Admin Topik 2

Topic The Technical
Core:
Learning and
Teaching
LEARNING OUTCOMES
By the end of this topic, you should be able to:
1.
Define the meaning of learning;
2.
Explain the concept of consequences, reinforcement and antecedents

of the behavioural perspective and its application in teaching;
3.
Clarify the cognitive perspective and its application in teaching;
4.
Discuss thoroughly the components of working memory model;
5.
Explicate the three constructivist approaches: the psychological,

social and radical constructivism and its application in teaching; and
6.
Analyse the concept of learning and teaching.
Copyright Open University Malaysia (OUM)
40
TOPIC 2 THE TECHNICAL CORE: LEARNING AND TEACHING
INTRODUCTION
Two monks were arguing about a flag. One said, The flag is moving. The
other said, The wind is moving. The sixth patriarch, Zeno, happened to be
passing by. He told them, not the wind, not the flag; mind is moving.
Douglas R. Hofstadter, Gdel, Escher, Bach
Gdel, Escher, Bach is a wonderful exploration of fascinating ideas at the heart of

cognitive science; meaning, reduction, recursion and much more. Douglas
Hofstadters book is concerned directly with the nature of maps or links
between formal systems. However, according to Hofstadter, the formal system
that underlies all mental activity transcends the system that supports it. If life can
grow out of the formal chemical substrate of the cell, if consciousness can emerge
out of a formal system of firing neurons, then so too will computers attain human
intelligence.
This topic provides the overview of the core business of a school. It also
highlights the definition of learning which leads to the concept of consequences,
reinforcement and antecedents of behavioural perspective and its application in
teaching. Besides that, this topic will clarify the cognitive perspective and its
application in teaching.
This topic will also discuss thoroughly the components of the working memory
model. Then, it will explicate the three constructivist approaches: the
psychological, social and radical constructivism and its application in teaching.
Lastly, it will analyse the concept of learning and teaching.
ACTIVITY 2.1
Observe how a student learns in a class and make a conclusion based on
your observation. Compare and discuss his learning method with your
preference.
2.1
41
LEARNING: A DEFINITION
The technical core of a school is referred to as teaching and learning processes to

produce high-end educational output. In the process, teachers are the agents that
shape and mould students through the learning process. According to Hoy and
Miskel (2013), as cited by Zirbel (2005), learning is considered a complex
cognitive process that depends on how interaction between stimuli and new
information get into existing information databases. Hence, Hoy and Miskel
(2013) postulate that in order to acquire learning, change must occur due to
experience, whether intentionally or unintentionally. There is no one best
explanation for learning, but most agree on three general theories of learning.
The three general theories of learning are (see Figure 2.1):
Figure 2.1: General theories of learning
SELF-CHECK 2.1
Discuss the concept of learning based on your understanding.
42
2.2
A BEHAVIOURAL PERSPECTIVE OF
LEARNING
The behavioural approach emerged from the studies conducted by Skinner and his
proponents. They acknowledged that the change in behaviour is due to
antecedents and consequences. Learning is a changed behaviour brought by
experience with no concern for the mental or internal activities of thinking
(cognitive). Behaviour is simply an action to take place in a given situation and it
is related to the environment in which behaviour is triggered by a stimulus
(Jefferey, 1965). This perspective is explained by the equation of A-B-C which
simply refers to Antecedent-Behaviour-Consequence. As behaviour happens, a
given consequence transforms into an antecedent for the next ABC sequence (Hoy
& Miskel, 2013).
ACTIVITY 2.2
Identify a situation that will trigger positive changes in behaviour among
the students in a classroom.
2.2.1
Consequences
Consequences of behaviour will determine whether the behaviour will be

repeated or not; and it can either strengthen or weaken the tendency of an
individual to repeat the similar behaviour in the future. There are two kinds of
consequences those that reinforce (strengthen) behaviour and those that punish
(weaken) behaviour.
2.2.2
Reinforcement
Reinforcement or reward has a positive connotation. A reinforcer is a

consequence that strengthens the behaviour. In other word, reinforcement will
increase the frequency or duration of a given behaviour. Figure 2.2 explains the
process.
Figure 2.2: The reinforcement process

Source: Hoy and Miskel (2013)
43
According to Hoy and Miskel (2013), the degree of consequences is likely to

depend on an individuals interpretation of the meaning. They later added that
several psychologists agreed that reinforcers satisfy needs and the others argue it
diminishes tensions or stimulates part of the brain. Bandura (1977) also stated
that reinforcement can also act as a motivational device based on previous
learned behaviour. There are two types of reinforcements positive and negative
reinforcement. Positive reinforcement emerges when behaviour creates new
stimulus or motivating force. However, negative reinforcement refers to the
consequence when a stimulus is removed or eliminated to strengthen a
behaviour (Hoy and Miskel, 2013; Jefferey, 1965). Table 2.1 dictates the
differences between positive and negative reinforcement.
Table 2.1 The Differences between Positive and Negative Reinforcement
Positive Reinforcement
Negative Reinforcement
Create new stimulus force
Remove stimulus force
Add something to reinforce behaviour
Subtract something to strengthen

behaviour
For example, give presents for best

achievement students in the class
For example, transfer misbehaving

students out of the class
2.2.3
Punishment
Unlike reinforcement, punishment involves supressing or weakening the

behaviour. The punishment (fine) makes it less likely for a particular behaviour
to be repeated in a similar situation in the future and to decrease the likely
response rate (Jeffery, 1965). There is confusion between the concept of negative
reinforcement and punishment. Negative reinforcement strengthens the
behaviour by eliminating a stimulus; however, punishment is the effect of
decreasing a particular behaviour. In this case, the consequence is regarded as
punishment and it depends on peoples perceptions of what is a punishment. For
example, suspension from school is a punishment for many students who fail to
attend school for two weeks or more, yet not all people view it as a punishment.
The process of punishment is shown in Figure 2.3.
Figure 2.3: The punishment process

44
There are two types of punishment, direct punishment (Type I) and removal
punishment (Type II) (see Figure 2.4). Direct punishment is the appearance of
stimulus that suppresses the behaviour (adds stimulus to suppress the
behaviour) (Hoy and Miskel 2013; Jeffery, 1965). For instance, in the case of
cheating during an examination, the teachers may lower the grades or even fail
the student.
The removal punishment means to eradicate the stimulus before the punishment
or simply remove the desired stimulus to decrease a negative behaviour (Jeffery,
1965). For example, parents may remove childrens rights from watching
television for one week to punish them because they skipped school for three
consecutive days. Table 2.2 depicts the relationship between reinforcement and
punishment.
Table 2.2: Relationship of Reinforcement and Punishment
Source: https://www.premedhq.com/types-of-reinforcement
Jeffery (1965) stated that once the punishment is discontinued, the response rate
will be back to its normal pattern.
2.2.4
45
Antecedents
Antecedents are the events preceding behaviour which provide information and
will lead individuals to positive or negative consequences. Perceptive people
learn to discriminate among situations because they can predict the antecedents
that can be deliberately used. Nevertheless, people react to antecedents without
fully thinking about the process and how their behaviour is influenced.
Generally, there are two types of antecedents of behaviour, namely, cueing and
prompting.
Cueing is providing an antecedent stimulus prior to a particular behaviour. It is
useful for preparing behaviour that must happen at a specific time, but is easily
forgotten. For example, a teacher who is invigilating, walking around in the
examination hall, makes it less likely that students will copy from their friends
during the exam. In fact, cueing provides information about which behaviour
that will be punished or reinforced in a particular situation. It has advantages
especially in furnishing teachers, parents or principal to reinforce students
behaviour without resorting to punishment.
Prompting is providing an additional cue after the first cue. Alberto and Trout
(2006) have outlined two principles for using cueing and prompting
(see Figure 2.4):
Figure 2.4: Two principles for using cueing and prompting

