Академический Документы
Профессиональный Документы
Культура Документы
e birds cannot be safely sexed on plumage alone.[7] The juvenile is paler in col
or than the adult male and has dark spots on its breast,[12] and whitish wing co
verts.[15] First-year birds are not easily distinguishable from adults, but they
tend to be duller, and a small percentage retains a few juvenile wing coverts o
r other feathers.[15]
Distribution and habitat[edit]
Male
This bird breeds throughout most of North America, from Alaska and Canada southw
ard to northern Florida and Mexico.[16] While robins occasionally overwinter in
the northern part of the United States and southern Canada,[12] most migrate to
winter south of Canada from Florida and the Gulf Coast to central Mexico, as wel
l as along the Pacific Coast.[16] Most depart south by the end of August and beg
in to return north in February and March (exact dates vary with latitude and cli
mate). Despite being depicted in the film Mary Poppins "feathering its nest" in
London,[17] this species is actually a rare vagrant to western Europe, where the
majority of records, more than 20, have been in Britain.[7] In autumn 2003, mig
ration was displaced eastwards leading to massive movements through the eastern
U.S., and presumably this is what led to no fewer than three American robins bei
ng found in Britain[citation needed], with two attempting to overwinter in 2003 20
04,[18] although one was taken by a sparrowhawk.[19][20] The most recent sightin
g in Britain occurred in January 2007.[21]
This species has also occurred as a vagrant to Greenland, Jamaica, Hispaniola, P
uerto Rico and Belize. Vagrants to Europe, where identified to subspecies, are n
ominate T. m. migratorius, but the Greenland birds also included T. m. nigrideus
, and some of the southern overshots may have been T. m. achrusterus.[7]
The American robin's breeding habitat is woodland and more open farmland and urb
an areas. It becomes less common as a breeder in the southernmost part of the De
ep South of the United States, and there prefers large shade trees on lawns.[22]
Its winter habitat is similar but includes more open areas.[7]
Conservation status[edit]
The American robin has an extensive range, estimated at 16,000,000 km2 (6,200,00
0 sq mi), and a large population of about 320 million individuals. The species i
s not believed to approach the thresholds for the population decline criterion o
f the IUCN Red List (i.e., declining more than 30% in ten years or three generat
ions), and is therefore evaluated as least concern.[1] At one point, the bird wa
s killed for its meat, but it is now protected throughout its range in the Unite
d States by the Migratory Bird Act.[12]
Birds in central California of the subspecies propinquus are considered to be st
ill increasing their range, and this is probably the case elsewhere in the U.S.A
.[7]
Disease[edit]
The American robin is a known reservoir (carrier) for West Nile virus. While cro
ws and jays are often the first noticed deaths in an area with West Nile virus,
the American robin is suspected to be a key host, and holds a larger responsibil
ity for the transmission of the virus to humans. This is because, while crows an
d jays die quickly from the virus, the American robin survives the virus longer,
hence spreading it to more mosquitoes, which then transmit the virus to humans
and other species.[23][24]
Behavior[edit]
The American robin is active mostly during the day, and on its winter grounds it
assembles in large flocks at night to roost in trees in secluded swamps or dens
e vegetation. The flocks break up during the day when the birds feed on fruits a
nd berries in smaller groups. During the summer, the American robin defends a br
eeding territory and is less social.[12]
Diet[edit]
Male with a worm
Perching on tree
The American robin's diet generally consists of around 40 percent small inverteb
rates (mainly insects), such as earthworms, beetle grubs, caterpillars and grass
hoppers, and 60 percent wild and cultivated fruits and berries.[12] Their abilit
y to switch to berries allows them to winter much farther north than most other
North American thrushes. They will flock to fermented Pyracantha berries, and af
ter eating sufficient quantities will exhibit intoxicated behavior such as falli
ng over while walking. Robins forage primarily on the ground for soft-bodied inv
ertebrates, and find worms by sight, pouncing on them and then pulling them up.[
16] Nestlings are fed mainly on worms and other soft-bodied animal prey. In some
areas, robins, particularly of the coastal race T. m. caurinus, will feed on be
aches, taking insects and small mollusks.[7]
The robin uses auditory, visual, olfactory and possibly vibrotactile cues to ?nd
prey, but vision is the predominant mode of prey detection.[25] It is frequentl
y seen running across lawns picking up earthworms, and its running and stopping
behavior is a distinguishing characteristic. In addition to hunting visually, it
also has the ability to hunt by hearing. Experiments have discovered that it ca
n find worms underground by simply using its listening skills.[25]:149 It typica
lly will take several short hops and then cock its head left, right or forward t
o detect movement of its prey. In urban areas, robins will gather in numbers soo
n after lawns are mowed or where sprinklers are in use.[16] They also are attrac
ted to freshly turned earth in gardens, where worms and grubs are abundant targe
ts. Occasionally, they may visit bird feeders if mealworms or animal-fat suet is
offered.
