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Minerals Engineering, Vol. 4, No. 12, pp.

1257-1277, 1991
Printed in Great Britain

0892-6875/91 $3.00+0.00
1991 Pergamon Press plc

MODERN TRENDS IN GOLD PROCESSING - OVERVIEW


M.S. PRASAD, R. MENSAH-BINEY and R.S. PIZARRO!

Mineral Resources Research Center, University of Minnesota,


56 East River Rd., Minneapolis, MN 55455-0205, USA
t Brown & Root, Inc., Houston, TX, USA
(Received 11 January 1991; accepted 7 February 1991)
ABSTRACT
This paper reviews the state of the art in processing and extraction of gold. The
ore bodies which were considered uneconomical at one time are becoming
economical due to new and advanced methods of extraction. The paper
discusses the gold treatment methods on free milling ores with conventional
cyanidation and refractory ores with direct and pretreatment techniques for the
recovery o f high gold values.
In the extraction aspect, the paper discloses two different extraction schemes
on treating refractory ores, namely pretreatment followed by gold leaching and
direct leaching. Pretreatment process involving roasting chemical oxidation and
bio-oxidation have been discussed. Direct leaching of gold ores such as heap
leaching, carbon in pulp (CIP), carbon in leach (CIL) and resin in pulp (RIP)
are summarized. This paper also discloses in a detailed manner the research
approach on the development o f alternative leach reagents which could improve
environmental concerns as compared to the use of cyanide.
Special emphasis of the review is focussed on the technical and economic
guidelines for developing a small gold mine on the basis of capital and
operating cost analysis.
Keywords
Free Milling Ores; Refractory Gold Ores; Cyanidation; Roasting; Chemical
Oxidation; Carbon in Pulp (CIP); Carbon in Leach (CIL); Resin in Pulp (RIP);
Noncyanide Lixivants

INTRODUCTION
The dramatic rise in the price of gold over the past decade has been the focus of intense
exploration activity to extract gold in various precious metal mining operations all over the
world. This activity has resulted not only in the development of many new conventional ore
bodies, but also in the delineation and development of more refractory ores and continuing
search for improvements in the economics of existing operations. The world mine
production of gold has increased by 11,524,370 troy ounces from 46,929,444 ounces in 1984
to 58,453,814 ounces in 1988. The production figures for the first ten ranked countries in
the world are shown in Table 1. Traditionally Republic of South Africa stands as the major
gold producer in the world, showed a decrease in the production 19,881,126 ounces in 1988
as compared to 21,860,933 ounces in 1984. The decline in the average grade of ore during
the recent years, combined with increasing mining costs and fluctuations in gold prices
during 1988, forced some higher cost marginal operations to lay off workers, reduce the
tonnage of ore processed and to mine higher grade ores to maintain profitability. Most of
the other large gold producers especially the USA, Canada, Australia, Brazil and China
increased their production targets from 30 to 70% to the 1984 production. The gold
production in U.S.S.R. remain steady around 8,650,000-9,000,000 ounces per year between
1984-1988 period.
1257

1258

M. S. PRASADet

al.

TABLE 1 World mine production (troy ounces)

Country

1984

1985

South Africa
U.S.S.R.
United States
Australia
Canada
Brazil
China
Papua New Guinea
Philippines
Colombia
Chile
Others

21,860,933 21,565,230
8,650,000 8,700,000
2,084,615 2,427,232
1,295,963 1,881,491
2,682,786 2,815,118
1,980,000 2,320,000
1,900,000 1,950,000
835,000 1,186,618
827,149 1,062,997
730,670 1,142,385
541,064
554,278
3,541,264 3,678,342

Total

46,929,444

1986

1987

1988

20,513,665
8,850,000
3,739,015
2,413,842
3,364,700
2,170,000
2,100,000
1,127,686
1,296,367
1,285,878
576,719
4,096,184

19,176,500
8,850,000
4,947,040
3,558,954
3,724,000
2,690,000
2,300,000
1,069,011
1,048,1)81
853,600
547,655
4,268,773

19,881,126
9,000,000
6,459,539
4,887,000
4,110,000
3,220,000
2,500,000
1,225,874
1,134,920
933,000
640,000
4,462,355

49,283,691 51,534,056 53,033,614 58,453,814

Source: Minerals Yearbook, Vol. I, USBM (1988), pp. 425-448.

Processes for the extraction of gold have improved dramatically over the years. The latest
developments in gold beneficiation technology have not only reflected the economic aspects
in terms of increased efficiency and reduced costs but also the environmental aspects,
particularly with regard to gaseous emissions and liquid effluents discharged from gold
plants. The various process treatment options available for gold extraction are given in
Figure 1. The dissolution of gold by alkaline cyanide remains the most common method
of extraction of gold from its ores. However, many gold ores do not respond very well to
the conventional cyanidation process. Such ores are referred to as refractory ores which are
characterized by low gold recoveries and high cyanide consumptions when subjected to
direct cyanide leaching. These ores are subjected to oxidation pretreatment methods such
as roasting, chemical oxidation, pressure oxidation and bio oxidation prior to cyanidation.
Thus the problem of winning precious metals from troublesome ores is attracting all aspects
of developmental activities around the world. Furthermore, there is general interest in
replacing cyanide by lixiviants which are nontoxic and environmentally safe.
The information on the gold processing update has been reviewed by many individuals and
professional societies. Added to this, the privately sponsored studies conducted by
consultants and one might conclude that there is an inexhaustible source of information and
data available. Recently numerous review papers describing gold processing developments
[1-5] on both refractory and nonrefractory ores and the dissolution chemistry of gold and
silver in different lixiviants [6] have been published. The present review discusses modern
trends in processing techniques which are commonly in use for gold extraction. A capital
and operating cost estimates for establishing a small gold mining operation based on
appropriate and available technology is also given.
CURRENT DEVELOPMENTS IN THE EXTRACTIVE METALLURGY OF GOLD

Free milling of gold ores


Cyanldation
More than 87% of the gold extracted in the United States in 1988 employed classical, direct
cyanidation [7,8]. This process, ideal for free milling, nonrefractory ores, is shown in Figure
2. Ore is first ground by conventional multistage crushing and ball milling, or by semiautogenous grinding (SAG), then is leached in agitated or Pachuca-type tanks, using lime,

