11/4/2016

Solar Energy

.and its many uses

4 Hours of
SUN
Can Produce A
24-hour Supply
Of Hot Water

Solar Thermal
Technology Is Heating
Water, Homes And
Buildings

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SOLAR ENERGY

A FEW FACTS
Every day the earth receives thousands of times more energy
from the sun than is consumed in all other resources.
If a 140x140 mile parcel of land in Arizona was covered with
solar cells, the electricity needs of the entire United States could
be met.
The sunlight falling on a typical house can provide from 1/3 to
1/2 of the heating needs of that house.
Today solar energy accounts for only 1% of the total renewable
energy consumed in the United States

High Cost of Fossil Fuels

High, volatile prices

U.S. spends $440 billion annually on energy

Natural gas prices gone up 350% since 95
IL exports $6 billion for natural gas annually

Pollution

Therm of natural gas emits 11.6 lbs. of CO2

kWh of electricity emits 1.3 lbs. of CO2 (national
average)
120, 000+ people die from air pollution annually in
US
30 billion barrels of oil consumed in 06 globally

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Significant Advantages
Uses Unlimited Energy Source
Reliable and Proven Technology
Improves Air & Water Quality
Free Fuel Deliveries Daily
Pays for Itself Over and Over Again
Keeps Energy $$ Close to Home

Paradigm Shift in Energy

Generation

Mining Energy:
Petroleum, Coal,
Natural Gas, Uranium,
Oil
Living off savings

Harvesting
Energy: Solar, Wind,
Water, Earth, Biomass
Living off income

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What is Solar Energy?

Originates with the

thermonuclear fusion
reactions occurring in
the sun.
Represents the entire
electromagnetic radiation
(visible light, infrared,
ultraviolet, x-rays, and
radio waves).

Advantages and Disadvantages

Advantages
All chemical and radioactive polluting byproducts of the thermonuclear
reactions remain behind on the sun, while only pure radiant energy
reaches the Earth.
Energy reaching the earth is incredible. By one calculation, 30 days of
sunshine striking the Earth have the energy equivalent of the total of all
the planets fossil fuels, both used and unused!
Disadvantages
Sun does not shine consistently.
Solar energy is a diffuse source. To harness it, we must concentrate it
into an amount and form that we can use, such as heat and electricity.
Addressed by approaching the problem through:
1) collection, 2) conversion, 3) storage.

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Solar Energy Utilization

H2O
O2
CO2

sugar
natural
photosynthesis

Solar Electric
.001 TW PV
$0.30/kWh w/o storage

1.5 TW electricity
$0.03-$0.06/kWh (fossil)

Solar Fuel
1.4 TW solar fuel (biomass)

11 TW fossil fuel
(present use)
~ 14 TW additional energy by 2050

50 - 200 C
space, water
heating

500 - 3000 C
heat engines
electricity generation
process heat

Solar Thermal
0.002 TW

2 TW
space and water
heating

How much solar energy?

The surface receives about 47% of the total

solar energy that reaches the Earth. Only this
amount is usable.

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Characteristics of Isolation

Isolation is the amount of solar

radiation reaching the earth. Also
called Incident Solar Radiation.
The suns energy is created from the
fusion of hydrogen nuclei into
helium nuclei.
Components of Solar Radiation:
Direct radiation
Diffuse radiation
Reflect radiation

Putting Solar Energy to Use:

Heating Water

Two methods of heating water:

passive (no moving parts) and
active (pumps).
In both, a flat-plate collector is
used to absorb the suns energy to
heat the water.
The water circulates throughout
the closed system due to
convection currents.
Tanks of hot water are used as
storage.

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Heating Water: Active System

Active System uses antifreeze so that the liquid does not

freeze if outside temp. drops below freezing.

ACTIVE SOLAR HEATING

SYSTEM

A system that uses water

or air that the sun has
heated and is then
circulated by a fan or
pump.
Three Types:

Flat Plate Collectors

Batch Water Heaters
Thermosiphon

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FLAT PLATE COLLECTORS

A thin flat metal plate is used

to absorb the suns radiation.
Tubes carry water into the
absorber plate where it is
heated by the sun and sent to
a pump or fan into storage
and distributed from there to
the living space.

