Semiconductor materials

EDC 1 Semiconductor Physics - 2

Remember:
Thermal (Thermodynamic) equilibrium:
NO external excitations ( voltages, electric fields, magnetic fields,
illumination, etc.) are applied.
Every process is balanced in detail by an opposing process. (Example:
thermal generation is exactly balanced by recombination)
Carrier concentration:

2
n 0 p 0 n i

2
n i (T )

Intrinsic Semiconductors:
Extrinsic Semiconductors:

v q p 0 n 0 N D N A 0

n 0 p 0 n i
type n ND >>> NA
type p ND <<< NA

EDC 1 Semiconductor Physics - 2

Type n:

if ND NA >>> ni

n n , 0 N D N A

Type p:

p n ,0

n i2

ND NA

if NA ND >>> ni

p p , 0 N A N D

EDC 1 Semiconductor Physics - 2

n p,0

n i2

NA ND

Thermal Motion: Note that the

carrier thermal-velocity is very large
(~107 cm/s at 300 K), but this does
not contribute to current transport.

Net drift in an applied electric field.

The average velocity of the electrons
in this case is called the drift velocity vd

EDC 1 Semiconductor Physics - 2

Drift current
Drift = charged particle motion in response to an applied electric field.
Scattering because of collisions with ionized impurity atoms and thermally
agitated lattice atoms.
The current density associated with hole drift is

Jp | drift = q p vd
At low electric field, it is found that drift velocity is proportional to E-field:

vd = p E
where p is the proportionality constant (called hole mobility)

Jp | drift = q p p E

Similar:

Jn | drift = q n n E

The total current density in a semiconductor due to drift is given by:

Jdrift = Jp | drift + Jn | drift = (q p p + q n n) E

EDC 1 Semiconductor Physics - 2

Ohm law in semiconductors:

J=E

Notice: intrinsec

1
1

q n n p p
1
1

q n i n p

type n, thermal eq.

q (n 0 n p 0 p ) q n 0 n

Drift velocity vs. electric field in Si

EDC 1 Semiconductor Physics - 2

Diffusion current
Diffusion a process whereby particles tend to spread out or redistribute as a
result of their random thermal motion, migrating from regions of high particle
concentration to region of low particle concentration.
There must be a concentration gradient.
The flux of particles crossing a plane perpendicular to the particle flow is:

d
F D
dx

= particle concentration
D = the diffusion coefficient

Electrons

Holes

x
hole flux
hole diffusion current
EDC 1 Semiconductor Physics - 2

x
electron flux
electron diffusion current

Diffusion currents

J p,dif

d p x
q D p
dx

J n ,dif

d n x
q D n
dx

Total currents (transport equations)

J n J n ,drift J n ,dif

d n x
q n x n E x q D n
dx

J p J p,drift J p,dif

d p x
q p x p E x q D p
dx

J J n J p
EDC 1 Semiconductor Physics - 2

Einstein relationship

Dn
kT

n
q

Einstein relationship for electrons

Dp

Einstein relationship for holes

kT

Always be careful about units!

If n = 1000 cm2/(Vs) then

Then Dn = (kT / q) n = (0.025 V) 1000 cm2/(Vs) = 25 cm2/s
Steady state: Steady state refers to a non-equilibrium condition in which
all processes are constant in time.

0
t
EDC 1 Semiconductor Physics - 2

Recombination and generation processes

Recombination - a process whereby electrons and holes are destroyed or
annihilated.
Generation - a process whereby electrons and holes are created.
Under equilibrium conditions, the generation rate and the recombination
rate exactly cancel.
In the steady state, the generation rate and recombination rate can be
different (non-equilibrium carrier injection).
In both, equilibrium and steady state, there will be a steady-state carrier
concentration.
Recombination-generation processes (R-G processes) play a major role in
shaping the characteristics exhibited by a device.

EDC 1 Semiconductor Physics - 2

 n0, p0 - under thermal equilibrium

n, p - under arbitrary conditions, functions of t
n = n n0
p = p p0

n and p are deviations in carrier

concentrations from their equilibrium values.
n and p can be both positive or
negative.

np

2
n 0 p 0 n i

Recombination dominates

np

2
n 0 p 0 n i

Generation dominates

EDC 1 Semiconductor Physics - 2

Low-level injection condition is assumed.

Change in the majority carrier concentration is
negligible.
For example, in n-type material,
p << n0 ; n n0 ND

EDC 1 Semiconductor Physics - 2

U n R n G n

U p R p G p
gn, gp

Electron net recombination rate

Hole net recombination rate

Generation rates due to external causes

Jp(x + dx)

Jp(x)
Up

gp

1D model for deriving hole

continuity equation
x

x + dx

EDC 1 Semiconductor Physics - 2

The continuity equation satisfies the condition

that particles should be conserved!
Electrons and holes cannot appear or disappear at a given point, but must
be transported to or created at the given point via some type of carrier
action.
Continuity equation for holes:

p x , t
1 J p x, t

gp Up
t
q
x

Continuity equation for electrons:

n x, t 1 J n x, t

gn Un
t
q
x
A model is needed for these terms
EDC 1 Semiconductor Physics - 2

Quasi-neutrality condition:

v q p 0 n 0 N D N A p n 0

p n
Low-level injection (n
type)
p n p n ,o
Up
p

p 0 p 0 p p n 0 n n 0
Similar (p type)

Un

n p n p ,o
n

p (or n) is called minority carrier lifetime indicating the average

time an excess minority carrier will survive in a sea of majority carriers.
Minority carrier lifetime is an important material parameter. Depends
strongly on the concentration of deep-level of impurities, crystalline
quality etc.. Varies strongly from material to material. Varies from a few
ns to few ms in silicon depending on the quality!
EDC 1 Semiconductor Physics - 2

Semiconductor equation systems

n x, t
J n x, t q n x, t n E x , t q D n
x
p x, t
J p x , t q p x , t p E x, t q D p
x
p x , t
1 J p x, t

gp Up
t
q
x

n x, t 1 J n x, t

gn Un
t
q
x

v x , t q p x , t n x, t N D N A
E x, t

v x, t
x
d x
E x
dx

or

EDC 1 Semiconductor Physics - 2

v x, t
2 x , t