Discrete Maths

MAT1014 Discrete Mathematics and Graph Theory
Modules 1 and 2
Mathematical Logic, Statement and Predicate Calculus
Department of Mathematics
School of Advanced Sciences
MathematicsSAS (VIT University)
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Contents
Chapter 1: Propositions
Chapter 2: Rules of inference
Chapter 3: Predicate calculus
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Chapter 1
Chapter 1
Propositions
Definition 1. (Proposition)
A statement or proposition is a declarative sentence that is either true or
false (but not both).
For instance, the following are propositions:
1. 3 > 1 (true).
2. 2 < 4 (true).
3. 4 = 7 (false)
However the following are a not propositions:
1. what is your name?.
2. x is an even number.
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Chapter 1
Definition 2. (Atomic statements)

Declarative sentences which cannot be further split into simple sentences
are called atomic statements (also called primary statements or primitive
statements).
Example: p is a prime number
Definition 3. (Compound statements)
New statements can be formed from atomic statements through the use of
connectives such as and, but, or etc... The resulting statement are called
molecular or compound (composite) statements.
Example: If p is a prime number then, the divisors are p and 1 itself
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Chapter 1
Definition 4. (truth value)

The truth or falsehood of a proposition is called its truth value.
Definition 5. (Truth Table)
A table, giving the truth values of a compound statement interms of its
component parts, is called a Truth Table.
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Chapter 1
Definition 6. (Connectives)
Connectives are used for making compound propositions. The main ones
are the following (p and q represent given two propositions):
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Chapter 1
Table 1. Logic Connectives

Name
Negation
Conjunction
Disjunction
Implication
Biconditional
Represented
p
p q
p q
p q
p q
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Meaning
not in p
p and q
p or q (or both)
if p then q
p if and only if q
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Chapter 1
The truth value of a compound proposition depends only on the value of

its components. Writing F for false and T for true, we can summarize the
meaning of the connectives in the following way:
p
T
T
F
F
q
T
F
T
F
p
F
F
T
T
p q
T
F
F
F
p q
T
T
T
F
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p q
T
F
T
T
p q
T
F
F
T
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Chapter 1
Definition 7. (Tautology)
A proposition is said to be a tautology if its truth value is T for any
assignment of truth values to its components.
Example: The proposition p p is a tautology.
Definition 8. (Contradiction)
A proposition is said to be a contradiction if its truth value is F for any
assignment of truth values to its components.
Example: The proposition p p is a contradiction.
Definition 9.(Contingency)
A proposition that is neither a tautology nor a contradiction is called a
contingency.
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Chapter 1
p
T
T
p
F
F
p p
F
F
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p p
T
T
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Chapter 1
I. Construct the truth table for the following statements:
(i)
(p q) (p q)
(ii) p (p q)
(iii) (p q) p
(iv) (p q) ( p q)
(v)
(p q) q
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Chapter 1
Solution:
(i) Let S = (p q) (p q)
p
T
T
F
F
q
T
F
T
F
p
F
F
T
T
p q
T
F
T
T
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p q
T
F
T
T
S
T
T
T
T
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Chapter 1
(ii) Let S = p (p q)
p
T
T
F
F
q
T
F
T
F
p q
T
T
T
F
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S
T
T
F
F
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Chapter 1
(iii) Let S = (p q) p
p
T
T
F
F
q
T
F
T
F
p q
T
F
T
T
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S
T
T
F
F
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Chapter 1
(iv) Let S = (p q) p q
p
T
T
F
F
q
T
F
T
F
p q
T
F
F
F
(p q)
F
T
T
T
p
F
F
T
T
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q
F
T
F
T
p q
F
T
T
T
S
T
T
T
T
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Chapter 1
(v) Let S = (p q) q
p
T
T
F
F
q
T
F
T
F
q
F
T
F
T
p q
T
T
F
T
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S
T
F
T
F
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Chapter 1
Logical Equivalence
The compound propositions p q and p q have the same truth values:

p
T
T
F
F
q
T
F
T
F
p
F
F
T
T
p q
T
F
T
T
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p q
T
F
T
T
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Chapter 1
When two compound propositions have the same truth value they are called
logically equivalent.
For instance p q and p q are logically equivalent, and it is denoted
by
p q p q
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Chapter 1
Definition 10. (Logically Equivalent)

Two propositions A and B are logically equivalent precisely when A B
is a tautology.
Example: The following propositions are logically equivalent:
p q (p q) (q p)
p
T
T
F
F
q
T
F
T
F
p q
T
F
F
T
p q
T
F
T
T
q p
T
T
F
T
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(p q) (q p)
T
F
F
T
S
T
T
T
T
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Chapter 1
Table 2. Logic equivalences

Equivalences
p T p
p F p
p T T
p F F
p T T
p F F
p q q
p q q
(p q) r p
(p q) r p
Name
Identity law
Dominent law
Idempotent law
p
p
(q r )
(q r )
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Commutative law
Associative law
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Chapter 1
Table 2. Logic equivalences (Continued...)

