STRUCTURAL STEEL EDUCATIONAL COUNCIL

TECHNICAL INFORMATION & PRODUCTSERVICE

APRIL 1995

Structural Details to Increase

Ductility of Connections
By: Omer W. Blodgett, P.E.
Senior Design Consultant
The Lincoln Electric Company

FIELD RESULTS

INTRODUCTION
Materials used in steel structures are increasingly becoming thicker and heavier. A greater
chance of cracking during welding of beams
to columns, for example, has resulted due to
increased thickness of material. With weld
shrinkage restrained in the thickness, width,
and length, triaxial stresses develop that may
inhibit the ability of steel to exhibit ductility.
This paper will attempt to explain why these
cracks may occur, and what can be done to
prevent them, by expanding on information
presented in the AISC Supplement No. 1
(LRFD) or Chapter J 9th Ed. AISC Manual.

O
stress

psi

I learned about the stress-strain curve (Figure

1) while taking "Strength of Materials" along
with laboratory work at the University of Minnesota. It took me a long time before I realized that this applied only to simple tensile
specimens in the laboratory.
During World War II while I was working in a
shipyard, a docked, all-welded tanker, the
Schenectady, suddenly broke in two. At the
time, we had no answer as to what could have
caused such a catastrophic failure. We passed
it off as perhaps a poor grade of steel or poor
workmanship, and kept on welding our ships.
A short time later, we received a bulletin from
The Lincoln Electric Company in which it was
stated that ductility values come from simple
tensile specimens which are free to neck down.
The bulletin pointed out that if the same plate
had many transverse stiffeners welded to it,
the ability to neck down would be greatly restricted, and the plate would fail with less apparent ductility.
DEFINING DUCTILITY

strain in/in
Figure 1

In Figure 2, Mohr's Circle of Stress has been

drawn, showing a tensile stress of 10 ksi up to
the ultimate of 70 ksi (numbered from 1 to 7).

The corresponding maximum shear stress is at

the top of each circle. For convenience, each
point of shear (illustrated as a solid dot) is moved
horizontally until it lies directly above the corresponding tensile stress (depicted as an open
dot). Notice that these points form a straight line,
representing a simple tensile specimen. From
this line, it is possible to read off the maximum
shear stress for a given tensile stress. This is
the basic figure used by Professor Gensamer,
as shown in Figure 3.
Gensamer introduced the concept of graphically
illustrating the maximum shear-stress theory of
failure. In Figure (4), the horizontal axis represents the tensile stress (o), and the vertical axis
represents the shear stress (-[). The critical tensile stress would be the ultimate tensile strength,
but exceeding this value causes immediate fail-

criticat shear

Zc

/stress r

7 tensile
stress

(ksi)

Figure

40

I
I

--30

., ,,,th

..

crlticat shear stress

v,

, n i

" /

..,"

,,<'
10

., I

":1

' 1.

i ,-

2'0
30
40
applied tensile stress (ksi)

50

60

Shear Tensile Relationship for a Simple Tensile Specimen

Figure

ure with little energy absorbed, that is, brittle failure. Exceeding the critical shear stress causes
slip or ductile failure. In a simple tensile specimen, the resulting shear.stress is one half of
the applied tensile stress. This means moving
up along a line having a 26.56 slope. This slope
is not dependent upon the type or strength of
steel used. When this specimen reaches theyield strength (ay), the corresponding shem
stress is at its critical value (:CR)' This means
the critical shear (:CR) is equal to one half of the
usual yield strength of the material in a simple
tensile test. Above the critical shear value, plastic deformation takes place, with the specimen
slipping along millions of 45 slip planes. During this time, there is some work hardening of
the material. Finally, the critical tensile stress is
reached, and failure occurs.