Source: Alberto & Trout (2006)
For example, a teacher provides students with a checklist or a to do list when

students work in pairs as part of peer tutoring during the lab experiment. As the
students learn the procedures, the checklist is slowly withdrawn. Moreover,
when students have learnt the procedure, no prompts are necessary as they have
learnt to react properly to the cue of working during peer tutoring during the
experiment.
46
SELF-CHECK 2.2
Identify the differences between consequences and antecedents in
learning. Provide an example to clarify your explanation.
2.3
BEHAVIOURAL APPROACH: APPLYING IN

TEACHING PROCESS
Experienced and expert teachers master and apply the behavioural theory and
basic principles of reinforcement and punishment well in the classroom. Here
are some of the guiding principles for the improvement of teaching and learning
in the classroom as suggested by Hoy and Miskel (2013):
(a) Give clear and systematic praise for genuine accomplishments;
(b) Standardise praises based on individual capabilities;
(c) Link success to effort and ability to build confidence;
(d) Recognise positive behaviour;
(e) Give plenty of reinforcement when introducing new materials or skills;
(f)
Set clear and specific goals for reinforcement;
(g) Use cues to help establish new behaviours;

(h) Use a variety of reinforcers and allow students to choose from them;
(i)
Structure situations around negative reinforcement rather than punishment;

and
(j)
Adapt the punishment to fit the misbehaviour (Woolfolk, 2007).
The following subtopic provided some tips on how to apply behavioural

approach such as the good behaviour game, functional behavioural assessment,
learning objectives and direct instruction in the teaching process in a classroom.
2.3.1
47
The Good Behaviour Game
The good behaviour game is a learning technique that gives rewards to the whole
class based on the collective behaviour of the class, normally by adding each
students score to a class or a team total. Figure 2.5 depicts how the this game is
applied in a classroom environment:
Figure 2.5: How the Good Behaviour Game is applied in a classroom environment
According to Embry (2002) as cited by Tingstrom, Sterling and Wilcynski (2006),

although the good behavioural game has a small impact on academic
achievement, it has positive effects on students behaviours. By adding the
interventions (that aim at academic achievement) to the good behaviour game,
for example, the combination of the good behaviour game and an enhanced
academic curriculum (read journal, critical thinking skills, journal writing, and
small group activities) may show an increase in academic achievement among
students. Briefly, students positive learning behaviours and academic skills can
make a difference for years to come.
2.3.2
Positive Behavioural Support Based on a

Functional Behavioural Assessment
According to Maag and Kemp (2003) as cited from Barnhill (2005), the reasons for
misbehaviour among students have been identified as shown in Figure 2.6:
48
Figure 2.6: Reasons for misbehaviour among students

Source: Maag and Kemp (2003)
Once the reasons of students misbehaviour have been identified, the teachers in
the class will be able to formulate ways of supporting positive behaviours among
the students. The process of studying the misbehaviour is known as functional
behavioural assessment (FBA). FBA is a collection of methods or procedures to
obtain information about antecedents, behaviours and consequences to
determine the reason of misfunction of the behaviour. Later, the schools can
develop an intervention package using the information from FBA. Figure 2.7
depicts the techniques of FBA in school:
Figure 2.7: The techniques of Functional Behavioural Assessment (FBA) in school

Source: Hoy & Miskel (2013)
As for disabled and at risk special education students, they need positive
behavioural support (PBS). Thus, PBS is an intervention designed to replace
problematic behaviours with new actions that acts with the same purpose for the
students. Based on the result from FBA, positive behavioural support functions
will help students with disabilities to succeed in inclusion classrooms. In fact, this
approach can be applied to all students because it helps to reduce functional
behaviour problems tremendously.
2.3.3
49
Learning Objectives
There are many different approaches in writing the learning objectives, after all,
they are concerned with the goal of teaching. An instructional objective is a clear
written description of the teachers educational goals for students (Hoy & Miskel,
2013). A good instructional objective enhances the learning process by providing
information needed to acquire knowledge and skills (Campbell, 1999). It explains
the steps needed in order to guide the students to perform in a particular subject,
and helps to formulate the appropriate assessments to evaluate the students
performance. Hence, a good instructional objective should have three important
parts as shown in Figure 2.8:
Figure 2.8: Three important parts of having a good instructional objective
Instructional objectives are especially useful in lectures, films and research

projects to attract students attention to improve performance, both for formal
classroom learning and individual study (Campbell, 1999).
2.3.4
Direct Instruction
Explicit teaching and active teaching are the terms used for direct instruction
which is always referred to as teacher-centred instruction which focuses on clear
behavioural and cognitive goals (Luke, 2013). Direct instruction is found most
suitable to teach basic skills, for instance, science facts, mathematics
computations, grammar rules and so on. This is because those skills can be
50
taught through the step by step approach and assessed well by standardised
tests. Moreover, teachers and students are actively engaged in the conversation
in the classroom through educational activities (Wells, 1998). Hence, the concept
of direct instruction is found consistent with the behavioural theory to improve
student learning. McGraw (2008) has identified the benefits of direct instruction
(as shown in Figure 2.9):
Figure 2.9: The benefits of direct instruction

Source: McGraw (2008)
Furthermore, Rosenshine and his colleagues have postulated the six teaching
functions on effective instruction (as depicted in Figure 2.10):
Figure 2.10: Rosenshines six teaching functions

51
To date, there are a number of models of direct instruction, for example, Hunters
mastery teaching approach (1982) and Good, Grouws and Ebmeiers Missouri
math (1983) were based on Rosenshines six teaching functions.
Criticisms of Direct Instruction
Many psychologists have identified that direct instruction did help improve
students learning; however, there are many critics on it as well. Critics arose in
terms of the limitation of direct instruction focusing on lower-level objectives,
applying traditional methods, ignoring innovative models and discouraging
independent thinking and action. Besides that, there are also arguments which
state that direct instruction will cause students to be passive, instead of being
active. However, there is ample evidence to prove that direct instruction can also
help students learn actively, as it provides guidance and independent practices
among students.
SELF-CHECK 2.3
Which Functional Behavioural Assessment (FBA) technique do you find
most appropriate to collect data for your teaching? Please explain.
2.4
A COGNITIVE PERSPECTIVE ON LEARNING
The root of the cognitive perspective can be traced to the ancient Greek
philosophers who discussed the nature of knowledge, the value of reason and
the content of the mind (Hernshaw, 1987). Later, cognitive research resumed its
popularity as the computer revolution and breakthrough in understanding
language developed. As psychologists are aware that learning is an active
mental process, they wonder how people think, learn about concepts and solve
problems. In fact, remembering and forgetting have become two major topics of
cognitive study in the 1970s and 1980s.
The information-processing model of memory has dominated most of the studies
in cognitive science. Cognitive perspective employs many dimensions to explain
information processing memory such as acquiring, forming, storing,
manipulating, discarding and implementing. Learning from response
consequence is part of the cognitive process (Bandura, 1977). To date, there are
numerous models of memory and research done in learning, thinking and
problem-solving. In general, cognitive perspective stresses on the students roles
in the thought processes in learning, based on the assumption that students need
to be mentally active in processing the information.
52
ACTIVITY 2.3
Do the teachers in your school help students to develop their learning
strategies? How can the learning strategies be taught as part of the
curriculum in the classroom?
2.4.1
Knowledge and Learning
Knowledge is both a means and an end; more than a product of the previous
learning (Hoy & Miskel, 2013). It serves as a scaffold for new learning. A person
who has good basis of knowledge is better in the understanding and
remembering of something, as compared to person who has good learning
strategies. However, learning is a way of interpreting knowledge in a particular
situation (Swift & Hwang, 2013). Swart and Kinnie (2010) recognised that
knowledge is the input while learning is the output. In addition to understanding
and remembering, a person with extensive knowledge and good learning
strategy is far more excellent than those who have only low knowledge and/or
low learning strategies. Generally, knowledge can be categorised into two types
(see Table 2.3): General knowledge and domain-specific knowledge.
Table 2.3: Two Types of Knowledge
Types
Explaination
Example
General Knowledge
Applies to various
situations.
How to use the keyboard of

a computer.
Domain-Specific
Knowledge
Refers to specific
knowledge for a particular
task or subject.
How to use C++

programming in a
computer.
According to Paris and Cunningham (1996) and Paris, Lipson, and Wixson
(1983), other ways of categorising knowledge have been identified as declarative,
procedural and self-regulatory (as shown in Figure 2.11):
53
Figure 2.11: Other ways of categorising knowledge

