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EUS
Adding Families
to the Homework
Equation: A
Longitudinal Study
of Mathematics
Achievement
Abstract
Families, whether guided or instructed to, often become involved in their
childrens homework. This study examined the effects of a weekly interactive mathematics program (Teachers Involve Parents in Schoolwork - TIPS)
on family involvement, emotions and attitudes, and student achievement.
Students and families (N=153) from four urban elementary schools participated in this two-year quasi-experimental study, with teachers assigned randomly to TIPS or Control conditions. Seventeen percent of students used
TIPS two years, forty percent completed TIPS one year, and forty-three
percent never used TIPS. The majority of the sample (57%) represented
African-American students, and the remaining students (43%) were Caucasian, with almost 70% of the sample qualifying for free- or reduced-price
lunch. Overall, TIPS students and families reported significantly higher levels of family involvement, more positive feelings and attitudes about math
homework, and significantly higher standardized mathematics scores than
Control students. This coordinated homework process may be a useful tool
Corresponding Author:
Dr. Frances L.Van Voorhis, Center on School, Family, and Community Partnerships, Johns
Hopkins University, 2701 N. Charles Street, Suite 300, Baltimore, MD 21218
Email: francesv@csos.jhu.edu
314
Van Voorhis
315
Components of Homework
Few research reviews have addressed the components of effective homework
assignments and the literature would benefit from more work in this area
316
(Sharp, Keys, & Benefield, 2001). One such practical review conducted by
Cooper (2007) summarizes some main areas of homework assignment design
that have been investigated: homework purpose, level of homework problem
difficulty, and feedback. Cooper found the benefit of homework assignments
that include practicing past lessons and/or preparing for future lessons as
more effective than same-day content homework activities. Evidence also
underscores the positive effect of including short problems or questions within
sets of challenging problems, interspersal assignments, on homework accuracy and completion. Finally, research suggests the importance of homework
feedback, yet the best type and optimum frequency has yet to be determined.
Van Voorhis
317
et al., 1995; Levin et al., 1997; McDermott, Goldman, & Varenne, 1984; Xu
& Corno, 1998, 2003).
A recent report by the MetLife Foundation (2007) analyzed parents level
of preparedness to help with homework in specific subjects. Parents most
frequently noted mathematics as the subject in which they felt most unprepared to help their children. This was true for parents of children in both the
elementary (33%) and secondary grades (53%).
There also is evidence that family involvement may bring positive emotional and motivational factors to the homework process. Epstein (1988)
found that children in the elementary grades who enjoyed talking about
homework and school with their parents tended to be better students. Leone
and Richards (1989) investigated the mood of students in Grades 5 through 9
while doing homework and found that students reported being unhappy
and disinterested while doing homework. However, their mood was more
positive, attention levels were higher, and academic performance was greater
while completing homework with a parent than while doing homework alone.
Furthermore, several studies of families of elementary grade students highlight effective parent roles for helping children reduce or cope with homework
distractions, structure the home environment, and direct childrens attention
to important aspects of the homework experience (Chandler, Argyris, Barnes,
Goodman, & Snow, 1986; Corno & Xu, 2004; McCaslin & Murdock, 1991;
McDermott et al., 1984; Xu & Corno, 1998). Even a recent research synthesis
of parent involvement and achievement revealed a positive association in the
elementary grades, especially when focused on verbal achievement (Patall,
Cooper, & Robinson, 2008). Other studies also note that parents (87%) viewed
helping with homework as a chance to talk and spend time together, a view
shared equally by parents at both the elementary and secondary levels (MetLife
Foundation, 2007).
Overall, research to date indicates that parents often assist, guide, or motivate
their children in the homework process. Most parents are willing to be involved,
but they want their investments in their children to be productive and not
overly time consuming. Parents tend to report needing assistance more frequently with certain subjects like math and all of the homework players admit
to a need for more interesting and purposeful homework activities. Schools
that are mindful of these parental desires can make more strategic decisions
about the homework design, thus possibly reducing some of the negative homework feelings.