1259

Modern trends in gold processing

dilute cyanide solution and oxygen. The leached pulp then undergoes counter-currentdecantation (CCD) or filtration, using drum or belt filters. The precious metal values are
finally precipitated from the pregnant leach liquor using zinc dust (the Merrill-Crowe
process), or are electrodeposited on a steel wool cathode. The overall chemical reactions are:
Leaching:

4Au + 8NaCN + 0 2 + 2HzO = 4NaAu(CN):, + 4NaOH

Merrill-Crowe
precipitation:

2NaAu(CN)2 + Zn = NazZn(CN) 4 + 2Au

Electrodeposition:

4OH" ffi O z + 2HzO + 4e"


2e" + 2Au(CN)" 2 ffi 2Au + 4CN"

Direct alkaline cyanidation is applicable only to free milling ores. If the ore is refractory,
a pretreatment step is necessary to make it amenable to cyanide leaching. Developments in
the treatment of refractory ores are discussed below.
Gold ore

Free milling ore


conv. leaching

Refractory
ore

I
Pretreatmenl~ and

Au leaching

I
Carbon-in-leach

Non. cony.

(ClL)

Iixhrants
(e.g. thlourea,
malonoltdte)

I
Roasting

BIo-oxldation

Oxidative
acid leaching

I
Direct Au
leaching
I

I
Alkaline
cyanldatlon
under 0 2
prelmure

I
Chemical
oxidation

Alkaline
pressure

leaching

Acid
pressure
leaching

Fig.l Different treatment methods for extraction of gold (Haque [1])

Refractory ores
The need to treat increasingly low grade and/or refractory gold ores and the continuing
search for improvements in the economics of existing operations has led to several
developments and innovations in gold extraction metallurgy during the last two decades.
A detailed analysis of various causes of refractoriness of gold ores is described by Jha [2].
If the refractoriness is due to the presence of sulfides, an oxidation pretreatment is given
to make the ore amenable for cyanidation. Refractory gold ores and concentrates are

1260

M.S. PRASAD
et al.

characterized by low gold recoveries and high cyanide consumptions when treated by direct
cyanidation. The conventional method of treating these ores and concentrates is by
oxidative roasting followed by cyanidation.
GOLD/SILVER ORE OR CALCINE

SOLID/LIQUID
SEPARATION

PULP

TAIUNGS
TO WASTE

ACTIVATED
CARBON
CIRCUIT

CLEAR

ION EXCHANGE
RESIN
CIRCUIT

CONCENTI~TEISOLUTION

ZINC DUST
CEMENTATION

TAIUNGS
TO WASTE
I ELECTROWINNING

GOLD/SILVER SPONGE

LEACHING/SMELTING

DORE BULLION

Fig.2 General flowsheet for the extraction of gold


by cyanidation (Jha [8])
Pretreatment methods
Roasting of sulfides:

This approach is both expensive and environmentally undesirable and has therefore
rendered many ores uneconomical [1]. Gold roasting plants are currently seeking new
technology to reduce environmentally undesirable emissions of SO 2, particulates, mercury
and arsenic. The removal of SO 2 is effected by use of lime scrubbing of effluent gases in
which up to 95% of the SO 2 is removed. The major disadvantage of this process is the
disposal of gypsum.

Modern trends in gold processing

1261

Sulfuric acid production from the SOz is feasible under special conditions where the
concentration of SO:, in emissions is high. However, many of the refractory gold ores do
not meet this special condition. Several innovations in roasting are in developmental stages
and the trend is towards fluid-bed roasting with dry ore grinding or with high density
slurry feed of flotation concentrates. Subsequent cyanidation leach recoveries from roasting
ores, generally range from 75 to 90% whereas recoveries from concentrate roasting range
from 85 to 95%. Arsenopyrite often requires two-stage roast. The first stage roast is at
lower temperature and oxygen deficient to produce As203 and avoid the formation of
FeAsO 4. The second stage roast is at a higher temperature with excess oxygen to produce
Fe203 and complete conversion of the sulfides to oxides [9]. The relevant roasting reactions
are:
Stage I Roast:
FeAsS(s) --, FeS(s) + As(g)
2As(g) + 3 / 2 0 z ( g ) ~ As203(g)
Stage II Roast:
As203(s) + Oz ---. As20~(s)
Fe203(s) + As2Os(s) ~ 2FeAsO4(s )
4FeS2(s ) + 1102(g ) --4 2Fe203(s ) + 8SO2(g)
Alternative commercially viable methods of oxidation have now been developed to eliminate
the problems associated with roasting. These include chemical oxidation and bio-oxidation
processes and are discussed below.
Chemical oxidation
Commercial application of chemical oxidation at ambient pressure was first applied at the
Carlin Mines for the oxidation of carbonaceous sulfide ores [10,1]. The major purpose of
the Carlin type process is to oxidize the carbonaceous material and humic acid using
chlorine as oxidizing agent. The pretreated ore is then cyanide leached to recover the gold.
The secondary purpose is to decompose the sulfide pyrite so that the entrained gold will
become available to cyanide attack during the subsequent leaching process. The Carlin
process could either use sodium hypochlorite generated in situ by electrolysis of brine
containing pulp or use chlorine directly. The reserves at Carlin at that time did not support
the high capital, low operating cost of in situ electrolysis and, therefore, direct addition of
chlorine was adopted. The chlorine requirements were about 15.0 kg/tonne with the pyrite
taking most of the chlorine. The relevant chlorine reactions are given as:
Cl2(g) + NaOH(aq) = NaOCl(aq) + HCl(aq)
HCl(aq) + NaOH(aq) = NaCl(aq) + H20
Au(s) + 3/2 Cl~(aq) = AuC13(aq)
FeS 2 + 7NaOCr(aq) + 2NaOH(aq) = FeCl2(aq) + 2Na2SO4(aq ) + 5NaCl(aq) + H20
An improvement of the Carlin process can be achieved by the "Double Oxidation" process
[11]. The process which involves the pre-oxidizing of the pyrite before chlorination was
developed to conserve chlorine. In this process, the slurry is aerated at 80-86C until
considerable portion of the pyrite and some of the carbonaceous material are oxidized. The
preoxidation is then followed by the chlorination method to oxidize the carbonaceous
material and the rest of the pyrite. The success of this double oxidation process for the
pyrite at Carlin is due to the porosity and large surface area of the spheroidal pyrite.
Further developments in the area of chemical oxidation on gold ores include Caro's acid
oxidation developed by Ontario Research Foundation [12]) and Nitrox Process [13]. The
Caro's acid oxidation is attempted on gold bearing arsenopyrite ores or concentrate and

