ARTICLE IN PRESS

Vacuum 80 (2006) 11671173

www.elsevier.com/locate/vacuum

MHD ow control for plasma technology applications

Georg Herdricha,b,, Monika Auweter-Kurtza,b, Markus Fertiga,
Anuscheh Nawaza, Dejan Petkowa
a
Institut fur Raumfahrtsysteme (IRS), Universitat Stuttgart, Pfaffenwaldring 31, Stuttgart D-70550, Germany
Steinbeis Transfer Centre Plasma and Space Technology (STC PRT), c/o Institut fur Raumfahrtsysteme (IRS), Universitat Stuttgart,
Pfaffenwaldring 31, Stuttgart D-70550, Germany

Abstract
MHD effects arising in plasma sources, such as short-pulsed magnetoplasmadynamic generators and inductively heated plasma
generators, are analyzed with both algebraic models and measured data. Functional principles of the sources based on their MHD
behavior are explained. Moreover, Stewart numbers in the order of magnitude of at least 10
1 are calculated for the systems and qualied
as an identier for the magnetic inuence on plasmas. Here, the considered plasma systems that are a priori known as MHD systems
were used to determine typical values of the Stewart number. Based on this experience the concept of a plasma probe to magnetically
inuence or control weakly ionized free stream plasma ows is presented.
r 2006 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Keywords: MHD; Magnetoplasmadynamic generator; Inductively heated plasma source; Magnetic probe

1. Introduction
A variety of plasma sources has been developed at
Institut fur Raumfahrtsysteme (IRS) for space applications
(e.g., atmospheric entry simulation facilities and electrical
thrusters) and plasma technology purposes. These sources
differ in design and function depending on their application [14]. MHD effects can be used to improve the
operational behavior of plasma generators, where magnetic
forces can be used to rotate plasma arcs in order to prevent
hot spots on the plasma generators electrodes [1,2], to
protect plasma containments from thermal overload [4,5]
or to increase the total pressure and/or temperature of the
plasma jet (magnetic acceleration of the plasma) either for
space applications (e.g., the increase of thrust of an MPD
propulsion system) [6] or for applications in plasma
technology [3,7,8]. In addition, plasma magnetic systems
are designed to control plasma free stream ows. Among
Corresponding author. Institut fur Raumfahrtsysteme (IRS),

Universitat Stuttgart, Pfaffenwaldring 31, Stuttgart D-70550, Germany.

Fax: +49 711 685 3596.
E-mail address: herdrich@irs.uni-stuttgart.de (G. Herdrich).

0042-207X/$ - see front matter r 2006 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.vacuum.2006.01.043

these, control purposes are plasma focusing, e.g., using

electromagnetic nozzles [9] and the interaction between
charged particles and magnetic elds, e.g., in order to
increase the impinging velocities of these particles onto a
substrate. Additionally, there is the potential to use
magnetic pinch effects for the increase of local heat loads
or to focus the plasma onto zones of dened geometry. An
application for the latter purpose is that substrates are
often to be treated only in specied areas such that
magnetic pinch may supersede the need of protection
measures (e.g., joints) for the remaining areas of the
component.
At IRS, short-pulsed coaxial magnetoplasmadynamic
plasma accelerators capable of delivering power densities
up to 2 GW/cm2 onto material surfaces are under
investigation for improving resistance against fatigue and
for coating removal. In addition, a product family of
inductively heated plasma sources initially developed for
re-entry simulation [4] is available, each of them capable of
being operated up to 180 kW plate power at high
efciencies and specic enthalpies with different working
gases. These sources are equipped with highly efcient
water-cooling systems and sophisticated gas supplies. The

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G. Herdrich et al. / Vacuum 80 (2006) 11671173

1168

main elds of application for the inductively heated devices

are coating and waste disposal [10]. For the source
development and process control, numerous diagnostic
systems are in operation at IRS [11].
A rst analysis of the inuence of a magnetic eld to
plasma can be performed considering the Stewart number
St (sometimes also named N). This number is dened as a
ratio of magnetic force density to the gas dynamic
momentum (static pressure neglected) [12]:
St

svB2
.
rv2 =L

(1)