BATCH WATER HEATERS

Pre-heats water using the sun

by having a black tank inside
an isolated box with a glass
cover.
Solar energy is absorbed
within the box to heat the
water.
The water outflow is sent
into a conventional water
heater for further heating.
They are also called BreadBox heaters.

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THERMOSIPHEN

This method places the

storage tank above the solar
collector.
Cold water is put into the
bottom of the storage tank
where it is circulated through
a flat plate collector and
pumped back into the top of
the storage tank. The heated
water can then be taken from
the top and used.

Heating WaterLast Thoughts

Efficiency of solar heating system is always less than 100% because:

% transmitted depends on angle of incidence,
Number of glass sheets (single glass sheet transmits 9095%), and
Composition of the glass
Solar water heating saves approx. 1000 megawatts of energy a yr, equivalent
to eliminating the emissions from two medium sized coal burning power
plants.
By using solar water heating over gas water heater, a family will save 1200
pounds of pollution each year.
Market for flat plate collectors grew in 1980s because of increasing fossil
fuels prices and federal tax credits. But by 1985, when these credits were
removed and fossil fuel prices were low, the demand for flat plate collectors
shrunk quickly.
While solar water heating is relatively low in the US, in other parts of the
world such as Cyprus (90%) and Israel (65%), it proves to be the predominate
form of water heating.

11/4/2016

PASSIVE SOLAR HEATING

SYSTEMS

The house itself acts as the solar collector and storage

facility.
No pumps or fans are used.
This system makes use of the materials of the house to
store and absorb heat.
Three Types:

Direct-Gain
Indirect-Gain
Attached Greenhouse

DIRECT-GAIN

Large south facing

windows that let in the
sunlight.
Thermal mass is used to
absorb the radiation.
At night the absorbed
heat is radiated back into
the living space.

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11/4/2016

INDIRECT-GAIN

Collects and stores the solar

energy in one part of the
house and use natural heat
transfer to distribute heat to
the rest of the house.
Popular method is to use a
Trombe Wall which is a
massive black masonry that
acts as a solar collector and a
heat storage medium.

ATTACHED GREENHOUSE

Uses a combination of
Direct and Indirect-Gain
systems that use water drums
and a masonry floor as heat
storage in the attached
greenhouse.
Thermosiphoning can use
direct-gain from the flow of
air created by the difference
in pressure between the less
dense warmer air of the
room and the cooler air near
the ground.

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11/4/2016

THERMAL ENERGY
STORAGE

Solar energy heating systems must be able to store

energy for night time use and for cloudy days.
Different materials absorb different amounts of heat.
Depending on the weather and the amount of thermal
energy stored will determine how long a house can
continue to be heated by the stored solar energy.
Phase-change material can be used to add additional
heat to the living space.

This House Uses an Active Air

System

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11/4/2016

Heating Living Spaces

Best design of a building is for it to act as a solar collector and

storage unit.
This is achieved through three elements:
1.
2.
3.

insulation,
collection, and
storage.

Efficient heating starts with proper insulation on external walls,

roof, and the floors.
The doors, windows, and vents must be designed to minimize
heat loss.
Collection: south-facing windows and appropriate landscaping.
Storage:
Thermal massholds heat.
Water= 62 BTU per cubic foot per degree F.
Iron=54, Wood (oak) =29, Brick=25, concrete=22, and loose
stone=20

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11/4/2016

Our First Energy Sources

2500 years ago the Greeks were

building what we now call passive
solar homes to take better advantage
of the suns light and warmth.
Around the same time, they also
developed waterwheels to grind grain, a
task previously done by hand or with
animal power.

City of Olynthus

Heating Living Spaces

Passive Solar

Passively heated
home in Colorado

Trombe Wall

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11/4/2016

Heating Living Spaces

A passively heated home uses about 60-75% of the solar energy

that hits its walls and windows.
The Center for Renewable Resources estimates that in almost
any climate, a well-designed passive solar home can reduce
energy bills by 75% with an added construction cost of only 510%.
About 25% of energy is used for water and space heating.
Major factor discouraging solar heating is low energy prices.

Solar-Thermal Electricity:
Power Towers

General idea is to collect the light from many reflectors

spread over a large area at one central point to achieve high
temperature.
Example is the 10-MW solar power plant in Barstow, CA.
1900 heliostats, each 20 ft by 20 ft
a central 295 ft tower
An energy storage system allows it to generate 7 MW of
electric power without sunlight.
Capital cost is greater than coal fired power plant, despite
the no cost for fuel, ash disposal, and stack emissions.
Capital costs are expected to decline as more and more
power towers are built with greater technological advances.
One way to reduce cost is to use the waste steam from the
turbine for space heating or other industrial processes.

