RichardA.

Krueger
ABOUTUS
FOCUSGROUP
INTERVIEWING
EVALUATION
STORYTELLING

LOGICMODELS
GettingStartedwithLogicModels
Aguideforpreparinglogicmodelsforeducational
programs
byRichardA.Krueger

LINKS

I.WhywouldyouwanttodevelopaLogicModel?

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Simplystated,doestheprogramdowhatitwassupposed
todo?Thelogicmodelhelpsanswerthisquestion.
Educationalprogramsvarygreatly.Someprogramsare
hastilyputtogetherandothersgothroughlotsofthought
anddeliberation.Someareoneshoteffortsandothers
aremultistageandcontinueforyears.Someare
designedtochangebehaviorandothersaredesignedto
justcreateawarenessortoperhapsimpartnew
knowledge.Inaddition,somearesuccessfulandothers
arenot.Sometimesitishardtotellifaprogramis
successful.Aprogrammightbepopularorentertaining,
butlacksubstance.Justbecauseaprogramispopular
doesn'tmeanthatitmeetsthegoalsforwhichitwas
intended.
Logicmodelshelpeducators.Thelogicmodelpushesthe
programdesignertobeexplicit.Thelogicmodel
increasestheoddsthattheprogramwillbesuccessful
toaccomplishthegoalsthatwereestablishedforthat
program.
Logicmodelsimproveprogramquality.Themodelhelps
eliminategapsorlogicalproblemswiththeprogram.Also,
thelogicmodelclearlyidentifiestheconsequencesor
outcomesoftheprogram.
Logicmodelsbuildcommunitysupport.Themodelhelps
thepublictoclearlyknowwhatisexpectedoftheprogram
effort.Whenprogramsareclear,thenthecustomersknow
whattheycanexpectandcollaboratingpartnersknow
howtheycancontributetotheeffort.
Logicmodelsenhanceaccountability.Logicmodelshelp
professionalsbeaccountableinthatitidentifiesclearly
whatisexpected.Thelogicmodelletsothersknowwhat
theprogramissupposedtoaccomplishandgive

indicationsofhowyouwillmeasurethataccomplishment.
Logicmodelsimproveevaluation.Evaluatorsusethelogic
modelasablueprintfortheevaluation.Effortismadeto
measureprogressateachstepinthemodel.Oftenthe
finalgoalisdifficulttomeasure,sotheevaluationstrategy
istodocumentprogresstowardthefinalgoal.
Becareful:Sometimesaprogramdoesn'taccomplishits
intendedgoal,butdoesaccomplishsomethingelse
suchasanunintendedbenefit.Theseunintended
benefitsmightbeofconsiderablevalueandcausethe
educatortochangetheprogramgoals.Forexample,
farmersmightbeinvitedtoaprogramonfarm
managementindifficulttimes.Inthisexample,let's
supposethattheygainlittleornothingonthetopicof
farmmanagementbuttheydogetemotionalsupport
fromeachotherandsharesomepracticalideason
survivingintoughtimes.Beattentivetowhatyour
programisaccomplishing.Isitwhatyouintended?Isit
ofbenefit?Arechangesneededinyourplanning,your
programoryourpromotion?
II.IntroductiontoLogicModel/TheoryofAction
Thetheoryofactionorlogicmodeldescribeshowa
programworks.Thetheorycanbeexaminedforan
existingprogramorforapotentialorproposedprogram.
Thelogicmodelmakestheunderlyingassumptions
explicitandrevealstheinnerworkingsoftheprogram.
Educationalprogramsarebasedonsomething.Itmaybe
atheory,pastexperience,tradition,oracreativeidea.
Eachprogramcontainsatheoryofactionwhichmaybe
implicit(assumed)orexplicit(specificallystated).This
processseekstoidentifyanexplicittheoryofaction.The
explicittheoryofactionidentifiesthesequenceofevents
andtheanticipatedeffectonprogramparticipants.This
logicmodelguidestheprofessionalinplanningthe
program.Expectedchangesinparticipantsareusually
sequential(i.e.firstawareness,thenknowledge,and
finallychangesinbehavior)andalsologicaltothe
planner.Sometimesthelogicfortheprogramis
ambiguous,implausible,orevenmissingaltogether.
Hereisasimpleexampleofalogicmodel

