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y
y = (l+u)cos
x
l
r(t) =
K
M
(1)
(2)
r1 (t)
r2 (t)
"
x((t), u(t))
y((t), u(t))
g and
"
q(t) =
x = (l+u)sin
q1 (t)
q2 (t)
"
"
(3)
(4)
r (t) =
r1 (t)
r2 (t)
"
u(t)
sin (t) + (l + u(t)) cos (t)(t)
u(t)
cos (t) + (l + u(t)) sin (t)(t)
(5)
So, in general, Cartesian velocities r (t) can be a function of both the velocity and position of
some other coordinates (q(t)
u
y
y
y =
+
u = (l + u(t)) sin (t) cos (t)u
x =
(6)
(7)
CEE 541. Structural Dynamics Duke University Fall 2016 H.P. Gavin
V
M ri +
ri
ri =
n
X
(pi (t)) ri
(8)
i=1
n
X
(9)
fi ri .
i=1
The principle of minimum total potential energy states that the total potential energy is
minimized in a condition of equilibrium. Minimizing the total potential energy is the same
as setting the variation of the total potential energy to zero. For any arbitrary set of variational displacements ri (t), consistent with displacement constraints,
min (r) (r) = 0
r
n
n
X
X
V
fi ri = 0 ,
ri = 0
ri
i=1 ri
i=1
i=1 ri
n
X
(10)
In a dynamic situation, the forces fi can include inertial forces, damping forces, and external
loads. For example,
fi (t) = M ri (t) + pi (t) ,
(11)
where pi is an external force collocated with the displacement coordinate ri . Substituting
equation (11) into equation (10), and rearranging slightly, results in the dAlembert-Lagrange
equations, the same as equation (8) found from the principle of virtual displacements,
n
X
i=1
V
M ri (t) +
pi (t) ri = 0 .
ri
(12)
In equations (8) and (12) the virtual displacements (i.e., the variations) ri must be arbitrary
and independent of one another; these equations must hold for each coordinate ri individually.
M ri (t) +
V
pi (t) = 0 .
ri
(13)
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The first goal, then, is to relate the work of inertial forces ( i M ri ri ) to the kinetic
energy in terms of a set of generalized coordinates. To do this requires a change of coordinates
from variations in n Cartesian coordinates r to variations in m generalized coordinates q,
ri =
m
X
ri
ri
qj =
qj
j=1 qj
j=1 qj
m
X
and
m
X
d
ri
ri = ri =
qj .
dt
j=1 qj
(14)
Now, consider the kinetic energy of a constant mass M . The kinetic energy in terms of
velocities in Cartesian coordinates is given by T (r) = 12 M (r12 + r22 ), and
T
ri = M ri ri .
ri
(15)
T
ri
ri
= M ri ri + M ri
d
ri
dt
(16)
m
d T X
ri
T
qj
= M ri ri +
ri
dt ri j=1 qj
ri
M ri ri
(17)
m
m
ri T X
ri
d T X
=
qj
qj .
dt ri j=1 qj
ri j=1 qj
(18)
Equation (18) is a step to getting the work of inertial forces ( i M ri ri ) in terms of a set of
generalized coordinates qj . Next, changing the derivatives of the potential energy from ri to
qj ,
m
X
V
V qj ri
ri =
qj .