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11/4/2016

Power Towers

Power tower in Barstow, California.

Solar-Thermal Electricity:
Parabolic Dishes and Troughs

Focus sunlight on a smaller receiver for each device; the

heated liquid drives a steam engine to generate electricity.
The first of these Solar Electric Generating Stations
(SEGS) was installed in CA by an Israeli company, Luz
International.
Output was 13.8 MW; cost was $6,000/peak kW and overall
efficiency was 25%.
Through federal and state tax credits, Luz was able to build
more SEGS, and improved reduced costs to $3,000/peak
kW and the cost of electricity from 25 cents to 8 cents per
kWh, barely more than the cost of nuclear or coal-fired
facilities.
The more recent facilities converted a remarkable 22% of
sunlight into electricity.

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11/4/2016

Parabolic Dishes and Troughs

Collectors in southern CA.

Because they work best under direct sunlight, parabolic
dishes and troughs must be steered throughout the day
in the direction of the sun.

Solar Thermal + Electrolyzer System

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11/4/2016

Photovoltaic Cells use

in Energy Production
How

cells are built

The Photoelectric Effect
Pros and Cons of PV

Direct Conversion into Electricity

Photovoltaic cells are capable of

directly converting sunlight into
electricity.
A simple wafer of silicon with
wires attached to the layers.
Current is produced based on
types of silicon (n- and p-types)
used for the layers. Each
cell=0.5 volts.
Battery needed as storage
No moving partsdo no wear
out, but because they are
exposed to the weather, their
lifespan is about 20 years.

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11/4/2016

Energy from the Sun is Abundant

Solar power
systems
installed in
the areas
defined by
the dark
disks could
meet the
world's
current total
energy

37
Source: http://www.ez2c.de/ml/solar_land_area/

Solar Cells are Converters of

Energy

Light energy

Solar cells are devices

that take light energy as
input and convert it
into electrical energy

Electrical energy
(carried through wires)
Solar cell converts light
energy to
electricity
Sources: http://www.econedlink.org/lessons/EM189/images/cartoon_tv.gif
38 http://emmagoodegg.blogs.com/thebeehive/images/lightbulb.jpg, http://www.torpedowire.com/solar.htm,
http://www.uoregon.edu/~stiedeke/a3/assignment03/a3/assignment_images/cartoon-sun.jpg

19

11/4/2016

But Not All Energy is

Converted
Like chloroplasts in plants, solar cells can only
absorb specific wavelengths of light.
In both, light that isnt absorbed is either transmitted
through or reflected back.
Whether a certain wavelength of lights gets
absorbed depends on its energy.

Chlorophyll molecules
absorb blue and red light,
but reflect green light

39
Source: http://ebiomedia.com/prod/cyclops/images/image004.jpg

A Little Background on Light

Different colors of light have different

wavelengths and different energies

40

Source: http://www.mhhe.com/physsci/astronomy/arny/instructor/graphics/ch03/0305.html

20

11/4/2016

Absorption of Light by Atoms

Absorption occurs only when the energy of
the light equals the energy of transition of
an electron
Single electron
in an isolated
transitionatom

Light

41

Sources: http://members.aol.com/WSRNet/tut/absorbu.htm, http://csep10.phys.utk.edu/astr162/lect/light/absorption.html

Absorption of Light by Molecules

Molecules have multiple

atoms bonded together
More energy states in
molecules than atoms
More electron jumps
possible - light with a
range of frequencies are
absorbed

Smallest DE possible

42

Source: Image adapted from http://www.3dchem.com/molecules.asp?ID=135#

21

11/4/2016

Absorption of Light by Ionic

Compounds

Electrons can
jump between
bands
Incident light
with energy
than the band
gap energy can
be used to excite
the electrons

43

Source: Image adapted from http://www.3dchem.com/molecules.asp?ID=135#

So What Does this Mean for Solar Cells?

