Electric

Propulsion I
Lecture II

Introduction
Constant and
Uniform
Fields
Inhomogeneous
Fields
Time
Varying
Fields

Electric Propulsion I
F. Paganucci, T. Andreussi

Lecture II: Charged Particle Motion

Civil and Industrial Engineering Department

University of Pisa
Aerospace Engineering, A.Y. 2016/2017

Electric
Propulsion I

Contact

Lecture II

Introduction
Constant and
Uniform
Fields
Inhomogeneous
Fields
Time
Varying
Fields

e-mail
tommaso.andreussi@ing.unipi.it

Electric
Propulsion I

Outline

Lecture II

Introduction
Constant and
Uniform
Fields
Inhomogeneous
Fields
Time
Varying
Fields

Introduction

Constant and Uniform Fields

Inhomogeneous Fields

Time Varying Fields

Electric
Propulsion I

Introduction

Lecture II

Introduction

Motion
equation
Energy
conservation

Constant and
Uniform
Fields
Inhomogeneous
Fields
Time
Varying
Fields

What is the eect of electromagnetic elds on plasma

behaviour?

The plasma behaviour is based, ultimately, on the motions

of the constituent particles.

When collisions between plasma particles are rare, the

motion of a single particle is governed by the Lorentz force.

For simple congurations of the electromagnetic elds,

exact solutions of the motion equation can be obtained.

The analysis of the particles motion will highlight the

fundamental time and distance scales of magnetized
plasmas: the cyclotron frequency

and Larmor radius

rL .

Electric
Propulsion I

Motion equation

Lecture II

Introduction

Motion
equation
Energy
conservation

Constant and
Uniform
Fields

q,

under

the action of the Lorentz force, takes the form

Inhomogeneous
Fields
Time
Varying
Fields

The equation of motion for a particle of charge

dv
= q (E + v B) .
dt

If both the electric eld

(1)

and the magnetic eld

known functions of the space

and time

t,

are

the particles

motion can be obtained from the integration of Eq. (1).

Note, however, that the plasma dynamics typically aects

the electromagnetic elds.

Electric
Propulsion I

Energy conservation

Lecture II

Introduction

Motion
equation
Energy
conservation

d
dt

Inhomogeneous
Fields
Time
Varying
Fields

Taking the scalar product of the motion equation and the

particle velocity we obtain the energy conservation equation

Constant and
Uniform
Fields

1
2

mv

= q v E.

In the absence of electric elds, the equation reduces to

d
dt

1
2

mv


= 0,

which corresponds to the fact that a static magnetic eld

does no work on the particle.

Electric
Propulsion I

Energy conservation

Lecture II

Introduction

Motion
equation
Energy
conservation

B/ t = 0,

using the Faraday's

law we can write the electric eld in terms of the electric

potential

Constant and
Uniform
Fields
Inhomogeneous
Fields

For static magnetic elds,

Time
Varying
Fields

E = 0

The energy conservation equation then results

d
dt

E =

1
2

mv

= q v E = q v .

A particle moving with velocity

potential equal to

sees a change of electric

= v , hence we obtain


d 1 2
mv + q = 0.
dt 2
d
dt

Electric
Propulsion I

Electric eld

Lecture II

Introduction
Constant and
Uniform
Fields

be easily integrated from

Electric eld
Magnetic eld
Electric and
magnetic
elds
External force
Examples

Inhomogeneous
Fields

The motion of a particle in a uniform electrostatic eld can

dv
= q E.
dt

(2)

The motion is uniformly accelerated along the direction of

the electric eld

Time
Varying
Fields

v = v0 +

q
Et
m

r = r0 + v0 t +

q 2
Et
2m
1

In the directions perpendicular to the electric eld there is

no force and the particles maintain their initial velocities.

Electric
Propulsion I

Magnetic eld

Lecture II

Introduction
Constant and
Uniform
Fields

Electric eld
Magnetic eld
Electric and
magnetic
elds
External force
Examples

The equation of motion in a region where there is only a

uniform magnetostatic eld can be written as

Inhomogeneous
Fields
Time
Varying
Fields

dv
= q (v B) .
dt

(3)

We know that the magnetic force acts perpendicularly to

the particle velocity and that the particle energy is
conserved.

Electric
Propulsion I

Magnetic eld

Lecture II

Introduction
Constant and
Uniform
Fields

Electric eld
Magnetic eld
Electric and
magnetic
elds
External force
Examples

Inhomogeneous
Fields
Time
Varying
Fields

To deduce the particle motion it is convenient to analyse

the dierent components of the vectorial equation, studing
separately the component parallel to the magnetic eld and
the components perpendicular to

B.

Electric
Propulsion I

Magnetic eld

Lecture II

Introduction
Constant and
Uniform
Fields

Electric eld
Magnetic eld
Electric and
magnetic
elds
External force
Examples

The equation of motion in the direction parallel to

simply results

d vk
= 0,
dt

Inhomogeneous
Fields

which implies that in this direction the motion is

Time
Varying
Fields

with uniform velocity.

(4)

unaected by the magnetic eld and the particle moves

The equation of motion in the plane perpendicular to

instead

d v
= q (v B) .
dt

is

(5)

Electric
Propulsion I

Magnetic eld

Lecture II

Introduction
Constant and
Uniform
Fields

Electric eld
Magnetic eld
Electric and
magnetic
elds
External force
Examples

Since the magnetic eld is uniform and constant and

v = d rc /dt ,
m

Inhomogeneous
Fields
Time
Varying
Fields

where

rc

point

G,

the equation can be easily integrated

d v
= q (v B)
dt

v = rc

q
B
m

is the particle position vector, with respect to a

that satises the initial conditions.

The particle rotates around the center of gyration with

uniform velocity.

Electric
Propulsion I

Magnetic eld

Lecture II

Introduction
Constant and
Uniform
Fields

Electric eld
Magnetic eld
Electric and
magnetic
elds
External force
Examples

Inhomogeneous
Fields
Time
Varying
Fields

The point

The frequency of gyration

is called the

gyrofrequency

or

guiding center

of the particle.

|c | = |q| B/m,

also called

Larmor frequency, is uniform and

opposite for particles with dierent charges.

The radius of the gyration orbit is

called

cyclotron radius

or

rc = mv / (qB)

Larmor radius.
B
c

(+)
rc

rc

(-)
c

and is

Electric
Propulsion I

Magnetic eld

Lecture II

Introduction
Constant and
Uniform
Fields

Electric eld
Magnetic eld
Electric and
magnetic
elds
External force
Examples

Cartesian coordinate system oriented so that

direction of

(i.e.

B = B k

is in the

).