(19)
ri
j=1 qj ri qj
Finally, expressing the work of external forces pi in terms of the new coordinates qj ,
n
X
i=1
pi (t) ri =
n
X
i=1
pi (t)
m
X
m X
n
m
X
X
ri
ri
qj =
pi (t)
qj =
Qj (t) qj ,
qj
j=1 qj
j=1 i=1
j=1
(20)
where Qj (t) are called generalized forces. Substituting equations (18), (19) and (20) into
equation (12), rearranging the order of the summations, factoring out the common qj ,
canceling the ri and ri terms, and eliminating the sum over i, leaves the equation in terms
CC BY-NC-ND HP Gavin
CEE 541. Structural Dynamics Duke University Fall 2016 H.P. Gavin
of qj and qj ,
n
X
m
m
m
m
X
X
ri T X
ri
V qj ri
ri
d T X
qj
qj +
qj pi (t)
qj = 0
dt
q
q
r
q
q
i
j
i
j
j
i
j
j
i=1
j=1
j=1
j=1
j=1
m
n
X
X
j=1
i=1
"
d
dt
T ri
ri qj
T ri V qj ri
ri
+
pi
ri qj qj ri qj
qj
m
X
j=1
"
d
dt
T
qj
T
V
+
Qj
qj qj
qj = 0
#
qj = 0
The variations qj must be arbitrary and independent of one another; this equation must
hold for each generalized coordinate qj individually. Removing the summation over j and
canceling out the common qj factor results in Lagranges equations,3
d
dt
T
qj
V
T
+
Qj = 0
qj qj
(21)
5 The Lagrangian
Lagranges equations may be expressed more compactly in terms of the Lagrangian of
the energies,
L(q, q,
t) T (q, q,
t) V (q, t)
(22)
Since the potential energy V depends only on the positions, q, and not on the velocities, q,
L
qj
L
Qj = 0
qj
(23)
(24)
Z t2
L(q, q,
t) dt
(25)
t1
with end points q1 = q(t1 ) and q2 = q(t2 ). Consider the true path of q(t) from t1 to t2 and
a variation q(t) such that q(t1 ) = 0 and q(t2 ) = 0.
Hamiltons principle:4
The solution q(t) is an extremum of the action potential S[q(t)]
S[q(t)]
=0
Z
t2
L(q, q,
t) dt = 0
t1
T
V
qi +
qi
qi
qi
qi
qi
#)
dt = 0
We wish to factor out the independent variations qi , however the first term contains the
variation of the derivative, qi . If the conditions for admissible variations in position q
fully specify the conditions for admissible variations in velocity q,
the variation and the
differentiation can be transposed,
d
qi = qi ,
(26)
dt
and we can integrate the first term by parts,
Z t2
t1
"
T
T
qi =
qi
qi
qi
#t2
t1
Z t2
t1
d
dt
T
qi dt
qi
dt
T
T
V
qi +
qi
qi
qi
qi
qi
#)
dt = 0
The variations qi must be arbitrary, so the term within the square brackets must be zero
for all i.
!
T
V
d T
+
= 0.
dt qi
qi qi
4
Hamilton, W.R., On a General Method in Dynamics, Phil. Trans. of the Royal Society Part II (1834)
pp. 247-308; Part I (1835) pp. 95-144
CC BY-NC-ND HP Gavin
CEE 541. Structural Dynamics Duke University Fall 2016 H.P. Gavin
7 A Little History
I_Newton.jpg
JL_Lagrange.jpg
WR_Hamilton.jpg
JR_dAlembert.jpg
JCF_Gauss.jpg
Sir
Isaac
Newton
Jean-Baptiste
le Rond
dAlembert
Joseph-Louis
Lagrange
Carl
Fredrich
Gauss
William
Rowan
Hamilton
1642-1727
1717-1783
1736-1813
1777-1855
1805-1865
Second
Law
1687
dAlemberts
Principle
1743
Mechanique
Analytique
1788
Gausss
Principle
1829
Hamiltons
Principle
1834-1835
fi dt = d(mi vi )
(fi mi ai )ri = 0
d L
dt qi
L
qi
= Qi
G = 12 (
q a)T M(
q a)
G = 0
R t2
S = t1 L(q, q,
t)dt
S = 0
CC BY-NC-ND HP Gavin
(27)
1
V (, u) = M g(l (l + u) cos ) + Ku2
2
(28)
V
V
=
q1
d T
d T
=
dt q2
dt u
T
T
=
q2
u
V
V
=
q2
u
d
= M (2(l + u)u + (l + u)2 )
(M (l + u)2 )
dt
(29)
= 0
(30)
= M g(l + u) sin
(31)
d
M u = M u
dt
(32)
= M (l + u)2
(33)
= Ku M g cos
(34)
(35)
(36)
These last two equations represent a pair of coupled nonlinear ordinary differential equations
describing the unconstrained motion of an elastic pendulum. They may be written in matrix
form as
"
#"
#
"
#
M (l + u)2 0
M g(l + u) sin M 2(l + u)u
=
(37)
0
M
u
M (l + u)2 Ku + M g cos
or
M(q(t), t) q
(t) = Q(q(t), q(t),
t)
(38)
As can be seen, the inertial terms (involving mass) are more complicated than just
M r, and can involve position, velocity, and acceleration of the generalized coordinates. By
carefully relating forces in Cartisian coordinates to those in generalized coordinates through
free-body diagrams the same equations of motion may be derived, but doing so with Lagranges equations is often more straight-forward once the kinetic and potential energies are
derived.