Here, s is the electric conductivity of the plasma, v the

plasma velocity, B the magnetic eld strength, r the density
of the plasma and L a characteristic length, often related to
an appropriate geometry parameter of the plasma system.
Correspondingly, St gives an engineering type information
on the inuence of magnetic forces to the plasma, e.g.,
when the Lorentz force density is in the same order of
magnitude as the gas dynamic force (! OSt 100 ) or
one order less (! OSt 10
1 ). However, St often does
not allow for the identication of the manner of interaction
due to the complexity of the considered plasma sources and
systems. Another dimensionless parameter to characterize
the effect of a magnetic eld applied to plasmas is the
magnetic Reynolds number Rm. Consider m0 as magnetic
permeability. With the product m0s as a measure to
characterize the penetration of the plasma by a magnetic
eld a time scale for the diffusion of magnetic eld can be
deduced by the product L2 m0 s. The term L=v, however, is
the time scale of turbulence provided that v is considered as
root mean square of the uctuating velocity [12] or at least
the dynamic time scale if v is considered as plasma ow
velocity:
Rm

m0 sL2
m0 svL.
L=v

(2)

Typically, values of Rm can be divided into two classes:

Rm 51 means that magnetic eld and plasma ow do not
affect each other while the larger values for Rm signify that
there is a connection between magnetic eld and plasma
ow, i.e., that the condition must be calculated using
models in which both magnetic eld and ow are coupled.
The combination of both equations yields
St Rm

B2 =m0 Rm
,

rv2
b

2. Inductively heated plasma generator (IPG)

IPG3, IPG4 and IPG5 were developed enabling the
generation of plasmas at plate power related efciencies of
more than 50% achieving maximum plasma powers of
more than 50 kW while different working gases, such as
oxygen, nitrogen, air, carbon dioxide or hydrogen, can be
applied [4]. They have been used at IRS mainly for
atmospheric entry simulation. The application of these
devices for coating, nano-powder production, chemical
synthesis under plasma conditions, waste disposal procedures and hospital waste disposal is presently under
investigation [10,13].
Fig. 1 shows the plasma generator IPG3. With RFsources, such as IPG3, the induction coil is closer to the
plasma than it is with other designs reducing the
electromagnetic eld loss. An advanced water-cooling
system surrounds both the induction coil and the plasma
tube. With this transparent tube-cooling system, e.g., the
position of the plasma ame within the tube can be
observed with regard to different operating parameters,
such as pressure, gas, mass ow and anode power. The
length of the coil is l 0:12 m [4]. The plasma current
amplitude and the Ohm heating depend on the electrical
conductivity of the plasma and the resonant frequency of
the electric circuit. The power system used in the
investigation is a triode driven generator with variable
frequencies as both the IPG coil and the resonant circuit
capacitors can be changed. Both the seven capacitors,
which have a capacity of 6 nF720% each, and the
induction coil are cooled using regular water [4]. For the
characterization of the operational behavior, measurements with a cavity calorimeter were performed [4]. To
support the development of the IPGs and to adapt them to
the required working conditions, suitable measurement
techniques enabling a characterization of the plasma and
the sources were developed and qualied. Besides the
calorimeter, coil current measurement systems were qualied and developed to characterize the electrodynamic
behavior of the IPGs [14].
Plasma stabilization effects were observed when the
tube-cooling power decreased suddenly despite the simultaneous increase of the plasma power. Within this

(3)

where b is the ratio of the (gas) dynamic pressure rv2 =2 to

the magnetic pressure B2 =2m0 , a parameter of which the
reciprocal 1=b can be considered as virtually synonymic to
St. The size b is preferably used within the eld of plasma
fusion technology [5]. Here, however, b is mostly used for
static systems (ptot instead of rv2 =2). It becomes evident
that large Rm may result in large St; small Rm, however, do
not necessarily come along with small St (mind b!).

Fig. 1. IPG3.

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G. Herdrich et al. / Vacuum 80 (2006) 11671173

investigation an imaging spectrometer has been used to

measure the radial intensity of the plasma within the IPG
[15]. These investigations conrmed the existence of
stabilization effects. Specifying the Stewart number for an
IPG analyzing the ratio of the radially directed Lorentz
force in the tube to the total pressure leads to [5]
St 

2d 4

bd b


1
d
,
R

(4)