The motion is thus governed by the three equations

Inhomogeneous
Fields
Time
Varying
Fields

A formal way to solve the motion equation is to consider a

dvx
= qBvy ,
dt

dvy
= qBvx ,
dt

dvz
= 0.
dt

By taking the time derivative of the rst equation and

substituting the second, we obtain an equation for

d 2 vx
+ c2 vx = 0.
dt 2

A similar equation can be derived for

vy .

vx

alone

Electric
Propulsion I

Magnetic eld

Lecture II

Introduction
Constant and
Uniform
Fields

Electric eld
Magnetic eld
Electric and
magnetic
elds
External force
Examples

Inhomogeneous
Fields

The equation

d 2 vx
+ c2 vx = 0,
dt 2

is the equation of a harmonic oscillator and the solution

can be written as

Time
Varying
Fields

vx = v cos (c t + 0 )
where

is the phase that corresponds to the initial

conditions.

Electric
Propulsion I

Magnetic eld

Lecture II

Introduction
Constant and
Uniform
Fields

Electric eld
Magnetic eld
Electric and
magnetic
elds
External force
Examples

Inhomogeneous
Fields
Time
Varying
Fields

For

vy
m

we obtain a similar expression

dvy
= qBvx ,
dt

vy = v sin (c t + 0 ) ,

where the sign depends on the particle charge (+ and

refers to electrons and ions respectively).

Electric
Propulsion I

Magnetic eld

Lecture II

Introduction
Constant and
Uniform
Fields

Electric eld
Magnetic eld
Electric and
magnetic
elds
External force
Examples

We can integrate the equation once more to obtain the

particle trajectory

v
sin (c t + 0 ) ,
c
v
y y0 = cos (c t + 0 ) ,
c
x x0 =

Inhomogeneous
Fields
Time
Varying
Fields

where

x0

and

Notice that

y0

are constants of integration.

(x x0 )2 + (y y0 )2 = rc2

where we introduced again the Larmor radius

rc = v /c .

Electric
Propulsion I

Magnetic eld

Lecture II

Introduction
Constant and
Uniform
Fields

Electric eld
Magnetic eld
Electric and
magnetic
elds
External force
Examples

Inhomogeneous
Fields
Time
Varying
Fields

The values

x0

and

y0

guiding center in the

represent the coordinates of the

(x, y )

plane.

The ions gyrate in the lefthanded sense, the electrons are

right-handed.

Electric
Propulsion I

Magnetic eld

Lecture II

Introduction
Constant and
Uniform
Fields

Electric eld
Magnetic eld
Electric and
magnetic
elds
External force
Examples

If the particle has an initial velocity also along the

magnetic eld, this remains constant and the particle
follows a helicoidal trajectory.

Inhomogeneous
Fields
Time
Varying
Fields

Bittencourt (2004), Sec. 4.2

Electric
Propulsion I

Magnetic moment

Lecture II

Introduction
Constant and
Uniform
Fields

Electric eld
Magnetic eld
Electric and
magnetic
elds
External force
Examples

Inhomogeneous
Fields
Time
Varying
Fields

The spiralling particles are themselves current loops and

generate their own magnetic induction.

If we consider the magnetic induction generated by an ion,

it is clear that inside the orbit the induction is out of the
page, opposite the direction of
electrons - opposite

opposite

B.
q.

The same is true for

Electric
Propulsion I

Magnetic moment

Lecture II

Introduction
Constant and
Uniform
Fields

The current owing in the loop is

I = qc /2

and the

2
loop area is A = rc , so that the magnetic dipole moment

Electric eld
Magnetic eld
Electric and
magnetic
elds
External force
Examples

IA

(proportional to the excluded magnetic ux

= IA =

Inhomogeneous
Fields

mv2
,
2B

BA)

is

(6)

which is proportional to the perpendicular kinetic energy

Time
Varying
Fields

over the eld strength.

The important point here is that plasmas are

diamagnetic

 all particle-generated uxes add to reduce the ambient

eld.

Electric
Propulsion I

Magnetic moment

Lecture II

Introduction
Constant and
Uniform
Fields

Electric eld
Magnetic eld
Electric and
magnetic
elds
External force
Examples

Inhomogeneous
Fields
Time
Varying
Fields

The total change in

is proportional to the total

perpendicular charged particle kinetic energy. The greater

the plasma thermal energy, the more it excludes the
magnetic eld.

A loop external to the plasma and encircling it will

measure the ux excluded by the plasma as the particles
are heated. This is a very fundamental way to measure the
perpendicular thermal energy stored in the plasma.

Electric
Propulsion I

Electric and magnetic elds

Lecture II

Introduction
Constant and
Uniform
Fields

Electric eld
Magnetic eld
Electric and
magnetic
elds
External force
Examples

presence of both electric and magnetic elds that are

constant in time and spatially uniform

Inhomogeneous
Fields
Time
Varying
Fields

We consider now the motion of a charged particle in the

dv
= q (E + v B) .
dt

(7)

As we have done for the magnetostatic case, it is useful to

separate the equation in its components parallel and
perpendicular to the magnetic eld.

In this way, we can analyse separately the particle motion in

the parallel direction and in the plane perpendicular to B.

Electric
Propulsion I

Electric and magnetic elds

Lecture II

Introduction
Constant and
Uniform
Fields

Electric eld
Magnetic eld
Electric and
magnetic
elds
External force
Examples

Inhomogeneous
Fields
Time
Varying
Fields

First, we analyse the case in which the electric and

magnetic eld are aligned, i.e. there is no electric eld in
the perpendicular plane.

The particle motion is thus the combination of the

uniformly accelerated motion of the electrostatic case
along the magnetic eld (which has no eects on the
parallel motion) and the gyration motion of the
magnetostatic case in the perpendicular plane.

Electric
Propulsion I

Electric and magnetic elds

Lecture II

Introduction
Constant and
Uniform
Fields

Electric eld
Magnetic eld
Electric and
magnetic
elds
External force
Examples

Inhomogeneous
Fields
Time
Varying
Fields

Next, we analyse the case in which the electric and

magnetic eld are orthogonal to each other.

We can neglect the motion along the magnetic eld, which

results in a uniform translation with velocity

vk ,

focus our attention on the perpendicular plane.

E
rc

and we

Electric
Propulsion I

Electric and magnetic elds

Lecture II

Introduction

Constant and
Uniform
Fields

rc

=const

Electric eld
Magnetic eld
Electric and
magnetic
elds
External force
Examples

Inhomogeneous
Fields
Time
Varying
Fields

increasing

When the ion moves in the direction of

and the radius of its orbit increases (rc

it is accelerated

= v /c );

but

when the ion moves against the eld the radius decreases.

When the ion moves downwards, the velocity is greater

(the ion is in a zone with lower electric potential) than
when the particles moves upwards.

Electric
Propulsion I

Electric and magnetic elds

Lecture II

Introduction

Constant and
Uniform
Fields

Electric eld
Magnetic eld
Electric and
magnetic
elds
External force
Examples

vE

Inhomogeneous
Fields
Time
Varying
Fields

The result is that the ion executes a cycloidal motion with

guiding centre drifting in the direction perpendicular to
both

and

B.