Equivalences
(p q) r (p r ) (q r )
(p q) r (p r ) (q r )
(p q) p p
(p q) p p
(p q) p q
(p q) p q
p p F
p p T
( p ) p
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Name
Distributive law
Absorbtion law
De morgans law
Negation law
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Chapter 1
Table 3. Logic equivalences involving implications
(p
(p
(p
(p
Implications
p q p q
p q q p
(p q) p q
p q p q
p q (p q)
q) (p r ) p (q r )
q) (p r ) p (q r )
r ) (q r ) (p q) r )
r ) (q r ) (p q) r )
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Chapter 1
Table 4. Logic equivalences involving Biconditions

Biconditions
p q (p q) (q p)
p q p q
p q (p q) (p q)
(p q) p q
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Chapter 1
Definition 11. (Converse)

The converse of a conditional proposition p q is the proposition q p
Definition 12. (Inverse)
The inverse of a conditional proposition p q is the proposition p q
Definition 13. (Contrapositive)
The contrapositive of a conditional proposition p q is the proposition
q p.
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Chapter 1
For example
Let us consider the statement,

The crops will be destroyed, if there is a flood.
Let F : there is a flood & C : The crops will be destroyed
The symbolic form is, F C .
Converse (C F )
i.e., if the crops will be destroyed then there is flood.
Inverse (F C )
i.e.,if there is no flood then the crops wont be destroyed, .
Contrapositive (C F )
i.e., if the crops wont be destroyed then there is no flood.
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Chapter 1
II. Without using truth table:
(i) Show that (p q) p (p q)

(ii) Show that (p q) (p q) p
(iii) Show that (p (p q)) p q
(iv) Show that (((p q) r ) q) q r
(v) Show that (p q) (p q) is a tautology.
(vi) Show that p (q r ) (p q) r .
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Chapter 1
Solution:
(i)
S (p q) p
(p q) p
(pp)(qp)
F (pq)
pq
Reasons
Given
Distributive law
Negation law,Commutative law
Identity law
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Chapter 1
(ii)
S (p q)(p q)
(p q)(p q)
(p q)(p q)
(p q)(p q)
p(qq)
pF
p
Reasons
Given
De Morgans law
Negation law
Distributive law
Negation law
Identity law
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Chapter 1
(iii)
S (p (p q))
(p (p q))
p (p q))
p (p q))
(p p)(pq)
F (pq)
pq
Reasons
Given
De Morgans law
De Morgans law
Distributive law
Negation law
Identity law
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Chapter 1
(iv)
S (((p q) r )q) q r
(((p q)r )q)
((p q)r )q
(p q)(r q)
(p (r q)) (q (r q))
(p (r q)) (r q)
r q
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Reasons
Given
De Morgans law
Associative law
Distributive law
Idempotent law
Absorption law
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Chapter 1
Definition 14. (Duality)

The dual of a compound proposition that contains only the logical operators
, and is the proposition obtained by replacing each by , each
by , each T by F and each F by T . The dual of proposition A is denoted
by A .
Example. The dual of (T p)q is (F p)q
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Chapter 1
Definition 15. (Functionally complete set of connectives)

Any set of connectives in which every formula can be expressed as another
equivalent formula containing connectives from this set is called functionally
complete set of connectives.
Example. The set of connectives
{, } and {, } are functionally complete.
{},{} or {, } are not functionally complete.
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Chapter 1
Problem. Prove that the set {, } is functionally complete.

Solution:
To prove {, } is functionally complete.
We have to show that for all formulas with other connectives their exists a
equivalent formula which contains and only.
p q (p q) (q p)
p q (p q)
p q (p q)
The resultant is free from biconditional, conditional and conjunction.
Hence {, } is functionally complete.
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Chapter 2
Chapter 2
Inference Theory
An argument is a sequence of propositions H1 , H2 , . . . , Hn called premises
(or hypotheses) followed by a proposition C called conclusion. An argument
is usually written:
H1
H2
..
.
Hn
implies C
or
H1 H2 . . . Hn C
The argument is valid if C is true whenever H1 , H2 , ..., Hn are true; otherwise
it is invalid.
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Chapter 2
Example: H1 : p and H2 : p q then C : q (Modus Ponens)

p
T
T
F
F
q
T
F
T
F
pq
T
F
T
T
p (p q)
T
F
F
F
(p (p q)) q
T
T
T
T
Notice that (p (p q)) q is a tautology. Therefore it is valid.