1262

M . S . PRASADet al.

was shown to improve gold extraction from less than 65% by direct cyanidation to 85%
during the development stage. The Nitrox process which treats the ore for 1 to 2 hours in
nitric acid in the presence of air at atmospheric pressure to oxidize pyrites and arsenopyrites
prior to cyanidation, claims to increase the gold recoveries from 30% to 90%.
Pressure oxidation
Pressure oxidation or autoclaving is an aggressive pretreatment method for highly refractory
gold ores and concentrates [14]. This chemical oxidation process uses high-pressure oxygen
and heat to break down the sulfides and carbonaceous ores, freeing the gold, which is
usually recovered by subsequent cyanidation leach. The ore may be treated directly or
concentrated by flotation or gravity method prior to pressure oxidation. Preconcentration
of the ore may be preferable since it holds down the size of the plant. The exact pressure
and temperatures required depend on the ore, and are held as low as possible to minimize
the plant cost.
Generally pressure oxidation is conducted at temperatures in the range of 180-210C and
pressures from 15 to 20 bars (200-300 psi). The use of pressure oxidation was first
employed at Homestake's McLaughlin Mine in California, USA. The process was based on
the use of autoclaves operating at pressures in excess of 13 bar (188 psi) and temperatures
of 160-180C to effect the oxidation of sulfides and carbonaceous materials. The slurry
enters the autoclave at temperatures of 90-120C and at a pH of 1.8-1.9 acidified by the
addition of sulfuric acid. Oxygen is sparged into the autoclave at 34-45 k g / t slurry. The
oxidized ore exits at the temperature of about 175C and flows into thickeners where the
acid is washed out. Lime is then added to neutralize the acid and also raise the pH to 10.8
prior to subsequent cyanidation leach. This process is claimed to achieve overall gold
recovery of about 93%.
Another interesting process "High pressure low alkalinity cyanidation" was tested on pilot
scale in South Africa on stibinite concentrates [ 15]. The process involves batch cyanide leach
of concentrates at high pressure (8.8 Mpa) at 7.0 pH in a tube reactor with oxygen over
pressure of 12.0 Mpa. It was reported that gold extractions improved from low values of
1% for direct cyanidation to about 85%.
Bio-oxidation
Bio-oxidation is a process of using bacteria to aid in the chemical break down of some
sulfide ores [16,17]. Thiobacillus ferrooxidant is the most common bacteria used for this
purpose. Other bacteria used include Thiooxidans and sulfolobus acidocaldarious which
thrives at higher temperatures. These bacteria are found in mine drainage and natural hot
springs. The typical bacteria such as thiobacillus ferrooxidans gets its energy by oxidizing
sulfur via the reaction:
S -2 = S6+ + 8e"
Thus the sulfur in FeS 2 goes to sulfate anion. The other important reaction is the oxidation
of ferrous to ferric iron. This in turn also oxidizes nearby sulfur via the reaction:
7Fe2(SO4) 3

FeS 2 + 8H20 ~ 15FeSO 4

8H2SO 4

This reaction is important because it breaks down the pyrite, allowing the encapsulated
material such as gold to be leached by other extraction methods.
The original bio-oxidation process used fixed bed reactors such as dumps and heaps.
However, recent developmental [18] work has demonstrated that the continuously stirred
reactor (CSTR) will give optimum results. The use of CSTR for bio-oxidation had been
constrained by the need for long residence times, low pulp densities, high power costs for
agitation and efficient heat removal from the system. Many of these constraints have now
been eliminated by recent developments.

Modern trends in gold processing

1263

The basic requirements for bacteria organisms include substrate, air/oxygen, water and
acidity. The key factors controlling biological leaching process include:
Substrate - if material is not acid soluble and disseminated bacterial action is
impossible.
Oxygen - oxygen is only available to bacteria if it is dissolved in water. The amount
of dissolved oxygen can be improved by increasing pressure (by as much as 40%).
Temperature - bacteria can withstand temperatures up to 35C. Low temperatures
will slow bacteria activity.
Water - water is the transport medium for nutrients and transfer of metal values
from the solid sites. The bacteria cannot live without water.
It is estimated that bio-oxidation followed by cyanidation can improve gold recovery from
68% to 98%.
Direct Leaching Methods
Heap Leaching
During the last decade considerable interest has been shown in the heap leaching of lower
grade (0.03 to 0.10 oz gold per ton) oxidized ores [18]. Currently there are more than 80
large or small operations in the western and southwestern United States [19]. The primary
reason for utilizing this technique is that the gold/silver values are located in the fracture
fillings and that the cyanide solution is able to contact them at coarser sizes ranging from
run of mine ore down to three stage crushed product (-3/8"). In practice, the crushed ore
is placed on an impervious surface and leached by percolation over a period ranging from
30 to 150 days or more depending on the ore size, height, and mineralogy of the valuable
minerals. In general, the recovery of gold by heap leaching technique ranges from 60 to 80
percent. However, in spite of its applicability to low grade ores heap leaching suffers from
drawbacks such as long leaching time, low permeability due to the presence of clayey or
mixture of coarse and fine particles and in some cases seasonal operation due to cold
climate. The heap leaching process with its modifications such as agglomeration, solution
heating, air injection and staged heap leaching [2] feature very low capital and operation
costs, although heap recoveries are somewhat lower than by agitation leach methods. More
over, the heap processes are very flexible, can be operated under snowy conditions and are
environmentally very attractive [20].
Activated carbon based technology
Adsorption of gold and silver on activated charcoal from pregnant solutions has found
worldwide acceptance in the last decade. The preference of the carbon adsorption over the
conventional Merrill-Crowe zinc dust precipitation system is mainly due to more effective
recovery of precious metals from lower grade leach solution along with lower capital and
operating costs as shown in Tables 2 and 3. A majority of new plants designed in the last
decade in the USA, Australia and South Africa adopt carbon adsorption systems. The
various forms of carbon adsorption techniques that are now in use in the precious metals
industry are discussed below.
Carbon in pulp (CIP) technology is generally used to treat low grade ore feed where a
granular carbon as coarse as 6 mesh to 28 mesh is moved countercurrent to the cyanided
pulp in the adsorption contactors [21]. The loaded carbon is then eluted and the gold and
silver values in the eluate are recovered by conventional Merrill-Crowe zinc dust
precipitation or by electrowinning on steel cathodes using 2.5 to 3.5 volts per cell and
amperage consistent with 30 to 40 current efficiency. The typical CIP process flowsheet
proposed by the U.S. Bureau of Mines, Salt Lake City [22], is shown in Figure 3. The
process includes cyanide agitation leaching, counter current carbon-pulp contact and
HE 4:12-E

