Coconut

FromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia

Thecoconuttree(Cocosnucifera)isamemberofthefamilyArecaceae(palm
family)andtheonlyspeciesofthegenusCocos.[2]Thetermcoconutcanreferto
theentirecoconutpalmortheseed,orthefruit,which,botanically,isadrupe,nota
nut.Thespellingcocoanutisanarchaicformoftheword.[3]Thetermisderived
fromthe16thcenturyPortugueseandSpanishwordcocomeaning"head"or
"skull",fromthethreeindentationsonthecoconutshellthatresemblefacial
features.[4]
Coconutsareknownfortheirgreatversatility,asevidencedbymanytraditional
uses,rangingfromfoodtocosmetics.[5]Theyformaregularpartofthedietsof
manypeopleinthetropicsandsubtropics.Coconutsaredistinctfromotherfruits
fortheirlargequantityof"water",andwhenimmature,theyareknownastender
nutsorjellynutsandmaybeharvestedfortheirpotablecoconutwater.When
mature,theystillcontainsomewaterandcanbeusedasseednutsorprocessedto
giveoilfromthekernel,charcoalfromthehardshell,andcoirfromthefibrous
husk.Theendospermisinitiallyinitsnuclearphasesuspendedwithinthecoconut
water.Asdevelopmentcontinues,cellularlayersofendospermdepositalongthe
wallsofthecoconut,becomingtheediblecoconut"flesh".[6]Whendried,the
coconutfleshiscalledcopra.Theoilandmilkderivedfromitarecommonlyused
incookingandfrying,aswellasinsoapsandcosmetics.Thehusksandleavescan
beusedasmaterialtomakeavarietyofproductsforfurnishinganddecorating.The
coconutalsohasculturalandreligioussignificanceincertainsocieties,particularly
inIndia,whereitisusedinHindurituals.[7]

Coconut
Temporalrange:550Ma
Pre

OS D

C P T

K Pg N

EarlyEoceneRecent

Coconutpalm(Cocosnucifera)

Scientificclassification

Contents
1 Description
2 Etymology
3 Origin,domestication,anddispersal
4 Naturalhabitat
5 Productionandcultivation
6 Uses
7 Allergies
8 Coconutvarieties
9 InSriLanka
10 Seealso
11 References
12 Furtherreading
13 Externallinks

Kingdom:

Plantae

(unranked):

Angiosperms

(unranked):

Monocots[1]

(unranked):

Commelinids

Order:

Arecales

Family:

Arecaceae

Subfamily:

Arecoideae

Tribe:

Cocoeae

Genus:

Cocos

Species:

C.nucifera
Binomialname

Description

Cocosnucifera
L.

Plant
Cocosnuciferaisalargepalm,growingupto30m(98ft)tall,withpinnateleaves46m(1320ft)long,andpinnae60
90cmlongoldleavesbreakawaycleanly,leavingthetrunksmooth.Coconutsaregenerallyclassifiedintotwogeneral
types:tallanddwarf.[8]Onfertilesoil,atallcoconutpalmtreecanyieldupto75fruitsperyear,butmoreoftenyieldsless

than30,mainlyduetopoorculturalpractices.[9][10][11]Givenpropercareand
growingconditions,coconutpalmsproducetheirfirstfruitinsixtotenyears,taking
1520yearstoreachpeakproduction.[12]

Fruit
Botanically,thecoconutfruitisadrupe,notatruenut.[13]Likeotherfruits,ithas
threelayers:theexocarp,mesocarp,andendocarp.Theexocarpandmesocarpmake
upthe"husk"ofthecoconut.Coconutssoldintheshopsofnontropicalcountries
oftenhavehadtheexocarp(outermostlayer)removed.Themesocarpiscomposed
ofafiber,calledcoir,whichhasmanytraditionalandcommercialuses.Theshell
hasthreegerminationpores(micropyles)or"eyes"thatareclearlyvisibleonits
outsidesurfaceoncethehuskisremoved.
Afullsizedcoconutweighsabout1.44kg(3.2lb).Ittakesaround6,000fullgrown
coconutstoproduceatonneofcopra.[14]

Roots

Coconutflowers

Unlikesomeotherplants,thepalmtreehasneitherataprootnorroothairs,buthas
afibrousrootsystem.[15]
Thecoconutpalmrootsystem[16]consistsofanabundanceofthinrootsthatgrowoutwardfromtheplantnearthesurface.
Onlyafewoftherootspenetratedeepintothesoilforstability.Thistypeofrootsystemisknownasfibrousor
adventitious,andisacharacteristicofgrassspecies.Othertypesoflargetreesproduceasingledownwardgrowingtaproot
withanumberoffeederrootsgrowingfromit.
Coconutpalmscontinuetoproducerootsfromthebaseofthestemthroughouttheirlives.Thenumberofrootsproduced
dependsontheageofthetreeandtheenvironment,withmorethan3,600rootspossibleonatreethatis60to70yearsold.
Rootsareusuallylessthanabout3inchesindiameteranduniformlythickfromthetreetrunktotheroottip.

Inflorescence
Thepalmproducesboththefemaleandmaleflowersonthesameinflorescencethus,thepalmismonoecious.[15]Other
sourcesusethetermpolygamomonoecious.[17]Thefemaleflowerismuchlargerthanthemaleflower.Floweringoccurs
continuously.Coconutpalmsarebelievedtobelargelycrosspollinated,althoughsomedwarfvarietiesareselfpollinating.

Etymology
Oneoftheearliestmentionsofthecoconutdatesbacktothe"OneThousandandOneNights"storyofSinbadtheSailorhe
isknowntohaveboughtandsoldcoconutduringhisfifthvoyage.[18]Thenga,itsMalayalamandTamilname,wasusedin
thedetaileddescriptionofcoconutfoundinItinerariobyLudovicodiVarthemapublishedin1510andalsointhelater
HortusIndicusMalabaricus.[19]Evenearlier,itwascallednuxindica,anameusedbyMarcoPoloin1280whilein
Sumatra,takenfromtheArabswhocalleditjawzhind.Bothnamestranslateto"Indiannut".[20]Intheearliest
descriptionofthecoconutpalmknown,givenbyCosmosofAlexandriainhisTopographiaChristianawrittenabout545
AD,thereisareferencetotheargelltreeanditsdrupe.[19][21]
InMarch1521,anextremelydetaileddescriptionofthecoconutwasgivenbyAntonioPigafettawritinginItalianand
usingthewords"cocho"/"cochi",asrecordedinhisjournalafterthefirstEuropeancrossingofthePacificOceanduringthe
MagellancircumnavigationandmeetingtheinhabitantsofwhatwouldbecomeknownasGuamandthePhilippines.He
explainedhowatGuam"theyeatcoconuts"("mangianocochi")andthatthenativestherealso"anointthebodyandthehair

Acutcoconutshell

withcocoanutandbeneseedoil"("ongieno
eLcorpoetlicapilicooleodecochoetde
giongioli").[22]Thejournalthendetailshow
onthefollowingweek,Magellan's
expeditionlandedatSuluaneastofLeyte
GulfinthePhilippines.Theretheywere
givengiftsbythenativeswhichincluded
twococonuts("duicochi"),withindication
thatmorecoconutswouldbebroughtlater
("cochietmoltaaltravictuuaglia").[22]
Pigafettathengoesintogreatdetailonhow
coconutisusedandprocessedbythe

Filipinonatives:

AdehuskedcoconutshellfromIvory
Coastshowingthefacelikemarkings
atthebase

Cocoanutsarethefruitofthepalmtree.Justaswehavebread,wine,oil,andmilk,sothosepeopleget
everythingfromthattree.Theygetwineinthefollowingmanner.Theyboreaholeintotheheartofthesaid
palmatthetopcalledpalmito[i.e.,stalk],fromwhichdistilsaliquorwhichresembleswhitemust.Thatliquor
issweetbutsomewhattart,and[isgathered]incanes[ofbamboo]asthickasthelegandthicker.Theyfasten
thebambootothetreeateveningforthemorning,andinthemorningfortheevening.Thatpalmbearsafruit,
namely,thecocoanut,whichisaslargeastheheadorthereabouts.Itsoutsidehuskisgreenandthickerthan
twofingers.Certainfilamentsarefoundinthathusk,whenceismadecordforbindingtogethertheirboats.
Underthathuskthereisahardshell,muchthickerthantheshellofthewalnut,whichtheyburnandmake
therefromapowderthatisusefultothem.Underthatshellthereisawhitemarrowysubstanceonefingerin
thickness,whichtheyeatfreshwithmeatandfishaswedobreadandithasatasteresemblingthealmond.It
couldbedriedandmadeintobread.Thereisaclear,sweetwaterinthemiddleofthatmarrowysubstance
whichisveryrefreshing.Whenthatwaterstandsforawhileafterhavingbeencollected,itcongealsand
becomeslikeanapple.Whenthenativeswishtomakeoil,theytakethatcocoanut,andallowthemarrowy
substanceandthewatertoputrefy.Thentheyboilitanditbecomesoillikebutter.Whentheywishtomake
vinegar,theyallowonlythewatertoputrefy,andthenplaceitinthesun,andavinegarresultslike[thatmade
from]whitewine.[22]
Fromthesaidfruitmilkcanalsobemade,asweprovedbyexperience.Forwescrapedthatmarrow,then
mixeditwithitsownwater,andbeingpassedthroughaclothitbecamelikegoat'smilk.Thiskindofpalmtree
islikethepalmthatbearsdates,butnotsoknotty.Andofthesetreeswillsustainafamilyoftenpersons.But
theydonotdrawtheaforesaidwinealwaysfromonetree,buttakeitforaweekfromone,andsowiththe
other,forotherwisethetreeswoulddryup.Andinthiswaytheylastonehundredyears.[22]
Itisevidentthatthename'coco'and'coconut'camefromthese1521encounterswithPacificislanders,andnotfromthe
otherregionswhereitwasfoundasnonameissimilarinanyofthelanguagesofIndia,wherethePortuguesefirstfound
thefruitandindeedBarbosa,Barros,andGarcia,inmentioningtheTamil/Malayalamnametenga,andCanaresenarle,
expresslysay,"wecallthesefruitsquoquos","ourpeoplehavegivenitthenameofcoco",and"thatwhichwecallcoco,
andtheMalabarstemga".
Otherstoriestoexplaintheoriginofthewordhavebeenpublished.TheOEDstates:"PortugueseandSpanishauthorsof
the16thc.agreeinidentifyingthewordwithPortugueseandSpanishcoco"grinningface,grin,grimace",also"bugbear,
scarecrow",cognatewithcocar"togrin,makeagrimace"thenamebeingsaidtorefertothefacelikeappearanceofthe
baseoftheshell,withitsthreeholes.AccordingtoLosada,thenamecamefromPortugueseexplorers,thesailorsofVasco
daGamainIndia,whofirstbroughtthemtoEurope.ThecoconutshellremindedthemofaghostorwitchinPortuguese
folklorecalledcoco(alsocca).[23][24]
ThespecificnamenuciferaisLatinfor"nutbearing".

Origin,domestication,anddispersal

Origin
Theoriginoftheplantis,aftermany
decades,stillthesubjectofdebate.[26][27][28]
Ithasgenerallybeenacceptedthatthe
coconutoriginatedintheIndianIndonesia
regionandfloatdistributeditselfaroundthe
worldbyridingoceancurrents.Mostof
theseclaimsarevigorouslydisputed.
O.F.Cookwasoneoftheearliestmodern
Therangeofthenaturalhabitatofthe
researcherstodrawconclusionsaboutthe
coconutpalmtreedelineatedbythe
locationoforiginofCocosnuciferabased
redline(basedoninformationin
[29]
onitscurrentdayworldwidedistribution.
Werth1933, [25]slightlymodifiedby
HehypothesizedthatthecoconutoriginatedintheAmericas,basedonhisbelief
NiklasJonsson)
thatAmericancoconutpopulationspredatedEuropeancontactandbecausehe
consideredpantropicaldistributionbyoceancurrentsimprobable.ThorHeyerdahl
laterusedthisasonepartofhishypothesistosupporthistheorythatthePacificIslandersoriginatedastwomigration
streamsfromtheCanadianPacificcoast(themselvesrecentmigrantsfromAsia)toHawaii,andontoTahitiandNew
Zealandinaseriesofhops,andanothermigrationfromSouthAmericaviasailingbalsawoodrafts.[30]
FossilCocoszeylanicafromthe
MioceneofNewZealand,4cmlong.

However,theconventionalscientificopinionsupportsanIndoPacificorigineitheraroundMelanesiaandMalesiaorthe
IndianOcean.[26][27][28]Themoderncoconuthastwodifferentspecies,essentiallyaPacificversionandanAtlanticone
however,allmoderncoconutsappeartobedomesticatedplants,ratherthanthemoreprimitiveformsfoundinfossilsin
NorthAustraliaandIndonesia.
TheoldestfossilsknownofthemoderncoconutdatingfromtheEoceneperiodfromaround37to55millionyearsago
werefoundinAustraliaandIndia,butolderpalmfossilssuchassomeofnipafruithavebeenfoundintheAmericas.[28]A
specieswithstrawberrysizednuts(Cocoszeylanica)livedinNewZealandintheMiocene.Since1978,theworkontracing
theprobableoriginanddispersalofCocosnucifera[31]hasonlyrecentlybeenaugmentedbyapublicationonthe
germinationrateofthecoconutseednut[32]andanotherontheimportanceofthecoralatollecosystem.[33]Briefly,the
coconutoriginatedinthecoralatollecosystemwithouthumaninterventionandrequiredathickhuskandslow
germinationtosurviveanddisperse.

Domestication
Coconutscouldnotreachinlandlocationswithouthumanintervention(tocarry
seednuts,plantseedlings,etc.)andearlygerminationonthepalm(vivipary)was
important,[34]ratherthanincreasingthenumberorsizeoftheediblepartsofafruit
thatwasalreadylargeenough.Humancultivationofthecoconutselected,notfor
largersize,butforthinnerhusksandincreasedvolumeofendosperm,thesolid
meatorliquidwaterthatprovidesthefruititsfoodvalue.Althoughthese
modificationsfordomesticationwouldreducethefruitsabilitytofloat,thisability
wouldbeirrelevanttoacultivatedpopulation.
Manualharvestingofcoconuts

AmongmodernC.nucifera,twomajortypesorvariantsoccur:athickhusked,
angularfruitandathinhusked,sphericalfruitwithahigherproportionof
endospermreflectatrendofcultivationinC.nucifera.Thefirstcoconutswereoftheniukafatype,withthickhusksto
protecttheseed,anangular,highlyridgedshapetopromotebuoyancyduringoceandispersal,andapointedbasethat
allowedfruitstodigintothesand,preventingthemfrombeingwashedawayduringgerminationonanewisland.Asearly
humancommunitiesbegantoharvestcoconutsforeatingandplanting,they(perhapsunintentionally)selectedforalarger
endospermtohuskratioandabroader,sphericalbase,whichrenderedthefruitusefulasacuporbowl,thuscreatingthe

niuvaitype.Thedecreasedbuoyancyandincreasedfragilityofthisspherical,thinhuskedfruitwouldnotmatterfora
speciesthathadstartedtobedispersedbyhumansandgrowninplantations.HarriesadoptionofthePolynesiantermsniu
kafaandniuvaihasnowpassedintogeneralscientificdiscourse,andhishypothesisisgenerallyaccepted.[35][36]
VariantsofC.nuciferaarealsocategorizedastall(var.typica)ordwarf(var.nana).[37]Thetwogroupsaregenetically
distinct,withthedwarfvarietyshowingagreaterdegreeofartificialselectionforornamentaltraitsandforearly
germinationandfruiting.[31][38]Thetallvarietyisoutcrossingwhiledwarfpalmsareincrossing,whichhasledtoamuch
greaterdegreeofgeneticdiversitywithinthetallgroup.Thedwarfsubgroupisthoughttohavemutatedfromthetallgroup
underhumanselectionpressure.[39]

Dispersal
Itisoftenstatedthatcoconutscantravel110days,or3,000miles(4,800km),by
seaandstillbeabletogerminate.[40]Thisfigurehasbeenquestionedbasedonthe
extremelysmallsamplesizethatformsthebasisofthepaperthatmakesthis
claim.[41]ThorHeyerdahlprovidesanalternative,andmuchshorter,estimatebased
onhisfirsthandexperiencecrossingthePacificOceanontheraftKonTiki:
"Thenutswehadinbasketsondeckremainededibleandcapableof
germinatingthewholewaytoPolynesia.Butwehadlaidabouthalf
amongthespecialprovisionsbelowdeck,withthewaveswashing
aroundthem.Everysingleoneofthesewasruinedbytheseawater.
Andnococonutcanfloatovertheseafasterthanabalsaraftmoves
withthewindbehindit."[30]