For the electrons the cycloidal orbits are smaller (smaller

mass).

Electric
Propulsion I

Electric and magnetic elds

Lecture II

Introduction

Constant and
Uniform
Fields

Electric eld
Magnetic eld
Electric and
magnetic
elds
External force
Examples

vE

Inhomogeneous
Fields
Time
Varying
Fields

Electrons and ions drift in the same direction: the electron

has opposite charge but also gyrates in the opposite
direction with respect to the ions

The drift velocity for electrons and ions is the same:

electrons drift less per cycle but execute more cycles per
unit time.

Electric
Propulsion I

Electric and magnetic elds

Lecture II

Introduction
Constant and
Uniform
Fields

Electric eld
Magnetic eld
Electric and
magnetic
elds
External force
Examples

Inhomogeneous
Fields

Let us consider the equation of motion in the perpendicular

plane

d v
= q (E + v B) .
dt

(8)

We rewrite the particle velocity as the sum of two terms

v = vE + vc ,

Time
Varying
Fields

where

vE

is a constant drift velocity (here we are not

making any assumption on the drift direction or on its

module).

Electric
Propulsion I

Electric and magnetic elds

Lecture II

Introduction
Constant and
Uniform
Fields

vE

is a constant velocity, the equation of motion in

the perpendicular plane can be rewritten as

Electric eld
Magnetic eld
Electric and
magnetic
elds
External force
Examples

Inhomogeneous
Fields

Since

d vc
= q (E + vE B) + q vc B.
dt

Now, we can dene

vE

(9)

in order to cancel the rst term on

the right side

Time
Varying
Fields

E + vE B = 0,

vE =

EB
B2

The remaining terms of Eq. (9) can be integrated as for

the simple gyration motion.

Electric
Propulsion I

Electric and magnetic elds

Lecture II

Introduction
Constant and
Uniform
Fields

Electric eld
Magnetic eld
Electric and
magnetic
elds
External force
Examples

Inhomogeneous
Fields
Time
Varying
Fields

The particle motion is thus composed of a Larmor gyration

around the guiding center superimposed to a drift of the
guiding center in the direction perpendicular to both the
electric and magnetic elds (the so-called electromagnetic
drift or 

E-cross-B 

drift).

The expression obtained for the drift velocity is

independent of the species charge and mass

vE =

EB
B2

Electric
Propulsion I

Electric and magnetic elds

Lecture II

Introduction
Constant and
Uniform
Fields

Electric eld
Magnetic eld
Electric and
magnetic
elds
External force
Examples

Inhomogeneous
Fields
Time
Varying
Fields

We can now consider the total particle motion in a region

with uniform electric and magnetic elds.

The motion is composed of three parts

v = vk +
along B

|{z}

E
|{z}

perpendicular drift

+ vc
|{z}

gyration

Electric
Propulsion I

Rotation of a Cylindrical Plasma

Lecture II

Introduction
Constant and
Uniform
Fields

Electric eld
Magnetic eld
Electric and
magnetic
elds
External force
Examples

Inhomogeneous
Fields
Time
Varying
Fields

A radial electric eld imposed between cylindrical

electrodes across a plasma immersed in an axial magnetic
eld will cause the plasma to rotate in the azimuthal
direction

Electric
Propulsion I

Hall current

Lecture II

Introduction
Constant and
Uniform
Fields

Electric eld
Magnetic eld
Electric and
magnetic
elds
External force
Examples

Inhomogeneous
Fields
Time
Varying
Fields

In a collisionless plasma the drift velocity does not imply

an electric current, since both positive and negative
particles move together.

If the magnetic eld is low enough that the ions are non
magnetized, i.e. the ion Larmor radius is large compared to
the typical length scale, while the electrons are magnetized,
the electron drift generate the so-called

Hall current.

Electric
Propulsion I

Hall parameter

Lecture II

Introduction
Constant and
Uniform
Fields

Electric eld
Magnetic eld
Electric and
magnetic
elds
External force
Examples

Inhomogeneous
Fields
Time
Varying
Fields

What happens to the particle motion if there are collisions?

In a region of uniform electric and magnetic elds, the

particle rotates around its guiding centre and drifts with
the

ExB

velocity.

Electric
Propulsion I

Hall parameter

Lecture II

Introduction
Constant and
Uniform
Fields

Electric eld
Magnetic eld
Electric and
magnetic
elds
External force
Examples

Inhomogeneous
Fields
Time
Varying
Fields

collision

E
vE

vC
v0

When electrons collides with heavy particles (neutrals), the

velocity after the collision is scattered in a random
direction buf on average the electron loses all its
momentum, i.e.

ve = 0

after the collision.

Electric
Propulsion I

Hall parameter

Lecture II

Introduction
Constant and
Uniform
Fields

Electric eld
Magnetic eld
Electric and
magnetic
elds
External force
Examples

vE

vC

Inhomogeneous
Fields
Time
Varying
Fields

collision

vC

vE

v0

The electric eld then accelerates the electron and the

combined gyration and drift motion is set up again.

However, it is important to notice that, after the collision,

the electron guiding centre moved along the electric eld
(in the opposite direction, due to the particle charge).

Electric
Propulsion I

Hall parameter

Lecture II

Introduction
Constant and
Uniform
Fields

Electric eld
Magnetic eld
Electric and
magnetic
elds
External force
Examples

collision

Inhomogeneous
Fields
Time
Varying
Fields

The rario between the gyration frequency and the

electron-heavy particles collision frequency is called the

Hall parameter

c
vE
=
= tan ( )
e
e rc

Electric
Propulsion I

External force

Lecture II

Introduction
Constant and
Uniform
Fields

Electric eld
Magnetic eld
Electric and
magnetic
elds
External force
Examples

Inhomogeneous
Fields
Time
Varying
Fields

If an additional external force is present, the particle

motion can be deduced from

We assume that

dv
= q (E + v B) + F.
dt

is uniform and constant. In analogy

with the electromagnetic drift velocity

(10)

vE , we can solve the

motion equation by introducing a drift velocity that

balances the additional force in the perpendicular plane

v = vc + vE + vF ,

d vc
= q vc B + (q vF B + F)
dt

Electric
Propulsion I

External force

Lecture II

Introduction
Constant and
Uniform
Fields

Electric eld
Magnetic eld
Electric and
magnetic
elds
External force
Examples

and

B,

the drift velocity results

q vF B + F = 0,

Inhomogeneous
Fields
Time
Varying
Fields

Taking the cross product between the term in the bracket

vF =

FB
qB 2

The drift velocity depends on the charge of the particle,

particles with opposite charge drift in opposite directions.
The force thus generates an electric current associated
with the drift velocity.