,'

I 0

4sot.-. ,'

30'

I
'=1/2o

20'
I

-- L = W q

10

ia

2
3
/4
5
tensile stress (ksi)

Figure

Steel Tips April 1995

70

4so-,
I

'

'

L-W

i v:, i
f

necked down tensilo specimen

Ductility of Steel

Figure

In Figure 5a, the member is subjected to a tensile stress (o) under the yield strength (ay). This
results in elastic strain and is recoverable when
the stress is removed. Notice also in Figure 5a
that a shear occurs which has a maximum value
of :--1/20 on a plane at 45, with the axis of the
applied tensile stress. If the applied stress (o) is
increased to a value of (0), the resulting shear
stress exceeds its critical value-tcR=l/2ov , then a
permanent slip occurs on planes at 45 , as
shown in Figure 5b and 5c.
This is plastic strain and, if continued, will cause
the specimen to neck down (Figure 5d). As the
cross-sectional area continues to become
smaller, the tensile stress finally exceeds the
critical normal stress (tensile strength) and the
member fails.
All of this can be seen in the stress-strain curve
of Figure 6. Region (a) below the yield strength
covers the elastic strain portion. Region (c) covers the plastic strain portion with the member
necking down. Point (d) is tensile failure. In the
stress-strain curve of Figure 6, region (a) is all
elastic strain. The resulting shear stress () is
under the critical value -OcR=l/2 ay, so no plastic
strain takes place.

with more and more necking down. The ductility

of the simple tensile stress specimen occurs
because there is a shear stress component from
the particular load condition and, more importantly, it exceeds the critical value by a considerable amount. Let us see if we can find out why
this test specimen is ductile; then we can check
the ductility of other loaded members or details.
The ductility of a simple tensile specimen occurs because there are two shear stresse (%-3)
and ('2-3) resulting from the applied tensile stress
(o3), as shown in Figure 7a and 7b. Notice that
when the stress (%) reaches its critical value
for failure (70 ksi in this example), the two shear
stresses have already exceeded their critical
value of 20 ksi. There are two shear stresses
because there are two circles: circle (1-3) and
circle (2-3). The third circle, (1-2), has no radius, and hence no shear stress, since it is a
point.
g
w

'ri'3

el

%!
0 ' 2 0'3
r--TT7---

=zer
tension

In region (c) the resulting shear stress exceeds

the critical value and plastic strain takes place
Figure 7A

,G$rGt.e 1-3
Ptqstic
movement'

-- 6aT

/'

m4ke; Sl)g;men I

aircte 2-3

Ptastic
mYJvement

makes sp4K:imen
thinner

r w e O . t = zen=

e 3Of

i3(l-i)

4t

.= 20

lo!

--I'

I-'

.oi

.Thismqvernent c.i.3)ioirlthe
dirion Of (3

Z-3)
This movement 'a(z.alis ;n the
direction af 0'3

tatar ptost; strain ]n d;rectlon of

I

'

.02 .03 .G4 .OS .Q6 .107 ,.(}6 .09

Total $tra;n E Tn/in

Figure 6

,I

.10 .11

'

.t2

JZ 3 (I-3) '[' '3 C2-3}

fram

t-3

fram

'rz-3

wiU tend to reduce the residual stres. ((T3)

Figure 7B
Steel

April 1995 3

Any value of shear for 1;1. 3 and 1;2-3 above the

critical 20 ksi will cause plastic strain. Notice in
Figure 7a that both circle (1-3) and circle (2-3)
cause plastic strain $3(1-3) and 3(2-3)' Therefore
(o3) will be: 3 = E3(1-3) + s3(2-3).

stress o3 and would tend to reduce any residual

stress. This member should behave in a ductile
manner. Plastic behavior takes place from 03 = *
40 ksi up to 70 ksi, and is caused by two different plastic strains E3(1.3) and 3(2-3)'

Since E3(1.3) ' - 3(2-3)' we then have: s3 = 2s3.3),

which will tend to reduce residual stresses
caused by welding.

Table 1 lists the data from a typical stress-strain

curve for structural steel. Total elastic plus plastic strain is listed in Column 3. The elastic strain,
calculated from s = /E, is listed in Column 2. By
subtracting the elastic strain from the corresponding total rain, we obtain the plastic strain,
shown in Column 4.