wherein d is the diameter of the plasma tube and d the

skin depth (d 1=pm0 sf 0:5 ) (see also Refs. [4,5,15]).
This equation shows that the stronger the damping
the greater the Stewart number. It follows from this
equation, that stronger damping leads to higher Stewart
number.
Measurements of the plasma power depending on
operational frequency f and the plate power of the facility
were performed [4]. Using an electrodynamic model for the
IPG in combination with models for the electrical
conductivity s and the mass specic enthalpy h enabled
the statement of a boundary value problem for the skin
depth d. Correspondingly, values for d=d 324 were
determined. The corresponding pressures in the tube were
14 hPa, the magnetic pressure pm was 2 hPa calculated one
dimensionally using the results of the coil current
measurements (! b  7). This coarse estimation leads to
StE1. Therefore, the strength of the magnetic force density
is in the same order of magnitude as the gas dynamic
momentum. This analysis conrms the existence of MHD
effects within IPG operation [5].
A theoretical analysis of the problem using the Maxwell
equations allows for the statement of the well-known
Helmholtz equations. Introducing an innitely long solenoid resulting in an axial-symmetric situation in the IPGs
tube motivates the introduction of a cylindrical coordinate
system. Using the corresponding Laplace operator delivers
a set of differential equations of Bessel type which are the
basis for the calculation of all plasma parameters, such as
the radial distributions of magnetic eld H, electric eld E
and current density j [4,5]. The induced plasma power P
can be derived from the integral of j 2 =s over the volume.
The resulting power has a maximum for d=d  3:6 proving
that the power optimization for the above-mentioned
condition was succeeded. The corresponding power curves
are presented in [4].
The one-dimensional formulation of momentum equation is
dp
m0 j f H z .
dr

1169

where R d=2, Hcoil is the external magnetic eld of the

coil and f 1 d=R a help function consisting of complex
Bessel functions depending on d=R.
In order to quantify the theoretical results, coil current
measurements using the current sensor HOKA [14] were
performed. In Ref. [4], a corresponding plasma condition
using oxygen at a mass ow rate of 3 g/s, an operating
frequency of 640 kHz using a 5.5-turn coil and four
capacitors, minimum pressure (40 Pa) in the plasma
chamber and a plate voltage of 6.3 kV was characterized
with respect to the IPG3 conditions and the plasma ow
conditions (Mach number, Pitot pressure, etc.). Within this
investigation an effective coil current of 0.4 kA was
measured for this condition. Fig. 2 shows the magnetic
pressure depending on d=R. Two facts can be derived from
this gure:




Both the maximum of the induced power reported in [4]

and the maximum of the magnetic pressure in Fig. 2 are
identical.
The existence of a maximum shows that there is in
principle the possibility to maximize plasma stabilization effects (MHD) over d=R, e.g., to reduce the thermal
load to the plasma tube by a pinch effect (see also [4,5]).

For this condition, d=d  3:6 (! d=R  0:57) was

determined in Ref. [4], a value that conforms to the
maximum of the induced power and which is identical to
the maximum of magnetic pressure in Fig. 2 such that a
value of 2.75 hPa is derived from this one-dimensional
model.
In addition, previously performed analysis using a
simplied model where dbd led to F r / Pi , where Fr is
the radially directed Lorentz force. This result can also be
derived using a transitivity. With j expressible by the coil
current Icoil using a modied transformator equation and H
expressible by the coil current, the Lorentz force Fr can be
expressed using the factor I 2coil . The power, however, can
be expressed using I 2coil . Therefore, the Lorentz force must
be proportional to the induced plasma power. This fact in

(5)

Both the current density jj and the magnetic eld Hz are

functions of the radial position r in the tube. Integration
leads to


m0 H coil
d
f1
pm
,
(6)
R
2

Fig. 2. Quantitative distribution of the magnetic pressure depending

on d=R.

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G. Herdrich et al. / Vacuum 80 (2006) 11671173

combination with the observation that the plasma power

can be maximized with respect to d=d led to the
presumption that the Lorentz force could have a similar
maximum, too. An analysis based on the results of the
Bessel differential equations leads to


d
d
F r
pm0 lH 2coil f 2
,
(7)
2
R
where l is the length of the coil and f 2 d=R a help function
consisting of complex Bessel functions depending on d/R.
The already-mentioned value d=d  3:6 [4] is very close
to the Lorentz force maximum as well (see Fig. 3).
Therefore, for this condition, a Lorentz force of roughly
4.3 N is obtained. This value and thus the results in Fig. 3
are in the same order of magnitude as axial magnetic
thrusts reported for self-eld MPD-thrusters [16]. Additionally, a maximum can be seen at d=R  0:5. The other
maximum at d/R-0 is of an academic nature and is not
reached in reality within the context of partially ionized
plasmas. Moreover, Fr is linear in R for constant
attenuation factors d=R.

Fig. 4. Accelerator assembly.

Fig. 5. Detail of accelerator nozzle.