Electric
Propulsion I

The mass spectrometer

Lecture II

Introduction
Constant and
Uniform
Fields

Electric eld
Magnetic eld
Electric and
magnetic
elds
External force
Examples

Inhomogeneous
Fields

The theory of charged particle motion in uniform elds can

be eectively used to measure a particle mass.

A simple scheme of a mass spectrometer is illustrated in

the picture below
acceleration region
B
neutral
particles

Time
Varying
Fields

ionization chamber
deflection region

detector

Electric
Propulsion I

The mass spectrometer

Lecture II

Introduction
Constant and
Uniform
Fields

Electric eld
Magnetic eld
Electric and
magnetic
elds
External force
Examples

Inhomogeneous
Fields
Time
Varying
Fields

In order to measure the mass spectrum of a sample, the

neutral sample particles are ionized by means of electron
bombardment.

neutral
particles

ionization chamber

Electric
Propulsion I

The mass spectrometer

Lecture II

Introduction
Constant and
Uniform
Fields

Electric eld
Magnetic eld
Electric and
magnetic
elds
External force
Examples

The charged particles, which after the ionization posses a

negligible velocity, are then extracted from the ionization
chamber and accelerated by an imposed electric eld.

acceleration region

Inhomogeneous
Fields
Time
Varying
Fields

Electric
Propulsion I

The mass spectrometer

Lecture II

Introduction
Constant and
Uniform
Fields

Electric eld
Magnetic eld
Electric and
magnetic
elds
External force
Examples

Given the voltage dierence

across the acceleration

region, using the energy conservation the ions velocity at

the end of the region results

Inhomogeneous
Fields

va =

Time
Varying
Fields

where

indicates the charge state (singly or doubly

ionized particles) and

2ZeV

is the elementary charge value.

Notice that the velocity is a function of the mass-to-charge

ratio

M/Ze .

Electric
Propulsion I

The mass spectrometer

Lecture II

Introduction
Constant and
Uniform
Fields

Electric eld
Magnetic eld
Electric and
magnetic
elds
External force
Examples

The collimated ion beam that exits from the acceleration

region is then deected by a magnetic eld orthogonal to
the particles velocity.
B

Inhomogeneous
Fields
Time
Varying
Fields

deflection region

Electric
Propulsion I

The mass spectrometer

Lecture II

Introduction

Constant and
Uniform
Fields

Electric eld
Magnetic eld
Electric and
magnetic
elds
External force
Examples

deflection region

Inhomogeneous
Fields
Time
Varying
Fields

Given a specic value of the magnetic induction

B,

the

radius of gyration depends on the mass-to-charge ratio

Mva
rc =
=
ZeB

M
Ze

V
.
B

Electric
Propulsion I

The mass spectrometer

Lecture II

Introduction
Constant and
Uniform
Fields

Electric eld
Magnetic eld
Electric and
magnetic
elds
External force
Examples

Inhomogeneous
Fields
Time
Varying
Fields

By varying the magnetic eld intensity we can deect a

specic ion stream in order to hit the detector.
acceleration region
B
neutral
particles

ionization chamber
deflection region

detector

Electric
Propulsion I

The mass spectrometer

Lecture II

Introduction
Constant and
Uniform
Fields

Electric eld
Magnetic eld
Electric and
magnetic
elds
External force
Examples

current proportional to the number of impinging particles.

By varying the magnetic eld intensity, the mass

spectrometer can assess the current associated with

Inhomogeneous
Fields
Time
Varying
Fields

The ions that arrive on the detector surface generate a

dierent mass-to-charge ratios.

Assuming that only singly charged ions are present, the

mass spectrometer measures the mass and the relative
abundance of the dierent particles of a sample.

Electric
Propulsion I

The E B probe

Lecture II

Introduction
Constant and
Uniform
Fields

Electric eld
Magnetic eld
Electric and
magnetic
elds
External force
Examples

In the electrostatic acceleration process (typical of many

electric propulsion systems), ion velocities at the end of the
acceleration stage are proportional to the charge state

r
va =

Inhomogeneous
Fields
Time
Varying
Fields

2ZeV

A method to select particles with a given velocity, and thus

dierentiate between charge states, is the

E B

probe, or

Wien lter.

Species fractions can be determined from the amount of

current the probe collects at each velocity.

Electric
Propulsion I

The E B probe

Lecture II

Introduction
Constant and
Uniform
Fields

Electric eld
Magnetic eld
Electric and
magnetic
elds
External force
Examples

A simple scheme of the

E B

probe is shown in the gure

below, a collimated beam of charged particles enters a

region with orthogonal electric and magnetic elds

Inhomogeneous
Fields
Time
Varying
Fields

Electric
Propulsion I

The E B probe

Lecture II

Introduction
Constant and
Uniform
Fields

Electric eld
Magnetic eld
Electric and
magnetic
elds
External force
Examples

The electric eld is typically obtained by applying a voltage

Vprobe between two parallel plates separated by

distance d , whereas the magnetic eld is generated

dierence
a gap

by permanent magnets.

As described in the previous section, the particle motion is

given by the solution of

Inhomogeneous
Fields

Time
Varying
Fields

dv
= q (E + v B) .
dt

For a generic velocity vector

(11)

the motion is a combination

of gyration and electromagnetic dift. The gyration motion

can be solved by considering the velocity

vg = v vE

Electric
Propulsion I

The E B probe

Lecture II

Introduction
Constant and
Uniform
Fields

If the ion Larmor radius is greater than the distance

between the plates, the motion in general is

Electric eld
Magnetic eld
Electric and
magnetic
elds
External force
Examples

Inhomogeneous
Fields

Time
Varying
Fields

What happens when the electric force equals the magnetic

force?

Electric
Propulsion I

The E B probe

Lecture II

Introduction
Constant and
Uniform
Fields

Electric eld
Magnetic eld
Electric and
magnetic
elds
External force
Examples

If

v = E /B ,

i.e. if

vg = 0,

the particle moves with a

uniform drift along the initial velocity direction and hits the
detector

Inhomogeneous
Fields
Time
Varying
Fields

Electric
Propulsion I

The E B probe

Lecture II

Introduction
Constant and
Uniform
Fields

Electric eld
Magnetic eld
Electric and
magnetic
elds
External force
Examples

Inhomogeneous
Fields
Time
Varying
Fields

Changing the applied voltage

Vprobe ,

the probe measures

the current associated with dierent charge states and thus

dierent particle velocities

v=

Vprobe
.
Bd

Electric
Propulsion I

Nonuniform Magnetic Field

Lecture II

Introduction
Constant and
Uniform
Fields
Inhomogeneous
Fields

Nonuniform
Magnetic
Field
Gradient Drift
Curvature
Drift
Parallel Force
Examples

Time
Varying
Fields

For generic elds, nonuniform and/or time varying elds,

the equation of the particle motion becomes nonlinear.

A solution of the motion equation can only be obtained

through numerical integration.