Several studies have examined the effect of schools efforts to involve
families in student learning at home. For example, Sheldon and Epstein (2005)
used longitudinal data from elementary and secondary schools that were
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working to develop goal-oriented programs of school, family, and community partnership. After controlling for prior levels of mathematics achievement, schools that conducted effective practices to encourage childrens math
learning at home (i.e., math homework requiring family discussion) had
higher percentages of students who scored at or above proficiency on standardized mathematics achievement tests. The study echoes findings of other
researchers who have investigated family involvement in learning at home
and its relationship to academic achievement in the secondary years (Epstein
& Lee, 1995; Fehrmann, Keith, & Reimers, 1987; Ho & Willms, 1996; Keith
et al., 1993; Simon, 2001).
Van Voorhis
319
parent involvement in homework. In addition, family attitudes about homework were more positive with greater use of TIPS and compared with Control
conditions. Finally, TIPS related to higher achievement in terms of writing
skills and science report card grades but not mathematics achievement. The
lack of difference in mathematics achievement may have resulted in part,
because only one teacher was involved in the short study, and all three classes
made progress in math.
Method
Sample
This intervention study took place over 2 consecutive school years (20042006) in four similar elementary schools in a southeastern urban school district. At each school, one teacher was randomly assigned to implement the
Teachers Involve Parents in Schoolwork (TIPS) interactive math homework
assignments weekly along with other homework, and the other teacher used
regular math homework assignments in a matched Control classroom.
Thus, teachers were randomly assigned to the intervention and Control conditions. Although students were not randomly assigned to classrooms, every
effort was made to select similar, average classrooms of students in Grade 3.
In Year 1 (the 2004-2005 school year), 135 third-grade students and their
families (66 TIPS and 69 Control) participated. In Year 2, 169 fourth graders
and families (80 TIPS and 89 Control) participated. In the 2005-2006 school
year, students dispersed across teachers in Grade 4 so that some students
320
n
Female
Age
Below average
Above average
Black***
White***
Free/reduced-price
lunch**
Grade 2 mathematics
report card grade
Grade 2 mathematics
standardized test
score (TCAP)*
Control
65
54%
9.64
18%
5%
51%
49%
72%
62
47%
9.62
8%
8%
76%
24%
73%
26
47%
9.65
12%
11%
27%
73%
42%
81
81
85
44
41
53
Note: N = 153. Asterisks specify significant differences in ethnicity, free/reduced lunch, and
Grade 2 mathematics standardized test scores across homework treatment groups.
*p < .05. **p < .01. ***p < .001.
used TIPS activities for 2 years, some for 1 year (in Grade 3 or Grade 4), and
some not at all. For the overall sample of 153 students, 17% used TIPS for
2 years, 40% used TIPS for 1 year, and 43% were Control students who
never used the TIPS intervention over the 2-year period.
Table 1 displays background information for the three groups over 2 years:
TIPS 2 Years, TIPS 1 Year, and Control. For the whole sample, 57% of the
students were African American and 43% were White. Eighty percent of the
sample was average with 13% special education and 7% gifted students.
About 67% of students qualified for free- or reduced-price lunch. The average age of the student was 9.7 years, and 50% of the sample was male.
Significant differences in background variables are noted across the three
treatment groups for ethnicity, F(2, 150) = 2.40, p < .001, free/reduced lunch,
F(2, 150) = 4.64, p < .01, and Grade 2 standardized math test score, F(2, 150) =
4.22, p < .05. Specifically, TIPS 1 Year students were significantly more
likely to be Black than TIPS 2 Year or Control students, and TIPS 2 Year
students were significantly more likely to be White than the other groups. In
addition, TIPS 2 Year students were significantly less likely to receive free/
reduced lunch than TIPS 1 Year or Control students. Finally, TIPS 2 Year
students were significantly more likely to earn higher standardized Grade 2
Van Voorhis
321
scores than Control and TIPS 1 Year students, though the latter group scores
were not significantly different.
Materials
TIPS interactive assignments. For 1 week during the summers of 2004 and
2005, the author worked with the TIPS teachers to adapt and/or develop TIPS
weekly math activities based on the districts curriculum objectives that directly
linked to the mathematics standardized test. The third- and fourth-grade TIPS
summer teams developed 30 activities for each year to administer to their
classes of students the following school year.