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CEE 541. Structural Dynamics Duke University Fall 2016 H.P. Gavin
u + f (t) u
T (u, u)
=
+ f(t) ;
/d
\
p := -C |-- u(t)| + f(t)
\dt
/
The lines above setup Maple to invoke the desired functional notation, define the velocities v as the derivatives of time-dependent displacements u(t), and represent the kinetic
energy T, potential energy V, and the external and non-conservative forces p. The subsequent
lines evaluate the derivatives and combine the derivatives into Lagranges equations to give
us the equations of motion.
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10
CEE 541. Structural Dynamics Duke University Fall 2016 H.P. Gavin
(1/2) * M * v22;
2 /d
\2
/d
\2
T := 1/2 M (l + u(t)) |-- q(t)| + 1/2 M |-- u(t)|
\dt
/
\dt
/
> V := M * g * ( l - (l+u(t)) * cos(q(t)))
(1/2) * K * u(t)2;
2
V := M g (l - (l + u(t)) cos(q(t))) + 1/2 K u(t)
> EOM1 := diff( diff(T,v1) , t) - diff(T,q(t)) + diff(V,q(t));
/ 2
\
/d
\ /d
\
2 |d
|
EOM1 := 2 M (l + u(t)) |-- q(t)| |-- u(t)| + M (l + u(t)) |--- q(t)|
\dt
/ \dt
/
| 2
|
\dt
/
+ M g (l + u(t)) sin(q(t))
The Maple expressions EOM1 and EOM2 are the same equations of motion as the previouslyderived equations (35) and (36).
CC BY-NC-ND HP Gavin
11
= f (t, x). The equations of motion are written in this way in the following
Matlab simulation.
1
2
3
4
5
6
% f o r m a t and e x p o r t p l o t i n . e p s
epsPlots = 0;
i f epsPlots , formatPlot (14 ,5); e l s e formatPlot (0); end
animate = 1;
7
8
% s ys t e m c o n s t a n t s a r e g l o b a l v a r i a b l e s
...
9
10
global
11
12
13
14
15
l
g
K
M
%
%
%
%
= 1.0;
= 9.8;
= 25.6;
= 1.0;
uns t r e t c h e d l e n g t h o f t h e pendulum , m
g r a v i t a t i o n a l a c c e l e r a t i o n , m/ s 2
e l a s t i c s p r i n g c o n s t a n t , N/m
pendulum mass , kg
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
t_final = 36;
delta_t = 0.02;
points = f l o o r ( t_final / delta_t );
t = [1: points ]* delta_t ;
%
%
%
%
simulation duration , s
time s t e p increment , s
number o f d a t a p o i n t s
time data , s
24
25
% i n i t i a l conditions
26
27
28
29
30
theta_o
u_o
theta_dot_o
u_dot_o
=
=
=
=
0.0;
l;
0.5;
0.0;
%
%
%
%
initial
initial
initial
initial
r o t a t i o n angle
spring stretch
r o ta t io n rate ,
spring stretch
, rad
, m
rad / s
r a t e , m/ s
31
32
% initial
state
33
34
35
% s o l v e t h e e q u a t i o n s o f motion
[t ,x , dxdt , TV ] = ode4u ( e l a s t i c _ p e n d u l u m _ s y s , t , x_o );
36
37
38
39
40
theta
u
theta_dot
u_dot
=
=
=
=
x (1 ,:);
x (2 ,:);
x (3 ,:);
x (4 ,:);
T
V
= TV (1 ,:);
= TV (2 ,:);
41
42
43
% kinetic
energy
% p o t e n t i a l energy
44
45
% c o n v e r t from q c o o r d i n a t e s t o r c o o r d i n a t e s
...