However, approximate solutions can be found if we consider

elds that are

almost

uniform and constant in time.

Electric
Propulsion I

Nonuniform Magnetic Field

Lecture II

Introduction
Constant and
Uniform
Fields
Inhomogeneous
Fields

Nonuniform
Magnetic
Field
Gradient Drift
Curvature
Drift
Parallel Force
Examples

Time
Varying
Fields

The idea behind the approximation is that, if the elds are

only

slightly

inhomogeneous, the particle motion can be

described, as in the uniform elds case, in terms of gyration

around the guiding centre plus a guiding centre drift.

It is essential, however, to dene what is the meaning of

slightly

inhomogeneous.

For the particle orbit to remain close to the circular

cyclotron motion, the variation of the magnetic eld along
the orbit has to be small compared to the eld magnitude.

Electric
Propulsion I

Nonuniform Magnetic Field

Lecture II

Introduction
Constant and
Uniform
Fields

Inhomogeneous
Fields

Nonuniform
Magnetic
Field
Gradient Drift
Curvature
Drift
Parallel Force
Examples

Time
Varying
Fields

The typical length scale of the particle orbit is given by the

Larmor radius, hence the condition on the magnetic eld
results

B ' rc |B|  B

If this condition is satised, we can assume that the

particles gyrate as described in the magnetostatic case and
we can focus our attention on the guiding centre drift.

For the same reason, the electric eld has to be small, such
that the eld variation seen during the
negligible.

E B

drift is

Electric
Propulsion I

Nonuniform Magnetic Field

Lecture II

Introduction

Constant and
Uniform
Fields
Inhomogeneous
Fields

Nonuniform
Magnetic
Field
Gradient Drift
Curvature
Drift
Parallel Force
Examples

Time
Varying
Fields

The eects of the magnetic eld spatial variations,

averaged along a particle orbit, will produce a net force
acting on the particle.

Let us assume that the eld at the initial guiding centre

position is in the

direction

B0 = B0 z.

Near the initial position, the magnetic eld can be

expressed by a Taylor expansion

B (r) = B0 z + r (B) ,
where

(12)

is the position with respect to the guiding centre

and the tensor

eld variation.

represents the innitesimal magnetic

Electric
Propulsion I

Nonuniform Magnetic Field

Lecture II

Introduction
Constant and
Uniform
Fields
Inhomogeneous
Fields

Nonuniform
Magnetic
Field
Gradient Drift
Curvature
Drift
Parallel Force
Examples

The magnetic eld is a vector eld, its variation

typically comprises nine components

Time
Varying
Fields
divergence terms
Bx/ x, By/ y, Bz/ z

gradient terms
Bz/ x, Bz/ y

curvature (and gradient) terms

Bx/ z, By/ z

Electric
Propulsion I

Nonuniform Magnetic Field

Lecture II

Introduction
Constant and
Uniform
Fields
Inhomogeneous
Fields

equation

Nonuniform
Magnetic
Field
Gradient Drift
Curvature
Drift
Parallel Force
Examples

Time
Varying
Fields

Divergence terms are linked together by the divergence

B = 0

Bx By Bz
+
+
=0
x
y
z

Gradient terms are typically associated with curvature

terms (for vacuum elds,
irrotational

B = 0).

j = 0,

the eld has to be

Electric
Propulsion I

Nonuniform Magnetic Field

Lecture II

Introduction
Constant and
Uniform
Fields

Inhomogeneous
Fields

Nonuniform
Magnetic
Field
Gradient Drift
Curvature
Drift
Parallel Force
Examples

Time
Varying
Fields

Let us assume that there is no electric eld and

vk = 0,

the

motion equation is

dv
= q (v B) .
dt

(13)

By introducing the Taylor expansion of the magnetic eld

we obtain

dv
= q (v B0 ) + q v [r (B)] .
dt

Electric
Propulsion I

Nonuniform Magnetic Field

Lecture II

Introduction
Constant and
Uniform
Fields

Inhomogeneous
Fields

Nonuniform
Magnetic
Field
Gradient Drift
Curvature
Drift
Parallel Force
Examples

Time
Varying
Fields

Then, we assume that the particle position and velocity

can be written in terms of the uniform eld solution plus
a rst order correction

r = r(0) + r(1) ,

v = v(0) + v(1)

Retaining the rst order terms, the equation of motion

results

h
i
dv
= q (v B0 ) + q v(0) r(0) (B) .
dt

Electric
Propulsion I

Nonuniform Magnetic Field

Lecture II

Introduction
Constant and
Uniform
Fields
Inhomogeneous
Fields

Nonuniform
Magnetic
Field
Gradient Drift
Curvature
Drift
Parallel Force
Examples

Time
Varying
Fields

The additional force term depends on the particle position

and vary along the orbit

F = q v(0) r(0) (B)

It is important to notice that the force has both a

component parallel to
perpendicular plane.

and a component in the

Electric
Propulsion I

Gradient terms

Lecture II

Introduction
Constant and
Uniform
Fields
Inhomogeneous
Fields

Nonuniform
Magnetic
Field
Gradient Drift
Curvature
Drift
Parallel Force
Examples

Time
Varying
Fields

First, let us consider the simple case in which the magnetic

eld is in the

direction and its variation is along the

axis

Electric
Propulsion I

Gradient terms

Lecture II

Introduction
Constant and
Uniform
Fields

x (0) Bz / x

Inhomogeneous
Fields

z,

r(0) B

is

the additional force term results

F = q v(0) r(0) (B)

Nonuniform
Magnetic
Field
Gradient Drift
Curvature
Drift
Parallel Force
Examples

Time
Varying
Fields

Since in this case the only term of

Bz
,
x
Bz
(0)
.
Fy = qvx x (0)
x
(0)

Fx = qvy x (0)

We can now substitute the uniform eld solution

(0)

vx
and

= v cos (c t) ,

(0)

vy

= v sin (c t) ,

x (0) = rc sin (c t) .

Electric
Propulsion I

Gradient terms

Lecture II

Introduction
Constant and
Uniform
Fields

By averaging the force on a full orbit we obtain

Inhomogeneous
Fields


mv2 Bz
2
sin (c t) ,
B0 x
mv2 Bz
hsin (c t) cos (c t)i ,
hFy i =
B0 x
hFx i =

Nonuniform
Magnetic
Field
Gradient Drift
Curvature
Drift
Parallel Force
Examples

Time
Varying
Fields

where the average terms over one period result

sin

 1
(c t) = ,
2

hsin (c t) cos (c t)i = 0.