1264

M.S. PRASAD et al.

separation of carbon from the pulp for desorption of gold and silver values. The ore is
normally ground to -100 mesh or finer and leached in a thick slurry of about 45-50% solids
to which lime is added for protecting the alkalinity of sodium cyanide. The pulp is
vigorously agitated and aerated for 2-24 hours for complete dissolution of the precious
metal values. Carbon in columns (CIC) are predominantly used to recover gold from heap
leaching pregnant solutions. Activated carbon is made from wood, nut shells, coal,
petroleum coke, etc. However, coconut shell is most preferred due to its high adsorption
capability and commendable durability for gold and silver cyanides.

TABLE 2 Comparison of capital cost estimates for different


gold processing techniques [3]. (Dollars per ton per day)
Capacity
(stpd)
1,000
2,000
3,000
4,000
8,000
16,000
Alternate
A.
B.
C.
D.
E.
F.

Alternate Processes
D

$2,640
2,000
1,700
1,515
1,150
870

5,700
4,330
3,680
3,280
2,485
1,875

10,325
7,825
6,655
5,925
4,495
3,370

processes
Heap leach:
Heap leach:
Heap leach:
Cyanidation:
Cyanidation:
Cyanidation:

17,035
12,910
10,980
9,780
7,420
5,565

D/A

6.45
6.45
6.46
6.46
6.24
6.40

25,815
19,560
16,640
14,820
11,240
8,430

43,410
32,900
27,975
24,935
18,895
14,320

Uncrushed ore-CA-EW
Crushed ore-CA-EW
Fine crushed ore-agglomeration-CA-EW
Carbon-in-pulp (CIP)
Conventional cyanidation-CCD-MC
Pressure oxidation-cyanidation

TABLE 3 Comparison of operation cost estimates for different


gold processing techniques [31. (Dollars per ton per day)
Capacity
(stpd)
1,000
2,000
3,000
4,000
8,000
16,000
Alternate
A.
B.
C.
D.
E.
F.

A
$ 2.40
2.35
2.30
2.20
1.95
1.60
processes
Heap leach:
Heap leach:
Heap Leach:
Cyanidation:
Cyanidation:
Cyanidation:

Alternate Processes
D
D/A

4.85
4.70
4.50
4.25
3.75
3.25

5.80
5.65
5.50
5.35
4.50
3.50

7.75
7.55
7.35
7.15
6.00
5.20

3.23
3.21
3.20
3.25
3.08
3.25

9.70
9.45
9.20
8.95
7.50
6.50

19.40
18.90
18.40
17.90
15.00
13.00

Uncrushed ore-CA-EW
Crushed ore-CA-EW
Fine crushed ore-agglomeration-CA-EW
Carbon-in-pulp (CIP)
Conventional cyanidation-CCD-MC
Pressure oxidation-cyanidation

A n i m p r o v e d t e c h n o l o g y f o r the c a r b o n - i n - p u l p ( C I P ) process has b e e n d e v e l o p e d b y D a v y


M c K e e C o r p o r a t i o n , b a s e d o n a n e w c o n t a c t o r d e s i g n [23]. T h i s n e w c o n t a c t o r uses a
m o d i f i c a t i o n o f the air s w e p t i n t e r c h a n g e s c r e e n d e s i g n w h i c h is able to h a n d l e h i g h c a r b o n
c o n c e n t r a t i o n s a n d r e s u l t i n g in r e d u c e d c o n t a c t o r size.
A n i n c r e a s e in the c a r b o n

Modern trends in gold processing

1265

concentration from 5% for conventional CIP to 25% for the Davy McKee eontaetor has
reduced the stage volume by 80%. This new design is claimed to have resulted in the
reduction in the adsorption plant capital cost of up to 45% or 20% of the total carbon plant
from adsorption to electrowinning.

Gold ore

+.
NaCN plus lime
45-50 pct solids pulp,
minus 1Ix) mesh or finer

screens

i..........0.,.,o.

T.,,o, J

Striopllo ~
~r

Electrowlnnlng ~)~ Gold


Makeup
Carbon reactivation
minus 10-plus 20-mesh
I
activated carbon

Fig.3 Carbon-in-pulp process (Hill [22])


Carbon in leach with oxygen (CILO) is another new development which was developed by
Hazen Research Inc. The process consists of utilizing oxygen rather than air in the carbon
leach process. The test results on different ores indicate that the leaching rate can be
significantly increased by a factor of 4.8 when using oxygen in the process. Contrary to
expectation, the cyanide consumption for the CILO process was less than that in a
comparative CIL test. The major advantage of the CILO process is the reduction in the
retention time. Thus both leaching and gold adsorption can be carried out in about the
same number and size of tanks as conventionally used for CIP alone following large
agitation leach tanks. The process can be utilized to reduce capital and operating cost or to
increase production or improve gold recovery at existing plants.

Ion exchange/solvent extraction technique


One of the emerging technologies deserving attention involves the recovery of precious
metals from pregnant solutions by ion-exchange resins using the resin-in-column (RIC)
technique [24]. The flowsheet for this system is similar to that of carbon-in-column (CIC)
plant. One major exception involves the operation of the elution (stripping) stage which
does not require elevated temperatures and pressures for removal of precious metals from
loaded resins. Either strong or weak base resins may be used.
In general, the stripping of the loaded gold/silver values from the resins has proved to be
somewhat difficult. Weak base resins may be eluted by dilute caustic solution at ambient
temperature. On the other hand, the strong base resins require a concentrated NH4SCN or
ZN(CN) 4 solutions as reported by MINTEK, South Africa [25]. In this case, the resin needs
to be regenerated using acid which breaks down the zinc cyanide complex producing HCN
gas which must be then collected and readsorbed into caustic soda for recycling.
The alternate technique of Solvent-Extraction (SX) of gold/silver from pregnant solutions
is also worthy of consideration, but it is still in its developmental stage. Mooiman and Miller

1266

M . S . PRASADet al.