In dye-sensitized solar
cells

Talk about highest

occupied molecular
orbital (HOMO) and
lowest unoccupied
orbitalsilicon
In molecular
single-crystal
(LUMO)
solar
cells

Talk about conduction

band (excited states)
and valence band
(ground states)

44

Source: Original Images

22

11/4/2016

Solar Paint

d
Fooling inexpensive particles into behaving as single crystals

)n
(

polymer donor
MDMO-PPV

fullerene acceptor
PCBM

OMe
O

inexpensive processing, conformal layers

A Closer Look at Solar Cells

How do
traditional, siliconbased solar cells
and newer, dyesensitized solar
cells work?
What are the
advantages and Dye-sensitized
disadvantages of
solar cell
each type of cell?

Silicon-based
solar cell

Sources:
46http://www.norfolksolar.co.uk/img/system.gif
http://www.powerlight.com/newsletters/news_issue/3/newsletter_industry.htm

23

11/4/2016

How a Silicon-Based Solar Cell

Works
Light with energy greater than the band gap energy
of Si is absorbed
Energy is given to an electron in the crystal lattice
The energy excites the electron; it is free to move
A positive hole
is left in the
electrons place
This separation of
electrons and holes
creates a voltage
and a current

Click image to launch animation

(requires web access)

47
Source: http://nanosense.org/activities/cleanenergy/solarcellanimation.html

Silicon-Based Solar Cell

Attributes

Expensive
Made in high vacuum at high
heat
High manufacturing costs

Need TLC

Fragile, rigid, thick

Long return on investment

Takes 4 years to produce

energy savings equivalent to
cost of production

48
Source: http://www.powerhousekids.com/stellent2/groups/public/documents/pub/phk_ee_re_001505-2.gif

24

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How a Dye-Sensitized Cell Works

Light with high enough energy excites electrons in
dye molecules
Excited electrons
infused into
semiconducting TiO2,
transported out of cell
Positive holes left in
dye molecules
Separation of excited
electrons and holes
creates a voltage

Click image to launch animation

(requires web access)

49
Source: http://nanosense.org/activities/cleanenergy/solarcellanimation.html

Dye-Sensitized and Silicon-based

Solar Cells Compared

Dye-Sensitized
Relatively inexpensive
Need little TLC
Short return on
investment

Traditional
Expensive
Need TLC
Long return on
investment

Sources:
50http://www.imo.uhasselt.be/polytech/images/zonnecel1.jpg
http://www.norfolksolar.co.uk/img/system.gif

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4 types of PV cells

Selective Emitter Cell (SEC)

Emitter wrap- through cells (EWC)
Thin Film Photovoltaic
Single Crystal Silicon Cells

Single-Crystal Silicon Cell

Construction

The majority of PV cells in use are the single-crystal silicon type.

Silica (SiO2) is the compound used to make the cells. It is first refined and
purified, then melted down and re-solidified so that it can be arranged in
perfect wafers for electric conduction. These wafers are very thin.
The wafers then have either Phosphorous or Boron added to make each
wafer either a negative type layer or a positive type layer respectively. Used
together these two types treated of crystalline silicon form the p-n junction
which is the heart of the solar electrical reaction.
Many of these types of cells are joined together to make arrays, the size of
each array is dependant upon the amount of sunlight in a given area.

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11/4/2016

How Does A Cell Become A Module?

A solar cell is the basic building block

of a PV system.
A typical cell produces .5 to 1V of
electricity.
Solar cells are combined together to
become modules or if large enough,
known as an array.
A structure to point the modules
towards the sun is necessary, as well as
electricity converters, which convert
DC power to AC.
All of these components allow the
system to power a water pump,
appliances, commercial sites, or even a
whole community.

The Photoelectric Effect

The photoelectric effect relies on the

principle that whenever light strikes the
surface of certain metals electrons are
released.
In the p-n junction the n-type wafer
treated with phosphorus has extra
electrons which flow into the holes in the
p-type layer that has been treated with
boron.
Connected by an external circuit
electrons flow from the n-side to create
electricity and end up in the p-side.

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11/4/2016

Photoelectric Effect

A picture of an typical silicon PV cell

Now a short video:
http://www.eere.energy.gov/solar/multimedia.html

Sunlight is the catalyst of the reaction.

The output current of this reaction is DC (direct) and the
amount of energy produced is directly proportional to the
amount of sunlight put in.
Cells only have an average efficiency of 30%

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Pros and Cons of Solar Electricity

Expensive to produce because of the high cost of semi- conducting materials, which
could be avoided by reducing manufacturing costs. The PV Manufacturing Research
and Development Project focuses on increasing manufacturing capacity so that the
cost of manufacturing will decrease. They aim to achieve break even costs.
However, solar energy contributes positively to the nations energy security because it
is produced domestically, reducing reliance on energy imports.