Electric
Propulsion I

Gradient terms

Lecture II

Introduction
Constant and
Uniform
Fields

Inhomogeneous
Fields

Nonuniform
Magnetic
Field
Gradient Drift
Curvature
Drift
Parallel Force
Examples

Time
Varying
Fields

The average force act in the

as

direction and can be written

B
,
x
approximation Bz / x = B/ x .
hFx i = ||

where we made the

If the magnetic eld changes along both the

and

directions, it can be shown that the resulting average force

in the perpendicular plane is

hF i = || (B)

Electric
Propulsion I

Gradient drift

Lecture II

Introduction
Constant and
Uniform
Fields
Inhomogeneous
Fields

drift perpendicular to both the magnetic eld and the

Nonuniform
Magnetic
Field
Gradient Drift
Curvature
Drift
Parallel Force
Examples

Time
Varying
Fields

As described in the previous section, the force generates a

gradient

vB =

FB
qB 2

|| B B
q
B2

Ions and elections drift with the same velocity in opposite

directions and, therefore, they produce a net current across
B.

Electric
Propulsion I

Gradient drift

Lecture II

Introduction
Constant and
Uniform
Fields
Inhomogeneous
Fields

Nonuniform
Magnetic
Field
Gradient Drift
Curvature
Drift
Parallel Force
Examples

Time
Varying
Fields

A simple example of the

B -drift,

which contradicts the

assumptions made but gives a clear picture of the process,

is illustrated below, where the magnetic eld is uniform but
has a dierent intensity (B is discontinuous) across the

x =0

plane.

Electric
Propulsion I

Curvature terms

Lecture II

Introduction
Constant and
Uniform
Fields
Inhomogeneous
Fields

Nonuniform
Magnetic
Field
Gradient Drift
Curvature
Drift
Parallel Force
Examples

Time
Varying
Fields

Next, we consider the case in which the magnetic eld

bend along the

direction

Electric
Propulsion I

Curvature terms

Lecture II

Introduction
Constant and
Uniform
Fields

particles feel a centrifugal force proportional to the radius

Inhomogeneous
Fields

of curvature

Nonuniform
Magnetic
Field
Gradient Drift
Curvature
Drift
Parallel Force
Examples

Time
Varying
Fields

If the magnetic lines of force are curved, the charged

Rc

Fc =
where

Rc

mvk2
Rc2

Rc

is the vector pointing toward the centre of

curvature.

The force generates a curvature drift

vR =

Fc B
qB 2

mvk2 B Rc
qRc2

B2

Electric
Propulsion I

Divergence terms

Lecture II

Introduction
Constant and
Uniform
Fields
Inhomogeneous
Fields

Nonuniform
Magnetic
Field
Gradient Drift
Curvature
Drift
Parallel Force
Examples

Time
Varying
Fields

Next, we consider the case in which the magnetic eld

changes along the

direction

Electric
Propulsion I

Divergence terms

Lecture II

Introduction

Constant and
Uniform
Fields

Time
Varying
Fields

B = 0,

the variation along the

direction is

components

(rBr ) 1 B Bz
+
+
=0
r r
r
z

Inhomogeneous
Fields

Nonuniform
Magnetic
Field
Gradient Drift
Curvature
Drift
Parallel Force
Examples

Since

associated with other

Recalling the rst order term of the additional force

F = q v(0) r(0) (B)

in cylindrical coordinates the gyration velocity is in the

azimuthal direction (

v(0) = v(0) ,

where the sign

depends on the particle charge) and the force results

F = q v(0) r(0) (B)

(0)

Fz = qv r (0)

Br
r

Electric
Propulsion I

Divergence terms

Lecture II

Introduction
Constant and
Uniform
Fields

Inhomogeneous
Fields

Nonuniform
Magnetic
Field
Gradient Drift
Curvature
Drift
Parallel Force
Examples

Time
Varying
Fields

Notice that near the origin

Br ' r Br / r ,

so the

divergence equation can be used to obtain

Br
r


=

1
2


r

1
2

Bz
z


'

1
2

B
z

where we neglected the azimuthal eld (it can be shown

that it averages to zero) and where we replaced

Bz

with

Taking the average along the particle orbit, the force,

which is parallel to the eld line, results

hFz i =

|q| v rc B
.
2
z

B.

Electric
Propulsion I

Divergence terms

Lecture II

Introduction
Constant and
Uniform
Fields
Inhomogeneous
Fields

Nonuniform
Magnetic
Field
Gradient Drift
Curvature
Drift
Parallel Force
Examples

Time
Varying
Fields

The expression of the parallel force can be written in terms

of the magnetic moment as


Fk = || (B)k

This force is away from increasing

and is equal for

particles of equal energy (independent of charge).

Electric
Propulsion I

Magnetic moment invariance

Lecture II

Introduction
Constant and
Uniform
Fields
Inhomogeneous
Fields

Nonuniform
Magnetic
Field
Gradient Drift
Curvature
Drift
Parallel Force
Examples

Now, let us consider the particles motion along the

magnetic eld line. The parallel component of the motion
equation is

dvk
B
= ||
dt
z
term by vk = dz/dt
m

If we multiply each

Time
Varying
Fields

mvk

dvk
d
=
dt
dt

1
2

mvk2


=

we obtain

mv2 B dz
2B z dt

(14)

Electric
Propulsion I

Magnetic moment invariance

Lecture II

Introduction
Constant and
Uniform
Fields
Inhomogeneous
Fields

Nonuniform
Magnetic
Field
Gradient Drift
Curvature
Drift
Parallel Force
Examples

Time
Varying
Fields

Since the particle kinetic energy is conserved, we can write

d
dt

1
2

mvk

The rate of change of

be written as

d
=
dt

1
2

mv

as seen by the moving particle can

dB
B dz
=
dt
z dt

Electric
Propulsion I

Magnetic moment invariance

Lecture II

Introduction
Constant and
Uniform
Fields

Inhomogeneous
Fields

Nonuniform
Magnetic
Field
Gradient Drift
Curvature
Drift
Parallel Force
Examples

Time
Varying
Fields

Equation (14) then results

d
dt

1
2

mv

mv2 dB
=
2B dt

d
dt

mv2
2B


=0

rst
adiabatic invariant, is thus constant during the particle
The magnetic moment, which is also known as the
motion.

As the particle moves into regions of converging or

diverging

its cyclotron radius changes, becoming

respectively smaller or larger.

Electric
Propulsion I

Magnetic ux invariance

Lecture II

Introduction
Constant and
Uniform
Fields
Inhomogeneous
Fields

Nonuniform
Magnetic
Field
Gradient Drift
Curvature
Drift
Parallel Force
Examples

Time
Varying
Fields

The constancy of the magnetic moment holds only when

the variations of

are small compared to its magnitude.