All TIPS math activities include seven components (Epstein et al., 2009).
The Letter to Parent, Guardian, or Family Partner briefly explains in one
sentence the topic and skill of the assignment. The student writes in the due
date and signs the letter. The Look This Over section shows an example of
the math skill taught in class along with the answer. Now Try This includes
another example for the student to demonstrate the skill of the assignment
with the answer on the back of the page. Practice includes regular homework problems for the student to master the skill. Lets Find Out allows the
student and often the family partner to discover and discuss how the math
skill is used at home or in common situations. Two-way forms of communication are encouraged in the Home-to-School Communication section that
invites the family partner to send an observation, comment, or question to the
teacher about the skill demonstrated and the homework experience. Finally,
a parent/guardian signature is requested on each activity. Each TIPS activity
was interactive (designed for the student to involve a family partner in a certain section of the activity), the students responsibility, easy to read and
understand, and designed for two sides of one page. Teachers also developed
a list of each TIPS assignment and its related standard in the curriculum.
These standards relate directly to skills tested on the districts standardized
mathematics achievement test. Teachers assigned point values to all questions in the TIPS assignments so that each activity was worth 100 points.
Procedure
TIPS condition. During the summer work time, the TIPS teachers wrote a
letter to the families of students in their classes with information on the weekly
use of TIPS math. TIPS activities, printed on green (Grade 3) or orange
(Grade 4) paper, were assigned on Monday and due on Friday. Teachers also
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Variables
This study included several independent and dependent variables to assess
the impact of the TIPS intervention on time on homework, family involvement in homework, student attitudes and feelings, and student math achievement. As the students varied in prior math achievement and family background,
the following independent measures were collected to statistically control for
such differences: prior mathematics achievement, free/reduced lunch status
of student, student race, gender, and grade level. Homework treatment group
was the experimental variable in the study. TIPS homework completion,
accuracy, and percentage of TIPS activities signed by a parent as well as time
on homework, family involvement, math attitudes and feelings, and mathematics achievement were the dependent variables.
Background. The background measures included the students mathematics
report card grade from the prior year, previous standardized mathematics scores,
Van Voorhis
323
gender, ethnicity (Black or White students), and lunch status (students who
receive or do not receive free- or reduced-price meals).
Homework completion. Teachers collected and graded students TIPS and
other math homework assignments each week and provided the data by student number for the author every 9 weeks. TIPS homework data included
whether the student returned the assignment (yes or no) and the average accuracy of all TIPS assignments for 9 weeks. Point values related to the importance of the questions and were standardized across TIPS teachers and TIPS
years (Grades 3 and 4) so that each assignment was worth a total of 100 points.
TIPS teachers also recorded whether assignments were signed by a parent/
family member.
Survey measures. The author designed student and parent surveys each year
to garner information about the TIPS and Control conditions for time on
homework, family involvement, and attitudes and feelings about math class
and math homework assignments. Surveys used in previous studies of parental involvement in homework were collected and adapted to create the specific components of the surveys in the present study (Balli, 1995; Epstein
et al., 1997; Grolnick, Ryan, & Deci, 1991; Levin et al., 1997; Author, 2003).
Time on homework. Students and parents reported how much time the student spent on math homework on an average night (0 = 0 min, 1 = 15-20 min,
2 = 30-40 min, 3 = about 1 hr, 4 = more than 1 hr, and 5 = more than 2 hr).
Students and parents also used the same scale to estimate time on a typical
math TIPS homework assignment (TIPS students only), family partner time
on a typical math TIPS (TIPS only), and family partner time on math homework (Control only).
Family involvement. Three questions from the student survey were used to
gauge levels of family involvement in homework for the TIPS and Control
students. These questions asked students to record how often (0 = never, 1 =
a few times, or 2 = a lot) a parent or other adult worked with them on math,
reading, and science homework. Similar questions of family involvement in
homework appeared on the family survey, where parents recorded their involvement on a 5-point scale ranging from 0 (never) to 4 (always).