CoconuttreeinKannurBeach,India

Healsonotesthatseveralofthenutsbegantogerminatebythetimetheyhadbeentenweeksatsea,precludingan
unassistedjourneyof100daysormore.However,thecoconutvarietyHeyerdahlchoseforhislongseavoyagelikelywas
ofthelarge,fleshy,sphericalniuvaitype,whichHarriesobservedtohaveasignificantlyshortergerminationtypeand
worsebuoyancythantheuncultivatedniukafatype.[31]Therefore,Heyerdahlsobservationscannotbeconsidered
conclusivewhenitcomestodeterminingtheindependentdispersalabilityoftheuncultivatedcoconut.
DriftmodelsbasedonwindandoceancurrentshaveshownthatcoconutscouldnothavedriftedacrossthePacific
unaided.[41]IftheywerenaturallydistributedandhadbeeninthePacificforathousandyearsorso,thenwewouldexpect
theeasternshoreofAustralia,withitsownislandsshelteredbytheGreatBarrierReef,tohavebeenthickwithcoconut
palms:thecurrentsweredirectlyinto,anddownalongthiscoast.However,bothJamesCookandWilliamBligh[42](put
adriftaftertheBountyMutiny)foundnosignofthenutsalongthis2000kmstretchwhenheneededwaterforhiscrew.
NorweretherecoconutsontheeastsideoftheAfricancoastuntilVascodeGama,norintheCaribbeanwhenfirstvisited
byChristopherColumbus.WeknowfromearlySpanishdocumentsthattheydeliberatelyplantedcoconutsshortlyafter
firstcontact,andsomenutswouldcertainlyhaveselfseededwhentheyfloatedashorefollowingshipwrecks.Theywere
commonlycarriedbySpanishshipsasasourceofsweetwater.
Thisprovidessubstantialcircumstantialevidencethatdeliberatevoyagerswereinvolvedincarryingcoconutsacrossthe
Pacificocean(possiblytheAustronesianpeoples)andthattheycouldnothavedispersedworldwidewithouthumanagency.
Morerecently,genomicanalysisofcultivatedcoconut(C.nuciferaL.)hasshedlightonthemovement.Byexamining10
microsatelliteloci,researchersfoundtwogeneticallydistinctsubpopulationsofcoconutoneoriginatingintheIndian
Ocean,theotherinthePacificOcean.However,admixture,thetransferofgeneticmaterial,evidentlyoccurredbetweenthe
twopopulations.
Giventhatcoconutsareideallysuitedforinterislandgroupoceandispersal,obviouslysomenaturaldistributiondidtake
place.However,thisshouldnotbeextrapolatedtoclaimsthatoneocean'ssubgenerapossiblycouldhavefloatedto
interbreedwiththeother.However,thelocationsoftheadmixtureeventsarelimitedtoMadagascarandcoastaleastAfrica,
andexcludetheSeychelles.ThispatterncoincideswiththeknowntraderoutesofAustronesiansailors.Additionally,a

geneticallydistinctsubpopulationofcoconutonthePacificcoastofLatinAmericahasundergoneageneticbottleneck
resultingfromafoundereffecthowever,itsancestralpopulationisthePacificcoconut.This,togetherwiththeiruseofthe
SouthAmericansweetpotato,suggeststhatAustronesianpeoplesmayhavesailedasfareastastheAmericas.[43]

Distribution
Thecoconuthasspreadacrossmuchofthetropics,probablyaidedinmanycasesbyseafaringpeople.Coconutfruitinthe
wildarelight,buoyant,andhighlywaterresistant.Itisclaimedthattheyevolvedtodispersesignificantdistancesvia
marinecurrents.[44]However,itcanalsobearguedthattheplacementofthevulnerableeyeofthenut(downwhen
floating),andthesiteofthecoir'cushion'arebetterpositionedtoensurethatthewaterfillednutdoesn'tfracturewhen
droppingonrockyground,ratherthanforfloatation.
SpecimenshavebeencollectedfromtheseaasfarnorthasNorway(butitisnotknownwheretheyenteredthewater).[45]
IntheHawaiianIslands,thecoconutisregardedasaPolynesianintroduction,firstbroughttotheislandsbyearly
PolynesianvoyagersfromtheirhomelandsinOceania.[20]TheyhavebeenfoundintheCaribbeanandtheAtlanticcoastsof
AfricaandSouthAmericaforlessthan500years(theCaribbeannativeinhabitantsdon'thaveadialecttermforthem,but
usethePortuguesename),butevidenceoftheirpresenceonthePacificcoastofSouthAmericaantedatesChristopher
Columbus'sarrivalintheAmericas.[27]Theyarenowalmostubiquitousbetween26Nand26Sexceptfortheinteriorsof
AfricaandSouthAmerica.

Naturalhabitat
Thecoconutpalmthrivesonsandysoilsandishighlytolerantofsalinity.Itprefers
areaswithabundantsunlightandregularrainfall(1500mmto2500mmannually),
whichmakescolonizingshorelinesofthetropicsrelativelystraightforward.[46]
Coconutsalsoneedhighhumidity(7080%+)foroptimumgrowth,whichiswhy
theyarerarelyseeninareaswithlowhumidity.However,theycanbefoundin
humidareaswithlowannualprecipitationsuchasinKarachi,Pakistan,which
receivesonlyabout250mm(9.8in)ofrainfallperyear,butisconsistentlywarm
andhumid.
Coconutpalmsrequirewarmconditionsforsuccessfulgrowth,andareintolerantof
coldweather.Someseasonalvariationistolerated,withgoodgrowthwheremean
summertemperaturesarebetween28and37C(82and99F),andsurvivalaslong
aswintertemperaturesareabove412C(3954F)theywillsurvivebriefdrops
to0C(32F).Severefrostisusuallyfatal,althoughtheyhavebeenknownto
recoverfromtemperaturesof4C(25F).[46]Theymaygrowbutnotfruit
properlyinareaswithinsufficientwarmth,suchasBermuda.
Theconditionsrequiredforcoconuttreestogrowwithoutanycareare:

CoconutgerminatingonPunalu'u
Beach,IslandofHawaii

Meandailytemperatureabove1213C(5455F)everydayoftheyear
Meanannualrainfallabove1,000mm(39in)
Noorverylittleoverheadcanopy,sinceevensmalltreesrequiredirectsun
Themainlimitingfactorformostlocationswhichsatisfytherainfallandtemperaturerequirementsiscanopygrowth,
exceptthoselocationsnearcoastlines,wherethesandysoilandsaltspraylimitthegrowthofmostothertrees.

Diseases
Coconutsaresusceptibletothephytoplasmadiseaselethalyellowing.Onerecentlyselectedcultivar,the'Maypan',has
beenbredforresistancetothisdisease.

Pests

ThecoconutpalmisdamagedbythelarvaeofmanyLepidoptera(butterflyand
moth)specieswhichfeedonit,includingBatrachedraspp.:B.arenosella,B.
atriloqua(feedsexclusivelyonC.nucifera),B.mathesoni(feedsexclusivelyonC.
nucifera),andB.nuciferae.
Brontispalongissima(coconutleafbeetle)feedsonyoungleaves,anddamagesboth
seedlingsandmaturecoconutpalms.In2007,thePhilippinesimposedaquarantine
inMetroManilaand26provincestostopthespreadofthepestandprotectthe
$800millionPhilippinecoconutindustry.[47]
Thefruitmayalsobedamagedbyeriophyidcoconutmites(Eriophyesguerreronis).
Thismiteinfestscoconutplantations,andisdevastatingitcandestroyupto90%of
coconutproduction.Theimmatureseedsareinfestedanddesappedbylarvae
stayingintheportioncoveredbytheperianthoftheimmatureseedtheseedsthen
dropofforsurvivedeformed.Sprayingwithwettablesulfur0.4%orwithNeem
basedpesticidescangivesomerelief,butiscumbersomeandlaborintensive.
InKerala(India),themaincoconutpestsarethecoconutmite,therhinocerosbeetle,
theredpalmweevil,andthecoconutleafcaterpillar.Researchintocountermeasures
Fallenimmaturenuts,Thrissur,
tothesepestshasasof2009yieldednoresultsresearchersfromtheKerala
Kerala,India
AgriculturalUniversityandtheCentralPlantationCropResearchInstitute,
Kasaragode,continuetoworkoncountermeasures.TheKrishiVigyanKendra,
KannurunderKeralaAgriculturalUniversityhasdevelopedaninnovativeextensionapproachcalledthecompactarea
groupapproachtocombatcoconutmites.