Source: Paris & Cunningham (1996); Paris, Lipson &Wixson (1983)
These three types of knowledge can also be divided into general or domainspecific knowledge as shown in Table 2.2.
Table 2.2 Different Types of Knowledge and Examples
Types of Knowledge
Declarative Knowledge
Procedural Knowledge
Self-regulatory
(Conditional)
Knowledge
General knowledge
Domain-specific knowledge
School operation times.
Definition of learning.
School rules and

regulations.
Newtons law of motion.
How to swith on a
computer.
How to do programming in
C++.
How to use a
smartphone.
How to save images into a

smartphones memory card.
When to skim and when

to read text carefully.
When to add electrolyte in

electrolysis.
When to abandon one

approach and try
another.
When to increase your voice

while singing.
54
Information-processing Model
Before knowledge can be used or applied, there are a few questions on
memory. For example, how can we remember facts? What do we know about
the memory? Let us explore the human information-processing model. Normally,
a computer is used as a model to explain information processing conceptions of
memory. Like the computer, our mind is an amazing information processing tool
as it takes information, processes it, stores it, retrieves it when needed and
produces responses to it (Hoy & Miskel, 2013).
But unlike the computer, our mind processes the information in different ways
and simultaneously with many interactions during the processes. A more recent
cognitive science information processing model retains some of the old features
but integrates the function of working memory, attention and the interaction as
shown in Figure 2.12.
Figure 2.12: Information processing system

Figure 2.4 showed that information is encoded in sensory memory where

perception and attention determine what will be held in working memory for
further use. In working memory, the information will be processed and
integrated with new information of knowledge from the long-term memory.
Working memory allows for temporary storage and manipulation of information
of complex tasks (Woodman & Chun, 2006). Thoroughly processed and
connected information becomes part of long-term memory. When it is activated
55
back, it becomes part of the working memory. All these three elements of the
system interact with each other to guide perception, representation, organisation,
and interpretation of information.
2.4.2
Sensory Memory
Sensory memory is the initial part in information-processing that transforms

incoming stimuli into information. It is also known as sensory buffer, iconic
memory (for image), and echoic memory (for sound). Perception is the basic
information we receive through our senses and is constructed from both
objective reality and existing knowledge. Perception without knowledge would
be meaningless, as observed among infants and children who cannot identify or
perceive things that they never seen or learn before. Thus, to identify patterns
and specific features, we use our existing knowledge about a situation to make
meaning. Memory is not a static device but it changes to accommodate with new
information (stimuli).
Not all stimuli will be processed at the same time, only selected stimuli will be
processed and some others are ignored. This is because humans can only pay
attention to one demanding task at a time. However, many processes that
initially require attention and concentration will become knowledge
automatically with practice. But that depends on how much we practised it
before it can become knowledge automatically.
To obtain students attention to what will be learned in the classroom is
important. Without paying attention, students will not be able to process things
that they do not recognise or perceive correctly. Hence, teachers creativity in
teaching is crucial to grab students attention during the learning process.
However, obtaining student attention is only holding the battle, keeping them
focused and engaged are also critical elements in learning.
2.4.3
A Current Model of Working Memory
A current model attempts to conceptualise the role of working memory in the

performance in a broad range of complex cognitive tasks (Baddeley, 2000).
Information in the sensory memory is ready for further processing when it has
been transformed into patterns of images or sounds. The information will pass to
working memory and combined with knowledge from long-term memory.
Baddeley (2000) also added that, in general, working memory consists of four
elements (see Figure 2.13):
56
Figure 2.13: Four elements of working memory

Source: Baddeley (2000)
The phonological loop and visuospatial sketchpad are short-term memory

storages for sound and images, and are considered as short-term memory in
earlier information processing models. The visuospatial, episodic buffer and
phonological loop do lower-level work for the central executive holding onto
and combining information. The working system has a limited memory span and
limited capacity of information transferring to long-term memory (Baddeley &
Hitch, 1974); and can be overwhelmed if there is too much or is too heavy in
information. Moreover, the duration of information in this system is short, lasting
only about five to 20 seconds. Figure 2.14 depicts an overview of how the
working memory works:
57
Figure 2.14: Overview of how the working memory works

Source: Baddeley & Hitch (1974)
Following are the details of the working memory.

(a)
The Central Executive

The central executive is a pool of mental resources such as focusing
attention, reasoning and comprehension. It initiates planning and decides
on what information to retrieve and how to allocate resources. Probably,
this component of working memory is responsible for the chunking of
resources (Baddeley & Hitch, 1974).
(b)
The Phonological Loop

The phonological loop plays an important role in the storage of verbal
(speech) and sound information (Baddeley, 2000). In short, it holds verbal
information and keeps it active by maintaining it in the loop rehearsing
and paying attention to the information.
58
Early studies suggest the capacity of short-term memory is only about five
to nine separate new bits of information at once. However, this limitation
can be solved using strategies such as chunking or grouping. For example,
it is easy for us to remember a new phone number before make a call. What
if we have to remember two new phone numbers at the same time? Of
course it is harder to remember. Hence, Baddeley (2001) suggested that we
can hold as much in the phonological loop as we can rehearse (say to
ourselves) in 1.5 to two seconds.
A seven digit phone number fits this limitation. The same problem occurs
when we try to remember seven long words in mind because it will
definitely take longer than two seconds to rehearse them, and they are more
difficult to keep in working memory as compared to seven digits or seven
short words. Worse still, if we are unfamiliar with the word. However,
according to Baddeley (2000), the phonological loop can retain sequential
information perfectly on 50 per cent of occasions.
(c)
The Visuospatial Sketchpad

The visuospatial sketchpad holds visual and spatial information as we are
looking at the picture or object. As we are trying to remember an image, we
may use the phonological loop and visuospatial sketchpad at the same
time, but each is quickly filled and easily overwhelmed. In fact, verbal and
visual information are placed at different areas of the brain. Different
people have varying capacities in working memory.
(d)
The Episodic Buffer

It is the working memory benchmark which integrates information from
the phonological loop, visuospatial sketchpad and long-term memory
(Baddeley, 2000), under the supervision of the central executive to create
new complex memories. It is an episodic buffer because information is
integrated across space and potentially extended across time (Baddeley,
2000). Nevertheless, the buffer is expected to be limited in capacity due to
the computational demands of providing simultaneous access to the
necessarily wide range of different codes (Baddeley, 2000).
(e)
Cognitive Load
It refers to the amount of mental resources (especially working memory)
needed to perform a certain task (Hoy & Miskel, 2013). The extent of
cognitive load depends on existing knowledge about the task and available
supports. There are three categories of cognitive load namely unavoidable,
hinder and helpful. Table 2.3 shows the three different categories of
cognitive load.
59
Table 2.3: Three Different Categories of Cognitive Load

Categories of Cognitive Load
Explanation
Instrinsic cognitive load
Unavoidable amount of cognitive processing is

needed to understand the material. The amount
depends on how many elements to be considered,
the complexity of the interactions and individual
level of expertise in the problem area. The term
intrinsic cognitive load means it is intrinsic to
the task. Although it cannot be eliminated, good
instruction can help to manage and overcome the
load.
Extraneous cognitive load
Refers to the cognitive capacity used to deal with

problems that are not related to the learning task.
For example, a poorly organised written textbook.
However, a good instruction can provides
support, underscoring and organising the main
ideas and supplying scaffolding.
Germane cognitive load
It is directly related to high-quality learning.