If the specimen is pulled to failure, o3 will reach

its critical value, or tensile strength; see Figure
8. By this time, the two shear stresses are above
the critical value and plastic strain or movement
will have taken place. Notice that the total plastic strain consists of two values: C3(1.3) and 3(2-3)'
The movement 3 acts in the direction of the

40;
t..-

crlticot shear

RESIDUAL

S T R E S S E S ISOLATED

Figure 9 illustrates that two important residual

stresses exist in the weld's termination zone. The
butt joint in the flange has a residual stress longitudinal to the length of the flange (o3), as well
as a stress transverse to the flange (%). Longitudinal stress is tensile along the center line of
the flange where the weld access hole terminates. It can be compared to tightening a steel '

lr'cr_,
t.''}
{

s toad tine

I
I

represents

O 'I
;

10

20

I
I
.*

30

40

50

60

70

normqt stress 0'3

Figure 8

weld (access
hole

normal elastic total

plastic
stress strain strain strain
0 3

10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
55
60
65
70

.00033
.00050
.00067
.00083
.00100
.00117
.00133
.0015
.0017
.0018
.0020
.0022
.0023

.00033
.00050
.00067
.00083
.00100
.00117
.00133
.00236
.00485
.01200
.03185
.08234
.20229

Table 1
4

Steel Tips April 1995

Ep
roG,e
weld

4o

.00086
.00315
.01020
.02985
.08014
.20000

_3

Figure 9

30

high as shown on Mohr's Circle of Stress, and

the critical shear value will be reached at a much
lower tensile stress or load value. This will produce more ductility in the (o3) direction, greatly
reducing the chance of a transverse crack in the
flange at the termination of the weld access hole.
I

''
.

ut

t' 2

u : critit

10 2O 30 &O SO 60 70

Figure

shear sts,

EXAMPLE #1

80

Consider the unrestrained section, similar to a

simple tensile specimen, shown in Figure 12.
When there is no applied stress (o) in the
through thickness direction or (o2) across the
width, these values are zero. This will produce
the largest of Mohr's circles, and the greatest
value of shear (;2.3) and ('-3)' In both cases,
these shear stresses are equal to one half of
the applied tensile stress (o3). These two sheartensile lines are drawn in the lower portion of
the figure. Although there are two lines, which
would indicate good ductility, there is a difference between the two. One line represents necklng down through the thickness, and the other
represents necking down across the width. Although the unit strains are the same in this case,
the strain acting across the width would result
in greater overall movement or elongation over
the length of the specimen.

10

cable lengthwise in the center in tension, with

compression spread out on both sides. The
transverse stress (Ol) is tensile in the weld zone,
including a portion of the adjacent plate, going
through zero, and then compression, beyond the
adjacent plate. This transverse stress (o) is also
similar to tightening a steel cable.
RESIDUAL STRESSES APPLIED
These residual stresses may be applied to a
weld detail having a narrow weld access hole,
as shown in Figure 10. This hole terminates at
a point where (0) and (03) are in tension. Since
the web at the edge of the weld access hole
offers some restraint against movement in the
through thickness direction of the flange plate,
stress in the (02) direction may have an appreciable value. All of the circles will be small. Neither (T2.3) nor (T.3) will probably ever reach the
critical shear stress value, and plastic strain or
ductility will not occur, as the right hand of Figure 10 illustrates.
If the weld access hole can be made wider, as
recommended by AISC Specification, Ninth Edition, so that it terminates in a zone where the
transverse residual stress (0) is compressive
(see Figure 11), then a more favorable stress
condition will result in greater ductility in the (03)
direction. In this case, shear stress (-c.3) will be

'o,
'F

--(ki)

. .

0/

2 f - ; ? -- - : -

Figure

I cr;tiCOt .sh_ Str_

--

-.,--"2d'k,;

11

Apri11995

In the case of the restrained section shown in

Figure 13, (here L=W/4), the angle of maximum
shear stress lies along an angle of o - 76 and
the resulting shear value is : -- .23 03. The two
shear values (%-3) and ('2-3) produce two sheartensile lines. The lower line acting across the
width does not produce enough shear to exceed
the critical value, hence no plastic yielding. The
upper line indicating good plastic yielding, however, acts only through the thickness and the
overall movement would be less than the example on the right. To get a better picture of this
behavior, the stress-strain curve shown in Figure 14 has been created for the two details.

' , - : :r

TO

t - I

,, sa

? o
41t

$0

I I I I
.01

.02 .03 .04 .05 .OG .07 14 .09 JO .!1 .12

unit strO)n in/in

J ) .14

.lis

Jll

J?