Productionandcultivation
Coconutpalmsaregrowninmorethan90countriesoftheworld,withatotal
productionof61milliontonnesperyear(table).[48]Mostoftheworldproductionisin Topcoconutproducersin2014[48]
tropicalAsia,withIndonesia,thePhilippines,andIndiaaccountingcollectivelyfor
(millionsoftonnes)
73%oftheworldtotal(table).

Cultivation
Coconuttreesarehardtoestablishindryclimates,andcannotgrowtherewithout
frequentirrigationindroughtconditions,thenewleavesdonotopenwell,andolder
leavesmaybecomedesiccatedfruitalsotendstobeshed.[46]
Theextentofcultivationinthetropicsisthreateninganumberofhabitats,suchas
mangrovesanexampleofsuchdamagetoanecoregionisinthePetenesmangroves
oftheYucatn.[49]

Country

Production

Indonesia

19.1

Philippines

14.7

India

11.1

Brazil

2.9

SriLanka

2.2

World

61.4

Harvesting
Insomepartsoftheworld(ThailandandMalaysia),trainedpigtailedmacaquesareusedtoharvestcoconuts.Thailandhas
beenraisingandtrainingpigtailedmacaquestopickcoconutsforaround400years.[50]
TrainingschoolsforpigtailedmacaquesstillexistbothinsouthernThailandandintheMalaysianstateofKelantan.[51]

India
TraditionalareasofcoconutcultivationinIndiaarethestatesofKerala,TamilNadu,Karnataka,Puducherry,Andhra
Pradesh,Goa,Maharashtra,Odisha,andWestBengalandtheislandsofLakshadweepandAndamanandNicobar.Asper
201415statisticsfromCoconutDevelopmentBoardofGovernmentofIndia,foursouthernstatescombinedaccountfor

almost90%ofthetotalproductioninthecountry:
TamilNadu(33.84%),Karnataka(25.15%),Kerala
(23.96%),andAndhraPradesh(7.16%).[52]Other
states,suchasGoa,Maharashtra,Odisha,West
Bengal,andthoseinthenortheast(Tripuraand
Assam)accountfortheremainingproductions.
ThoughKeralahasthelargestnumberofcoconut
trees,intermsofproductionperhectare,Tamil
Naduleadsallotherstates.InTamilNadu,
CoimbatoreandTirupurregionstoptheproduction
list.[53]
InGoa,thecoconuttreehasbeenreclassifiedby
thegovernmentasapalm(likeagrass),enabling
farmersandrealestatedeveloperstoclearland
withfewerrestrictions.[54]
CoconutpluckinginKerala,
India

Coconutsbeingsoldonastreetin
India

Maldives

ThecoconutisthenationaltreeoftheMaldives
andisconsideredthemostimportantplantinthe
country.Acoconuttreeisalsoincludedinthecountry'snationalemblemandcoat
ofarms.Coconuttreesaregrownonalltheislands.Beforemodernconstruction
methodswereintroduced,coconutleaveswereusedasroofingmaterialformany
housesintheislands,whilecoconuttimberwasusedtobuildhousesandboats.

Greencoconutfruitstrandsonthe
treearefeaturedoneachMaldivian
rufiyaabanknote

MiddleEast
ThemaincoconutproducingareaintheMiddleEastistheDhofarregionofOman,
buttheycanbegrownallalongthePersianGulf,ArabianSea,andRedSeacoasts,
becausetheseseasaretropicalandprovideenoughhumidity(throughseawater
evaporation)forcoconuttreestogrow.Theyoungcoconutplantsneedtobenursed
andirrigatedwithdrippipesuntiltheyareoldenough(stembulbdevelopment)to
beirrigatedwithbrackishwaterorseawateralone,afterwhichtheycanbereplanted
onthebeaches.Inparticular,theareaaroundSalalahmaintainslargecoconut
Coconuttreesareamongthemost
plantationssimilartothosefoundacrosstheArabianSeainKerala.Thereasons
commonsightsthroughoutKerala
whycoconutarecultivatedonlyinYemen'sAlMahrahandHadramaut
governoratesandintheSultanateofOman,butnotinothersuitableareasinthe
ArabianPeninsula,mayoriginatefromthefactthatOmanandHadramauthadlongdhowtraderelationswithBurma,
Malaysia,Indonesia,EastAfrica,andZanzibar,aswellassouthernIndiaandChina.Omanipeopleneededthecoirrope
fromthecoconutfibertostitchtogethertheirtraditionalhighseasgoingdhowvesselsinwhichnailswereneverused.The
'knowhow'ofcoconutcultivationandnecessarysoilfixationandirrigationmayhavefounditswayintoOmani,Hadrami
andAlMahraculturebypeoplewhoreturnedfromthoseoverseasareas.
ThecoconutcultivarsgrowninOmanaregenerallyofthedroughtresistantIndian'WestCoasttall'variety.Unlikethe
UAE,whichgrowsmostlynonnativedwarforhybridcoconutcultivarsimportedfromFloridaforornamentalpurposes,
theslender,tallOmanicoconutcultivarsarerelativelywelladaptedtotheMiddleEast'shotdryseasons,butneedlongerto
reachmaturity.TheMiddleEast'shot,dryclimatefavorsthedevelopmentofcoconutmites,whichcauseimmatureseed
droppingandmaycausebrownishgraydiscolorationonthecoconut'soutergreenfiber.
TheancientcoconutgrovesofDhofarwerementionedbythemedievalMoroccantravellerIbnBattutainhiswritings,
knownasAlRihla.[55]Theannualrainyseasonknownlocallyaskhareeformonsoonmakescoconutcultivationeasyonthe
Arabianeastcoast.

Coconuttreesalsoareincreasinglygrownfordecorativepurposesalongthecoastsof
theUAEandSaudiArabiawiththehelpofirrigation.TheUAEhas,however,imposed
strictlawsonmaturecoconuttreeimportsfromothercountriestoreducethespreadof
peststoothernativepalmtrees,asthemixingofdateandcoconuttreesposesariskof
crossspeciespalmpests,suchasrhinocerosbeetlesandredpalmweevils.[56]The
artificiallandscapingadoptedinFloridamayhavebeenthecauseforlethalyellowing,
aviralcoconutpalmdiseasethatleadstothedeathofthetree.Itisspreadbyhost
insects,thatthriveonheavyturfgrasses.Therefore,heavyturfgrassenvironments
Coconuttreeslinethebeachesand
(beachresortsandgolfcourses)alsoposeamajorthreattolocalcoconuttrees.
cornichesofOman.
Traditionally,dessertbananaplantsandlocalwildbeachflorasuchasScaevola
taccadaandIpomoeapescapraewereusedashumiditysupplyinggreenundergrowth
forcoconuttrees,mixedwithseaalmondandseahibiscus.Duetogrowingsedentarylifestylesandheavyhanded
landscaping,adeclineinthesetraditionalfarmingandsoilfixingtechniqueshasoccurred.

SriLanka
AnearlymentionoftheplantingofcoconutsisfoundintheMahavamsaduringthereignofAgrabodhiIIaround589
AD.[19]CoconutsarecommonintheSriLankandietandthemainsourceofdietaryfat.[57]

UnitedStates
IntheUnitedStates,coconutpalmscanbegrownandreproducedoutdoorswithout
irrigationinHawaii,southernandcentralFlorida,[58]andtheterritoriesofPuerto
Rico,Guam,AmericanSamoa,theU.S.VirginIslands,andtheCommonwealthof
theNorthernMarianaIslands.
InFlorida,coconutpalmsgrowfromcoastalPinellasCountyandClearwater
southwardsonFlorida'swestcoast,andMelbournesouthwardsonFlorida'seast
coastaswellasinlandsouthFlorida.Theoccasionalcoconutpalmcanalsobe
foundfurtherinlandofthecoastalareasofcentralFloridainfavoredmicroclimates
inTampaandtoalesserextentOrlando.Theyreachfruitingmaturity,butcanbe
damagedorkilledbytheoccasionalwinterfreezesintheseareas.InSouthTexas,
theymayalsobegrowninfavoredmicroclimatesaroundthecoastalareasofthe
RioGrandeValleynearBrownsville,butmoreseverecoldstuntstheirgrowthand
keepsthemfromproducingviablefruit.

