enjoy access to the land resource.
The demerits are as follows:
This method is time consuming, since the procedure prescribed for preparation and
implementation of such land pooling or readjustment schemes is complicated.
Betterment charges are assessed at the beginning of the land pooling or readjustment
scheme preparation. Due to the inordinate delays in finalizing schemes, the betterment
charges levied on finalization of the scheme do not meet the cost of the infrastructure
provided.
2.1.4 Land Acquisition Method
In this method, the public planning authorities/development agencies acquire large areas of
land from agricultural landholders (farmers) under the Land Acquisition Act of 1894.
Compensation paid to farmers is based on prevailing agricultural land prices. To minimize
opposition to acquisition farmers are paid prices marginally higher than agricultural land
prices. Then a master plan of the area is prepared, laying out the roads, plots for social
amenities, and plots for sale. Roads and infrastructure are then built, using government funds
or loans. Serviced plots are then sold for urban uses at market rates, which are most often
much higher than the rate at which land is acquired.
The merits are listed as follows:
Adequate amounts of land for urban uses can be rapidly generated.
There are very few constraints in preparing the master plan.
The benefit of appreciation of land value on its being converted to urban use accrues
to the development authority.
The demerits of this method are as follows:
Original owners or farmers dont share this benefit in any manner.
4|Page

 In this method, farmers are essentially thrown off their land.

Unable to wisely invest the money received as compensation for their land. This
process adds to familiar urban problemsgrowth of slums, increase in crime rates, and
increased informal-sector economic activity.
The development process is slow. Any person who needs land for urban use has to
approach the urban development authority.
Development agencies using the method of bulk land acquisition end up being
powerful large-scale land developers, controlling vast urban resources.
This is likely to breed corruption.
3.0 TOWN PLANNING SCHEME
The Town Planning Scheme is being followed as an alternative method to assemble the land
for urban development activities in a faster and financially affordable manner without taking
recourse to compulsory acquisition of land.
In Gujarat, Town Planning Schemes as an instrument for urban development has a long
history. The first Town Planning Scheme was taken up as early as in 1917 for Jamalpur area
of Ahmedabad city. Jamalpur area Town Planning Scheme was also the first TPS in the
country. Success of Town Planning scheme can be accessed from the fact that in Gujarat as
many as about 150 Town Planning Scheme are in operation and T.P. Schemes have become a
very useful tool for implementing D.P. proposals.
Town Planning Scheme (TPS) is in operation in some of the states of Indian Union in the
form of plot reconstitution. It is basically an area planning technique patterned on the concept
of land re adjustment. In the state of Maharashtra, which is a pioneer in the field of TPS, it is
implemented under the Maharashtra Regional and Town Planning Act, 1966. In Gujarat, it is
implemented under the Gujarat Town Planning and Urban Development Act.1976.
Gujarat adopted the Town Planning Scheme (TPS) to expedite the process of land
development, which was constrained by the then existing method of land acquisition and
development as it was both time consuming and expensive because of legal problems and the
heavy compensation the local authorities had to pay to land owners. To overcome such
difficulties the state adopted the technique of land pooling (followed in Eastern Asia by
Japan, South Korea and Taiwan), whereby irregular plots of land are pooled together,
serviced and reconstituted into systematic plots before returning a proportion of improved
land to the owners. A fraction of the retained land is used for public use, and another portion
is sold to buyers to generate funds for development. The method, thus, becomes a selffinancing technique and is less costly for the local authorities, as no payment has to be made
for land acquisition. Besides, a portion of the cost of infrastructure is realized from the land
owner. It was believed that with less of financial transactions, this technique of land
development would work out to be faster and cheaper. For the satisfaction of the land owners,
the method involved a kind of community participation in which the judgment of the owners
was sought at all stages of development.
The Town Planning Scheme is the unique feature of the land development at micro level
planning under the provisions of GTP & UD Act-1976. It is based on the concept of land
pooling with land adjustment and land reconstitution. The T.P. Scheme is prepared by the
authorities generally for an area of about 80 to 100 Ha. In nutshell T.P. Scheme can be
explained as under. The unplanned area of about 100 Hectares is taken for planning. Planning
this area in detail it may require about 40% of land for road network, public purpose like
school, hospital, market, park, playground etc and for plots for sale and the remaining 60%
5|Page

area can be utilized to formulate final Plots for the allotment to land owners as plots. As a
result of this planning exercise 40 percent of land is deducted from the ownership of all the
land owners proportionately and allotted to the authority to undertake the respective
development works for public as per the T.P.S. proposals. The remaining 60 percent land in
form of plots is given back to the land owners on proportionate basis. The land owner will
lose 40% of land and will get back 60% land in form of Final Plot. All the land owners will
have this kind of adjustment.
The entire area is now well planned. It should be appreciated that nobody is deprived of his
land. Everybody is contributing for the public purpose land proportionately. Every land
owner is paid compensation for the land he is contributing (about 40% land area) and in turn
he pays the incremental contribution authority for the betterment of his land by virtue of this
planning. There is no land acquisition and nobody is deprived of his land. On the sanction of
the preliminary scheme under section 67 of the Act, the land readjustment will come into
force as per the scheme documents. Accordingly all the original boundaries of the Original
Plot will be changed automatically to the new boundaries of the Final Plot. The roads, public
purpose plots and the plots for sale will vest in the authority.
Through T.P. scheme land for public facilities and services are made available at right
location and at right time. All such public purpose lands are equitably apportioned from the
landowners. Planning efforts can keep pace with the growth and rapid urbanization thereby
reducing scope for haphazard urban sprawl. TP Schemes facilitates decentralization of
planned development activities in core as well as outlying areas of the city. Town planning
scheme encourages optimum use of scarce developed urban land through efficient layouts
and using of urban land as resource to check land speculation. By implementing TP Scheme
the build ability of the reconstituted plot increases with regular shape, improvement in
accessibility, increased potential of development, availability of social and physical
infrastructure in the neighborhood, better linkage with other part of the city and improvement
in living environment.
4. CONCLUSION
After discussing all above approaches for land management it is evaluated that town planning
scheme is an effective tool for proper development for the urban area. Because there is a
public private partnership involvement. In T.P. scheme generally land ownership is not
change and an infrastructure development is a part implementation thus land price goes high,
this benefit directly obtain to the land owner. The landowners are involved in the process of
planning have ample opportunities to present their views on the proposals and place on record
their objections. Infrastructure development and social infrastructure amenities are provided
in this method.
5. REFERENCES
Afolabi A., (2008), Improving Urban Land Use Planning and Management in
Nigeria: The Case of Akure, Department of Geography and Planning Sciences,
Adekunle Ajasin University, Nigeria.
Aribigbola A., (2007) Urban Land Use Planning, Policies and Management in Sub
Saharan African Countries: Empirical Evidence from Akure, Nigeria, Department of
Geography and Planning Sciences, Adekunle Ajasin University, Nigeria.
6|Page

 Ballaney S. And Patel B., (2009) Development Plan Town Planning Scheme
Mechanism To Apppriate Land And Build Urban Infrastructure, a presentation for
national conerence on dp-tp mechanism, Mumbai.
Ballaney B., (2008) The Town Planning Mechanism in Gujarat, India, the world
bank Wasington DC.
Ballesteros M. M. (2000) Land Use Planning in Metro Manila and Urban Fringe:
Implications on the Land and Real Estate Market Philippine institute for
development studies, Makati city, Philippines.

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