Math homework attitudes. Students and parents in both conditions answered
several questions about their opinions of math homework and school in general. The opinion items used the response categories of 0 = disagree, 1 = agree
a little, and 2 = agree a lot. Two questions were worded identically across
condition and referred to family discussions about school for students and
families: My family partner/I likes(like) to hear what I/my child am (is) learning in school (HEAR) and I/my child can talk about math with my family
partner/me (TALK). Two questions referred to parentchild interactions:
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Math homework helped my parent/me see what I/my child am (is) learning
(SEE) and My family partner/I liked working on the homework with me/
my child (LIKE). For those two questions, TIPS students and families were
asked about TIPS math assignments, whereas Control students and families
answered about math homework in general. These four survey questions
comprised the items for the average scale for student ( = .70) and family
attitudes ( = .68). Finally, for TIPS students and families only, three survey
questions referred specifically to the TIPS program: TIPS math assignments
are a good idea (students and families); Students should use TIPS next year
(families only); and TIPS math assignments are better than regular math
homework assignments (students only).
Feelings about math homework interactions. Students and parents answered
questions about their feelings while working on math homework together.
Students responded to the following two questions: (a) How do you feel
when you work with your mom or female guardian on math homework? and
(b) How do you think your mom or female guardian feels when she works
with you on math homework? Students used a scale ranging from 1 (unhappy)
to 3 (happy) for each of these questions. Similar questions were asked regarding dad or male guardians, but due to missing data (many students indicated
that they did not work with their fathers on math homework and left these
answers blank), results are not reported here. Parents answered similar questions to those of students and reported their childs feelings while working
with them on math as well as their own feelings while working with their
children on math (1 = very frustrated, 2 = frustrated, 3 = a little frustrated,
4 = ok, 5 = a little happy, 6 = happy, and 7 = very happy). These questions
were identical across TIPS and Control conditions. An average scale was created for the student (2-item scale; = .82) and family (2-item scale; = .80)
reports of emotions during the math homework experience.
Mathematics achievement. Standardized math scores for Grades 2, 3, and 4
were collected by student number from the district office. The standardized
scores represented student performance on the mathematics section of the
Tennessee Comprehensive Assessment Program (TCAP), including criterionreferenced items directly aligned with the mathematics content standards and
state performance indicators.
Van Voorhis
325
homework attitudes and feelings, (d) time on homework, and (e) mathematics achievement. These measures permitted the investigation of four main
research questions:
1. What were the return rates and accuracy of the TIPS assignments
and how often did a family partner sign the TIPS assignments?
2. Did the TIPS and Control groups differ in terms of family involvement in and time on homework?
3. Did the TIPS and Control groups express different opinions or feelings about math homework or homework in general? and
4. Were there achievement differences for students in the TIPS and
Control homework conditions?
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Table 2. Means of Student and Family Attitude and Emotion Scales by Homework
Condition in Grades 3 and 4
Homework
condition
Attitudes
Student
Family
Emotions
Student
Family
Grade 3
Control
Grade 4
TIPS
Control
TIPS 1
TIPS 2
1.74
1.73
1.86*
1.85*
1.72
1.60
1.80
1.78
1.83
1.85**
2.52
4.52
2.75
5.56***
2.55
4.61
2.60
4.81
2.94*
5.36
Van Voorhis
327
means and significant differences for emotions and attitudes by TIPS and
Control conditions for students and families in grades 3 (TIPS and Control)
and 4 (TIPS 2 Years, TIPS 1 Year, Control).
Though the differences are not all significant (5/8 are significant), it remains
interesting that the table displays means that are consistently higher for the
TIPS groups over the Control group. Specifically, family attitudes in both
gradesGrade 3, F(1, 113) = 4.70, p < .05, and Grade 4, F(2, 104) = 6.83,
p < .01and student attitudes in Grade 3 only, F(1, 113) = 4.51, p < .05, were
significantly higher for TIPS groups. Post hoc analyses for Grade 4 family
attitudes revealed significant differences between Control (M = 1.60) and
TIPS 1 (M = 1.78) families as well as Control and TIPS 2 Year (M = 1.85)
families. In fact, 62% of TIPS 2 Year families agreed a lot with statements
that they liked working with their children, enjoyed hearing what their child
was learning, were able to see what their children were learning from math,
and their child was able to talk about math with them. This compares with
30% of Control families and 55% of TIPS 1 Year families.