PaintingsoncoconutshellsforDay
oftheDeadintheUnitedStates

CoconutpalmsdonotgrowinCaliforniabecauseofextendedperiodsbelow10C(50F)inthewinter.Onespecimen
survivedforabout20yearsinNewportBeach,Californiahoweverdiedin2014,itneverproducedacoconut.[59]

Australia
CoconutsarecommonlygrownaroundthenortherncoastofAustralia,andinsomewarmerpartsofNewSouthWales.

Bermuda
MostofthetallmaturecoconuttreesfoundinBermudawereshippedtotheislandasseedlingsonthedecksofships.In
morerecentyears,theimportationofcoconutswasprohibitedtherefore,alargeproportionoftheyoungertreeshavebeen
propagatedfromlocallygrowncoconuts.
Inthewinter,thegrowthrateofcoconuttreesdeclinesduetocoolertemperaturesandpeoplehavecommonlyattributed
thistothereducedyieldofcoconutsincomparisontotropicalregions.However,whilstcoolerwintertemperaturesmaybe
afactorinreducingfruitproduction,theprimaryreasonforthereducedyieldisalackofwater.Bermuda'ssoilisgenerally
veryshallow(1.5to3.0feet)andmuchofacoconuttree'srootmassisfoundintheporouslimestoneunderneaththesoil.
Duetotheporosityofthelimestone,Bermuda'scoconuttreesdonotgenerallyhaveasufficientsupplyofwaterwithwhich

theyareabletosupportalargenumberoffruitasrainwaterquicklydrainsdownthroughthelimestonelayertothewater
tablewhichisfartoodeepforacoconut'srootstoreach.Thistypicallyleadstoareductioninfruityield(sometimesasfew
asoneortwomaturefruits),aswellasareducedmilkcontentinsidethecoconutthatoftencausesthefruittobeinfertile.
Conversely,treesgrowingincloseproximitytotheseaalmostuniversallyyieldmuchmorefruit,astheyareabletotap
directlyintotheseawaterwhichpermeatesthelimestoneinsuchareas.Notonlydothesetreesproduceasignificantly
higheryield,butalsothefruititselftendstobefarmorefertileduetothehighermilkcontent.Treesfoundgrowingin
Bermuda'smarshyinlandareasenjoyasimilardegreeofsuccess,astheyarealsoabletotapdirectlyintoaconstantsupply
ofwater.

Europe
Asatropicalplant,coconutpalmscannotgrowinmainlandEurope,butornamentalcoconutsarefoundinFunchal
(Madeira,Portugal)at32N.Northofthislatitude,coconutsareunabletosurviveunlessgivenspecialcare,suchasina
greenhouse.

Substitutesforcoolerclimates
Incoolerclimates(butnotlessthanUSDAZone9),asimilarpalm,thequeenpalm(Syagrusromanzoffiana),isusedin
landscaping.Itsfruitsaresimilartothecoconut,butsmaller.ThequeenpalmwasoriginallyclassifiedinthegenusCocos
alongwiththecoconut,butwaslaterreclassifiedinSyagrus.Arecentlydiscoveredpalm,Beccariophoenixalfrediifrom
Madagascar,isnearlyidenticaltothecoconut,moresothanthequeenpalmandcanalsobegrowninslightlycooler
climatesthanthecoconutpalm.Coconutscanonlybegrownintemperaturesabove18C(64F)andneedadaily
temperatureabove22C(72F)toproducefruit.

Uses
Thecoconutpalmisgrownthroughoutthetropicsfordecoration,aswellasforits
manyculinaryandnonculinaryusesvirtuallyeverypartofthecoconutpalmcanbe
usedbyhumansinsomemannerandhassignificanteconomicvalue.Coconuts'
versatilityissometimesnotedinitsnaming.InSanskrit,itiskalpavriksha("thetree
whichprovidesallthenecessitiesoflife").IntheMalaylanguage,itispokokseribu
guna("thetreeofathousanduses").InthePhilippines,thecoconutiscommonly
calledthe"treeoflife".[60]

Cooking
Thevariouspartsofthecoconuthaveanumberofculinaryuses.Theseedprovides
oilforfrying,cooking,andmakingmargarine.Thewhite,fleshypartoftheseed,
thecoconutmeat,isusedfreshordriedincooking,especiallyinconfectionsand
dessertssuchasmacaroons.Desiccatedcoconutorcoconutmilkmadefromitis
frequentlyaddedtocurriesandothersavorydishes.Coconutflourhasalsobeen
developedforuseinbaking,tocombatmalnutrition.[61]Coconutchipshavebeen
soldinthetouristregionsofHawaiiandtheCaribbean.Coconutbutterisoftenused
todescribesolidifiedcoconutoil,buthasalsobeenadoptedasanamebycertain
specialtyproductsmadeofcoconutmilksolidsorpuredcoconutmeatandoil.
Driedcoconutisalsousedasthefillingformanychocolatebars.Somedried
coconutispurelycoconut,butothersaremanufacturedwithotheringredients,such
assugar,propyleneglycol,salt,andsodiummetabisulfite.Somecountriesin
SoutheastAsiausespecialcoconutmutantcalledKopyor(inIndonesian)or
macapuno(inPhilippines)asdessertdrinks.

Nutrition

Coconuttreesareusedfor
landscapingalongacoastalroadin
KotaKinabalu,Sabah,Malaysia.

Greencoconuts

Per100gramservingwith354calories,rawcoconutmeat
suppliesahighamountoftotalfat(33grams),especially
saturatedfat(89%oftotalfat)andcarbohydrates(24g)
(table).Micronutrientsinsignificantcontentincludethe
dietarymineralsmanganese,iron,phosphorus,andzinc.
Coconutwater

An1890newspaper
advertisementshowingtinof
driedcoconut

Coconutwaterservesasasuspensionfortheendospermof
thecoconutduringitsnuclearphaseofdevelopment.Later,
theendospermmaturesanddepositsontothecoconutrind
duringthecellularphase.[6]Itisconsumedthroughoutthe
humidtropics,andhasbeenintroducedintotheretailmarket
Coconutwaterdrink
asaprocessedsportsdrink.Maturefruitshavesignificantly
lessliquidthanyoung,immature
coconuts,barringspoilage.Coconut
Coconutmeat,raw
watercanbefermentedtoproduce
Nutritionalvalueper100g(3.5oz)
coconutvinegar.

Per100gramserving,coconutwater
contains19caloriesandno
significantcontentofessentialnutrients.
Coconutmilk
Coconutmilk,nottobe
confusedwithcoconutwater,
isobtainedprimarilyby
extractingjuicebypressing
thegratedcoconutwhite
kernelorbypassinghot
waterormilkthroughgrated
coconut,whichextractsthe
oilandaromaticcompounds.
Ithasatotalfatcontentof
Coconutmilk(kakanggata)from15
24%,mostofwhich(89%)is
coconuts(Philippines)
saturatedfat,withlauricacid
asamajorfattyacid.[62]
Whenrefrigeratedandlefttoset,coconutcreamwillrisetothetop
andseparatefromthemilk.Themilkcanbeusedtoproducevirgin
coconutoilbycontrolledheatingandremovaloftheoilfraction.
Aproteinrichpowdercanbeprocessedfromcoconutmilk
followingcentrifugation,separation,andspraydrying.[63]
Coconutoil
Anotherproductofthecoconutiscoconutoil.Itiscommonlyused
incooking,especiallyforfrying.Itcanbeusedinliquidformas
wouldothervegetableoils,orinsolidformaswouldbutterorlard.
Toddyandnectar

Energy

354kcal(1,480kJ)

Carbohydrates
Sugars
Dietaryfiber

15.23g
6.23g
9.0g

Fat
Saturated
Monounsaturated
Polyunsaturated

33.49g
29.698g
1.425g
0.366g

Protein
Tryptophan
Threonine
Isoleucine
Leucine
Lysine
Methionine
Cystine
Phenylalanine
Tyrosine
Valine
Arginine
Histidine
Alanine
Asparticacid
Glutamicacid
Glycine
Proline
Serine