J!) .2Q

Figure 14

E
X
A
M
P
L
E
#
2
There has been some discussion about the weld
connecting the beam flange to the column flange
as being brittle. Referring to Figure 15, the material at point (A), whether it be weld metal or
base metal it cannot exhibit the ductility of a

J_

necking down across width

lrZ.3

necking dcTw thru thickness

necking

neckbJ down thru tlcknesS

2

ocross wk

i.

al

40'

10

20

',.,

ec'

'
30
40
SO
tensite stress (ksi)

Figure 12

Steel

30.

10'

40

April 1995

;b

60

70

2o

H t i shear stress
. . . . . . . - -- qr'cr:2O ks,

10

/
10

( Y

_
',
. . . . . . . . l. .
. . . . . . . . i. '.

!
20

30

40

tensite stress (ksD

Figure 13

GO

70

simple tension test. Ductility can only take place

if the material can slip in shear along numerous
slip planes. Four conditions are required for ductility:
1. There must be a shear stress () component
resulting from the given load condition.
2. This shear stress must exceed its critical
value by a reasonable amount. The more it
exceeds this value, the greater will be the
resulting ductility.
3. The plastic shear strain resulting from this
shear stress must act in the direction which
will relieve the particular stress which can
cause cracking.

Point (A) at the weld joining the beam flange to

the face of the column flange. Here there is restraint against strain (movement) across the
width of the beam flange () as well as through
the thickness of the beam flange (s2)Point (B) is along the length of the beam flange
away from the connecting weld. There is no restraint across the width of the flange or through
its thickness.
Figure 16 shows the three equations for strain
given in most strength of material texts, shown

O2

4. There must be sufficient unrestrained length

of the member to permit "necking down."
If conditions (1) and (2) are not met, there will
be no ductility and no yield point. The stress will
simply build up to the ultimate tensile strength
with little or no plastic energy absorbed. We call
this condition a brittle failure.

(1

O3

Figure 15 shows two regions in question:

3 = "E (O3-.[%-[[,[(1)
1

2= (-%+%-o)
1

s,= - (-%-%+o)
or it can be shown that

E [E3+2+(1-),]
o=

(l+tz) (1-21z)

E [3+(1-!Z)2+[Lt]
02=
(1+) (1-2)

03=

Figure 15

E [(1-tZ)3+2+p.]
(1+[) (1-21Z)
Figure 16

I
steel Tips April 1995

- - -

I1' IIr

...

, : , .-.;--,

v,

02=0

o3=30ksi

a
i
,

!
!
!
L.
-

in the flange. By using Poisson's ratio of iz=0.3

for steel the following strains are found for a
simple tensile specimen when stressed to
o3=30ksi.
3 = +.001

3=+.001

s2 =-.0003

.'

s =-.0003

ol=O

Using these strains in the three formulas for resisting stresses we find:

E [tz%+ze2+(1-)e l]
%=
(1 +lz) (1-2tz)

o = Zero

30000
o,- (1 +.3) (1-.6) [.3(+.001 ) +.3(-.O003)+.7(-.O003)]=Zero
o2=% =Zero
E [(1-p,)3+$S:+!,te,]
3=
(1 +It) (1-21Z)
30000
[.7(.001)+.3(-.0003)+.3(-.0003)]=30.0 ksi
3:- (1.3) (1-.6)

ac1.3=35

0.=70
:

Figure 17
in upper box. For our use, these have been converted into corresponding equations for stress,
shown in lower box.
Figure 17 is an element of the beam flange from
Figure 15 point (B). There is no restraint
(%+o2=0) against the 30 ksi longitudinal stress

Steel Tips April 1995

02 =

Zero

o3 = 30 ksi
This is plotted as Mohr's circle of stress in a
dotted circle. The larger solid line circle is for a
stress of 70ksi or ultimate tensile stress. The
resulting maximum shear stresses (%-3) and
(-c2.3) are the radii of these two circles or 35 ksi.
The ratio of shear to tensile stress is 0.5. Figure
18 plots this as line (B). Notice at a yield point of
55 ksi, the critical shear value is 1/2 of this or
27.5 ksi. When this critical shear stress is
reached, plastic straining or movement takes
place and ductile behavior will result up to the
ultimate tensile strength, here 70 ksi. Figure 19
shows a predicated stress-strain curve indicating ample ductility.
Figure 20 shows an element from Point (A) (Figure 15) at the junction of the beam and column
flange. Whether we consider weld metal or the
material in the column or beam makes little difference because this region is highly restrained.
Suppose we assume:
e3