Helpful when deep processing of relevant
information is adopted by organising and
integrating the material with existing information
to produce new understanding. In addition, good
instruction can also support this process.
Retaining Information in Working Memory

Working memory must be kept activated to hold information for longer than 20
seconds. Thus, rehearsal is a specific remembering strategy to hold information
in working memory. There are two types of rehearsal strategies that have been
identified, namely maintenance rehearsal and elaborative rehearsal (see Table 2.4
for elaborations).
60
Table 2.4: Two Types of Rehearsal Strategies
Types of Rehearsal Strategies
Explanation
Maintenance rehearsal
An action of repeating the information

in mind. As long as we repeat the
information, it will be maintained in
our working memory. For example,
repeating a telephone number.
Elaborative rehearsal
Occurs when a person is relating new

information with existing information
from the long-term memory. It does
improve
working
memory
to
remember
better
and
move
information from short-term to longterm memory.
Another strategy to retain information in working memory is chunking. The bits

of information will be grouped or chunked into meaningful units. For instance, to
remember a six digit number 3, 6, 2, 8, 5 and 8, we can either group the
numbers into three chunks of two digits each (36, 28, 58), or two chunks of two
digits each (362, 858). Figure 2.15 summarises the strategies used to retain the
information in working memory.
61
Figure 2.15: Strategies in retaining the information in working memory

2.4.4
Long-term Memory
According to Hoy and Miskel (2013), long-term memory holds information that
has been learned for a longer period (or permanently). Recent studies have
identified that working memory is the activated portion of long-term memory
(Baddeley, 2000). The difference between working memory and long-term
memory depends on how active or inactive a particular memory is with the
storage processes (Baddeley, 2000).
Capacity and Duration of Long-term Memory
The capacity of long-term memory to hold information is unlimited. Once the
information is stored in long-term memory, it can dwell there indefinitely. But of
course, long-term memory requires some effort and time in order to recall the
stored information. If the usage of that information is less, then it would be a
challenge to find it.
62
Contents of Long-term Memory

Long-term memory has three types of content, which are:
(a)
Episodic Memory
It refers to the memory based on event episodes (Dong-yu, Yu, Zhao, Jing,
2012). The event is encoded and stored in the long-term memory. Similarly,
Tulving (2002) posits that episodic memory is a neurocognitive system that
enables us to remember previous experiences. Recall and recollection (auto
noetic awareness) are required in episodic memory.
(b)
Procedural Memory
It refers to memory of how to perform things. It means a memory of skills
and reflects responses (Wang, Tan Teow & Tan, 2014).
(c)
Semantic Memory
It refers to memory for meaning such as general concepts, and principles. It
enables a person to represent mentally on situations, objects and relations in
that world that are not present to the sense (Tulving, 1993). It simply means,
someone can think about things that do not exist.
The following (see Table 2.5) is the summarisation of three contents of Long-term
memory.
Table 2.5: Different Contents in Long-term Memory
Types of Long-term Memory
Episodic Memory
Procedural memory
Contents
(a)
Associating information with particular place

and time (relates to life experience).
(b)
Keep information orderly.
(c)
Example: Recall James Bond movies: Cinema,

the plots, actions, the hero, places, etc.
(a)
Memory on how to do things.
(b)
May take time to learn the procedure but once

learnt, it stays for a long time.
(c)
Represents by conditional statement such as

Plan A does not work, move to Plan B.
(d)
The more the

automatication.
(e)
Example: In order to achieve high student

performance, a teacher will plan academic
tasks as required in learning objectives, as
endorsed to students and do assessments to
evaluate students.
procedure,
the
more
Semantic Memory
63
(a)
Memory for meaning, general

principles and their associations.
(b)
Pattern, specifying a standard relationship in

in an object or situation.
(c)
concepts,
Two ways to store information:

(i)
Image: Visual perception, useful in

making practical decisions and helpful
in abstract reasoning; and
(ii)
Schema: Abstract knowledge structures

that organise large amounts of
information. It guides for understanding
events, concepts or skills.
Storing and Retrieving Information in Long-term Memory

In long-term memory, the ways of storing and retrieving the information occur in
three processes (as depicted in Figure 2.16):
Figure 2.16: Three processes of ways of storing and retrieving the information
Now let us look into the explanation on each stage of the process:
(a)
Elaboration happens automatically when meaning is given to new

information by relating it to existing information. It is a form of rehearsal
that keeps materials activated in working memory for a certain period
before it moves to long-term memory. Also, it is useful in building extra
links to existing knowledge.
In short, it provides a variety of ways or retrieval cues to reach information
we are searching for after we link one chunk of information to others. W
can also come to a conclusion that the more students elaborate new ideas,
the more they create ideas of their own, which creates deeper
understanding and produce better memory for the knowledge. However,
incorrect information will be stored too when elaborating new information
due to misconceptions.
64
(b)
Organisation is a way to put information in structures (in arrays) so that we

can easily remember it when needed. This is especially important for
complex and large amount of information.
(c)
Context means the physical and emotional aspects of context (for instance,
place: where is that place, what we feel on a particular day about that place,
who accompanies us at that place and so on) and is integrated with other
information. It is helpful in remembering the information if the current
context is resembled to the original ones.
The duration of remembering the information depends on the analysation and

integration of information with other information. The more complete
information has been processed, the better the chances of remembering it.
Retrieving Information from Long-term Memory
Long-term memory is huge and full of a variety of information that is difficult to
find. Most of the time, only the small parts from it are activated at one time and a
smaller part of it is working memory. Therefore, to retrieve information from
long-term memory, a series of activations are required. As we are trying to
remember a particular image or proposition, all other closely related knowledge
may be triggered and activation is spread through the network. As the
information is realised, the original thoughts will disappear from working
memory due to its limited storage. When the spread of the activation fails to
access the needed information, then we should consider the use of logic, clues,
cues and other knowledge to reconstruct the information.
Forgetting in Long-term Memory
As compared to long-term memory, the loss of information in working memory
is not reverted. Information from long-term memory can vanish through two
processes time decay and interference.
(a)
Time decay is the loss of information over a period of time. For example,
we might forget how to perform T-Test Statistics that we learnt two years
ago. Apparently, physiological deterioration due to increased age may
explain the loss of information when someone gets older. In science, it is
believed that the ageing process is one of the causes that contributes to the
loss of neurons.
(b)
Interference refers to the mixture of new and old memories that result in
interference, replacement or obstruction of existing memories. The older
memories (existing memories) may interfere with the new information
stored in the working memory.
65
Therefore, it is crucial to encourage the use of innovative and creative teaching

strategies to retain the information among students. Nevertheless, it depends on
individual awareness to keep the information for a long period of time in our
memory. Metacognition is the term to describe an awareness of a person of his
own cognitive processing and how it works. It is the knowledge or awareness of
self as a knower (Hoy & Miskel, 2013).
Metacognition is higher-order knowledge about our own thinking ability to use
knowledge for cognitive processes. A person will utilise his knowledge like
reasoning, comprehension, problem solving and skills to monitor and regulate
his cognitive processes. Apparently, metacognition differs from individual to
individual due to different abilities in manipulating knowledge and skills.
There are three effective metacognitive skills, namely:
(a)
Planning on a variety of aspects, for example, how much time to spend on a

particular task, or strategies to be used, determining how to begin, what
type of information is needed, what procedure to follow and so on.
(b)
Monitoring is awareness of how I am doing. For example, is this plan

working? Is it really needed? Am I too slow in completing the task, which
should be questioned from time to time? and so on.
(c)
Evaluation is about making judgments on outcomes of thinking and

learning. Such questions like Should I change the plan, should I consider
getting any help and should I continue could emerge.
The process of metacognitive skills will become automatic especially for adults
and expert learners. Often, the experts find difficulties in explaining their own
processes (Hoy & Miskel, 2013).
2.5
TEACHING APPLICATIONS OF THE