Threats[edit]
Juvenile robins and eggs are preyed upon by squirrels, snakes, and some birds, s
uch as blue jays, Steller's jay, common grackles, American crows, and common rav
ens.[12] Adults are primarily taken by Accipiter hawks, cats, dogs, and larger s
nakes (especially rat snakes).[26] They may be taken by nearly every variety of
North American accipitrid, from the smallest, the sharp-shinned hawk, to one of
the two largest, the golden eagle, most every North American falcon from the sma
llest, the American kestrel, to the largest, the gyrfalcon, and almost all owl s
pecies from northern pygmy owls to snowy owls. Overall, 28 raptorial bird specie
s are known to hunt robins.[27][28][29][30][31][32] Adult robins are most vulner
able when distracted by breeding activities though may also be attacked on the g
round or even in flight. However, when feeding in flocks, the American robin is
able to remain vigilant and watch other flock members for reactions to predators
.[12]
The American robin is known to be a rejecter of cowbird eggs, so brood parasitis
m by the brown-headed cowbird is rare. Even when it occurs, the parasite's chick
does not normally survive to fledging.[33] In a study of 105 juvenile robins, 7
7.1% were infected with one or more species of endoparasite, with Syngamus speci
es the most commonly encountered, found in 57.1% of the birds.[34]
Breeding[edit]
The American robin begins to breed shortly after returning to its summer range.
It is one of the first North American bird species to lay eggs, and normally has
two to three broods per breeding season, which lasts from April to July.[12]
The nest is most commonly located 1.5 4.5 m (4.9 14.8 ft) above the ground in a dens
e bush or in a fork between two tree branches, and is built by the female alone.
The outer foundation consists of long coarse grass, twigs, paper, and feathers.
This is lined with smeared mud and cushioned with fine grass or other soft mate
rials. A new nest is built for each brood, and in northern areas the first clutc
h is usually placed in an evergreen tree or shrub while later broods are placed
in deciduous trees.[12] The American robin does not shy away from nesting close
to human habitation[35] and will frequently construct nests under eaves or awnin
gs on human homes when such locations provide adequate shelter. Robins are not c
avity nesters, and so will generally not use a bird house, but will take advanta
ge of artificial nesting platforms that have been provided.
A clutch consists of three to five light blue eggs, and is incubated by the fema
le alone. The eggs hatch after 14 days, and the chicks leave the nest a further
two weeks later. The altricial chicks are naked and have their eyes closed for t
he first few days after hatching.[36] While the chicks are still young, the moth
er broods them continuously. When they are older, the mother will brood them onl
y at night or during bad weather.
The chicks are fed worms, insects, and berries. Waste accumulation does not occu
r in the nest because adults collect and take it away. Chicks are fed, and then
raise tails for elimination of waste, a solid white clump that is collected by a
parent prior to flying off. All chicks in the brood leave the nest within two d
ays of each other.[12] Even after leaving the nest, the juveniles will follow th
eir parents around and beg food from them. Juveniles become capable of sustained
flight two weeks after fledging.[12]
The adult male and female both are active in protecting and feeding the fledged
chicks until they learn to forage on their own. The adult robin gives alarm call
s and dives in a threatening manner towards creatures it considers potential pre
dators, such as approaching cats, dogs and humans. The fledglings are able to fl
y short distances after leaving the nest. The wings of juvenile birds develop ra
pidly, and it only takes a couple of weeks for them to become proficient at flyi
ng. The cryptically colored young birds perch in bushes or trees for protection
from predators.