[26] have just recently identified a suitable extractant with an organic phase consisting of
a weak base amine whose basicity has been increased by the addition of an organic
phosphorus oxide modifier, such as TBP, all in an appropriate carrier. Maximum loading
is achieved at pH about 9.5, even for a very weak gold bearing solution. Stripping of the
loaded solvent is effected at pH 12-13 by deprotonating the amine or with a 0.1 to 0.5
percent caustic solution. Both the loading and stripping reaction rates are relatively fast
making the technique very attractive from design and cost considerations. Moreover, the
proposed SX system is very selective for gold/silver complexes over other metal cyanoanions
such as ferric and cupric complexes which should result in obtaining a relatively pure
gold/silver product. Additional research and development activities in the future should
prove the SX alternate to be quite attractive, practically and economically.

Desorption of gold
The desorption of gold from activated carbon has generally been undertaken using either
the Z a d r a or AARL Elution process [27]. Both techniques utilize a low ionic strength
aqueous eluant and produce low grade eluate requiring electro-deposition techniques for
gold recovery.
A new desorption technique has been developed based on alcohol (usually methanol) called
the Micron Alcohol Desorption Process. This process operates in a reflux/distillation mode
with carbon acting as a fractionating medium. The main advantage of the Micron System
is the production of small concentrated volume of gold eluate, typically 5000-15,000 ppm
Au. The gold from the commercial micron eluates are currently recovered by electrodeposition on to aluminum foil, although chemical methods of gold recovery are under
development.

Direct electrowinning
In recent years, direct electrowinning of gold from dilute aurocyanide solutions containing
1 to 10 ppm Au has been under investigation for treating pregnant solutions generated in
heap leaching operations [25]. In such a system the electrodes must have extended surface
area (ESA) which is provided by a flowthrough supported fiber electrode or as a particulate
carbon (pack-bed) electrode. In this case, the mass transfer limiting currents and thus the
rate of electrodeposition is increased by the porous nature and the large active electrode
surface area.
USE OF UNCONVENTIONAL LIXIVIANTS
Although cyanide leaching remains the overwhelming option for treating gold ore because
of its economy and process simplicity, considerable interest has been expressed in
noncyanide lixiviants during the 1980's. Among them, use of thiourea, thiosulfate,
bromine, chlorine and iodine are being seriously investigated. Leaching of gold by acidic
non cyanide reagents can be advantageous when treating oxidized or partially oxidized
sulfide ores and concentrates that are themselves acidic. Cyanide alternatives are
particularly attractive if they improve the leach extraction. Several well publicized claims
of better leach results have been made for some noncyanide reagents but few of these are
verifiable. Randol International has made a comprehensive survey on capital costs of
agitated leach tanks and the costs of power, labor and reagents were compared for a
spectrum of plants in several major gold producing centers in the world [28] and the study
indicated that in spite of enhanced leach rates, the noncyanide reagents showed no
improvement in gold recovery or savings in reagent cost.

Thiourea
Gold dissolves in acidic thiourea solution forming a cationic complex. Kazakov et al. [29]
described the gold dissolution reaction as follows:

Modern trends in gold processing

1267

Au + 2CS(NH2) 2 ---* Au[CS(NH2)2]2 + + e


Several authors have reviewed the use of acidified thiourea as lixiviant for gold and silver
[6,30]. The high thiourea consumption and low rate of dissolution are attributed to an
inhibiting coating of sulfur on the surface of gold particles formed due to the degradation
of thiourea. Schulze [31] discussed how thiourea consumption could be reduced by
stabilizing the reagent. The procedure involves adding SO2 to the leaching solution, thereby
controlling the redox couple between thiourea and its first decomposition product
formamidine sulfide, thereby keeping the formation of sulfur to an absolute minimum.
Leaching of gold from a refractory aurostibnite flotation concentrate using acidified
thiourea was described by Hisshion and Waller [32]. The initial extraction of gold is around
50-60% in 10 to 15 minutes from the concentrate and, after that, as much free gold is
recovered by gravity separation. The critical parameters for the thiourea leach are as
follows:
pH
Redox potential
Thiourea Conc.
Thiourea Consump.
Leach Time

: 1.4 adjusted by H2SO4


: Max 250 mv
: Min 150 mv
:1%
: 2 kg/mt
: 10-15 minutes

It was noticed that over 250 mv, thiourea consumption increases to excessive levels. Below
150 mv gold is not leached. The electromotive force of the solution is controlled
economically by dosing MnO 2 with peroxide. The thiourea consumption is reduced by
keeping thiourea contact with sulfide mineral to an absolute minimum. The thiourea
process is still in its infancy. However, it does offer an attractive potential for treating
refractory ores and flotation concentrates. It is an optimistic hope that thiourea may find
applications in the treatment of lower grade ores by using heaps, dumps or insitu leaching
techniques similar to those practiced in the copper industry since the leaching conditions are
almost identical [3].
Bromine

Although bromine has been recognized for many years as a powerful gold extractant, it is
only recently that its application has been recognized. Sergent et al. [33] have proposed the
dissolution of gold in bromine as follows:
Br2(DMH) + 2H20 = 2HOBr + H2(DMH )
2Au + 3HOBr + 3NaBr = 2AuBr 3 + 3NaOH
AuBr 3 + NaBr = Na+(AuBr4)"
where DMH stands for dibromodimethyl hydantion.
represented as follows:

The overall reaction can thus be

4Au + 3Br2(DMH) + 10NaBr + 6HzO = 4Na(AuBr4) + 6NaOH + 3H2(DMH )


The natural advantages claimed for bromine are rapid extraction, non-toxicity and
adaptability to a wide range of pH values. Dadgar et al. [34] have studied the leaching
characteristics of bromine on a refractory gold ore and compared the results obtained with
conventional cyanidation. The high dissolution rate and low recovery costs of the bromine
process are expected to give a definite economic advantage over cyanidation even though
preliminary laboratory data indicated that the cost of reagents for both the processes is
about the same. Disadvantages on the use of bromine are likely to be high reagent
consumption and interference in AA and ICP techniques.

1268

M . S . PRASADet al.

Iodine
Iodine forms the most stable gold complexes of all the halogens. It leaches out gold from
its ore at low concentrations and can penetrate rocks particularly well. Jacobson and
Murphy [35] reported that iodine does not absorb to any great extent on gangue minerals,
which results in excellent recoveries of the reagent that will ultimately reduce the cost of
the process. The application of iodine for leaching gold is patented by McGraw and
Murphy [36]. This work describes some aspects of iodine usage for in-situ leaching by
using triodide complex to oxidize gold in the ore. They also demonstrated that the iodine
can readily be regenerated electrolytically in a diaphragm cell. The excessive consumption
and the high cost aspect of iodine are the main reasons that it could not compete with
cyanide.