COGNITIVE APPROACH
Learning tactics and strategies should be developed and improved to help

students learn and remember things that we teach them. Learning strategy is a
general plan to achieve learning goals, whereas tactics are the functional
techniques that run the plan. The following subtopics will discuss the strategies
proposed to help students in cognitive learning.
66
ACTIVITY 2.4
There are many latest learning technologies availaible to aid teaching in
the class. However, due to financial constraints, it seems impossible to
bring the technologies into the classroom. If you are given a chance to
bring this issue to a school meeting, what would your arguments be in
order to integrate the Internet into teaching and learning in the
classroom?
2.5.1
Underlining or Highlighting
These are two most frequently used strategies among students, namely
underlining and highlighting. However, very few students know how to
underline or highlight points. Some students underline or highlight too much. As
to this, less is better and the selectivity of words to underline or highlight is
important. Indeed, being selective helps students to be more active in
transforming the information into their own words (Hoy & Miskel, 2013).
2.5.2
Taking Notes
We take notes to capture what was taught in class. To ponder, note-taking has
two important functions, at least. Firstly, it is helpful in grabbing attention and
encoding information that eventually increases chances of storage in the longterm memory. We recode the key ideas in our own words by practising
translating, connecting, elaborating and recognising; all these techniques are
useful in learning. However, we must make sure that taking notes do not detract
us from listening and making sense of the presentation. Secondly, taking note
also serves as permanent records that allow us to revise later. Research proves
that understanding is best when students are effectively taking notes to
underscore important ideas.
2.5.3
Visual Tools
Studies show that creating graphic visuals, for example, using concept maps,
diagrams, charts or tables, is more effective than outlining the text. Brady et al.
(2008) stress that a person can remember the details of many images after only a
single viewing, even for a long time period. This showed that visual tools have
great impact in long-term memory. One of the most valuable inventions of visual
tools is Cmaps, which can be downloaded for free. This software is used to build
concept maps.
67
Other tools are like venn diagrams and tree diagrams. Technologies have even
created more detailed and specific framework for learning, however, studies
show that that teachers are still having problems in using these technologies
because the technologies do not meet their expectations, are changing too rapidly
and are too complex to be used in the classroom (Hoy & Miskel, 2013).
2.5.4
Mnemonics
This is a systematic way to improve memory in learning (Hoy & Miskel, 2013).
Table 2.3 shows a variety of mnemonic strategies.
Table 2.6: Variety of Mnemonic Strategies
Mnemonic
Imagination
Acronym
Description
Example
A mental visualisation of
something for remembering
facts and extended prose (Tim
Seifert, 1993).
To describe a country, one might

visualise its people, foods, car,
building, etc.
(a)
ASAP As soon as possible
A series of letters that

spell a word with each
letter to represent a new
phrase.
WHO World Health

Organization
(b)
Build new phrases or

sentences of the first letter
of each word or item.
Kings Play Cards On Fat Green

Stools : acronym for biological
taxonomy (Kingdom, Phylum,
Class, Order, Family, Genus,
Species).
(c)
Incorporated all items into

a jingle of rhyme and
songs.
Learning alphabet to the tune of

Twinkle, Twinkle, Little Star.
68
Keyword
(a)
(b)
Widely used to enhance

memory
3Rs rule to use keyword
To remember English word

carlin which means old
woman:
(i)
Recode the
vocabulary item to
be learned;
(a)
Recode carlin to familiar

keyword : carlin car;
(b)
(ii)
Relate the keyword

clue to the vocab
items definition
through a sentence;
and
Relate car with suitable

situation and make sentence
The old woman was
driving a car; and
(iii)
(b)
(b)
(c)
Retrieve the desire

definition.
Recall carlin is car and

trigger to sentence and
remember it!
As a conclusion, the human mind is powerful in processing information. This

system transforms the sensory information into symbol structures (propositions,
images, schema), the processes (rehearsal or elaborates) and the symbol
structures so that knowledge can be stored in memory and accessed. The
strategies mentioned in Table 2.4 can be applied in the classroom learning in two
ways: either by altering teachers teaching behaviour or altering students
learning behaviour.
SELF-CHECK 2.4
1.
Explain the the three types of content in long-term memory.
2.
Discuss two teaching applications of the cognitive approach that

are suitable in a primary school classroom.
2.6
69
A CONSTRUCTIVE APPROACH TO
LEARNING
Constructivism which is grounded from the studies by Piaget, Vygotsky and the
Gestalt psychologists, as well as John Dewey and Jean Lave, emphasises a
metatheoretical perspective that has different interpretations within philosophy
and social science (Talja et al., 2005). Actually, there is no one constructivist
learning theory, but there are some constructivist approaches available in certain
education subjects. Most constructivists posit the following assumptions:
(a)
Students are active in constructing own knowledge; and
(b)
Social interactions are important in the knowledge construction process.
Constructivist theorists, for example Vygotsky, underscores the shared and social
construction on knowledge while others view social force as less important.
ACTIVITY 2.5
Think of a concept in a subject that you have taught. Plan a lesson on the
concept that reflects Piagets individual constructivism and another lesson
based on Vygotskys social constructivism. Then, identify the differences
between the two perspectives in the lesson plan.
2.6.1
Types of Constructivism
Apparently all theories in cognitive science have integrated some aspect of

constructivism theories because these theories assume that individuals build up
their own cognitive structures as they associate their experience in particular
situations (Hoy & Miskel, 2013). Virtually, there are three kinds of
constructivism, namely psychological, social and radical constructivism.
However, these three perspectives of constructivism are questionable and raise
disagreement on the answers. Hence, the questions in learning are never fully
answered, but different theories tend to cherish different positions There are
three types of constructivism theories that we will be discussing in this subtopic
which are (see Figure 2.17):
70
Figure 2.17: Three types of Constructivism Theories
Let us see the details of constructivism theories.

(a)
Constructivism
Piagets psychological or personal constructivisms are enthused in
individual knowledge, beliefs, self-concept or identity. It touches on the
individuals inner psychological life and the build-up of cognitive
structures and strategies. It underscores the individuals reconstruction of
external reality, which means it uses interrelated constructs to anticipate
and predict individuals behaviour (Raskin, 2002). For example, thinking is
built on during each stage of cognitive and it includes previous stages to
make it more organised, adaptive and fewer ties to the concrete events.
As such, an individual will develop schemes as the basic building blocks of
thinking. Schemes are organised systems of actions or thought that will
permit us to mentally represent of think about the objects and events
around us. It can be very small and specific, that is, the sucking-through-astraw scheme, or to be more general the drinking scheme. Two processes
used by schemes are namely:
(i)
Assimilation
The action to understand and insert new information into what we
already know. The information is entailed and adapted to the current
experiential understanding. As mentioned by Raskin (2002), it is a
mental process of recognising particular circumstances. Sometimes,
71
new information could be distorted to fit. For instance, the first time
children see a bunch of roses, they would call it flowers. Later, as they
learn they will be able to differentiate the types of flowers.
(ii)
Accommodation
Refers to changes in existing ways of thinking to respond to new
situation. Commonly it requires altering and adding of information
when something new is needed. For instance, the children identify
different flowers by its smell or colours.
This constructivist perspective is less concern with correct mechanism

because it is more interested in the meaning of individual interpretation.
This perspective emphasises logic and construction of general knowledge
that cannot be learned from the environment, thus, knowledge in Piaget
psychological constructivist comes from reflecting and coordinating
individuals own thoughts or cognition.
(b)
Vygotskys Social Construction