Thus p, p q q.
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Chapter 2
Example: H1 : q and H2 : p q then C : p

p
T
T
F
F
q
T
F
T
F
pq
T
F
T
T
q (p q)
T
F
T
F
(q (p q)) p
T
T
F
T
Notice that q (p q) p is a condigency. Therefore it is invalid.
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Chapter 2
Implication Table:
S.No
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
Formula
pq p
pq q
p pq
q pq
p, q p q
p, p q q
p, p q q
q, p q p
p q,q r p r
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Name
simplification
addition
modus ponens
disjunctive syllogism
modus tollens
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Chapter 2
Rules of inference:
Rule P: A premises can be introduced at any step of derivation.
Rule T: A formula can be introduced provided it is Tautologically implied
by previously introduced formulas in the derivation.
Rule CP: If the conclusion is of the form r s then we include r as an
additional premises and derive s.
Indirect method: We use negation of the conclusion as an additional premise
and try to arrive a contradiction.
Inconsistent: A set of premises are inconsistent provided their conjunction
implies a contradiction.
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Chapter 2
Example: Show that q and p q implies p.

Solution: (A formal proof is as follows):
Step 1. p q
Step 2. q p
Step 3. q
Step 4. p
Rule P
Rule T
Rule P
Combined {2, 3} and apply Modus Ponens
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Chapter 2
Example: Show that r is a valid inference from the premises p q, q r

and p.
Solution:
Step
1
2
3
4
5
Derivation
p
pq
q
qr
r
Rule
P
P
{1, 2}, I4
P
{3, 4}, I4
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Chapter 2
Example: Show that s r is tautologically implied by p q, p r and

q s.
Solution:
Step
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
Derivation
pq
p q
qs
p s
s p
pr
s r
s r
Rule
P
T
P
{2, 3}, I7
T
P
{5, 6}, I7
T
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Chapter 2
Example: Prove by indirect method that p q, p r , q implies r .

Solution: The desired result is r . Include r as a new premise.
Step
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
Derivation
pr
r p
r
p
pq
q
q
q q
Rule
P
T
P(additional premise)
{2, 3}, I4
P
{4, 5}, I4
P
{6, 7}, I3
The new premise together with the given premises, leads to a contradiction.
Thus p q, p r , q implies r .
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Chapter 2
Example: Prove that p q, p r , q r and p are inconsistent.

Solution: The desired result is false.
Step
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
Derivation
p
pq
q
q r
r
pr
p
F
Rule
P
P
{1, 2}, I4
P
{3, 4}, I4
P
{5, 6}, I6
{1, 7},I3
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Chapter 2
III. Problems:
(i) Show that r s is tautologically implied by c d, (c d) h, h

(a b) and (a b) (r s).
(ii) Show that r (p q) is tautologically implied by p q, q r , p m
and m.
(iii) Show that r s is tautologically implied by r p, p (q s) and
q.
(iv) Show that p s is tautologically implied by p q, q r and r s.
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Chapter 2
(v) Show that p (q s) is tautologically implied by p (q r ) and

q (r s) using CP rule.
(vi) Show that the following premises are inconsistent. v l, l b, m
b and v m.
(vii) Show that p s logically follows from the premises p (q r ), q
p, s r and p by indirect method.
(viii) Show that r logically follows from the premises p q, q and p r
by indirect method.
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Chapter 2
Example: Consider the following statements: I take the bus or I walk. If

I walk I get tired. I do not get tired. Therefore I take the bus. We can
formalize this by calling B= I take the bus, W = I walk and J= I get tired.
The premises are B W , W J and J, and the conclusion is B. The
argument can be described in the following steps:
step
1
2
3
4
5
statement
W J
J
W
B W
B
reason
P
P
{1, 2}, Modus Tollens
P
{3, 4}, Disjunctive Syllogism
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Chapter 2
(i) Show that the following set of premises is inconsistent.