3. Short-pulsed plasma accelerator activities

A high-power, short-pulsed plasma accelerator system is
being developed for technical applications [8]. This activity
for non-space application is focused on the design,
realization and experimental investigation of a compact
and efcient pulsed self-eld coaxial plasma accelerator for
the demonstration and early commercial evaluation of
plasma impulse peening and plasma impulse de-coating
methods as well as other industrial processes [8]. The
design phase resulted in a plasma gun capable of delivering
an incident power density of up to 2 GW/cm2 in less than
1 ms on a target surface. The plasma gun is currently in the
process of being assembled. The overall system, as seen in
Fig. 4, consists of a capacitor bank holding 22 capacitors of
1 mF chargeable to 40 kV, the accelerator nozzle unit and
the vacuum chamber with a diameter of 0.9 m and a length
of 2.6 m (see Fig. 4).

Fig. 3. Quantitative distribution of the Lorentz force depending on d=R,

I coil;eff 400 A.

The plasma accelerator nozzle, as shown in Fig. 5, has an

overall length of 255 mm and consists of two coaxial
stainless-steel electrodes. The central electrode (cathode)
has an outer diameter of 20 mm, the inner diameter of the
outer electrode (anode) is 70 mm. The gas inlets near the
head of the hollow anode require a fast acting valve
currently under construction. Before breakdown, the
density is in the order of 10
5 kg/m3 [8]. Twenty-two
General Atomics 31158 capacitors are arranged parallel
within the circuit and are placed at equal distances from the
accelerator, as seen in Fig. 4. The capacitors are charged
through a high-voltage power supply, providing up to
40 kV. A more detailed description of appropriate peening
and de-coating processes using pulsed plasma accelerator
systems is given in [8]. In principle, a gas fed pulsed plasma
accelerator consists of two electrodes, a gas inlet connected
to a valve and a capacitor bank. After the capacitor bank is
charged up to its initial voltage, the fast electromagnetic
gas valve opens and a short pulse of working gas is released
into the gap between the two electrodes. Breakdown occurs
at z 0 (least inductance, see Fig. 6) after the gas density
reaches its critical value according to Paschens law. A
washerlike planar current sheet of ionized gas is propagated in axial direction due to Lorentz force. The
snowplow model as found in [17] describes this discharge
process. The current ow within the circuit produces an
azimuthal B-eld between the electrodes. This magnetic
eld interacts with the current owing through the plasma
resulting in an axial Lorentz force. According to the model
all the gas between the electrodes is swept up and
compressed by the traversing plasma sheet. Due to the
skin effect, the current conducting layer is very thin. The

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Fig. 6. Electrical circuit assumed for plasma dynamics.

circuit is assumed to be an RLC-circuit, as shown in Fig. 6.

The capacitor C0 discharges causing a current it to ow
through the circuit components of resistance R0 and
inductivity L0 as well as across the plasma sheet which
has a changing inductivity LP t over time due to its
movement along the electrodes. The following two
equations describe the snowplow model [17]:

Q
di dL0 LP i
R0 i L0

0,
C
dt
dt

d~
p
d
i2 dLp dt
~
vm F L t
.
dt dt
2 dt dz

Z 
Banode

(8)

(9)

The rst equation describes the electric circuit model and

was derived according to Kirchhoffs mesh law. The
current as well as the inductivity of the plasma and the
charge Q of the capacitor depend on time. The second
equation contains Newtons second law and is the dynamic
model. Here, m is the time-dependent mass of the plasma
sheet and FL is the Lorentz force.
The magnetic eld Br between the two electrodes can
be derived from Amperes law. Using cylindrical coordinates a point Pr0 ; j0 between the electrodes is considered.
Every innitesimally small wire in the electrode located at
an angle j carries the current j  i=2pra causes a
magnetic eld in P according to
mj n
,
(10)
2pr0
where r0 is the distance from the wire in the electrode to the
point P considered. By integrating the contribution of all
innitesimally small wires along the circumference of
cathode as well as anode, the overall magnetic eld at
point P is found. The term cos(y) accounts for the fact that
only the angular component of the magnetic eld has an
effect on the acceleration:

B Bcathode Banode ,

Fig. 7. Magnetic eld distribution.