3.33g
0.039g
0.121g
0.131g
0.247g
0.147g
0.062g
0.066g
0.169g
0.103g
0.202g
0.546g
0.077g
0.170g
0.325g
0.761g
0.158g
0.138g
0.172g

Vitamins
Thiamine (B1)
Riboflavin (B2)
Niacin (B3)
Pantothenicacid (B5)
VitaminB6

0.066mg
0.020mg
0.540mg
0.300mg
0.054mg

(6%)
(2%)
(4%)
(6%)
(4%)

Thesapderivedfromincisingtheflowerclustersofthecoconutis
drunkasneera,alsoknownastoddyortuba(Philippines),tuak
(IndonesiaandMalaysia)orkarewe(freshandnotfermented,
collectedtwiceaday,forbreakfastanddinner)inKiribati.When
lefttofermentonitsown,itbecomespalmwine.Palmwineis
distilledtoproducearrack.InthePhilippines,thisalcoholicdrinkis
calledlambanogor"coconutvodka".[64]
Thesapcanbereducedbyboilingtocreateasweetsyruporcandy
suchastekamamaiinKiribatiordhiyaahakuruandaddubondiin
theMaldives.Itcanbereducedfurthertoyieldcoconutsugaralso
referredtoaspalmsugarorjaggery.Ayoung,wellmaintainedtree
canproducearound300l(66impgal79USgal)oftoddyperyear,
whilea40yearoldtreemayyieldaround400l(88impgal
110USgal).[65]
Heartofpalmandcoconutsprout
Apicalbudsofadultplantsareedible,andareknownas"palm
cabbage"orheartofpalm.Theyareconsideredararedelicacy,as
harvestingthebudskillsthepalms.Heartsofpalmareeatenin
salads,sometimescalled"millionaire'ssalad".Newlygerminated
coconutscontainanediblefluffofmarshmallowlikeconsistency
calledcoconutsprout,producedastheendospermnourishesthe
developingembryo.

Folate (B9)
VitaminC
VitaminE
VitaminK

26g
3.3mg
0.24mg
0.2g

(7%)
(4%)
(2%)
(0%)

14mg
2.43mg
32mg
1.500mg
113mg
356mg
20mg
1.10mg

(1%)
(19%)
(9%)
(71%)
(16%)
(8%)
(1%)
(12%)

Minerals
Calcium
Iron
Magnesium
Manganese
Phosphorus
Potassium
Sodium
Zinc
Otherconstituents
Water

46.99g

LinktoUSDADatabaseentry(http://ndb.nal.usda.gov/ndb/se
arch/list?qlookup=12104&format=Full)
Units
g=microgramsmg=milligrams
IU=Internationalunits
Percentagesareroughlyapproximatedusing
USrecommendationsforadults.
Source:USDANutrientDatabase(http://ndb.nal.usda.gov/ndb/search/list)

Indonesia
CoconutisanindispensableingredientinIndonesiancooking.Coconutmeat,coconutmilk,andcoconutwaterareoften
usedinmaincourses,desserts,andsoupsthroughoutthearchipelago.IntheislandofSumatra,thefamousrendang,the
traditionalbeefstewfromWestSumatra,chunksofbeefarecookedincoconutmilkalongwithotherspicesforhoursuntil
thickened.InJakarta,sotobabatorbeeftripesoupalsousescoconutmilk.IntheislandofJava,thesweetandsavoury
tempebacemismadebycookingtempehwithcoconutwater,coconutsugar,andotherspicesuntilthickened.Klapertartis
thefamousDutchinfluenceddessertfromManado,NorthCelebes,thatusesyoungcoconutmeatandcoconutmilk.In
2010,Indonesiaincreaseditscoconutproduction.Itisnowtheworld'slargestproducerofcoconuts.Thegrossproduction
was15milliontonnes.[66]AsproutingcoconutseedisthelogoforGerakanPramukaIndonesia,theIndonesianscouting
organization.Itcanbeseenonallthescoutingparaphernaliathatelementary(SMA)schoolchildrenwear,aswellasonthe
scoutingpinsandflags.

Philippines
ThePhilippinesistheworld'ssecondlargestproducerofcoconutstheproductionofcoconutsplaysanimportantrolein
theeconomy.CoconutsinthePhilippinesareusuallyusedinmakingmaindishes,refreshments,anddesserts.Coconut
juiceisalsoapopulardrinkinthecountry.InthePhilippines,particularlyCebu,riceiswrappedincoconutleavesfor
cookingandsubsequentstoragethesepacketsarecalledpuso.Coconutmilk,knownasgata,andgratedcoconutflakesare
usedinthepreparationofdishessuchaslaing,ginataan,bibingka,ubehalaya,pitsipitsi,palitaw,buko,andcoconutpie.
Coconutjamismadebymixingmuscovadosugarwithcoconutmilk.Coconutsportfruitsarealsoharvested.Onesuch
varietyofcoconutisknownasmacapuno.Itsmeatissweetened,cutintostrands,andsoldinglassjarsascoconutstrings,
sometimeslabeledas"gelatinousmutantcoconut".Coconutwatercanbefermentedtomakeadifferentproductnatade
coco(coconutgel).

Vietnam

Fromlefttoright:grated,fresh,
maturecoconutmeatseedinterior
oil,raretwoeyedcoconutshelland
moregratedmeat(Philippines)

InVietnam,coconutisgrownabundantlyacross
centralandsouthernVietnam,andespeciallyinBn
TreProvince,oftencalledthe"landofthecoconut".
Itisusedtomakecoconutcandy,caramel,andjelly.
Coconutjuiceandcoconutmilkareused,especially
inVietnam'ssouthernstyleofcooking,including
kho,ch,andcurry(cri).

India

InsouthernIndia,themostcommonwayofcooking
vegetablesistoaddgratedcoconutandthensteamthemwithspicesfriedinoil.People
fromsouthernIndiaalsomakechutney,whichinvolvesgrindingthecoconutwithsalt,
chillies,andwholespices.Uruttuchammanthi(granulatedchutney)iseatenwithriceor
kanji(ricegruel).Itisalsoinvariablythemainsidedishservedwithidli,vadai,anddosai.
Coconutgroundwithspicesisalsomixedinsambarandothervariouslunchdishesfor
extrataste.Dishesgarnishedwithgratedcoconutaregenerallyreferredtoaspodutholin
NorthMalabarandthoraninrestofKerala.PuttuisaculinarydelicacyofKeralaandTamil
Nadu,inwhichlayersofcoconutalternatewithlayersofpowderedrice,allofwhichfitinto
abamboostalk.Recently,thishasbeenreplacedwithasteeloraluminiumtube,whichis
thensteamedoverapot.Coconut(Tamil: )isregularlybrokeninthemiddle
classfamiliesinTamilNaduforfood.Coconutmeatcanbeeatenasasnacksweetenedwith
jaggeryormolasses.InKarnataka,sweetsarepreparedusingcoconutanddrycoconut
copra,suchaskaieobattu,kobrimitai,etc.

Harvestingcoconutsinthe
Philippinesisdoneby
workerswhoclimbthetrees
usingnotchescutintothe
trunk.

Commercial,industrial,andhouseholduse
Cultivars
Coconuthasanumberofcommercialandtraditionalcultivars.They
canbesortedmainlyintotallcultivars,dwarfcultivars,andhybrid
cultivars(hybridsbetweentallsanddwarfs).Someofthedwarf
cultivarssuchas'Malayandwarf'haveshownsomepromising
resistancetolethalyellowing,whileothercultivarssuchas'Jamaican
tall'arehighlyaffectedbythesameplantdisease.Somecultivarsare
moredroughtresistantsuchas'Westcoasttall'(India)whileotherssuch
as'HainanTall'(China)aremorecoldtolerant.Otheraspectssuchas
seedsize,shapeandweight,andcoprathicknessarealsoimportant
factorsintheselectionofnewcultivars.Somecultivarssuchas'Fiji
dwarf'formalargebulbatthelowerstemandothersarecultivatedto
produceverysweetcoconutwaterwithorangecolouredhusks(king
coconut)usedentirelyinfruitstallsfordrinking(SriLanka,India).