Vygotsky deemed that knowledge is socially constructed based on a
persons contribution and construction. All knowledge is considered local
and fleeting (Raskin, 2002). Hence, development of cognitive knowledge
will vary in different culture (Hoy & Miskel, 2013; Raskin, 2002) creating
distinct identity and socially negotiated (Raskin, 2002). Cultural tools
include real tools, for example, rulers, computer, printing presses, etc.
Symbolic tools are for example, numbers and mathematical systems, Braille
and sign language, map, signs and codes and etc, play very crucial roles in
cognitive development. The cultural tools support individual development
in terms of thinking, learning and cognitive development; and it can be
taught either in formal or informal ways. The psychological tools, for
instance, language, sign and symbols have facilitated in all higher-order
mental processes and support for advance cognitive development among
students.
(c)
Radial Contructivism
Radical scholars believed knowledge is not a mirror of the external world.
In fact, the experience affects thinking, and thinking influences knowledge.
Raskin (2002) states that radical constructivism is adaptive and concerning
with the ability of human to use own understanding to help navigate life.
Knowledge is socially constructed and some people have more power in
defining what constitutes such knowledge. This approach has led to
understanding different angle of views and challenges traditional
knowledge. There is no need for evaluating or interpreting any belief than
others. Individuals are capable of learning when their constructions of
72
event fail (Raskin, 2002). It is arguable, that to some extent of relativism, all
knowledge and beliefs are equal in constructed structures. This has caused
trouble to educators, however. The trouble teachers faced are relating to the
following:
(i)
Limit teachers professional responsibilities over some values as all

beliefs are not equal; and
(ii)
Some knowledge is not constructed but rather they are universal. For
example, knowledge confronted one-to-one correspondence is part of
human being.
2.6.2
How is Knowledge Constructed?
Knowledge is constructed through many ways. For example:

(a)
The realities and truths of the external world. Individual reconstruct

external reality by making accurate mental representations that reflect the
way things really are;
(b)
Internal processes (psychological constructivism) emphasise that existing

knowledge generates new knowledge. Knowledge is abstract with no false
or truth, which grows and develops together with cognitive activities; and
(c)
Integration of internal and external factors is responsible for development

of knowledge.
2.6.3
Knowledge: Situated or General?
A social constructivist who underscores the social construction of knowledge and

situated learning is inherently social and influenced by cultural setting.
Knowledge which is true at one time and place may become false in another time
and place. As such, it may be useful within a specific community of practice, but
useless for another community. What is of concern is how well new knowledge
fits into existing knowledge (accepted practice). Unless a major shift happens, the
current practice will normally shape the knowledge in the community (Hoy &
Miskel, 2013).
Situated learning posits that the real world is not like studying in school. In fact,
it is more like an apprenticeship where novices, with the support of an expert
guide and model, take on more and more responsibility until they are to function
independently. In fact, situated knowledge is referring to enculturation or
adopting the norms, behaviours, skills, beliefs, language and attitudes of a
particular community that has particular ways of thinking and doing things.
73
SELF-CHECK 2.5
Differentiate the functions of the three contructivist perspectives in
enhancing teaching and learning in the classroom.
2.7
TEACHING APPLICATIONS OF
CONSTRUCTIVIST APPROACHES
Expert teachers will blend many theories of learning into their teaching and
learning. Constructivist approaches tend to support students in developing their
expertise. Students must have a deep understanding of their learning problems
before they can overcome them. However, scaffolding will definitely help students
learn more effectively. There are three characters of scaffolding (see Figure 2.18):
Figure 2.18: Three characters of scaffolding
Constructivists emphasise that students should be given authentic tasks in a

complex situation with fuzzy problems that resemble real-world problems. The
following describes the three examples of constructivist approaches of teaching
namely: problem-based learning, cognitive apprenticeship and cooperative
learning.
74
ACTIVITY 2.6
Based on students characteristics in a class, plan some academic tasks
to challenge students understanding of what has been taught or
learned in class.
2.7.1
Problem-based Learning
In problem-based learning, the teacher starts with posing a problem to trigger

students to ask some questions in the class. Students will then collaborate to
gather information to answer the questions. At the same time, the teacher will
monitor students thinking and facilitate the process of learning (Hoy & Miskel,
2013). Ultimately, students will identify and analyse the problem using facts and
produce hypotheses about solutions. Generally, the objectives of problem-based
learning have been identified as follows (see Figure 2.19):
Figure 2.19: Objectives of problem-based learning
75
Indeed, problem-based learning requires extensive preparation, organisation and

monitoring to ensure students engagement and overcoming the challenges.
Problem solving and reasoning activities will challenge students abilities to
anticipate problems and address issues critically before they find solutions and
make the right decision (Malaysian Education Blueprint, 2013 2015). To do that,
students may use latest technologies such as interactive media, handphones,
videos and so on to address the issues and solve the problems. Due to its
importance in elevating students critical thinking, problem-based learning
should be applied more regularly in class.
2.7.2
Cognitive Apprenticeships
The apprenticeship is one of the effective forms of education. The beginner will
learn as much as they can from a master or sometimes other apprentices. This
technique is rich with information because the masters have extensive
knowledge in four aspects namely guiding, modelling, demonstrating and
correcting. Besides, it is helpful in elevating motivation among the students as
there is a personal bond formed between neophytes and the master.
Furthermore, student performances are real, important and grow more complex
as students become more competent. Generally, most of the cognitive
apprenticeship model has six features, which are:
(a)
Students observe an expert (teacher in a school context) to model the task;
(b)
Students get support through coaching or tutoring from hints, feedback,

models and reminders;
(c)
Conceptual scaffolding outlines, explanations, notes, definitions,

formulas and procedures are offered and gradually reduced as students
become more competent and proficient;
(d)
Students continually articulate their knowledge and create better

understanding by using their own words;
(e)
Students reflect on their progress and compare their problem-solving

competencies to an experts performance and to their earlier
performances; and
(f)
Students explore new ways before applying their knowledge especially

ways they have not practised at the experts level.
76
2.7.3
Cooperative Learning
This approach requires students to work or learn with other students in a group.
Learning in a group enhances the quality of the discourse among the students.
Indeed, the teacher plays an important role in cooperative learning. Effective
teachers will provide ideas and alternatives that push and prod students
thinking. There are five elements of the cooperative learning process:
(a)
Promotive interaction
Each group member encourages one and another. They may use face to face
interaction and digital media to communicate among themselves around
the globe.
(b)
Positive interdependence
Positive vibes after which students support each other by providing
explanations and guidance.
(c)
Individual accountability
Individual learning style is practised; even they work with each other.
(d)
Collaborative skills
Skills required for effective group functioning.
(e)
Group processing
Members control the process to ensure group work effectively.
Some activities that could help cooperative learning among the students are
jigsaw puzzles, peer tutoring and scripted cooperation.
Cooperative Learning and Inclusion Classroom
Cooperative learning can be taught for special needs students, but it requires
extra attention in planning and preparing the materials. In fact, many scholars
find that cooperative learning is less preferred for students with special needs or
learning disabilities. These types of students find it difficult to grasp concepts
and may face social rejection which make it more difficult for them to learn (Hoy
& Miskel, 2013).
Moreover, cooperative learning is also not the best idea in a class that has a mix
of abilities, especially involving gifted students (Hoy and Miskel, 2013). Either
the tasks are too simple or repetitive and the gifted students will end up acting in
the role of a teacher or doing it fast for the whole group. Thus, teachers are
challenged to provide tasks that permit work at all different levels and keep
engaging gifted students without losing the interest of the rest in the class.
77
Despite being less preferred by some students, cooperative learning is an

excellent choice for English Language students in the class (Hoy and Miskel,
2013). A teacher cannot expect all his students to master the English Language,
hence cooperative learning is a good choice where students can help each other
and work together on academic tasks. In other perspectives, a small group of
students may help other members to learn better, and causes less anxiety among
them.
SELF-CHECK 2.6
1.
Identify and explain the advantages of cognitive apprenticeship

and cooperative learning in a classroom.
2.
List down activities that can be used for problem-based learning.
2.8
LEARNING AND TEACHING: THE