Bird banders have found that only 25% of young robins survive the first year.[12
] The longest known lifespan in the wild of an American robin is 14 years; the a
verage lifespan is about 2 years.[12]
Newly hatched chick among unhatched young
Chicks
Eggs, Collection Museum Wiesbaden
Nest amidst human habitat
Sequence of dated images showing the progress from eggs to flight in three weeks
Newly hatched chicks
Chick
American Robin, 2016, New England
orth American Birds:Eastern Region. New York: Alfred A. Knopf. p. 469. ISBN 0-39
4-41405-5.
Jump up ^ National Science Foundation: West Nile Virus: The Search for Answers i
n Chicago s Suburbs
Jump up ^ Diversity Of Birds Buffer Against West Nile Virus. Sciencedaily.com (6
March 2009). Retrieved on 2012-08-23.
^ Jump up to: a b Montgomerie, Robert; Weatherhead, Patrick J. (1997). "How robi
ns ?nd worms" (PDF). Animal Behaviour. 54 (1): 143 151. doi:10.1006/anbe.1996.0411
. PMID 9268444.
Jump up ^ Cox, T. M. (1986). "More on the bird-eating activities of the black ra
t snake, Elaphe obsoleta obsoleta (Say)". North. Ohio Assoc. Herpetol. Notes. 14
: 18 19.
Jump up ^ Storer, R. W. (1966). "Sexual dimorphism and food habits in three Nort
h American accipiters". The Auk. 83 (3): 423 436. doi:10.2307/4083053. JSTOR 40830
53.
Jump up ^ Olendorff, Richard R. (1976). "The Food Habits of North American Golde
n Eagles". American Midland Naturalist. 95 (1): 231 236. doi:10.2307/2424254. JSTO
R 2424254.
Jump up ^ Bent, A. C. (1938). Life histories of North American birds of prey, pt
. 2. U.S. Natl. Mus. Bull. no. 170.
Jump up ^ McCaffery, B. J., Booms, T. L., Doolittle, T. C., Broerman, F. R. E. D
., Morgart, J. R., & Sowl, K. M. (2011). "The ecology of Gyrfalcons Falco rustic
olus on the Yukon-Kuskokwim Delta, Alaska" in Gyrfalcons and Ptarmigan in a Chan
ging World. The Peregrine Fund, Boise, Idaho, USA. ISBN 978-1461129073.
Jump up ^ Holt, D. W. & Leroux, L. A. (1996). "Diets of northern pygmy-owls and
northern saw-whet owls in west-central Montana" (PDF). The Wilson Bulletin. 108
(1): 123 128.
Jump up ^ Campbell, R. W. & MacColl, M. D. (1978). "Winter foods of snowy owls i
n Southwestern British Columbia". The Journal of Wildlife Management. 42 (1): 19
0 192. doi:10.2307/3800714.
Jump up ^ Wolfe, Donald H. (December 1994). "Brown-headed Cowbirds fledged from
Barn Swallow and American Robin nests". The Wilson Bulletin. 106 (4): 764 766. JST
OR 4163497.
Jump up ^ Welte, S. C.; Kirkpatrick, C. E. (1986). "Syngamiasis in juvenile Amer
ican Robins (Turdus migratorius), with a note on the prevalence of other fecal p
arasites". Avian Diseases. 30 (4): 736 9. doi:10.2307/1590578. JSTOR 1590578. PMID
2949729.
Jump up ^ "Backyard Birding Information How to Attract Robins". The Ornate Bird
Garden. Archived from the original on 1 December 2007. Retrieved 27 November 200
7.
Jump up ^ "American Robin (Turdus migratorius)". International Wildlife Rehabili
tation Council. Retrieved 21 January 2008.
Jump up ^ Bergstrom, Jan (5 April 2014) Robins' return is familiar sight during
spring. SCTimes.
Jump up ^ Canadian Paper Money Society. "Canadian Paper Money". Archived from th
e original on 3 January 2008. Retrieved 18 January 2008.
Jump up ^ Bank of Canada. "1986 Birds of Canada Series". Archived from the origi
nal on 27 October 2007. Retrieved 18 January 2008.
Jump up ^ Fox, Florence C. (1906). The Indian Primer (Fox's Indian Primer). Amer
ican Book Company. pp. 88 95. Retrieved 22 May 2011.
Jump up ^ Cooper, JC (1992). Symbolic and Mythological Animals. London: Aquarian
Press. p. 194. ISBN 1-85538-118-4.
Jump up ^ The Canadian Press. "Famous robins return to nest at Peace Bridge", Th
e New York Times. 12 April 1936. Page 6.