(11)

mj n
cos y ds
2pr0

Z  n

r


mj
i
cos
arcsin
sin
j


j

ri dj,
0
2pr0
r0

Bcathode

12


r

mj n
a
cos
p


arcsin
sinj


j

ra dj.
0
2pr0
r0
(13)

Fig. 7 shows the distribution of the magnetic eld inside the

accelerator nozzle over the radius r0 according to the
equation above after numerical integration assuming a
lower limit for the expected current of 180 kA [8] through
the electrodes. This results in magnetic elds of between 2 T
at r0 35 mm and 4 T at r0 10 mm. In order to approximate the current density jr inside the plasma, the
thickness d of the plasma sheet is needed. However, since
no values for d could be obtained, the order of magnitude
is o1 mm and is assumed to be 0.1 mm resulting in a
current density of 1.2  106 A/cm2. The same thickness d is
assumed in order to approximate the density inside the
plasma before leaving the electrodes. Assuming that the
complete mass is compressed into the plasma sheet yields a
density of 0.24 kg/m3. The exhaust velocity of the plasma
sheet was approximated in [8] to be in the order of 100 km/s.
The reference length L is the diameter d a 0:07 m of the
anode. This leads to the Stewart number
St

svB2
jB
2  0:67.
2
rv =L rv =L

(14)

This means that the Lorentz force density is in the same

order of magnitude than the total pressure of the plasma.
4. Magnetic probe
A concept for a magnetic probe to experimentally study
the inuence of magnetic elds to weakly ionized plasmas
in the IRS plasma wind tunnels has been developed for a
program of the European Space Agency (ESA) in
cooperation with the German Aerospace Research Centre
in Braunschweig, Germany (DLR). The primary purpose
of this concept is the investigation of potential in-ight
experiments aiming for the reduction of thermal loads to

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G. Herdrich et al. / Vacuum 80 (2006) 11671173

the thermal protection system of a vehicle during the reentry into the Earths atmosphere. However, it is evident
that such investigations combined with validated numerical
investigations are of great importance to other technical
applications, such as in the eld of plasma technology (see
Section 1).
The axis of the coil will be aligned with the axis of the
plasma ow, as depicted in Fig. 8 [15]. Pressure and heat
ux will be measured in the probes stagnation point. The
magnetic ux density will be measured with a Teslameter.
In order to determine composition and temperature, the
IRS optical measurement techniques will be used [11].
In the program, a typical peak heating condition during
re-entry is characterized by a velocity of v1  6:5 km=s at
r1  1:65  10
4 kg=m3 complying with a total enthalpy of
h0  21:1 MJ=kg and a total pressure of about p0E6.3 kPa.
In Fig. 9, the approximate dependence between magnetic
eld strength, plasma enthalpy of air in equilibrium at
p 105 Pa and magnetic forces is shown. Obviously, for a
signicant inuencing of a weakly ionized plasma with
h0E20 MJ/kg, a magnetic eld strength of about 1 T is
necessary. Due to the resistance of copper, a rough approxi-

Fig. 8. Scheme of the magnetic probe in the plasma ow.

mation of a coil with a sufciently high current leads to

losses of about 40 kW, which does not permit the use of a
copper coil for stationary operation. Therefore, the development of a cryogenically cooled coil made of a superconducting material is foreseen within the program.
5. Conclusions
Potential applications for magnetically controlled plasmas in both elds space technology as well as in plasma
technology have been identied. An analysis of existing
MHD-based plasma generator systems, high-power IPG
and short-pulsed plasma accelerator, was performed which
conrmed the appearance of MHD effects essentially for
the functionality of both plasma generator systems.
Correspondingly, the requirements for the quantity of the
Stewart numbers were identied (order of magnitude 10
1
and more) by applying it to these systems for which the
magnetic inuence is known by the authors investigations
and related literatures. Here, the authors emphasize that
additional investigations in Refs. [46,8,15] proved this
analysis, e.g., by the investigation of, e.g., magnetic pinch
effects related to the operation of the IPG system.
From this experience, the required Stewart numbers for
the concept of a magnetic probe were derived. Using this
value of at least 1 T allows for the estimation of
corresponding electrical conductivities of a typical air
plasma. Applying this to the related enthalpies of the air
plasma enables the adaption to typical re-entry enthalpy
values starting from about more than 20 MJ/kg. The
application of water-cooled copper coils is not feasible due
to the too high cooling powers and pressure losses for the
cooling circuit. Therefore, the concept of the magnetic
plasma probe, developed in cooperation with DLR
Braunschweig, Germany, is based on cryogenically cooled

Fig. 9. Stewart number versus enthalpy for air at p 105 Pa in equilibrium depending on magnetic eld strength.

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G. Herdrich et al. / Vacuum 80 (2006) 11671173

coil made of superconductive material. The probe will

deliver essential information about the inuence of
magnetic elds on weakly ionized plasmas.

[8]

Acknowledgements
The authors thank the research students D. Kammerlocher and S. Krauss for their support. Thanks to the
Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft (DFG) that partially
supported this work under contract Au 85/15-1.

[9]
[10]

[11]

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