RECIPROCAL LINK
Learning and teaching are active processes that continually and simultaneously
occur in the classroom. Students and teachers are the individuals responsible and
they depend on each other to make meaning in the learning and teaching process.
With better understanding of each others function, teachers will be able to
effectively encourage students to achieve their full potential. Then, learning will
best occur when students are motivated, encouraged and more focused towards
the learning process.
ACTIVITY 2.7
Compare cognitive and constructive teaching approaches to identify any
similarities and differences between them. Identify the factors
contributing to the choice of a teaching approach of a teacher.
78
2.8.1
What is Learning?
Learning is a complex process of neuroscience and it occurs in our mind (Zirbel,

2005). Changes from ignorance to knowledge, from inability to competence and
from indifference to understanding in an individual or unit (that is, community)
are the examples of learning. With the new knowledge, skills and abilities,
students will be transformed from novices to experts.
In fact, constant learning will offer significant and meaningful learning
experiences to students in daily action. Students will learn actively if the
organisational unit (such as the school or community) is aware of the
relationships between the context, content and demands of the learning task.
These relationships will determine the learning styles, age, behaviour, thinking
styles, gender, content and learning preference of the students in a class.
Learning style is a mind reflection that shapes individuals unique learning
preferences (learning strategies). It could be a trait, that is structural and stable
over time or a state that could change based on situation (Cassidy, 2004). It helps
individuals to concentrate, process, internalise and remember new information
or skills. Individuals will learn fast if they are able to capitalise on their own
preferred learning styles. Many students have their own strategies, but some of
them may have to adapt their styles according to the tasks which later create the
versatility in learning styles. Differences in the preferred way of learning style
can be identified with the following instruments (see Figure 2.20):
79
Figure 2.20: Instruments of different learning styles
Different stages of age offer different ways of learning preference. Adult learners,
for instance, have special needs and requirements from children and adolescents.
Among them, some critical elements have been identified as follows:
(a)
Accumulation of experience
As adult learners grow up, they will be more likely to be independent in
ways of supporting present values, beliefs and in reacting to new
information.
(b)
Developmental trends
During periods of transition or major changes events, adults are receptive
to education and learning related to reassessing personal goals, reasserting
themselves as valued members of the society and reconfirming their selfesteem.
80
(c)
Anxiety and ambivalence

Adults will experience anxiety and ambivalence in new learning situations
that will affect their personal willingness. As individual willingness
increases, they become more responsible based on selected values and
ideas.
(d)
Autonomy and self-direction

Adults want to be free in learning. They like to take responsibility for
learning activities and prefer activities that reflect their interest.
(e)
Goal-orientation
Adults are mature and aware of their learning objectives.
(f)
Practically and relevance orientation

Students must see a reason for learning something, learning for work or
hold responsibilities to be of value.
Students with different learning styles will behave differently in their learning
process (Graf & Kinshuk, 2007). Individuals will likely find the approach that
best fits into their prior knowledge. When all these factors are developed, the
option of study proficiency will be reasonably improved. When learning ability is
influenced by transitory environmental demands and short-term objectives, an
individual will opt for less constructive routines. Hence, less capable students
may feel stress and rely on literal memorisation, whereas more proficient
individuals will adopt more effective approach to look at the task as a problem to
be solved by dividing the contents into specific elements.
On the other hand, thinking styles are ways where an individuals intelligence is
applied. Commonly, thinking styles will respond to the manner in which the
students are challenged to accomplish the task. Teachers teaching techniques
should be appropriate with students thinking and learning style which help
students in learning. There is a relationship between thinking styles and learning
styles. Confident students will work independently with specified guidelines
and meet the expectations of academic success. Less confident students may need
more support and assistance in the learning process.
Androgynous is a term which describes ones ability that has both masculine
and feminine behaviour, and using a meaning-directed learning style.
Androgynous learning showed that people who are interested in the subject will
construct their own knowledge. However, individuals with feminine
characteristics are tending to employ application-directed or prove yourself
learning style. Apparently, they use their knowledge, expect to be stimulated by
education and have an interest in learning due to possibilities that it creates in
81
terms of practising a vocation. Rote learning such as memorising terminology is

frustrating as the brain resists meaningless stimuli. Naturally, the brain is capable
of integrating information and allowing us to assimilate boundless amounts of
information (Forrest, 2004).
The fondness of specific ways to learn is called learning preference. Students
with own learning preference will show proficiency in learning. It helps students
to improve and enhance knowledge capabilities, especially when students are
dealing with complex learning content.
2.8.2
What is Teaching?
Teaching means any practice that furnishes a person with skill or knowledge
(Random House Dictionary, 2002). A good teacher is keen to seek further
knowledge and training to become proficient with teaching styles. Some scholars
regard teaching as an art that breaches into many elements (Forrest, 2004). By
using these seven elements wisely, a teacher will be able to teach excellently (see
Figure 2.21):
Figure 2.21: Elements of teaching
82
Obviously, teachers are the agents for students success. Teachers and students
form mutual and unique relationship in learning. They equally contribute to the
community. Although differences may exist, it is the talent and quality of
teaching and learning that matter. To make sound teaching, everyone in the
system must acknowledge the importance of individuality and autonomy of
students.
Teachers should be empowered in teaching and learning because according to
Spreitzer and Quinn (1997) as cited by Short (2003), an empowered person has
the confidence to give the best in his work, especially if the management is
engaging them in decision making. Hence, being a teacher to adult learners
means to encourage students to go beyond the limits of their capabilities and not
to rely on a specific teaching style.
Teachers, indeed, have to trust their students, viewing them through the lens of
time, being genuine with them, taking time to understand them and realising
that teachers alone cannot inspire everyone to success. With the awareness of
their limitations, committed teachers shall be able to use his interpersonal skills, a
concern for the interest of others, and a commitment and willingness to search
for details to bring out the strength of students in learning.
2.8.3
Teacher Professional Development
Professional growth refers to development activities that equip teachers with

knowledge, skills, attitudes and behaviours that will improve the professional
proficiency of teachers (Short, 2003). Maeroff (1988) as cited in Short (2003)
emphasised that helping teachers by adding knowledge about teaching and
assisting them in developing strategies to teach are two indispensable skills to
enhance teachers empowerment.
To date, there are many studies that have been done on teaching effectiveness
and learning outcomes. All these studies indicated the need to incorporate
problem-solving and self-directed learning into teaching and learning. Teachers
must be provided with professional development from time to time. With the
endeavours of professional development, teachers skills and commitment will
be built and improved (Firestone, 1993). Some of the teaching strategies to assist
students to participate actively in learning are listed in Table 2.7.
83
Table 2.7: Teaching Strategies and its Methods

Teaching strategies
Methods
Create competition
Make acceptance into the programme competitive to

elevate student commitment
Goal-based education
Ask students to write goals for participation in a

programme and for implementation on return to the
clinical setting
Promote networking
Give ample time for group activities that effect on

sharing experiences
Success stories
Use previous students stories who had succeeded in

life
Include families
Afford student chances to relate their learning to life

surrounding
Make it easy to be successful
Design course materials

implemented
2.8.4
that can be readily to be
Evaluating Your Teaching and Learning Styles
The school needs constant feedback to design effective teaching plans to achieve
better student achievement. Undeniable, appropriate learning styles do help
students to be more efficient and effective in learning. In order to prevent
mismatch between teaching style with learning styles, teachers may need to
adapt to students learning styles (Forrest, 2004). There are a variety of
inventories for teachers and students to analyse students learning styles:
Learning Styles Inventories (LSI)
One of the instructional model approaches, based on hierarchy of needs and
achievement motivation.
(a)
VARK
It looks at kinaesthetic sensory modalities to obtain learning information.
(b)
Student Learning Style Inventory

This inventory postulates on individuals attitude or readiness to learn
which is based on: (i) preference for extraversion; (ii) introversion; (iii)
perceiving; and (iv) judging.
84
(c)
Index of Learning Styles