Jump up ^ Durant, Alan; Fabb, Nigel (1990). Literary Studies in Action. Routledg
e. p. 75. ISBN 978-0-415-02945-2. Retrieved 1 February 2008.
Jump up ^ Drummond, William Henry (1908). The Great Fight. Preface by May Harvey
Drummond. G. P. Putnam's Sons. pp. xi, 81 86. Retrieved 1 February 2008.
Jump up ^ McPhaul, Meghan McCarthy (May 11, 2016). "Robins don't necessarily mea
n spring". The Chronicle. Barton, Vermont. pp. 9A.
Jump up ^ "Cover of sheet music for "When the Red, Red Robin Comes Bob, Bob, Bob
bing Along"
Ruth Etting". The Ruth Etting Web Site. 2007 [1997]. Retrieved 15 Ap
ril 2012.
Jump up ^ Groth, Gary (15 October 2005). "Jerry Robinson". The Comics Journal (2
71). Archived from the original on 11 January 2008. Retrieved 7 February 2008. I
had a vision of Robin Hood just as Wyeth drew him in his costume, and that's wh
at I quickly sketched out when I suggested [the name] Robin, which they seemed t
o like, and then showed them the costume.
Jump up ^ Ringgenberg, Steven (13 December 2011). "Jerry Robinson: January 1st,
1922 December 7th, 2011". tcj.com. Retrieved 18 April 2013. Robinson added much
to the luster of the Batman legend, including coming up with the name Robin the
Boy Wonder (inspired by Robin Hood), and designing his costume (inspired by the
N.C. Wyeth painting Robin Meets Maid Marian).
Jump up ^ Bridwell, E. Nelson (w), Andru, Ross (p), Esposito, Mike (i). "The Ori
gin of Robin" Batman 213 (July August 1969), DC Comics
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Turdus migratorius.
Wikispecies has information related to: Turdus migratorius
Look up American robin in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
Wikisource has the text of a 1921 Collier's Encyclopedia article about A
merican robin.
FieldGuide eNature.com
"Robins of a Different Feather"
albinism in robins
Animal Facts natural history, maps, and photos at the Washington Nature Mapping
Program
Vocalizations
Journey North
"American robin media". Internet Bird Collection.
Sound file vivanatura.org
Plans for nesting shelves
Journey North
Nesting journal Photo blog following the process from nest building to leaving t
he nest Webster's Wobbins
Florida bird sounds including the American robin Florida Museum of Natural Histo
ry
American robin subspecies Turdus migratorius nigrideus (Aldrich and Nutt)
American robin growth progress with date stamp
American robin photo gallery at VIREO (Drexel University)
Taxon identifiers
EoL: 1177506 GBIF: 2490765 ITIS: 179759 IUCN: 22708958 NCBI: 9188 Fossilworks: 8
3492 Fauna Europaea: 97236
Categories: IUCN Red List least concern speciesAnimals described in 1766Birds of
CanadaBirds of MexicoBirds of North AmericaBirds of the Greater AntillesBirds o
f the United StatesFauna of the San Francisco Bay AreaMigratory birds (Western H
emisphere)Native birds of AlaskaNorth American migratory birdsSymbols of Connect
icutSymbols of MichiganSymbols of WisconsinTurdusUrban animals
Navigation menu
Not logged inTalkContributionsCreate accountLog inArticleTalkReadEditView histor
ySearch
Search
Go
Main page
Contents
Featured content
Current events
Random article
Donate to Wikipedia
Wikipedia store
Interaction
Help
About Wikipedia
Community portal
Recent changes
Contact page
Tools
What links here
Related changes
Upload file
Special pages
Permanent link
Page information
Wikidata item
Cite this page
Print/export
Create a book
Download as PDF
Printable version
In other projects
Wikimedia Commons
Wikispecies
Languages
???????
Asturianu
Az?rbaycanca
Brezhoneg
Catal
Cebuano
Ce tina
Cymraeg
Deitsch
Deutsch
Din bizaad
????????
Espaol
Esperanto
Euskara
?????
Froyskt
Franais
Latina
Magyar
??????
Nederlands
???
Norsk bokml
Novial
Polski
???????
Simple English
Suomi
Svenska
???
Tsetshesthese
Trke
Ti?ng Vi?t
Winaray
??
Edit links
This page was last modified on 11 October 2016, at 22:28.
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; add
itional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and P