1. If Jack misses many classes through illness, then he fails high school.
2. If Jack fails high school, then he is uneducated.
3. If Jack reads a lot of books, then he is not uneducated.
4. Jack misses many classes through illness and reads a lot of books.
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Chapter 2
Let us consider,
E : Jack misses many classes through illness
S : Jack fails high school
A : Jack reads a lot of books
H : Jack is uneducated.
The premises are,
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Chapter 2
Let us consider,
The premises are,
E S
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Chapter 2
Let us consider,
The premises are,
E S
S H
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Chapter 2
Let us consider,
The premises are,
E S
S H
A H and
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Chapter 2
Let us consider,
The premises are,
E S
S H
A H and
E A
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Chapter 2
Step
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
Derivation
E A
E
A
E S
S
S H
H
A H
H
H H
Rule
P
T
T
P
{2, 4}, I4
P
{5, 6}, I4
P
{3, 8}, I4
{7, 9}, I3
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Chapter 2
II. Problems:
(i) Show that the following argument is valid.

My father praises me only if i can be proud of myself. Either I do well in
sports
or I cannot be proud of myself. If study hard, then I cannot do well in sports.
Therefore, if father praises me, then I do not study well.
(ii) Show that the following set of premises is inconsistent.
If the contract is valid, then John is liable for penalty. If John is liable for
penalty,
he will go bankrupt. If the bank will loan him money, he will not go bankrupt.
As a matter of fact, the contract is valid and the bank will loan him money.
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Chapter 3
Predicate Calculus
Consider the statement

p : x is a prime number (the statement is not a proposition)
The truth value of p depends on the value of x.
p is true when x = 3, and false when x = 10.
In this section we extend the system of logic to include such an above
statements.
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Chapter 3
Definition 1. (predicates).
A predicate refers to a property that the subject of the statement can have.
A predicate is a sentence that contains a finite number of specific values
are substituted for the variables.
That is, let P(x) be a statement involving variable x and a set D. We call
P as a propositional function if for each x in D, P(x) is a proposition.
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Chapter 3
Definition 2. (universe of discourse)

The set D is called the domain of discourse (oruniverse of discourse) of
P. It is the set of all possible values which can be assigned to variables in
statements involving predicates.
Example: Let p(x) denote the statement x 4. What are the truth values
of p(5) (T ) and p(2) (F ).
Example: Let g (x, y ) denote the statement g .c.d(x, y ) = 1. What are the
truth values of g (3, 5) (T ) and g (2, 8) (F )
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Chapter 3
Definition 3. (universal quantifier)

Consider the proposition
All odd prime numbers are greater than 2. The word all in this proposition
is a logical quantifier. The proposition can be translated as follows:
For every x, if x is an odd prime then x is greater than 2
Similarly, the proposition:
Every rational number is a real number may be translated as.
For every x, if x is a rational number, then x is a real number.
The phrase for every x is called a universal quantifier.
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Chapter 3
In symbols it is denoted by (x) or (x).

The phrases for every x, for all x and for each x have the same meaning
and we can symbolize each by (x).
If P(x) denotes a predicate (propositional function), then the universal
quantification for P(x), is the statement.
(x) P(x) is true.
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Chapter 3
Example :
(a) Let A = {x : x is a natural number less than 9}
Here P(x) is the sentence x is a natural number less than 9. The common
property is a natural number less than 9. P(1) is true, therefore, 1 A and
P(12) is not true, therefore 12
/ A.
(b) The proposition (N) (n + 4 > 3) is true.
Since {n|n + 4 > 3} = {1, 2, 3, . . . } = N.
(c) The proposition (N) (n + 2 > 8) is false.
Since {n|n + 2 > 8} = {7, 8, 9, . . . } 6= N.
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Chapter 3
Definition 4. (existential quantifier).

In some situations we only require that there be at least one value for each
the predicate is true. This can be done by prefixing P(x) with the phrase
there exists an. The phrase there exists an is called an existential quantifier.
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Chapter 3
The existential quantification for a predicate is the statement There exists

a value of x for which P(x).
The symbol, is used to denote the logical quantifier there exists. The
phrases There exists an x, There is a x, for some x and for at least one x
have the same meaning.
The existential quantifier for P(x) is denoted by ( x) P(x)
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Chapter 3
Example :
(a) The proposition there is an integer between 1 and 3 may be written as
( an integer) (the integer is between 1 and 3)
(b) The proposition (N) (n + 4 < 7) is true.
Since {n|n + 4 < 7} = {1, 2} 6= .
(c) The proposition (N) (n + 6 < 4) is false.
Since {n|n + 6 < 4} = .
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Chapter 3
IV. Problems:
(i) Show that (x)(H(x) M(x)) H(a) = M(a).