It is an on-line instrument used to assess preferences on four dimensions
(active/reflective, sensing/intuitive, visual/verbal, and sequential/global)
of a learning style model.
(d)
Student Learning Style Scales

It is the tool to identify specific styles that students have to communicate
with peers and teachers.
(e)
Teaching Goals Inventory

This tool focuses on teaching goals related to students expectations.
(f)
Teaching Style Inventory

It concerns on teaching philosophy, methods, teaching environment,
evaluation techniques and personal characteristics.
(g)
The Triads Personality Indicator

This tool focuses on checking on individual personality or trait.
(h)
Teaching Perspectives Inventory

It examines on underlying values and assumptions that constitute a
teachers belief about his role in teaching.
2.8.3
Self Reflection
Self-reflection is all about checking on our teaching style effectiveness. It helps

teachers to thoroughly examine organisational abilities; presentation,
management, analysis and synthesis of material; and assessment and evaluation
of student learning. The following are the methods that can be used for selfreflection (see Figure 2.22):
85
Figure 2.22: Methods that can be used for self-reflection
SELF-CHECK 2.7
Review the article by Forrest (2004) and highlight its contributions to the
concepts of teaching and learning.
Technical core in the school context refers to learning and teaching.
Learning is a complex cognitive process that happens when experience

produces a stable change in a persons knowledge and behaviour.
Three general theories refer to behavioural, cognitive and constructivist

theories.
86
Behaviour theories underline the changes that are observable and likely to
cause changes in behaviour, skills and habits. It emphasises the roles of
external events.
Learning objective is one of behavioural approach applications in teaching. It

focuses on the learning outcomes of students; so that behaviours are clearly
defined to guide students to achieve the learning goals.
Direct instruction is consistent with the behaviour principle and is suitable

with teaching explicit information to groups or the whole class.
Cognitive theories stress on mental activities such as thinking, remembering,

creating and problem solving.
The cognitive perspective attempts to focus on the human mind to make

sense of the world.
Knowledge is the central force in the metacognition process; it can be general

or domain-specific; or declarative, procedural and conditional. It must be
remembered so that the information can be kept for long period.
Information processing explains the flow of information from sensory

memory to working memory (short-term memory); and then to permanent
memory (long-term memory); and also to retrieve and/or discard the
information.
Information processing depends on how well the information is learned and

how it is being connected with other information.
People are different in terms of metacognition knowledge and as to how they

learn, absorb and remember the information.
Strategies for metacognition learning include underlining, highlighting,

mnemonics, imagery, acronyms and so on that enhance students memory.
Constructivist theories underscore the creation and construction of

knowledge.
The keyword to the constructivist approach is the students efforts in

response to the educational processes.
87
Piagets psychological constructivism posits that the way individuals

construct external reality is by using mental representations.
Vygotskys social constructivism emphasises the growth of knowledge

through interactions of internal (cognitive) and external (environment,
cultural and social) elements.
Radical constructivism rejects the fact that knowledge is mirrored to the

external world. It highlights that knowledge is constructed largely by
interpersonal interactions under the constraints of culture and ideology.
Three approaches of constructivism are problem-solving, cognitive
apprenticeship and cooperative learning.
Cooperative learning is not always preferred as a learning technique,

especially if it involves students with special needs, learning disabilities and
gifted students.
Teachers and students form mutual relationships and continuously support

each other to make teaching and learning meaningful.
Adult learners want freedom in educational activities; however, they also

need support from teachers and learn from their teachers personalities.
Behaviour theory
Knowledge
Cognitive theory
Problem-based learning
Reinforcement and punishment
Constructivism theory
Sensory memory
Cooperative learning
Information processing system
Instructional
Long-term memory
Short-term memory
Technical core
Teaching and learning
88
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memory? Trend in Cognitive Science, 4(1), 417-423.
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The Psychology of Learning and Motivation (pp. 47-89). New York, NY:
Academic Press.
Bandura, A. (1977). Self-efficacy: Toward a unifying theory of behavioural
change. Psychological Review, 84(2), 191-215.
Brady, T. F., Konkle, T., Alvarez, G. A., & Oliva, A. A. (2008). Visual long term
memory has a massive storage capacity for object details. The National
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Campbell, C. P. (1999). Instructional materials: Their preparation and evaluation.
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Cassidy, S. (2004). Learning styles: An overview of theories, models and
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Dong-yu, Y., Yu, Z. R., Zhao, N., Jing, C. Y. (2012). The event memory episodic
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Fatt, J. P. T. (1993). Learning styles in training: teaching learners the way they
learn. Industrial and Commercial Training, 25(9), 17-24.
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and practice (9th ed.). New York, NY: McGraw-Hill.
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Topic The Technical

Define the meaning of learning;

Explain the concept of consequences, reinforcement and antecedents

Clarify the cognitive perspective and its application in teaching;

Discuss thoroughly the components of working memory model;

Explicate the three constructivist approaches: the psychological,

Analyse the concept of learning and teaching.

Copyright Open University Malaysia (OUM)

TOPIC 2 THE TECHNICAL CORE: LEARNING AND TEACHING

Gdel, Escher, Bach is a wonderful exploration of fascinating ideas at the heart of

Copyright Open University Malaysia (OUM)

TOPIC 2 THE TECHNICAL CORE: LEARNING AND TEACHING

The technical core of a school is referred to as teaching and learning processes to

Figure 2.1: General theories of learning

Copyright Open University Malaysia (OUM)

TOPIC 2 THE TECHNICAL CORE: LEARNING AND TEACHING

Consequences of behaviour will determine whether the behaviour will be

Reinforcement or reward has a positive connotation. A reinforcer is a

Figure 2.2: The reinforcement process

TOPIC 2 THE TECHNICAL CORE: LEARNING AND TEACHING

According to Hoy and Miskel (2013), the degree of consequences is likely to

Create new stimulus force

Remove stimulus force

Add something to reinforce behaviour

Subtract something to strengthen

For example, give presents for best

For example, transfer misbehaving

Unlike reinforcement, punishment involves supressing or weakening the

Figure 2.3: The punishment process

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TOPIC 2 THE TECHNICAL CORE: LEARNING AND TEACHING

Copyright Open University Malaysia (OUM)

TOPIC 2 THE TECHNICAL CORE: LEARNING AND TEACHING

Figure 2.4: Two principles for using cueing and prompting

For example, a teacher provides students with a checklist or a to do list when

TOPIC 2 THE TECHNICAL CORE: LEARNING AND TEACHING

BEHAVIOURAL APPROACH: APPLYING IN

Set clear and specific goals for reinforcement;

(g) Use cues to help establish new behaviours;

Structure situations around negative reinforcement rather than punishment;

Adapt the punishment to fit the misbehaviour (Woolfolk, 2007).

The following subtopic provided some tips on how to apply behavioural

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TOPIC 2 THE TECHNICAL CORE: LEARNING AND TEACHING

The Good Behaviour Game

According to Embry (2002) as cited by Tingstrom, Sterling and Wilcynski (2006),

Positive Behavioural Support Based on a

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TOPIC 2 THE TECHNICAL CORE: LEARNING AND TEACHING

Figure 2.6: Reasons for misbehaviour among students

Figure 2.7: The techniques of Functional Behavioural Assessment (FBA) in school

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TOPIC 2 THE TECHNICAL CORE: LEARNING AND TEACHING

Figure 2.8: Three important parts of having a good instructional objective

Instructional objectives are especially useful in lectures, films and research

TOPIC 2 THE TECHNICAL CORE: LEARNING AND TEACHING

Figure 2.9: The benefits of direct instruction

Figure 2.10: Rosenshines six teaching functions

TOPIC 2 THE TECHNICAL CORE: LEARNING AND TEACHING

A COGNITIVE PERSPECTIVE ON LEARNING

TOPIC 2 THE TECHNICAL CORE: LEARNING AND TEACHING

Knowledge and Learning

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