1.Educatorwritesnewslettertoimprovefarm
management
2.Educatorsendsnewslettertofarmers

3.Farmersreceivenewsletter
4.Farmersreadnewsletter
5.Farmersunderstandnewsletter
6.Farmersbelievenewsletter
7.Farmersgainknowledgefromnewsletter
8.Farmershaveresourcesneededtousethe
knowledge(skills,time,money,support)
9.Farmerswanttomakechanges
10.Farmersmakechanges
11.Changesmadebyfarmersimproveoverallfarm
management
Inthislogicmodeleachstepmustbecompletedforthe
nextsteptowork.Forexample,theeducatorassumes
thatfarmersreadthenewsletter.Iftheydon't,the
followingthingswon'ttakeplace.
III.HowtoDevelopaLogicModel
Herearesomestepsthatcanguideyouwhendeveloping
alogicmodel.
1.Beginbydoingityourself.Doitinwritingbecause
itleavesatrailthatyoucanlaterreviewand
investigate.Trytobeasclearasyoucanabout
eachstepintheprogram.
Or
2.Beginwithasmallgroupofcolleagues.Some
peoplethinkbestwhentheyareinagroupandget
ideasfromothers.Ifso,invitesomecoworkersto
joinyouforadiscussionofhowtheprogramworks.
3.Buildabeginningmodelofhowtheprogram
operates.Caution:Don'tfallinlovewithyourmodel
atthispoint.You'llwanttobeopentohowothers
seetheprogramandmakerevisionsbasedon
feedbackfromothers.Considerusingoneofthe
followingstrategiesforbuildingthemodel.
TheGraphicModelDrawapictureofthe
program
TheIfThenModel
TheInputsOutputsOutcomesModel
TheTheoreticalModel
Thesestrategiesaredescribedbelowingreater
detail.Aninterestingprocesswithagroupofpeople
istohavethemworkingroupsof23peopleasthey
developthelogicmodelandthenhavethemshare
theirresults.Thendevelopacompositemodel
basedonwhatwaslearnedfromthesmallgroups.
4.Getfeedbackonthemodel.Sharethemodelwith
otherssuchascolleagues,(withinandoutsideof

yourorganization),planningcommitteemembers,
pastusersoftheprogram,orevenfriendsand
neighbors.
5.Continuetorevise.Youmaywanttodevelop
severaldifferentlogicmodels.Forexample,you
mighthaveamodelfromtheperspectiveofthe
designer,amodelfromtheperspectiveoftheuser,
oramodelfromtheperspectiveofanonuser,etc.
6.Usethemodelforevaluation.Whenyoufeelthat
youhaveareasonablysoundmodel,useitto
determinetheevaluationstrategy.Identifythose
placesinthemodelwhereevaluationevidencecan
begathered.
IV.AdvicetoConsiderwhenDevelopingLogicModels
Focusyourattentiononwhatishappeningto
individualsinsteadoforganizationsorthe
community.
Thecloseryouaretotheprogramthegreater
potentialthereisforyoutomakeassumptionsand
overlookcriticalpartsofthemodel.
Workwithotherstodevelopthemodel.
Begintalkingwiththoseclosesttotheprogram
(suchasprofessionals)andthenbroadenyour
listeningtoothergroups.
Beopentothepossibilitythatyoumighthavemore
thanonelogicmodeloperating.
Beginbyanchoringthetwoendstheendproduct
andthebeginningstep.Then,attempttoconnect
thesewithactivities,actions,eventsorexperiences
thatmightoccur.Keepeachstepspecific,clearand
measurable.
Considertheprinciplesofadultlearning.Adultsare
morelikelytoacquirenewknowledgeandtouse
thatknowledgeif...
Theyhavemultipleexperienceswhen
receivingthenewinformation(e.g.reading,
hearing,seeing,doing,talking)
Theyhaveanopportunitytoseeatrialor
demonstration
Theyhaveanopportunitytoaskquestions
Theygetsupportfromfamily,friendsand
neighbors
Theyreceiveconfirminginformationfrom
multiplesources
Theyreceiveknowledgeandencouragement
fromtrustedsources
Thebarriersorobstaclestoadoptionare
removed
Theyhaveanopportunitytocommittoa