The industry is still relatively new and extremely

hi tech allowing for the creation of more jobs in
the American market.
The government has many incentives program
which vary from state to state, but they exist to
encourage investment in forms of alternative
energy.
Does not require the transportation of
hazardous materials across country.
Sunlight is a free abundant source!

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11/4/2016

Pros and Cons cont.

PV can be designed for a variety of applications

No noise or air pollution
Require minimal maintenance and have long
service life times.
Power can be either centralized in individual
homes or distributed by electrical companies.

How PV Systems Work

Stand-Alone Photovoltaic Systems
Grid-connected

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BREAKDOWN

PV systems are like any other electrical power generating

systems, except the equipment used to generate the power is
different.
Specific components required, and may include major
components such as a DC-AC power inverter, batteries, auxiliary
energy sources, sometimes the specified electrical load
(appliances), wiring, surge protection and other hardware.
Batteries are often used in PV systems for the purpose of storing
energy produced by the PV array during the day, and to supply it
to electrical loads as needed (during the night and periods of
cloudy weather). Also to keep the system at full operational
power

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Grid-connected or Utility-Connected

Grid-connected or utility-interactive PV systems are designed to

operate in parallel with and interconnected with the electric
utility grid.
These system contain an inverter, called a power conditioning
unit (PCU) which converts the DC power produced by the PV
array into AC power consistent with the voltage and power
quality requirements of the utility grid.
A bi-directional interface allows the AC power produced by the
PV system to either supply personal electrical loads, or return
power back to the grid when the PV system output is greater
than the personal demand.

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Stand-Alone PV Systems

Stand-alone PV systems are designed to operate independent of the electric

utility grid
Supply DC and/or AC electrical loads
The simplest type of stand-alone PV system is a direct-coupled system, where
the DC output of a PV module or array is directly connected to a DC load
Since there are no batteries involved in direct load systems, stand-alone PV
systems are suitable for such processes as heating and pumping water,
ventilation fans, etcAlthough they can only work in the day.
Stand-Alone systems may also power AC loads such as batteries. Like the AC
adapter which powers your laptop.

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The Grid and All of Its Glory

Net metering allows a home or business owner to sell electricity generated by PV

modules to the utility grid. This benefits both the consumer, and in some cases the
utility.
The electric meter will run backward when there is an excess of electricity needed to
power a building.
A safety measure cuts off the PV system from the grid in case of an emergency.
At the End of the Month, the Consumer will reek the benefits.

Benefits to The Economy, Environment, You, and Me

Americans yearn for reliable, clean,

abundant, affordable energy, and
safe energy.
Can prevent catastrophes such as
the blackout on Aug 14, 2003.
Businesses are in turn investing in
solar to avoid these instances
Solar electric power systems can be
easily sited at the point of use with
no environmental impact.
The current U.S. solar industry
employs some 20,000 men and
women in high-value, high-tech jobs,
representing about 300 companies,
universities, and utilities

Solar thermal collector shipments surged

34% in 2001 to 11.2 million square feet.

The total revenue for all shipments of solar

thermal collectors was $32.4 million in 2001,
up 18% from 2000.

Nearly 73% of all solar collectors are for

pool-heating applications.
Solar water heaters comprise the remaining
27% of U.S. solar thermal applications.

In 2001, the overall value of PV cell and PV

module shipments rose by 13% to $305
million.

In terms of price per peak megawatt, prices

have remained stable at $2.46 for PV cells
and $3.42 for PV modules.

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11/4/2016

Photovoltaic (PV) systemshave very little impact on the

environment, making them one of the cleanest power-generating
technologies available .
Solar power produces no air pollution.
Solar power produces no greenhouse gases, so it does not
contribute to global warming.

Production

Combinations of haz and non-haz materials +

High temperatures = high environmental cost
Cost decline as companies depend more on
solar for production of cells/modules

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11/4/2016

Life

Average 20-30 years

Efficiency decrease 1% a year.
Research on manufacturing and output
efficiency and recycling ongoing.
Payback or energy break even - 15 years.