Coconutsdryingbeforebeingprocessedintocopra
intheSolomonIslands

Coir
Coir(thefiberfromthehuskofthecoconut)isusedinropes,mats,doormats,brushes,andsacks,ascaulkingforboats,
andasstuffingfiberformattresses.[67]Itisusedinhorticultureinpottingcompost,especiallyinorchidmix.
Coconutfronds
ThestiffmidribsofcoconutleavesareusedformakingbroomsinIndia,Indonesia(sapulidi),Malaysia,theMaldives,
andthePhilippines(walistingting).Thegreenoftheleaves(lamina)arestrippedaway,leavingtheveins(woodlike,thin,
longstrips)whicharetiedtogethertoformabroomorbrush.Alonghandlemadefromsomeotherwoodmaybeinserted
intothebaseofthebundleandusedasatwohandedbroom.Theleavesalsoprovidematerialforbasketsthatcandraw

wellwaterandforroofingthatchtheycanbewovenintomats,cookingskewers,
andkindlingarrows,aswell.Twoleaves(especiallytheyounger,yellowishshoots)
wovenintoatightshellthesizeofthepalmarefilledwithriceandcookedtomake
ketupat.[68]Driedcoconutleavescanbeburnedtoash,whichcanbeharvestedfor
lime.InIndia,thewovencoconutleavesareusedaspandals(temporarysheds)for
marriagefunctionsespeciallyinthestatesofKerala,Karnataka,andTamilNadu.
Copra
Awallmadefromcoconuthusks

Copraisthedriedmeatoftheseedandafterprocessingproducescoconutoiland
coconutmeal.Coconutoil,asidefrombeingused
incookingasaningredientandforfrying,isusedinsoaps,
cosmetics,hairoil,andmassageoil.Coconutoilisalsoa
mainingredientinAyurvedicoils.InVanuatu,coconut
palmsforcopraproductionaregenerallyspaced9mapart,
allowingatreedensityof100160treesperhectare.
Husksandshells
Toysfromcoconutleaves

Thehuskandshellscanbeusedforfuelandareasource
ofcharcoal.[69]Activatedcarbonmanufacturedfrom
coconutshellisconsideredextremelyeffectivefortheremovalofimpurities.Thecoconut's
obscureorigininforeignlandsledtothenotionofusingcupsmadefromtheshellto
neutralisepoisoneddrinks.Thecupswerefrequentlyengravedanddecoratedwithprecious
metals.[70]

Extractingthefiberfromthe
husk(SriLanka)

Adriedhalfcoconutshellwithhuskcanbeusedtobufffloors.ItisknownasabunotinthePhilippinesandsimplya
"coconutbrush"inJamaica.Thefreshhuskofabrowncoconutmayserveasadishspongeorbodysponge.Acoco
chocolaterowasacupusedtoservesmallquantitiesofbeverages(suchaschocolatedrinks)betweenthe17thand19th
centuriesincountriessuchasMexico,Guatemala,andVenezuela.
InAsia,coconutshellsarealsousedasbowlsandinthemanufactureofvarious
handicrafts,includingbuttonscarvedfromdriedshell.Coconutbuttonsareoften
usedforHawaiianalohashirts.Tempurung,astheshelliscalledintheMalay
language,canbeusedasasoupbowlandiffixedwithahandlealadle.In
Thailand,thecoconuthuskisusedasapottingmediumtoproducehealthyforest
treesaplings.Theprocessofhuskextractionfromthecoirbypassestheretting
process,usingacustombuiltcoconuthuskextractordesignedbyASEANCanada
ForestTreeSeedCentrein1986.Freshhuskscontainsmoretanninthanoldhusks.
Tanninproducesnegativeeffectsonsaplinggrowth.[71]InpartsofSouthIndia,the
shellandhuskareburnedforsmoketorepelmosquitoes.

CoconutbuttonsinDongjiaoTown,
Hainan,China

HalfcoconutshellsareusedintheatreFoleysoundeffectswork,bangedtogetherto
createthesoundeffectofahorse'shoofbeats.Driedhalfshellsareusedasthe
bodiesofmusicalinstruments,includingtheChineseyehuandbanhu,alongwiththeVietnamesengoandArabo
Turkicrebab.InthePhilippines,driedhalfshellsarealsousedasamusicinstrumentinafolkdancecalledmaglalatik.

InWorldWarII,coastwatcherscoutBiukiGasawasthefirstoftwofromtheSolomonIslandstoreachtheshipwrecked
andwoundedcrewofMotorTorpedoBoatPT109commandedbyfutureU.S.presidentJohnF.Kennedy.Gasasuggested,
forlackofpaper,deliveringbydugoutcanoeamessageinscribedonahuskedcoconutshell.Thiscoconutwaslaterkepton
thepresident'sdesk,andisnowintheJohnF.KennedyLibrary.
Coconuttrunk

Coconuttrunksareusedforbuildingsmallbridgesandhutstheyarepreferredfortheir
straightness,strength,andsaltresistance.InKerala,coconuttrunksareusedforhouse
construction.Coconuttimbercomesfromthetrunk,andisincreasinglybeingusedasan
ecologicallysoundsubstituteforendangeredhardwoods.Ithasapplicationsinfurnitureand
specializedconstruction,asnotablydemonstratedinManila'sCoconutPalace.
Hawaiianshollowedthetrunktoformdrums,containers,orsmallcanoes.The"branches"(leaf
petioles)arestrongandflexibleenoughtomakeaswitch.Theuseofcoconutbranchesincorporal
punishmentwasrevivedintheGilbertesecommunityonChoiseulintheSolomonIslandsin
2005.[72]
Roots

Thebaseofanold
coconutpalm

Therootsareusedasadye,amouthwash,andamedicinefordiarrheaand
dysentery.[9]Afrayedpieceofrootcanalsobeusedasatoothbrush.
Beautyproducts
Coconutsareusedinthebeautyindustryinmoisturisersandbodybuttersbecause
coconutoil,duetoitschemicalstructure,isreadilyabsorbedbytheskin.The
coconutshellmayalsobegrounddownandaddedtoproductsforexfoliationof
deadskin.Coconutisalsoasourceoflauricacid,whichcanbeprocessedina
particularwaytoproducesodiumlaurylsulfate,adetergentusedinshowergelsand
shampoos.[73]Thenatureoflauricacidasafattyacidmakesitparticularlyeffective
forcreatingdetergentsandsurfactants.

CoconutPalace,Manila,Philippines,
builtentirelyoutofcoconutandlocal
materials

Religion
IntheIlocosregionofnorthernPhilippines,theIlocanopeoplefilltwohalvedcoconutshellswithdiket(cookedsweet
rice),andplaceliningtangaitlog(halvedboiledegg)ontopofit.Thisritual,knownasniniyogan,isanofferingmadeto
thedeceasedandone'sancestors.Thisaccompaniesthepalagip(prayertothedead).
Acoconut(Sanskrit:nalikera)isanessentialelementofritualsinHindutradition.Oftenitisdecoratedwithbrightmetal
foilsandothersymbolsofauspiciousness.ItisofferedduringworshiptoaHindugodorgoddess.NaraliPurnimais
celebratedonafullmoondaywhichusuallysignifiestheendofmonsoonseasoninIndia.ThewordNaraliisderived
fromNaralimplyingcoconutinMarathi.Fishermengiveanofferingofcoconuttotheseatocelebratethebeginningof
anewfishingseason.[74]Irrespectiveoftheirreligiousaffiliations,fishermenofIndiaoftenofferittotheriversandseasin
thehopesofhavingbountifulcatches.Hindusofteninitiatethebeginningofanynewactivitybybreakingacoconutto
ensuretheblessingsofthegodsandsuccessfulcompletionoftheactivity.TheHindugoddessofwellbeingandwealth,
Lakshmi,isoftenshownholdingacoconut.[75]InthefoothillsofthetempletownofPalani,beforegoingtoworship
MuruganfortheGanesha,coconutsarebrokenataplacemarkedforthepurpose.Everyday,thousandsofcoconutsare
broken,andsomedevoteesbreakasmanyas108coconutsatatimeaspertheprayer.Intantricpractices,coconutsare
sometimesusedassubstitutesforhumanskulls.
InHinduweddingceremonies,acoconutisplacedovertheopeningofapot,representingawomb.Coconutflowersare
auspicioussymbolsandarefixturesatHinduandBuddhistweddingsandotherimportantoccasions.InKerala,coconut
flowersmustbepresentduringamarriageceremony.Theflowersareinsertedintoabarrelofunhuskedrice(paddy)and
placedwithinsightoftheweddingceremony.SimilarlyinSriLanka,coconutflowers,standinginbrassurns,areplacedin
prominentpositions.
TheZuluSocialAidandPleasureClubofNewOrleanstraditionallythrowshanddecoratedcoconuts,themostvaluableof
MardiGrassouvenirs,toparaderevelers.The"Tramps"beganthetraditioncirca1901.In1987,a"coconutlaw"was
signedbyGov.Edwardsexemptingfrominsuranceliabilityanydecoratedcoconut"handed"fromaZulufloat.