changeinfrontoffriendsandneighbors
Theyreceivereinforcementofthebehavior
V.StrategiesforDevelopingaLogicModel
Lookoverthesestrategies.Eachisslightlydifferentand
eachhasbeenfoundtobeuseful.Thereisno"ideal"way
todevelopthemodel.Eachstrategyrepresentsadifferent
approach.Possiblyuseseveraldifferentapproachesand
compareresults.
Strategy1:TheGraphicModeDrawapictureofthe
program
Somepeoplethinkvisually.Theyseeprogramsinterms
offlowdiagrams,analogousobjectsormechanical
entities.Considertheseideas:
Diagramming:Canyouusearrowsandboxes
andconstructaflowchart?Thisdiagrammight
depictthosefactorsthatcausepeopleto
changeandthestagesthatparticipantspass
through.Sometimestherearechoicesand
feedbackloops.
AnalogousObjects:Canyourepresentthe
programbyusingananalogytoanorganic
object?Forexample,aplantgrowsbecauseit
receiveswarmthandlightfromthesun,
nutrientsfromthesoil,waterandcarbon
dioxidefromtheenvironment.Oneeducator
usedthewatercycle(vapor,liquid,solid)to
illustratethateventhoughtheprogram
changedovertimeitcontinuedtohave
influence.
MechanicalAnalogies:Canyourepresentthe
programbycomparingittosomemanmade
mechanicalobject?Forexample,isitlikea
pinballmachinewithprogramsshootingout,
thendisappearingintoholesorgettingpoints
forrepeateffort.
Strategy2:TheIfThenModel
Thismodelisbuiltbyusing"ifthen"logic.Ifthishappens,
thenthisistheconsequence.Thismodelislikeaseriesof
stepsthatleadstotheultimateoutcomeorprogram
consequence.Whenusingthe"ifthen"logicitisoften
helpfultothinkofitfromtheperspectiveofindividual
participants.Ifthishappenedtoaparticipant,thenwhat
wouldhe/shedo?

1.IfIreceivedaflyerdescribingbetternutrition,thenI
wouldneedtoreadtheflyer.
2.Iftheflyerwaswrittenatmyreadinglevelandinmy
language,thenIwouldreadit.
3.IfIreadtheflyer,thenIwouldneedtobelieveitand
findthestatementsrelevant,credibleandpractical.

4.IfIfoundthestatementsrelevant,credibleand
practicalthenImighttalktofriendsandneighbors
aboutmakingachange.
5.Ifmyfamily,friendsandneighborsencouragedme
tomakechangesthenIwouldtrythenewbehavior.
6.IfIfeltbetterorgotencouragementtocontinue,then
Iwouldstaywiththebehavior.
Strategy3:TheInputsOutputsOutcomesModel
Anotherwayofdepictingamodelisbyusingtheinput
outputoutcomesmodel.Theseare:
1.Inputstheresourcesinvestedintermsofdollarsor
time
2.Outputstheactivitiesconductedandadescription
oftheparticipants
3.ShorttermOutcomesTheinitialresultstothe
participants.Thesearethingsthatoccur
immediatelyorwithinafewdays.Includedare
knowledge,skills,attitudes,aspiration,awareness,
etc.
4.MediumtermOutcomesThesearechangesthat
occurtopeople(possiblyfamiliesandcommunities
aswell)thathappenaftertheshorttermoutcomes.
Itincludesbehaviorchanges,changesinpractices,
decisionsmadebasedontheexperiencesorpolicy
decisionsandsocialactions.
5.LongtermOutcomesThisistheultimateimpact
whichisthegoaloftheprogram.Itcouldbe
expressedinoutcomestoindividuals,tofamilies,to
communitiesoreventoasociety.
Strategy4:TheTheoreticalModel
Thismodelusesatheorytoexplainhowtheprogram
unfolds.Therearemanytheoriesthatdescribebehavior
andcommunitychanges.Amongthemorepopulararethe
following:
TheoryofExtensionProgramDevelopment"Levels
ofEvidence"
TheoryofTrainingLevels
TheoryofBehavioralChange
TheoryofInnovationDecisionProcess
Thesemodelsaredescribedbelow.Don'tfeellimitedby