Other lixiviants
The use of thiosulfate for the extraction of gold has been reported as early as 1880 in the
Von Patera process [37]. The extraction of gold from sulfide concentrates and various
pressure oxidation leach residues was reported by Berezowsky et al [38]. Improvements to
thiosulfate leaching were patented by Kerley [39] in 1981, including the addition of copper
ions and stabilization of thiosulfate by addition of SO2 or disulphite (HaSOx'). Although,
it is known that thiosulfate was tested for at least one in-situ leach pro]eel, it is believed
that there are no commercial scale operations using the reagent.
At acid pH, gold and silver are leached rapidly by using chlorine. Filmer et al. [30]
compared the economics of leaching gold in acidified chlorine with thiourea leaching.
Chlorination of gold is fast in acidic conditions but excessive consumption of chlorine
occurs for ores containing greater than 0.5% sulfur. Reprecipitation of gold and handling
of acidic chlorine solutions are both significant problems.
GOLD PLANT CASE HISTORIES

First Miss Gold Inc., Golconda, NV


First Miss Gold acquired the Getchell Mine in Nevada in 1983. The ore body consists of
sulfides as orpinent, realgar, getchellite, pyrite and stibinite. Mineralogical studies show
that most of the gold is in submicron size and is distributed in various sulfides with
substantial portion in pyrite. Typical ore for mill feed contains about 3% sulfide sulfur, 3%
arsenic, 5% carbonate and about 5 ppm (0.16 oz/ton) gold. Wright engineers, Canada,
developed a process flowsheet based on pressure oxidation to process economically the
Gretchell ore. The process flowsheet is shown in Figure 4. The run of mine ore is stock
piled and blended at the mill to keep the sulfide and carbonate within operational limits.
The ore is fed to a semi-autogenous mill and to a ball mill, flocculated and thickened to
50% of solids. The consumption of sulfuric acid for pretreatment varies between 0 to 5%
of the ore depending on the sulfide and carbonate content in the original feed. Oxidation
of sulfides is accomplished in three autoclave trains operating in parallel. The autoclave
discharge contains 15-45 gpl free acid. The acid is neutralized with limestone in a first
stage operating at pH 5. Carbon in leach circuit is adopted to recover gold from leach
solution. The CIL is a conventional 8-stage facility with a slurry retention time of twelve
hours and a carbon retention time of about two weeks. Loaded carbon is acid washed and
then batch stripped with cyanide solution at about 140(2. Zinc dust is used to precipitate
gold. Filter cake is retorted to remove mercury and smelted [40].

FMC Corporation, Paradise Peak, NV


The geologists describe Paradise Peak ore body as unevenly mineralized zone includes native
gold and silver, silver sulfides and halides cinnabar, orpiment, realgar and bismuth bearing
stibinite. The process plant has been designed at 4000 st/day and is built by Davy McKee
[41]. The operational flowsheet is given in Figure 5.

TIE

L~

~ ~ ,

'

J~"lr#VATIDcAIqBON

/~1-~

'

~ ~ ~m=~

(1~" ! . 1 1 1 1 1 1 9

(ll/_l_ 1_1_ ] I 1 U]

ZINC
]

&'&'

i .............................

L! . , f - - N

-._,_-.

I---I

.............................
q 7xkLi-~-:
........",

Fig.4 Flowsheet of First Miss Getchell Gold Project (Wicker [40])

1.1ol

LIMt~TONIE ~

_~,-~-~

WATIn --'--'1
J

----

.-s

1270

M.S.PRASAD
et al.
Mill ~

headlank
i

Vibratin0~

30-st clumptruck

.~ "

Agitatorlaunder

-,J
c~

,leeapump

~
solution

,Iper Ondedlow
'
pump
ThianrNo.S ~1 I I I I

!~ ThickeflerNo.4 ~]l I I I
Undedlowpump

E- ThickenerNo.3

Overflow
- pump
pump L Underllow

Overflow
pt~np

Pump I

Thickener No. 2
Underflowp u m p |

~opzlPeS
Slime
:>urgeoastn -

. . . . .

--

v~tet

pomp

'l

Clarifierfillet

Precipitate

~
=mpumO
Oeaeralor

Bullion

Melting
_
Precipilatepress feedpump

Fig.5 Schematic flowsheet, 4000 st/d, Paradise Peak Plant, FMC Corp., NV. (Dayton [41])
Front-end milling operations consist of three-stage crushing to minus 0.25 in. and singlestage grinding in closed circuit with cyclones to 80% minus 200 mesh. After thickening the
cyclone overflow to 50% solids, the pulp undergoes a 24-hr sodium cyanide leach in eight
mechanically-agitated, pressure-aerated vessels, each equipped with a Philadelphia Gear
driven impeller. The lead agitator also has an air sparger. This is followed with a CCD
sequential rinse of leached sands and slimes to tailing using six 90-ft dia. Eimco thickeners.
Barren solution from precious metals precipitation is introduced as wash water at the final
CCD thickener, advancing countercurrently to the flow of solids. Pregnant solution
overflowing the first CCD thickener is clarified in four South African designed Stellar Meta
pressure filters precoated with diatomaceous earth. The precious metals (PM) are
precipitated from a vacuum deaerated, near crystal clear, filtrate using zinc dust. The
precipitate of PM slimes is refiltered in a second bank of precoated Stellar Meta filters and
then treated by sulfuric acid digestion to remove excess zinc. Partially dezinced PM
precipitates are subsequently dewatered in Swiss designed Funda pressure leaf filters.
Mercury is distilled from the Funda filter cake by retorting and condensing of the fume to
recover a saleable by-product.
Following blending with flux, mercury-free PM precipitate is smelted in one of two 500kw tilting induction furnaces. The slag is then poured into button molds and cooled. After
solidifying, the slag is pulverized and undergoes screening and Carpco electrostatic
separation to recover small beads of gold and silver for recycling before the remaining slag
is drummed and shipped to a commercial smelter. This in-plant scavenging of gold and
silver from slag is a significant revenue enhancing step.
Dor6 metal is poured across cascading molds to the final 1,000-tr oz bars that average
85-90% silver, 15-10% gold. The dor6 is shipped abroad for refining.