Across both grades, regression analyses were also conducted to analyze
the effect of homework condition (TIPS vs. Control) on student and family
attitudes; controlling for gender, ethnicity, poverty, and previous math report
card grade. Being in the TIPS group positively predicted student and family
attitudes about the math homework experience. In addition, families of boys
and White students tended to rate their homework experiences less positively
than families of girls and Black students. These models failed to account for
much of the variation in attitudes (between 5% and 29%), but these analyses
do note the positive and significant effect of the TIPS condition over and
above other background variables.
TIPS students and families also provided a gauge of their attitudes of the
TIPS program. Three survey questions related specifically to opinions of the
TIPS math intervention. Ninety-five percent or more of TIPS students and
families in both years agreed (a little or a lot) that the TIPS math program was
a good idea. TIPS students were asked whether they believed TIPS was better than regular math homework. Eighty-five percent of TIPS 3rd graders and
95% of TIPS 4th graders agreed a little or a lot to that question. TIPS families
were asked whether the TIPS math program should be used by students in the
next school year. Ninety-seven percent of third-grade families and 100% of
fourth-grade families agreed a little or a lot with this question. TIPS families
also had the opportunity to write comments about the program. Thirty-four
families in Grade 3 and 24 families in Grade 4 took time to write a comment.
Ninety-three percent of these comments were positive evaluations of the program such as: I like the green sheets (TIPS Math) because sometimes I
328
learned along with my child (case M3CY11). Another family member noted,
They were very very (I could keep on going) good. They (the school) should
consider doing the other grades or other subjects (case M4HS06).
Feelings about math homework. Table 2 also displays student and family
reports of their emotions or feelings during the math homework experience. Significant differences emerged in these scales for Grade 3 families,
F(1, 117) = 14.24, p < .001, and Grade 4 students, F(2, 128) = 3.81, p <
.05. TIPS 2 Year students reported an average emotion of 2.94 while working with their families on math homework while TIPS 1 Year students
reported an average of 2.60, a significant difference. In addition, Control
students indicated an average of 2.55, which, in post hoc analyses, was
significantly lower than TIPS 2 Year student feelings but not different
from TIPS 1 Year reports. In terms of percentages, 87% of TIPS 2 year
students reported an average of happy feelings for themselves and their
families while working on math homework together. This compares with
only 67% of TIPS 1 Year students and 53% of Control students reporting
a happy experience. Therefore, only 13% of TIPS 2 Year students
reported their math homework experience as ok, whereas 33% of
TIPS 1 Year reported their experiences as ok or unhappy, and 47% of
Control students did so.
Across both grades, regression analyses also indicated that being in the
TIPS group positively predicted student and family emotions about the math
homework experience (models explained between 7% and 14% of the variation in emotions), after accounting for gender, ethnicity, free/reduced lunch
status, and previous math report card grade. In addition, families of boys and
White students tended to rate their homework experiences less positively
than families of girls and Black students.
Time on homework. No significant condition effects emerged for the amount
of time children spent on math homework as reported by students or families.
The mean scores for student reports of time on math homework in Grades 3
and 4 were 1.42 and 1.44, respectively, or between 15-20 min and 30-40 min
per night. Family reports were similar for both groups. More than 70% of
TIPS students and 60% of TIPS families in Grades 3 and 4 reported that children spent 15 to 20 min on a typical TIPS sheet.
Mathematics Achievement
Multiple regression analyses were used to assess the impact of the TIPS
intervention on standardized mathematics test scores. Table 3 displays the
results for Grade 4 standardized scores in math, accounting for Grade 2
performance.