46
47
48
x = ( l + u ).* s i n ( theta );
y = -( l + u ).* cos ( theta );
% eq n ( 1 )
% eq n ( 2 )
CC BY-NC-ND HP Gavin
12
1
2
3
4
5
CEE 541. Structural Dynamics Duke University Fall 2016 H.P. Gavin
function [ dxdt , TV ] = e l a s t i c _ p e n d u l u m _ s y s (t , x )
% [ d x d t ,TV] = e l a s t i c p e n d u l u m s y s ( t , x )
% s ys t e m e q u a t i o n s f o r an e l a s t i c pendulum
% compute t h e s t a t e d e r i v a t i v e , d x d t , t h e k i n e t i c energy , T, and t h e
% p o t e n t i a l energy , V,
o f an e l a s t i c pendulum .
6
7
% s ys t e m c o n s t a n t s a r e pred e f i n e d g l o b a l v a r i a b l e s
...
8
9
global
l g K M
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
theta
u
theta_dot
u_dot
=
=
=
=
x (1);
x (2);
x (3);
x (4);
%
%
%
%
r o t a t i o n angle
spring stretch
r ot a ti on rate ,
spring stretch
, rad
, m
rad / s
r a t e , m/ s
17
18
% compute t h e a c c e l e r a t i o n o f t h e t a and u
19
20
% eq n ( 3 5 )
21
22
u_ddot
= ( l + u )* theta_dot 2
( K / M )* u
g * cos ( theta );
% eq n ( 3 6 )
23
24
% assemble the s t a t e d e r i v a t i v e
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
% e l a s t i c p e n d u l u m s y s
CC BY-NC-ND HP Gavin
13
0.5
0
-0.5
-1
0
10
15
20
energies, Joules
time, s
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
-1
-2
K.E.
P.E.
K.E.+P.E.
10
15
20
time, s
0
t = 36.000 s
y position, m
-0.5
-1
-1.5
-2
(x0, y0)
-1
-0.5
0.5
x position, m
2
0.5 rad/s for l = 1.0
p m, g = 9.8 m/s , K = 25.6 N/m, and M= 1 kg. Tk = 2 M/K =
1.242 s. Tl = 2 l/g = 2.007 s. Even though Tk /Tl ( 5 1)/2, the least rational
number, the record repeats every 24 seconds. Note that in the absence of internal damping and
external forcing, the sum of kinetic energy and potential energy is constant. Why is it that the
internal potential energy becomes negative as compared to its initial value? What is the initial
configuration of the system ((0), u(0)) in this example? About what values do (t) and u(t)
oscillate for t > 0? (spyrograph!)
CC BY-NC-ND HP Gavin
14
CEE 541. Structural Dynamics Duke University Fall 2016 H.P. Gavin
11 Constraints
Suppose that in a dynamical system described by m generalized dynamic coordinates,
q(t) =
there are specific requirements on the motion that must be satisfied. For example, suppose the
elastic pendulum must move along a particular line, g((t), u(t)) = 0, or that the pendulum
can not move past a particular line, g((t), u(t)) 0. If these constraints to the motion of the
system can be written pureley in terms of the positions of the coordinates, then the system
(including the differential equations and the constraints) is called a holonomic system.
There are a number of intriguing terms connected to constrained dynamical systems.
A system with constraints that depend only on the position of the coordinates,
g(q(t), t) = 0
is holonomic.
A system with constraints that depend on the position and velocity of the coordinates,
g(q(t), q(t),
t) = 0
or
=0
g(q, q)
is scleronomic.