From the invariance of

||

it follows also the conservation

of the magnetic ux enclosed by one orbit of the particle

= rc2 B =

2m

q2

||

d
=0
dt

Electric
Propulsion I

Cylindrical plasma

Lecture II

Introduction
Constant and
Uniform
Fields
Inhomogeneous
Fields

Nonuniform
Magnetic
Field
Gradient Drift
Curvature
Drift
Parallel Force
Examples

Let us consider a simple cylindrical conguration of the

magnetic eld that satises Faraday's equation in vacuum

B = 0,

(rB )
= 0,
r r

B=

Time
Varying
Fields

r
z

B
x

B0
.
r

Electric
Propulsion I

Cylindrical plasma

Lecture II

Introduction
Constant and
Uniform
Fields
Inhomogeneous
Fields

Nonuniform
Magnetic
Field
Gradient Drift
Curvature
Drift
Parallel Force
Examples

Time
Varying
Fields

The gradient of the magnetic eld is in the radial direction

B = r
r

B0
r


=

B0
r
r2

The drift velocity associated with the magnetic eld

gradient results

vB =

mv2
|| B B / r
|| B B
z

z
=
q
B2
q
2qB0
B2

Electric
Propulsion I

Cylindrical plasma

Lecture II

Introduction
Constant and
Uniform
Fields
Inhomogeneous
Fields

Since the magnetic eld lines in the

(r , )

plane are

curved, the charged particles feel also a centrifugal force

proportional to the radius of curvature

Nonuniform
Magnetic
Field
Gradient Drift
Curvature
Drift
Parallel Force
Examples

Fc =

mvk2
r

r
y

Time
Varying
Fields

Fc
B

x
v drift

Electric
Propulsion I

Cylindrical plasma

Lecture II

Introduction
Constant and
Uniform
Fields

vR =

Inhomogeneous
Fields

Nonuniform
Magnetic
Field
Gradient Drift
Curvature
Drift
Parallel Force
Examples

The force generates a curvature drift

Fc B
qB 2

mvk2 r B
qr

B2



v2
2
vk +
2

Note that the two contributions

add with similar
D E
magnitude because

qB0

Combining the gradient drift and the curvature drift we nd

mz
vT = vB + vR =
qB0

Time
Varying
Fields

mvk2

vk2 KT /m

and

1
2

2
v KT /m.

The drift is in opposite directions for particles with

opposite charges, hence a current along

is established.

Electric
Propulsion I

Magnetic nozzle

Lecture II

Introduction
Constant and
Uniform
Fields
Inhomogeneous
Fields

Let us consider a second cylindrical conguration of the

magnetic eld, where the eld lines are generated by a
current loop

Nonuniform
Magnetic
Field
Gradient Drift
Curvature
Drift
Parallel Force
Examples

Time
Varying
Fields

z
y

Electric
Propulsion I

Magnetic nozzle

Lecture II

Introduction
Constant and
Uniform
Fields

The parallel gradient of the magnetic eld acts on the

particle as a force

Inhomogeneous
Fields

Nonuniform
Magnetic
Field
Gradient Drift
Curvature
Drift
Parallel Force
Examples

Time
Varying
Fields


Fk = || (B)k

As a consequence of the adiabatic invariance of

|m|

and

the conservation of the total particle energy, as the particle

moves into a region of diverging magnetic eld lines its
transverse kinetic energy
kinetic energy

Wk

|| =

decreases, while its parallel

increases

W
= const,
B

W + Wk = const

Electric
Propulsion I

Magnetic nozzle

Lecture II

Introduction
Constant and
Uniform
Fields
Inhomogeneous
Fields

Nonuniform
Magnetic
Field
Gradient Drift
Curvature
Drift
Parallel Force
Examples

The particle kinetic energy in the perpendicular plane

(

KT

) is transformed in parallel velocity, like in a

gasdynamic nozzle where the gas internal energy is

converted into axial kinetic energy.

Time
Varying
Fields

z
y

Electric
Propulsion I

Magnetic nozzle

Lecture II

Introduction
Constant and
Uniform
Fields
Inhomogeneous
Fields

Nonuniform
Magnetic
Field
Gradient Drift
Curvature
Drift
Parallel Force
Examples

Time
Varying
Fields

As the particle moves into a region of diverging magnetic

eld lines, the Larmor radius increases in order to maintain
the same magnetic ux.

The particle guiding centre in principle will follow the

magnetic eld line (except for a possible azimuthal drift)
indenitely, hower the eld intensity decreases rapidly as
the particle moves away from the coil and, when the eld is
low enough, the particle detaches from the magnetic line.

Electric
Propulsion I

Magnetic mirror

Lecture II

Introduction

The eect of the magnetic nozzle can be inverted in order

Constant and
Uniform
Fields

to decelerate the particles along the magnetic eld lines.

Inhomogeneous
Fields

of the rst devices developed to conne plasma particles

This is called the

magnetic mirror eect, which is the basis

Nonuniform
Magnetic
Field
Gradient Drift
Curvature
Drift
Parallel Force
Examples

Time
Varying
Fields

Bittencourt (2004), Sec. 6.2

Electric
Propulsion I

Magnetic mirror

Lecture II

Introduction
Constant and
Uniform
Fields

Where the magnetic eld lines converge, the force

associated with the parallel gradient of B decelerates the

Inhomogeneous
Fields

particles

Nonuniform
Magnetic
Field
Gradient Drift
Curvature
Drift
Parallel Force
Examples

Time
Varying
Fields

If the B eld becomes strong enough, the particle velocity

in the direction of increasing eld may eventually come to
zero and then be reversed.

Electric
Propulsion I

Magnetic mirror

Lecture II

Introduction
Constant and
Uniform
Fields
Inhomogeneous
Fields

Nonuniform
Magnetic
Field
Gradient Drift
Curvature
Drift
Parallel Force
Examples

Time
Varying
Fields

If we consider a particle in

z =0

with the initial velocity

v0 = v0 + v0k
during its motion, the particle magnetic moment and
kinetic energy are conserved
1

EK = mv2 + mvk2 = mv02 ,

mv02
mv2
=
2B
2B0

Electric
Propulsion I

Magnetic mirror

Lecture II

Introduction
Constant and
Uniform
Fields
Inhomogeneous
Fields

Nonuniform
Magnetic
Field
Gradient Drift
Curvature
Drift
Parallel Force
Examples

Time
Varying
Fields

The parallel velocity is given by

r
vk =

(EK B)

The parallel velocity becomes zero when

when the magnetic eld intensity equals
Thus, the gradient of

B = EK / , i.e.
B = B0 v02 /v02 .

can force the particle back into

the plasma body in the low eld region.

Electric
Propulsion I

Magnetic mirror

Lecture II

Introduction
Constant and
Uniform
Fields
Inhomogeneous
Fields

Nonuniform
Magnetic
Field
Gradient Drift
Curvature
Drift
Parallel Force
Examples

Time
Varying
Fields

Not all particles are trapped by the mirror. The particle

becomes trapped if

Bm B0

v02
= B0 sin2 0
2
v0

Electric
Propulsion I

Magnetic mirror

Lecture II

Introduction
Constant and
Uniform
Fields
Inhomogeneous
Fields

Nonuniform
Magnetic
Field
Gradient Drift
Curvature
Drift
Parallel Force
Examples

Time
Varying
Fields

Given the mirror ratio

angle

Bm /B0 ,

the particles having a pitch

at 
the center 
greater than

m = arcsin

p
Bm /B0

are reected before the end of the

magnetic bottle. Particles having

0 < m

(i.e. high

vk )

penetrate the mirror and are lost.