thesetheories.Overthepast50yearssocialscientists
havedevelopedanumberoftheoriesofhowchangeis
made,howindividualsarepersuaded,howcommunityor
organizationschange,etc.Incidentally,don'texpectthat
anytheorywillworkallthetime.Thebestyoucanhope
forisatheorythatexplainsmostofthebehaviormostof
thetime.
VI.ModelsThatDescribeChange
Overtheyearssocialscienceresearchers,educatorsand
publichealthresearchershavedevelopedmodelsofhow
programsworkandhowpeoplechange.Thesemodels
arenotperfect,buttheydoofferinsightastohow
programeventsoractivitiesmightunfoldandhelp
programevaluatorsastheydesignanevaluationstrategy.
Thesemodelsoffercluesastowhen,whereandhowto
obtaindataforanevaluation.Herearefourtheoretical
models:
1.TheoryofExtensionProgramDevelopmentLevels
ofEvidence
2.TheoryofTrainingLevels
3.TheoryofBehavioralChange
4.TheoryofInnovationDecisionProcess
1.TheoryofExtensionProgramDevelopmentLevels
ofEvidence
ClaudeF.BennettwiththeU.S.DepartmentofAgriculture
suggeststhattypicalprogramsgothroughsevenstepsor
phases.Evaluationevidencecanbecollectedatanyone
oftheselevels.Theevaluatorneednotuseevidencefrom
everylevelbutratherfromlevelsofinterestandconcern
todecisionmakers.The"LevelsofEvidence"consistof:
7.END
RESULTS

6.PRACTICE
CHANGE

5.KASACHANGE

4.REACTIONSOFPARTICIPANTS

3.PEOPLEINVOLVEMENT
2.PROGRAMACTIVITIES
1.INPUTS

DescriptionofLevels
Inputsaretheresourceexpendituresinvestedbystaffand
volunteersconsistingoftime,money,etc.
Programactivitiesaremeetings,workshops,andprogram
events.
Peopleinvolvementreferstothepeoplewhoparticipatein
theprogram.Thesepeoplecanbecountedanddescribed
bydemographiccharacteristics
Reactionsaretheimmediateresponsesofthe
participants.Didtheyliketheprogram?Werethey
satisfied?
KASAChangestandsforKnowledge,Attitude,Skillsor
AspirationChange.Thisisthedegreeofchangethat
occurstoanindividualintermsofgainingnewknowledge,
changingone'sattitudeorfeelingsaboutthetopic,gaining
newskillsrelatedtothetopic,orchangingtheir
aspirationsaboutwhatmightbedoneinthefutureabout
thistopic.
PracticeChangeiswhenanindividualactuallymakesa
lastingchangeinhisorherlife.Thistendstooccurafter
therehasbeenanearlierchangeofknowledge,attitudes,
skillsoraspirations.
EndResultsaretheultimateobjectives.Itmightbesocial,
economic,environmentalorindividualconsequences.
Theseconsequencesareexpectedtooccurafteracertain
numberofpracticechangeshavebeenmade.
2.TheoryofTrainingLevels
DonaldKirkpatrickhasbeenanexpertinorganizational
training,particularlyforprofitbasedorganizations.When
evaluatingthesuccessorfailureofatrainingeffort,
Kirkpatricksuggestsusingthefollowingfourlevels:
Level1.Reaction:Satisfactionlevels
Thelevelofparticipantsatisfactionwiththe
intervention(activities,materials,instructor,facilities,
etc.)Endofmeetingformsareoftenusedtoobtain
thisinformation.
Level2.Learning:Contentmastery
Thislevelseekstoanswerhowwellprinciples,facts
andtechniquesareunderstoodandabsorbedby
participants.
Level3.Behavior:Onthejobbehavioralchange
Thisleveladdressesthedegreetowhichthe