A system with constraints that are explicitely dependent on time, as in the constraints
listed under the first two definitions is rheonomic.
A system with constraints that are linear in the velocities,
g(q(t), q(t))
= f (q(t)) q(t)
is pfafian.
Any unconstrained system must be forced to adhere to a prescribed constraint. The
required constraint forces QC are collocated with the generalized coordinates q, and the
virtual work of the constraint forces acting through virtual displacements is zero5
QC q = 0.
Geometrically, the constraint forces are normal to the displacement variations.
5
Lanczos, C., The Variational Principles of Mechanics, 4th ed., Dover 1986
CC BY-NC-ND HP Gavin
15
Clearly the elastic pendulum will not follow the path g = 0 all by itself; it needs to be forced,
somehow, to follow the prescribed trajectory. In a holonomic system (in which the constraints
are on the coordinate positions) it can be helpful to think of a frictionless guide that enforces
the dynamics to evolve along a partiular line, g(q) = 0. The guide exerts constraint forces
QC in a direction transverse to the guide, but not along the guide.
For relatively simple systems such as this, incorporating a constraint can be as simple
as solving the constraint equation for one of the variables, for example, u(t) = l l2 (t) and
using the constraint to eliminate one of the coordinates. With the substitution of u(t) =
l l2 (t) into the expressions for kinetic energy and potential energy, Lagranges equations
can be written in terms of the remaining coordinate, . This is a perfectly acceptable means
of incorporating holonomic constraints into an analysis. However, in general, a set of c
constraint equations g(q) = 0 can not be re-arranged to express the position of c coordinates
in terms of the remaining (m c) coordinates. Furthermore, reducing the dimension of the
system by using the constraint equation to eliminate variables does not give us the forces
required to enforce the constraints, and therefore misses an important aspect of the behavior
of the system. So a more general approach is required to derive the equations of motion for
constrained systems.
Recall that an admissible variation, q must adhere to all constraints. For example, the
solution to the constrained elastic pendulum, perterbued by [, u], must lie along the curve
1 2 u/l = 0. In order for the variation q to be admissible, the perturbed solution must
also lie on the line of the constraint. In other words, the variation q must be perpendicular
to the gradient of g with respect to q,
"
g
q
q = 0 .
(41)
g
g(q + q, t) = g(q, t) +
q + h.o.t. .
q
The constraints at the perturbed solution are satisfied for infinitessimal pertubations as long
as equation (41) holds. Because admissible variations q are normal to [g/q] and the
constraint force QC is normal to q, the constraint force must lie within [g/q],
"
C
Q =
g
q
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16
CEE 541. Structural Dynamics Duke University Fall 2016 H.P. Gavin
dg
dq
dg
.
dq
.
1
.
.
g(q , q , q , q ) = 0
g(q , q ) = 0
1
Figure 2. Admissibile variations q for holonomic (left) and non-holonomic (right) systems. In
holonomic systems q adheres to the constraint g(q) = 0 since q is normal to the gradient of
T
qj
X gi
V
T
+
i
Qj = 0
qj qj
qj
i
in which
X
i
(42)
gi
qj
(43)
These forces are precisely the actions that enforce the constraints. Equations (42) and (43)
uniquely describe the dynamics of the system. In numerical simulations these two systems of
equations are solved simultaneously for the accelerations, q
(t), and the Lagrange multipliers,
C
(t), from which the constraint forces, Q (t), can be found.