Modem trends in gold processing

1271

Carlin Gold Mining Company, Carlin, NV


The extraction of gold from refractory ores containing activated carbon and various types
of carbon compounds is being done commercially at Carlin, NV by Carlin Gold Mining
Company which is a 100% subsidiary of Newmont Mining Corporation [42]. Oxidation of
carbonaceous materials to CO and CO z is accomplished by the introduction of chlorine into
an aqueous pulp. The chlorine reacts with limestone in the ore to form calcium
hypochlorite which in turn reacts with limestone in the ore to form calcium chloride, CO
and CO z. Following the oxidation treatment the ore is cyanided in the conventional manner.
However, since mid 1975, as the pit deepened, the ore became increasingly refractory which
would require over 100 pounds of chlorine per ton of ore. In order to reduce the
consumption of chlorine in the process, Carlin has developed a new oxidation process ahead
of initial chlorination pretreatment process. This new process now converts the amenable
pyrite to iron oxide and oxidizes some of the carbonaceous material by first agitating the
slurry with air at 40-50% solids at temperatures 80-86C. The process of aeration followed
by chlorination has been named as "Double Oxidation" and commercial plant using this
principal was started in December 1977. Figures 6 and 7 shows the schematic process
flowsheets at Carlin for both carbonaceous and oxide ores respectively.

Na2 CO3
pH 10

<
40% solids

82-86"C

NaOCI

Na2 CO 3 scrubber

L,J

gas
Lime
Addition

CI
82-86"C

NaCN addition
Pulp to Leach

35% solids
Air Oxidation

Chlorination

DechlorinaUon

Fig.6 Pretreatment circuit flowsheet for carbonaceous ore,


Newmont Gold, Carlin (Jackson [42])
Carbonaceous ore reduced to 3/4" reports to an 8x7 ft grate-discharge ball mill and is
ground in fresh water to 65% minus 200 mesh in a closed circuit with spiral and cyclone
classification. Pulp at about 45% density and 90OF is then pumped to the agitation circuits,
consisting of four insulated, rubber-lined tanks equipped with mechanical agitators.
Vaporized chlorine, purchased in 17-ton tanks, is fed to the first set of agitators through
a system of iron and PVC pipes. Feed rate to the chlorination circuit is controlled by
monitoring the amount of excess hypochlorite in the pulp. An excess of 0.03-0.5%,
determined by titration, indicates that all carbon that will react has been oxidized, and the
ore is ready for cyanidation. Carbonaceous ore is oxidized at a pH of 6 and then raised to
11.5 pH with lime at the end of the chlorination process, prior to entering the oxide ore
circuit. Without treatment, the carbonaceous ore would yield nil to 20% of the contained

1272

M . S . PRASADet al.

gold. Once oxidized, the recovery rate averages about 83%. From the beginning, Carlin
selected a simple, straight-forward cyanidation process, including (in flow sequence):
coarse grinding, ground-pulp leaching, liquid-solid separation by countercurrent
decantation, clarification and deaeration of pregnant solutions, precipitation of gold values
by zinc dust, pressure filtration for recovery of precipitated values, and furnacing
precipitate for bullion production.
Millsl~dyheadtank

....

crush~ L ~ ' ~ X

Conecrusher

~ orebin ~

',loll,

Pond

~'~ .....

_
T _I~'G'~

rnm

walet

Melling I
,um~c= I_

Bullion

~
"

Cyclone

Repulper

"~%'= -

~'~"~"=

press

I "-P~e,eoL
1
z,n -

,-, I
-.,--

Precipitatepressfeedpump

per

pump

Pump

"~a

I~;;,~=J
El.......... -1

Fig.7 Flowsheet of gold recovery plant for oxide ores,


Carlin, Newmont Mining Corp. (Jackson [42])
CAPITAL AND OPERATING COST CONSIDERATIONS
The economics of developing and operating small precious mines are unique and require
much more scrutiny than larger mines since a limited tonnage must carry a heavy burden
of capital investment as well as operating cost per unit ton to be mined and processed. In
general, a small mine constitutes any single unit mining operation having an annual mining
production of 50,000 metric tons of ore or less. Currently under the fluctuating gold metal
prices, ore grades, and economics, it is difficult to evaluate the economic viability of gold
mining operations of smaller size. This problem is further complicated by the applicability
of large variety of processing techniques each of which presents its economic complexities.
Economic Evaluation
Economic evaluation of small gold mine depends on capital costs, operating costs and
projected mine revenues. The annual revenue is generated from the sale of gold. Given the
percent recovery and the current selling price of gold, the annual revenue is calculated as
follows:

Modern trends in gold processing

1273

Annual revenue ffi 360 x ore through put t / d a y x recoverable grade x price of gold
The daily gross revenues as a function of ore grade tonnage and gold price are shown in
Table 4. As soon as a promising prospect is located, either by exploration, option or
outright purchase, a revenue table should be developed. Three cases would normally be
considered - one each for proven, probable and inferred reserves. These would be updated
periodically as additional information is developed. When preparing such a table, the range
o f throughput would be set on the basis of reserves and any company policy regarding
minimum required mine life. For previous metal mines this is typically five to ten years in
order to recover the capital invested in the project. However, extensive use of contract
mining and crushing, together with purchase of secondhand equipment, may make
development of a deposit feasible even though it will have a shorter project life.
TABLE 4 Daily gross revenues as a function of ore grade, tonnage and gold price

GOLD PRICE
Ore Through
Ptlt T/D

Recoverable
Ore Grade
Oz/T

250

0.05
.10
.25

500

0.05
.10
.25

1,000

Gold
Production
Oz/Dav
12.5
25
62.5

$250/o~

$350/oz

$450/oz

$550/c~

$ 3,125
6,250
15,625

$ 4,375
8,750
21,875

$ 5,625
11,250
28,125

$ 6,875
13,750
34,375

25
50
125

6,250
12,500
31,250

8,750
17,500
43,750

11,250
22,500
56,250

13,750
27,500
68,750

0.05
.10
.25

50
100
250

12,500
25,000
62,500

17,500
35,000
87,500

22,500
45,000
112,500

27,500
55,000
137,500

2,500

0.05
.10
.25

125
250
625

31,250
62,500
156,250

43,750
87,500
218,750

56,250
112,500
281,250

68,750
137,500
343,750

5,000

0.05
.10
.25

250
500
1,250

62,500
125,000
312,500

87,500
175,000
437,500

112,500
225,000
562,500

137,500
275,000
687,500

10,00o

0.05
.10
.25

500
1,000
2,500

125,000
250,000
625,000

175,000 2 2 5 , 0 0 0 275,000
3 5 0 , 0 0 0 4 5 0 , 0 0 0 550,000
875,000 1,125,000 1,375,000