Solution:
Step 1
(x)(H(x) M(x))
Rule P
Step 2
H(a) M(a)
Rule US
Step 3
H(a)
Rule P
Step 4
M(a)
{2, 3} and apply Modus Ponens
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Chapter 3
(ii)
Show
that
(x)(P(x) Q(x)) (x)(Q(x) R(x)) = (x)(P(x) R(x)).
Solution:
Step 1
(x)(P(x) Q(x))
Rule P
Step 2
P(a) Q(a)
Rule US
Step 3
(x)(Q(x) R(x))
Rule P
Step 4
Q(a) R(a)
Rule US
Step 5
P(a) R(a)
{2,4},I7
Step 6
(x)P(x) R(x)
Rule UG
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Chapter 3
(iii) Show that (x)(P(x) Q(x)) = (x)P(x) (x)Q(x).

Solution:
Step 1
(x)(P(x) Q(x))
Rule P
Step 2
P(a) Q(a)
Rule ES
Step 3
P(a)
I1
Step 4
Q(a)
I1
Step 5
(x)P(x)
{3},EG
Step 6
(x)Q(x)
{4},EG
Step 7
(x)P(x) (x)Q(x) {5,6}, I3
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Chapter 3
(iv) Show that (x)(P(x) Q(x)) = (x)P(x) (x)Q(x).

Solution: Proof by indirect method
Step 1
((x)(P(x) Q(x)))
Rule P
Step 2
(x)P(x) (x)Q(x)
Rule T
Step 3
(x)P(x)
I1
Step 4
(x)Q(x)
I1
Step 5
(x)P(x)
3,Rule T
Step 6
(x)Q(x)
4,Rule T
Step 7
P(a)
5,ES
Step 8
Q(a)
6,US
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Chapter 3
Step 9
P(a) Q(a)
{7,8},I3
Step 10 (P(a) Q(a))
Rule T
Step 11 (x)(P(x) Q(x))
Rule P
Step 12 P(a) Q(a)
US
Step 13 (P(a) Q(a)) (P(a) Q(a)) {10,12}, I3

Step 14 F
Rule T
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Chapter 3
(v) Show that from

(a) (x)(F (x) S(x)) (y )(M(y ) W (y ))
(b) (y )(M(y ) W (y ))
the conclusion (x)(F (x) S(x)).
Solution:
Step 1
(y )(M(y ) W (y ))
Rule P
Step 2
(M(a) W (a))
ES
Step 3
(M(a) W (a))
Rule T
Step 4
(y )(M(y ) W (y )) EG
Step 5
(y )(M(y ) W (y ))
Rule T
MAT1014DMGT
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Chapter 3
Step 6
(x)(F (x) S(x)) (y )(M(y ) W (y ))
Rule P
Step 7
(x)(F (x) S(x))
{5,6}, I6
Step 8
(x)(F (x) S(x))
Rule T
Step 9
(F (a) S(a))
US
Step 10 F (a) S(a)
Rule T
Step 11 (x)(F (x) S(x))
UG
MAT1014DMGT
66 / 66

Discrete Maths

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MAT1014 Discrete Mathematics and Graph Theory

MathematicsSAS (VIT University)

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Definition 2. (Atomic statements)

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Definition 4. (truth value)

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Table 1. Logic Connectives

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The truth value of a compound proposition depends only on the value of

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I. Construct the truth table for the following statements:

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The compound propositions p q and p q have the same truth values:

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Definition 10. (Logically Equivalent)

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Table 2. Logic equivalences

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Table 2. Logic equivalences (Continued...)

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Table 3. Logic equivalences involving implications

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Table 4. Logic equivalences involving Biconditions

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Definition 11. (Converse)

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Let us consider the statement,

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II. Without using truth table:

(i) Show that (p q) p (p q)

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Definition 14. (Duality)

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Definition 15. (Functionally complete set of connectives)

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Problem. Prove that the set {, } is functionally complete.

Example: H1 : p and H2 : p q then C : q (Modus Ponens)

Notice that (p (p q)) q is a tautology. Therefore it is valid.

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Example: H1 : q and H2 : p q then C : p

Notice that q (p q) p is a condigency. Therefore it is invalid.

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Example: Show that q and p q implies p.

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Example: Show that r is a valid inference from the premises p q, q r

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Example: Show that s r is tautologically implied by p q, p r and