CC BY-NC-ND HP Gavin
17
Lets apply this to the elastic pendulum, constrained to move along a path
u(t) = l l2 (t)
(44)
The derivitives of T and V are as they were previously. The new derivitives required to
model the actions of the constraints are
g
g
=
= 2
(45)
q1
g
g
=
= 1/l
(46)
q2
u
Equation (35) now includes a new term for the constraint force in the direction, +(2),
and the new term for the constraint force in the u direction in equation (36) is +(1/l). (This
problem has one constraint, and therefore one Lagrange multiplier, but two coordinates, and
therefore two generalized constraint forces.) There are no other non-conservative forces Qj
applied to this system. The problem now involves three equations (two equations of motion
and the constraint) and three unknowns , u (or their derivitives) and . In principle, a
solution can be found. In solving the equations of motion numerically, as a system of firstorder o.d.es, we solve for the highest order derivitives in each equation in terms of the
lower-order derivitives. In this case the highest order derivitives are and u. In the case of
constrained dynamics, we also need to solve for the Lagrange multiplier(s), . The constraint
equation(s) give(s) the additional equation(s) to do so. But in this problem the constraint
equation is in terms of positions and u. However, by differentiating the constraint we can
put this in terms of accelerations and u. So doing, with some rearrangement,
2l + u = 2l2 .
(47)
u, and .
Now we have three equations and three unknowns for ,
M (l + u)2 + 2 = M g(l + u) sin M 2(l + u)u
1
M u + = M (l + u)2 Ku + M g cos
l
2l + u = 2l2
(48)
(49)
(50)
The constraint force in the direction is (2) and the constraint force in the u direction is
/l. The three equations may be written in matrix form . . .
0
M 1/l
= M (l + u)2 Ku + M g cos
u
2
1/l 0
22
(51)
Note that the initial condition of the system must also adhere to the constraints,
l02 + u0 = l
2l0 0 + u 0 = 0
(52)
(53)
These equations can be integrated numerically as was shown in the previous Matlab example, except for the fact that in the presence of constraints, the accelerations and Lagrange
multiplier need to be evaluated as a solution of three equations with three unknowns.
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18
CEE 541. Structural Dynamics Duke University Fall 2016 H.P. Gavin
1
0.5
0
-0.5
-1
-1.5
0
10
15
20
time, s
energies, Joules
K.E.
P.E.
K.E.+P.E.
4
3
2
1
0
0
10
15
20
time, s
Figure 3. Free response of an undamped elastic pendulum from an initial condition uo = l and
o = 1 constrained to move along the arc u = l l2 . The motion is periodic and the total
energy is conserved exactly.
0
t = 20.000 s
y position, m
-0.5
-1
-1.5
-2
(x0, y0)
-1
-0.5
0.5
x position, m
Figure 4. The constrained motion of the pendulum is seen to satisfy the equation u = l l2
for l = 1 m.
15
10
-5
constraint force, Q
u constraint force, Qu
-10
0
10
15
20
Figure 5. The constraint forces in the (blue) and u (green) directions required to enforce
the constraint u(t) = l l2 (t).
CC BY-NC-ND HP Gavin
19
(54)
"
"
g
g
q +
q + h.o.t. = 0
g(q + q, q + q,
t) = g(q, q,
t) +
q
q
So, for infinitessimal variations,
"
g g
,
q q
"
q
q
=0.
g
q
q = 0
(55)
"
QC = T
g(q, q)
Including these constraint forces into Lagranges equations gives the non-holonomic form of
Lagranges equations,78
d
dt
T
qj
X gi
T
V
+
i
Qj = 0 ,
qj qj
qj
i
in which
X
i
(56)
gi
qj
P.S. Harvey, Jr., Rolling Isolation Systems: Modeling, Analysis, and Assessment, Ph.D. dissertation,
Duke Univ, 2013
7
M.R. Flannery, The enigma of nonholonomic constraints, Am. J. Physics 73(3) 265-272 (2005)
8
M.R. Flannery, dAlembert-Lagrange analytical dynamics for nonholonomic systems, J. Mathematical
Physics 52 032705 (2011)
CC BY-NC-ND HP Gavin
20
CEE 541. Structural Dynamics Duke University Fall 2016 H.P. Gavin