Along with the throughput, gold production is controlled by the ore grade. An important
point to r e m e m b e r is that this grade must reflect only the recovered ounces per ton and not
the geologic grade of the ore block(s). This is because revenue is derived from bullion sales
and not from gold believed to be in the ground. The latter figure is always higher and is
reduced by three principal factors to give the recoverable grade. These are mine dilution,
incomplete extraction from the ore, and losses during processing. The greatest difference
between geologic and recoverable grade occurs in heap leach situations. For example,
consider the case in which the geologic grade is 0.085 troy oz./s, ton, mine dilution is 5%,
extraction is 65%, and processing losses are 2.5%. Then the recoverable grade will be 0.085
x 0.95 x 0.65 x 0.975 or 0.051 troy oz./s, ton. This figure is only 60% of the geologic ore
grade.

M . S . PRASAD et al.

1274

Once the revenue information is developed, it can be used to calculate a project-specific


expression for the allowable range of capital and operating costs that permit a given return
on investment, i.e., a given discount rate. Such relationships are shown in Figure 8 for a
property with a daily ore tonnage of 1,000 tons and a recoverable grade of 0.075 oz. of
gold per ton. The cost curves in Figure 8 are based on total project revenues. The capital
costs must include the mine plant itself, working capital, capitalized preproduction costs,
and any off-sites, in addition to the post-mine processing facilities where ever necessary.
Similarly, the operating costs will include all project-related items besides the extraction
methods. Examples are mining, off-site and home office expenses, general plant
administration, taxes, depreciation, and depletion.

50

% 40
x

0 ~
o
-J

i
\

CASE
CASE
CASE
CASE

I
II
III
IV

- 15%, $250/OZ
- 15%, $450/OZ
- 25%, $250/OZ
- 25%, $450/0Z

AGITATION
~LEACHING

'~"

::

0.

~ 20

\
HEAP
LEACHING

10

20
OPERATING COST (S/I'ON)

30

40

Fig.8 Capital and operating cost relationships as a function of gold price and
required discount rate, throughput 1000 t/d, recoverable gold 0.075 oz/ton
Information given in Figure 8 is useful when scoping a project at the early stage of
development. Hypothetical examples of such uses are plotted as the "heap leaching" and
"agitation leaching" options in Figure 5. If the heap leach operating costs are estimated at
$8.50 per ton, the most conservative investment criteria (25% return at $250 gold) will be
met if total capital costs are held to $13 million or less. However, if the most probable
capital cost is estimated to be $18 million, then by extrapolation the project would only
return about 23% at $250 gold. Alternatively, at the $18 million cost, a $290 gold price
would be required to return 25%. The most likely capital and operating costs for agitation
leaching are $36 million and $12 per ton, respectively. These figures show that this option
is much less favorable for this deposit. Not only are the costs higher, but the expected
return would only be about 17% even at a $450 gold price.
CONCLUSIONS
Gold has been the focus of intense exploration activity for the past several years. The need
to treat increasingly low grade and/or refractory gold ores and the continuing search for
improvements in the economics of existing operations has led to a wide variety of
developments and innovations in gold beneficiation technology. Because of economics and
process simplicity, cyanidation remains the overwhelming process route for the extraction
of gold even today and looking at the present trend, this proven lixiviant is going to
dominate the gold industry for some time to come.

Modern trends in gold processing

1275

Refractory gold ores and concentrates which are not amenable to conventional eyanidation
methods could be successfully treated by using a pretreatment method prior to cyanidation.
Traditionally, oxidation roasting of the sulfides prior to cyanide leaching is a common
practice, but this approach is expensive and environmentally undesirable and has rendered
many ores uneconomical. Alternative commercially viable methods such as chemical
oxidation, bio-oxidation and pressure oxidation and high pressure low alkalinity cyanidation
methods have been developed to improve the gold recoveries on refractory type ores.
Bioleaching offers considerable savings in capital cost, there seem to be no particular
savings in operation costs compared to pressure oxidation. However, considerable progress
is made in solving some of the technical problems and is expected to encourage further
development and proliferation of the process in the future. The adsorption of gold and
silver on activated charcoal from pregnant solutions has found world wide acceptance in the
last decade. This carbon adsorption method is well preferred over Merrill-Crowe zinc dust
precipitation system mainly due to more effective recovery of precious metals from low
grade leach solutions with lower capital and operating costs. The activated carbon
adsorption process with modifications such as carbon in pulp (CIL), carbon in leach (CIL)
and carbon in column (CIC) will continue to find applications in recovering gold from
refractory ores. The heap and dump leaching of lower grade ore showed major activity due
to very attractive economics. The lower capital and operation cost makes the heap and
dump leaching with carbon adsorption process and electrowinning a very attractive method.
Modifications such as agglomeration, cyanide curing may be incorporated in the heap
leaching technique to increase the gold recoveries from 50-60 percent to 75-85 percent.
The recovery of precious metals from pregnant solutions using ion exchange resins using
resin in column (RIC) is gaining popularity mainly due to its ability to strip gold in the
elution process at low temperatures and pressures. This process is of limited use due to
difficulties encountered in stripping effectively loaded gold and silver values from the
resins. The active research in the application of solvent extraction (SX) of gold and silver
from pregnant solution is in progress at laboratory stage and further development activities
are necessary in identifying this process on a commercial scale.
The use of non cyanide lixiviants for the recovery of gold has attracted attention to many
investigators mainly due to the potential environmental restraints on the use of cyanide
especially in newer mineral districts unaccustomed to precious metals mining. The faster
leaching offered by lixiviants such as thiourea, thiosulfate, bromine, iodine is not
economically exciting due to increased cost of reagent consumption as compared to
conventional cyanide.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
We are deeply appreciative of the support and encouragement given by Dr. K.J. Reid,
Director, Mineral Resources Research Center, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis and
the management of Brown & Root, U.S.A., Inc. in publishing this paper.
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I

2.
.

4.

5.

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