329
Van Voorhis
Table 3. Effects of Student Background and Homework Condition on Grade
4 Standardized Math Achievement Test Scores, Controlling on Prior Math
Achievement
Model 1
Variable
Gender (1 = male,
.06
0.83
0 = female)
Race (1 = White,
.33
3.83***
0 = Black)
Free/reduced lunch
.22 2.51*
(1 = yes, 0 = no)
Grade 2 math
standardized test
score
Math homework group (reference: control)
TIPS 2 years
TIPS 1 year
(Grade 3 or 4)
R2/adjusted R2
.23/.22
Model 2
Model 3
.00
0.02
.01
0.21
.04
0.52
.05
0.72
.10
1.48
.05
0.80
.68
10.27***
.66
10.39***
.19
.13
3.22**
2.23*
.55/.54
.59/.57
Note: N = 142. Grade 2 and Grade 4 achievement test scores were provided by the district
office for students who remained in the school, were not in special education or on modified
curriculum, and were present for the test administration. R2 = .319 for Model 2 (p = .000);
R2 = .034 for Model 3 (p = .003).
*p < .05. **p < .01. ***p < .001.
Model 1 includes background variables and accounts for 22% of the variance in math scores. White students earned significantly higher math achievement test scores than Black students, and students receiving free/reduced
price meals earned lower standardized math scores than those students not
receiving meals.
Model 2 adds the effect of Grade 2 standardized math score and adds 32%
of explained variance. Not surprisingly, students with a higher math score in
Grade 2 were significantly more likely to earn a higher Grade 4 math score.
With the inclusion of this variable in the model, none of the other background
variables continued to result in significant explanation of variance in Grade 4
math scores.
Finally, Model 3 adds the effect of math homework group to the model.
Even after accounting for prior achievement, students who used TIPS for 1 year
( = .13) or two ( = .19) had significantly higher standardized mathematics
achievement scores than Control students. This full model accounts for 57%
of the variation in Grade 4 mathematics achievement scores.
330
Discussion
The purpose of this study was to learn whether math homework that was
designed to involve families could add meaning to the homework process and
increase the benefits of homework for students and families compared with
math homework that students are asked to complete alone. Given current
discussions of the challenges associated with math homework practice, it is
important to look deeply into the results of homework programs in specific
subjects over time. This study provides evidence that sustained use of TIPS
homework (i.e., activities that are well designed, clear in instruction, and
linked to the curriculum), related to more positive student and family feelings and attitudes about math learning and higher levels of elementary student achievement, as measured by standardized test scores.
The study is unique in collecting data on a homework intervention over
2 years, having affect and achievement data from students and from parents,
and delving deeply into homework processes, reactions, and results. The study
applied a strong quasi-experimental design (Shadish, Cook, & Campbell,
2002). By randomly assigning teachers to intervention and control conditions, selecting classrooms similar in student populations at the outset of the
study, using regression techniques to control for variables on which students
differed, and using prior achievement test scores for both intervention and
control groups as pretest variables, this study increased our understanding
of homework attitudes, behaviors, interactions at home, and the effects of the
intervention on emotional and cognitive outcomes for students.
Van Voorhis
331
from the school consistently ranked in favor of the TIPS groups. In other
words, TIPS students and families reported that the level of math information and instruction they received was better than that reported by the
Control group. Future studies should investigate why students and families
feel better about math when working on TIPS or other well-crafted math
interventions.
332
to the achievement model, given the fact that TIPS represented only one
15-20 min homework assignment weekly.
Van Voorhis
333
with their students, reminded students of homework due dates, and so on.
Only one of these questions resulted in significant differences across the
groups, namely, the fact that TIPS teachers were significantly more likely
to encourage family involvement in assignments than Control teachers,
F(1, 15) = 7.76, p < .05. Studies including self-report measures and direct
observation of teacher practice paired with specific details of the components of the independent assignments across the groups may help clarify the
specific aspects of programs like TIPS that link to achievement and attitudinal outcomes.
334
Authors Note
The analyses and opinions are the authors and do not necessarily reflect the policies
of the funding source.
Funding
The author disclosed receipt of the following financial support for the research,
authorship, and/or publication of this article: This work was supported by a grant from
the National Institute for Child Health and Human Development (NICHD) for the
Interagency Education Research Initiative (IERI) to the Center on School, Family, and
Community Partnerships.
Note
1. *p < .05. **p < .01. ***p < .001.
Van Voorhis
335
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Bio
Frances L. Van Voorhis, PhD, works with school and district leaders to improve
homework for students, teachers, and families. She is an author of both research and
practical articles on homework as well as the effects of the Teachers Involve Parents
in Schoolwork (TIPS) interactive homework process.