After loss cones are depleted, particles are scattered by

collisions into this region of velocity space. As the electron
collision rate is higher, however, they are lost preferentially
and the plasma acquires a positive potential.

Electric
Propulsion I

Slowly Varying Electric Field

Lecture II

Introduction
Constant and
Uniform
Fields

Assume the electric eld to be uniform and perpendicular

Inhomogeneous
Fields

to

Time
Varying
Fields

handle).

Slowly
Varying
Electric Field
Slowly
Varying
Magnetic
Field

(if a time-varying electric eld is applied along the

magnetic eld lines, the equation of motion is easy to

We allow the eld to vary slowly in time, i.e. we consider

timescales 1/ longer than 1/c , and transform to the
frame moving with velocity

vE = E B/B 2

d (v0 + vE )
= q v0 B .
dt

(15)

Electric
Propulsion I

Slowly Varying Electric Field

Lecture II

Introduction
Constant and
Uniform
Fields

Inhomogeneous
Fields

motion equation results

Time
Varying
Fields

Slowly
Varying
Electric Field
Slowly
Varying
Magnetic
Field

The electromagnetic drift now is not constant and the

d v0
d vE
= m
+ q v0 B .
dt
dt }
| {z

(16)

Fv

The rst term on the right side is

O (/c )

and therefore

small compared with the left hand side. The term can be
then considered as an additional (slowly varying) force and
it can be handled as described in the initial section.

Electric
Propulsion I

Slowly Varying Electric Field

Lecture II

Introduction
Constant and
Uniform
Fields

we introduced the

Inhomogeneous
Fields

v = vc + vE + vP ,

polarization drift

m ddtvE B
m
vP =
=
q B2
q

Time
Varying
Fields

Slowly
Varying
Electric Field
Slowly
Varying
Magnetic
Field

We rewrite the particle velocity as

dE
dt

where

velocity

B B
1 dE
=
B4
c B dt

The equation of motion can be rewritten as

d vc
q d 2E
= q (vc B) 2 2 ,
dt
c dt


2
2
term is now O /c and can

m
where the last

(17)

be

neglected. The remaining terms describes the Larmor

motion.

Electric
Propulsion I

Slowly Varying Electric Field

Lecture II

Introduction
Constant and
Uniform
Fields

The

polarization drift

velocity is in opposite directions for

charges of opposite sign

Inhomogeneous
Fields

vP =

Time
Varying
Fields

Slowly
Varying
Electric Field
Slowly
Varying
Magnetic
Field

m dE
qB 2 dt

A polarization current is thus associated with time-varying

electric elds, so that the plasma medium behaves like a
dielectric

jP = ne (vPi vPe ) =
where

= n(mi + me )

dE
B 2 dt

is the plasma mass density. The

polarization current vanishes as

/c 0.

Electric
Propulsion I

Slowly Varying Electric Field

Lecture II

Introduction
Constant and
Uniform
Fields

introduce the electric displacement vector

Inhomogeneous
Fields

D = 0 E + P r 0 E

Time
Varying
Fields

Slowly
Varying
Electric Field
Slowly
Varying
Magnetic
Field

For a solid dielectric immersed in an electric eld we

where

is the polarization vector due to the alignment of

electric dipoles and

is the relative electric permittivity.

When the electric eld varies with time, it drives the

polarization current

jP = r 0

E
t

Electric
Propulsion I

Slowly Varying Electric Field

Lecture II

Introduction
Constant and
Uniform
Fields
Inhomogeneous
Fields

Comparing the solid dielectric case with the plasma

polarization current we obtain an expression for the
low-frequency plasma relative permittivity

Time
Varying
Fields

Slowly
Varying
Electric Field
Slowly
Varying
Magnetic
Field

r =

1 0
c2
=
=
0 B 2 0 0 B 2
vA2

where we introduced the Alfvn velocity

Typically,

vA  c

is very high.

vA = B/ 0 .

and the relative permittivity of a plasma

Electric
Propulsion I

Slowly Varying Magnetic Field

Lecture II

Introduction
Constant and
Uniform
Fields
Inhomogeneous
Fields

to the particle velocity and does no work, so that the

change in kinetic energy of the particle might be expected

Time
Varying
Fields

Slowly
Varying
Electric Field
Slowly
Varying
Magnetic
Field

Generally speaking, the magnetic eld acts perpendicularly

to be zero when the eld strength changes.

However, when

B/ t 6= 0

an associated induced electric

eld arises which acts on the particle orbit

E =

B
t

Electric
Propulsion I

Slowly Varying Magnetic Field

Lecture II

Introduction
Constant and
Uniform
Fields
Inhomogeneous
Fields
Time
Varying
Fields

Slowly
Varying
Electric Field
Slowly
Varying
Magnetic
Field

Assuming the rate of change of

(i.e.,

(1/B) ( B/ t)  c

to be small compared to

) then the work done on a

particle during a cycle can be evaluated over the

unperturbed particle trajectory.

Electric
Propulsion I

Slowly Varying Magnetic Field

Lecture II

Introduction
Constant and
Uniform
Fields

The work done equals the change in kinetic energy, so

Inhomogeneous
Fields

Time
Varying
Fields

Slowly
Varying
Electric Field
Slowly
Varying
Magnetic
Field

1
2

mv

qE d l = q

= q

Z
S

Z
S

E dS

B
B 2
d S = |q|
r ,
t
t c

where we take the absolute value of the charge because the

ux

B dS

is of opposite sign for ions and electrons

Electric
Propulsion I

Slowly Varying Magnetic Field

Lecture II

Introduction
Constant and
Uniform
Fields

The change in B occurring over one orbit can be written as

Inhomogeneous
Fields
Time
Varying
Fields

Slowly
Varying
Electric Field
Slowly
Varying
Magnetic
Field

B =

The variation of the kinetic energy then results

B
B 2
t =
t
t c

1
2

mv


= |q|

B 2 mv2
r =
B = || B
t c
2B

This equation can be rewritten using

= 0.

mv2 /2 = B

as

Electric
Propulsion I

Slowly Varying Magnetic Field

Lecture II

Introduction
Constant and
Uniform
Fields
Inhomogeneous
Fields
Time
Varying
Fields

Slowly
Varying
Electric Field
Slowly
Varying
Magnetic
Field

In other words, the magnetic moment is a conserved

quantity for slowly varying elds.

Thus, if the magnetic eld increases (decreases) slowly, the

orbit radius decreases (increases) in such a way that the
particle always encircles the same number of magnetic
lines of force.