As an example, suppose the dynamics of the elastic pendulum are controlled by some
internal forces so that the direction of motion arctan(dy/dx) is actively steered to an angle
that is proportional to the stretch in the spring, = bu/l. The velocity transvese to the
steered angle must be zero, giving the constraint,
u
u)
= tan( + bu/l)
g(, u, ,
= u cos( + bu/l) l sin( + bu/l)
(57)
l
The additional derivitives required for the non-holonomic form of Lagranges equations are
g
g
= = l sin( + bu/l)
(58)
q1
g
g
=
= cos( + bu/l)
(59)
q2
u
Equation (35) now includes a new term for the constraint force in the direction, (ls),
and the new term for the constraint force in the u direction in equation (36) is +(c), where
s = sin( + bu/l) and c = cos( + bu/l). Note that in this case, the constraint forces are
dependent upon the position of the pendulum ( and u), but not on the velocities. The
constraint equation along with the equations of motion uniquely define the solution (t),
u(t), and (t). Since, for numerical simulation purposes, we are interested in solving for the
and u(t), we can differentiate the constraint equation to transform it into
accelerations, (t)
a form that is linear in the accelerations,
u(s
g = bu 2 s/l + uc l2 c ls
+ bc)
(60)
Our three equations are now,
M (l + u)2 (ls) = M g(l + u) sin M 2(l + u)u
M u + (c) = M (l + u)2 Ku + M g cos
(ls) + (c)
u = l2 c + u(s
+ bc) + bu 2 s/l
with an initial condition that also satisfies the constraint, u 0 = l0 tan( + bu/l). The
equations may be written in matrix form . . .
0
M
cos
= M (l + u)2 Ku + M g cos
u
l sin cos
0
l2 c + u(s
+ bc) + bu 2 s/l
(61)
(62)
(63)
three
(64)
Note that the upper-left 2 2 blocks in the matrices of equations (51) and (64) are the
same as the corresponding matrix M in the unconstrained system (37). The same is true
for the first two elements of the right-hand-side vectors of equations (51) and (64) and the
right-hand-side vector Q of the unconstrained system (37). Furthermore, if the differentiated
constraint equations (47) and (60) are written as
= A(q(t), q(t))
g
q
(t) b(q(t), q(t),
t)
then both equations (51) and (64) may be written
"
M AT
A 0
#"
"
Q
b
(65)
This expression can be obtained directly from Gausss principle of least constraint, which
provides an appealing interpretation of constrained dynamical systems.
CC BY-NC-ND HP Gavin
21
0.5
0
-0.5
swing, q1(t) = (t), rad
stretch, q2(t) = u(t), m
-1
0
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
energies, Joules
time, s
5
4
3
2
1
0
-1
-2
K.E.
P.E.
K.E.+P.E.
0
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
time, s
Figure 6. Free response of an undamped elastic pendulum from an initial condition uo = l/2,
y position, m
1
0.5
0
t = 40.000 s
-0.5
-1
-1.5
-2
-1.5
(x0, y0)
-1
-0.5
0.5
1.5
x position, m
Figure 7. The constrained motion of the pendulum does not follow a fixed relation between u
and the constraint is non-holonomic. (ying & yang)
100
50
-50
-100
-150
-200
constraint force, Q
u constraint force, Qu
-250
0
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
Figure 8. The constraint forces in the (blue) and u (green) directions required to enforce
u = tan( + bu/l).
the constraint l/
CC BY-NC-ND HP Gavin
22
CEE 541. Structural Dynamics Duke University Fall 2016 H.P. Gavin
!T
=0
M
q = Q AT
(67)
A
q=b
(68)
!T
=0
These conditions are met in equation (65), as derived earlier for both holonomic and nonholonomic systems,
"
#"
#
"
#
M AT
q
Q
=
.
A 0
b
9
Hofrath and Gauss, C.F., Uber ein Neues Allgemeines Grundgesatz der Mechanik,, J. Reine Angewandte Mathematik, 4:232-235. (1829)
10
Udwadia, F.E. and Kalaba, R.E., A New Perspective on Constrained Motion, Proc. Mathematical and
Physical Sciences, 439(1906):407-410. (1992).
CC BY-NC-ND HP Gavin
23
G( q"1(t), q"2(t) )
Aq"=b
a2(t)
q"2(t)
fC(t)=-AT y
a1(t)
q"1(t)