After life

Waste generation lag due to life of technology

Heavy metals and toxic gases produced in
breakdown.
High temperatures

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Efficiency and Disadvantages

Efficiency is far lass than the

77% of solar spectrum with
usable wavelengths.
43% of photon energy is
used to warm the crystal.
Efficiency drops as
temperature increases (from
24% at 0C to 14% at 100C.)
Light is reflected off the
front face and internal
electrical resistance are other
factors.
Overall, the efficiency is
about 10-14%.

Cost of electricity from coalburning plants is anywhere b/w

8-20 cents/kWh, while
photovoltaic power generation is
anywhere b/w $0.50-1/kWh.
Does not reflect the true costs
of burning coal and its
emissions to the nonpolluting
method of the latter.
Underlying problem is weighing
efficiency against cost.
Crystalline silicon-more
efficient, more expensive to
manufacture
Amorphous silicon-half as
efficient, less expensive to
produce.

Example of Progressive policy

EU End of Life of Vehicles Policy.

PV Industry has a pro-active approach to energy
saving/environmental benefit increase etc.
Policy can be created like ELV to encourage
manufacturers to incorporate breakdown into
production.

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11/4/2016

Things to consider when looking at

technologies

Payback or breakeven is important (Energy

produced by technology - energy used in
production <per unit/ unit of time>)
Less hazardous materials.
More easily taken apart if constructed with several
detachable components which could be recycled or
smelted.

Solar Energy Organizations

International solar energy society (ISES)
Founded in 1954
A UN accredited non-government organization
Exists in over 50 countries
Promoting international development of solar energy
Holds a biannual solar world congress, the next will be
held next year in Orlando Florida

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American Solar Energy Society

The American Chapter of the International Energy

Society
-Located in Boulder CO
- Nations Largest and Oldest Membership
Organization for Renewable Energy
-Sponsors the National Solar Energy Conference: Held
July 10-14, Portland OR
-Publishes the Bimonthly Magazine Solar Today
-Organizes the Annual National Solar Tour
-Organizes the Solar Action Network

Solar Energy Industries Association (SEIA)

-Provides funding and research for solar advancement technologies

-Political group that spends much energy lobbying on behalf of
solar power and other renewable resources
-14 state SEIA Organizations

Solar Energy Business Association of New England

(SEBANE)
-Centered in Boston, MA; services the entire New England Area

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Vermont Based Solar Providers

Vermont Solar Businesses that are Members of SEBANE:

Northern Power Systems
Northern Power Systems designs, builds and installs high
reliability electric power systems. Northern has installed over 800
systems worldwide in the past 25 years, earning a reputation for
delivering top-quality energy solutions. Northern provides
photovoltaic, wind and wind/diesel hybrid power for
commercial, industrial, institutional and government clients.

Vermont Based Solar Providers

Solar Works, Inc.

Since 1980, Solar Works, Inc., has provided renewable energy services and equipment
to government agencies, utilities, private businesses, homeowners, and not-for-profit
organizations in the United States and overseas. As a full-service renewable energy
firm, Solar Works maintains sales offices in California, Connecticut, Maine, Maryland,
Massachusetts, New Hampshire, New Jersey, New York, Rhode Island, and Vermont.
Our experience includes: program development, project management, and the design
and installation of Photovoltaic (Solar Electric or PV) Systems, Solar Thermal Systems
(both active and passive), High-efficiency Lighting and Heating systems, and smallscale Wind Turbines.

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Vermont Based Solar Companies

Sunnyside Solar, Inc.

Sunnyside Solar, Inc. is a full service photovoltaic company specializing in
line-tie and stand alone photovoltaic systems. Design, & engineering,
equipment sales, full service & installation capabilities. Educational programs
seminars and workshops. Sunnyside Solar, Inc. The gentle electric company.
We bring good things from light!
Sunrise Solar Service
Sunrise Solar Service installs, sells, and services domestic hot water systems,
pool heating, water pumping, lighting systems, and system components and
supplies.

Solar Potential
More solar energy hits the earth in
one hour than all of humanity
consumes in a year!

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The End

Sources

http://www.eere.energy.gov/solar/photovoltaics.html
http://www.fsec.ucf.edu/pvt/pvbasics/index.htm84
http://www.brookes.ac.uk/eie/elv.htm
http://www.environmentaldefense.org/documents/894_
GC_takeback.htm

42