individualorteammakeschanges.
Level4.OrganizationalImpact:Results
Thislevelseekstodeterminetheconsequencesof
theinterventionortrainingontheorganization.It
couldinvolvesuchfactorsasturnover,grievances,
productdefects,customersatisfaction,reducing
costs.
3.TheoryofBehavioralChange
ThismodeldevelopedbyJamesProchaska,John
NorcrossandCarloDiClemente,hashadwiderecognition
withinhealthcareandpreventionefforts.Theauthors
depictthefivestagesofbehavioralchangethat
individualsencounter.
Precontemplation.Peopleattheprecontemplationstage
areresistanttochangetheymaynoteventhinkthey
needtochange.
Contemplation.Contemplatorsseetheneedforchange
andstartwishingthingsweredifferent,yettheystillhave
someresistancetotheidea.
Preparation.Peopleatthepreparationstagemake
specificplanstochangewithinthenextfewmonths.That
mightmeansettingadatetobeginaweightlossprogram,
takeafitnessclassorsignupforasmokingcessation
course.
Action.Theconditionsareright.Peoplewhoarereadyto
actnotonlybegintheirnewbehavior,butmakeeffortsto
supportit.Theyplanhowtodealwithbarriersandremove
temptations.Someonewhowantstoloseweightand
developlowfateatinghabits,forexample,shouldstock
uponfoodslowinfatandincludefruitsandvegetablesas
healthysnacks.
Maintenance.Continuingthechangetakeseffort.You
needvigilance.Socialpressures,personalproblemsand
otherstressescansabotageevenlongtermsuccess.
Relapsesareinevitableateverystageinthisprocess.
Still,youcanhelpminimizethemwithcloseattentionto
yourfeelingsandsurroundings.
4.TheoryofInnovationDecisionProcess
EverettRogershasbeenapioneerinhelpingunderstand
howindividualsmakedecisionsaboutadoptinginnovative
practices.Muchofhisresearchwasbasedonhow
Midwestfarmersadoptednewagriculturalpractices.

Later,hisworkwasfoundtoapplytoavarietyofnon
agriculturalenvironmentsaswell.
Theinnovationdecisionprocessisthemeansbywhich
anindividual(orotherdecisionmakingunit)passesfrom
firsthavingknowledgeofaninnovation,toformingan
attitudetowardtheinnovation,toadecisiontoadoptor
reject,toimplementationofthenewidea,andto
confirmationofthedecision.
Thedecisiontoadoptorrejectisinfluencedbyfive
factors,including:
1.RelativeadvantageWhataretherewardsor
punishmentofadoption?
2.CompatibilityIsitconsistentwithmyexisting
values,pastexperiencesandneeds?
3.ComplexityIsitdifficulttounderstandanduse?
4.TrialabilityCanItryitonalimitedbasis?
5.ObservabilityCanIseeit?
VII.Formoreinformation
Ifyouwouldlikemoreinformationonthistopic,consider
thefollowing:
Bennett,ClaudeF.(1977)"AnalyzingImpactsof
ExtensionPrograms"Washington,DC:Cooperative
ExtensionService,USDA.
Kirkpatrick,Donald(1998)EvaluatingTrainingPrograms:
TheFourLevelsBenettKoehlerPublishers.
LogicModel:UniversityofWisconsinExtensionandLogic
Model:ProgramPerformanceFramework.(2000).
www.uwex.edu
MeasuringProgramOutcomes:APracticalApproach.
"Step2:ChoosetheOutcomeYouWanttoMeasure"
(1996)UnitedWayofAmerica
Prochaska,James,etal(1994)ChangingforGood.New
York:Avon.
Rogers,EverettM.(1983)DiffusionofInnovations.New
York:TheFreePress.
UniversityofNebraska.TargetingOutcomesofPrograms
http://deal.unl.edu/TOP/
UniversityofOttawa.WhatisaProgramLogicModel?

http://www.uottawa.ca/academic/med/epid/what.htm
W.K.KelloggFoundationHandbook.(2000)"Exploring
theThreeComponentsofProjectLevelEvaluation."
Chapter4."MeasuringImpactsThroughtheUseofa
ProgramLogicModel"www.wkkf.org
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