ThecoconutisalsousedasatargetandprizeinthetraditionalBritishfairgroundgame"coconutshy".Theplayerbuys
somesmallballswhichhethrowsashardashecanatcoconutsbalancedonsticks.Theaimistoknockacoconutoffthe
standandwinit.
ItwasthemainfoodofadherentsofthenowdiscontinuedVietnamesereligionoDainBnTre.
Mythsandlegends
SomeSouthAsian,SoutheastAsian,andPacificOceancultureshaveoriginmythsinwhichthecoconutplaysthemain
role.IntheHainuwelemythfromMaluku,agirlemergesfromtheblossomofacoconuttree.[76]InMaldivianfolklore,one
ofthemainmythsoforiginreflectsthedependenceoftheMaldiviansonthecoconuttree.[77]
Accordingtoanurbanlegend,moredeathsarecausedbyfallingcoconutsthanbysharksannually.

Otheruses
Theleftoverfiberfromcoconutoilandcoconutmilkproduction,coconutmeal,is
usedaslivestockfeed.Thedriedcalyxisusedasfuelinwoodfiredstoves.Coconut
wateristraditionallyusedasagrowthsupplementinplanttissue
culture/micropropagation.[78]Thesmellofcoconutscomesfromthe6pentyloxan
2onemolecule,knownasdecalactoneinthefoodandfragranceindustries.[79]
Toolandshelterforanimals
ResearchersfromtheMelbourneMuseuminAustraliaobservedtheoctopusspecies
Makingarugfromcoconutfiber
Amphioctopusmarginatususetools,specificallycoconutshells,fordefenseand
shelter.ThediscoveryofthisbehaviorwasobservedinBaliandNorthSulawesiin
Indonesiabetween1998and2008.[80][81][82]Amphioctopusmarginatusisthefirstinvertebrateknowntobeabletouse
tools.[81][83]
Acoconutcanbehollowedoutandusedasahomeforarodentorsmallbirds.Halved,drainedcoconutscanalsobehung
upasbirdfeeders,andafterthefleshhasgone,canbefilledwithfatinwintertoattracttits.

Allergies
Foodallergies
Coconutoilisincreasinglyusedinthefoodindustry.[84]Proteinsfromcoconutmaycausefoodallergy,including
anaphylaxis.[84]
IntheUnitedStates,theU.S.FoodandDrugAdministrationdeclaredthatcoconutmustbedisclosedasaningredienton
packagelabelsasa"treenut"withpotentialallergenicity.[85]

Topicalallergies
Cocamidopropylbetaine(CAPB)isasurfactantmanufacturedfromcoconutoilthatisincreasinglyusedasaningredientin
personalhygieneproductsandcosmetics,suchasshampoos,liquidsoaps,cleansersandantiseptics,amongothers.[86]
CAPBmaycausemildskinirritation,[86]butallergicreactionstoCAPBarerare[87]andprobablyrelatedtoimpurities
renderedduringthemanufacturingprocess(whichincludeamidoamineanddimethylaminopropylamine)ratherthanCAPB
itself.[86]

Coconutvarieties
ManyvarietiesofcoconutsC.nuciferaarebeingcultivatedinmanycountries.Thesevarybythetasteofthecoconutwater
andcolorofthefruit,aswellasothergeneticfactors.[88]
Dwarfyellowcoconut
Dwarforangecoconut
GoldenMalaycoconut
Dwarfgreencoconut
FijiDwarf(NiuLeka)
GreenMalaycoconut
Kingcoconut
Makapunococonut
Maypancoconut
Nawassicoconut
YellowMalaycoconut

InSriLanka
ManycultivatedcoconutvarietiesarefoundinSriLanka.MostofthemwereintroducedbytheNationalCoconutResearch
InstitutetheyidentifiedthesevarietiesduringacoconutgermplasmexplorationmissionintheSouthernProvinceofSri
Lanka.
CoconutinSriLankaiscurrentlyclassifiedinto15differentformsgroupedunderthreevarieties,namely'Typica','Nana',
and'Aurantiaca'.Thevisualmorphologicalfeaturesofseveralnewcoconutmorphotypeswerecharacterizedwiththe
objectiveofincludingtheminthetaxonomicclassificationofcoconutinSriLanka.[89]

VarietiesandformsofcoconutfoundinSriLanka

KingCoconutinSriLanka

Common
name

Variety/form

Features
Tallstature,allogamous,heterogeneous,flowersin67

SriLanka
Tall

(Typical/Typica)

Gon
Thembili

(Typica/Gon
thembili)

years,mediumsizednuts,2025nutsperbunch,6080nutsperpalmperyear
SimilartoSriLankaTall.Ivorycolorednuts,petiolesand
inflorescences
SimilartoSriLankaTall.Softmesocarpedibleinthe

Nawasi

(Typica/Nawasi)

Porapol

(Typica/Porapot)

Ran
Thembii

(Typica/Ran
thembili)

immaturenutyieldssoftfiberwhenmature
SimilartoSriLankaTall.Remarkablythickshellednuts
SimilartoSriLankaTall.Pinkcolouredmesocarpin
immaturefruitandapinkwhorlundertheperianth.Largenuts
SimilartoSriLankaTall.Largesizednuts(largestamong

Kamandala (Typica/Kamandala)

localforms),andfewnutsperbunch(25nutsperbunch)
SimilartoSriLankaTall.Smallsizednutsandlarge

Bodiri

(Typica/Bodiri)

numberperbunch(30100nutsperbunch).Seasonalnutproduction
SimilartoSriLankaTall.Somenutscontainajellylike

Dikiri

(Typica/Dikiri)

King
Coconut

(Aurantiaca/King
coconut)

Nawasi
Thembili

SimilartoKingCoconut.Softandediblemesocarplike
(Aurantiaca/Nawasi
thembili)
Nawasi

Rathran
Thembili

SimilartoKingCoconut.Pinkcolouredmesocarpanda
(Aurantiaca/'Rathran
thembili)
pinkwhorlundertheperianth

endosperm
Intermediatestature,autogamous,homogeneous,fruitsin67years,seasonalflower
production,mediumsizednutswithorangeepicarpandsweetnutwater,2550nutsper
bunch

Dwarfstature,autogamous,homogeneous,fruitsin34
Green
Dwarf

(Nana/Greendwarf
orpumila)

Yellow
Dwarf

(Nana/Yellowdwarf
SimilartoGreendwarf.Nutswithyellowepicarp
oreburnea)

RedDwarf

(Nana/Reddwarfor
SimilartoGreendwarf.Nutswithredepicarp
regia)

Brown
Dwarf

(Nana/Browndwarf
SimilartoGreendwarf.Nutswithabrownepicarp
orbraune)

years,smallsizednutswithgreenepicarp.lowcopracontent,80150nutsperpalmper
year

Seealso
CentralPlantationCropsResearchInstitute
CoconutproductioninKerala
CoirBoardofIndia
Deathbycoconut
Listofcoconutdishes
Listofdishesusingcoconutmilk
Ravanahatha
Voanioalagerardiiforestcoconut,theclosestrelativeofthemoderncoconut

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Furtherreading
AdkinsS.W.,M.FoaleandY.M.S.Samosir(eds.)(2006).Coconutrevivalnewpossibilitiesforthetreeoflife(htt
p://aciar.gov.au/files/node/748/PR125%20full%20text.pdf).ProceedingsoftheInternationalCoconutForumheldin

Cairns,Australia,November2224,2005.ACIARProceedingsNo.125.ISBN1863205152
Batugal,P.,V.R.RaoandJ.Oliver(2005).CoconutGeneticResources.BioversityInternational.ISBN978929043
6294.
Frison,E.A.Putter,C.A.J.Diekmann,M.(eds.).(1993).Coconut(http://www.bioversityinternational.org/nc/publica
tions/publication/issue/coconut.html).ISBN9789290431565.
InternationalPlantGeneticResourcesInstitute(IPGRI).(1995).DescriptorsforCoconut(CocosnuciferaL.)(http://
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