= +.001 (as before)

2 = Zero
Zero

E1 =

'.
J

(but now highly restrained

with little strain)

From the given equations, we find the following

stresses:

30
27.5

critical shear stress 'c=1/2 o

o .y

Y't.J,

...he

m 20
fJ

";''',

tll
ID
I0

10

20

30

iv

, i ,

40

50 55 60

70

Figure 18

% = 17.31 ksi )

Increase to

( = 30.0 ksi

(7 2 : 17.31 ksi

ultimate tensile

I, = 30.0 ksi

(73 = 40.38 ksi

strength

= 70.0 ksi

The lower portion of the sheet is a plot of Mohr's

circle of stress. The maximum stresses are:
-c. 3 = 1:2.3 = 20 ksi

The ratio of shear to tensile stress is 0.286. In

Figure 18, this condition is plotted as line (A).
Notice it never exceeds the value of the critical
shear stress (27.5 ksi); therefore, there will be
no plastic strain or movement, and it will behave
as a brittle material. Figure 19 shows a predicated stress-strain curve going upward as a
straight line (elastic) until the ultimate tensile
stress is reached in a brittle manner with no
energy absorbed plastically.
Would it help if the strength and ductility of the
weld metal or base metal were changed? See
Figure 21. The top figure is for lower strength,
more ductile steel, tensile strength of 60 ksi and
a yield strength of 40 ksi. The lower figure is for
a higher strength, lower ductile steel, tensile
strength of 70 ksi and a yield strength of 55 ksi.
Notice in the case of no restraint (B) that the
lower strength material will result in more ductility. However, in the real world where there is

80

70

60

50
(/3

(/3

40

30

20

10

.05

.1

,15

.2

.25

.3

.35

strain in/in
Figure 19

Steel Tips April 1995

restraint (A), the lower strength material does

not provide any help against cracking. Neither
material will provide any ductility. It might be argued thatthe higher strength material (lower figure) would be stronger. It still will perform in a
brittle manner if over stressed.

30

Steel

TS=60 ksi
YP=40 ksi

I
I.

20
(/)
(/)

Assuming we have good workmanship with no

defects or stress raisers, the real success of this
connection will depend upon getting the adja-

'

10

ID

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

tensile stress (o) ksi

0'2

Steel
TS=70 ksi
YP=55 ksi

l
!
i
i

- 03
i

i
i
i

,,' E3=+.001

l
I

(J1

(71=

'

30 .
27.5.

20

1;=1/2 o=27.5 ksi

O'J

E [g3+g2+(1-L),]
(1+) (1-2)

ID
U'J

'
10

30,000
[.3(+.001)+Zero+Zero]=17.31 ksi or 30.00 ksi
1- (1+.3)(1-.6)

20

30

40

50 55 60

70

Figure 21

E [(1-ILL)E3+

cent beam to plastically deflect before this critical section cracks.

(1+) (1-2)
30,000

3=

tensile stress (o) ksi

o2=0=17.31 ksi

O 3 =

- [(1-.3)(.001)+Zero+Zero]= 40.38 ksi

(1.3) (1-.6)

or 70.00 ksi

CONCLUSION

1 1.3=20

/,/"-

'

"

Figure 20

10 Steel Tips April 1995

The way in which a designer selects structural

details under particular load conditions greatly
influences whether the condition provides
enough shear stress component so that the critical shear value may be exceeded first, producing sufficient plastic movement before the critical normal stress value is exceeded. This will
result in a ductile detail and minimize the'
chances of cracking.

REFERENCES

AISC Supplement No. 2, January 1, 1989. To

the Specification for the Design, Fabrication &
Erection of Structural Steel for Buildings.
Bjorhovde, Brozzetti, Alpsten and Tall. "Residual
Stresses in Thick Welded Plates," AWS Welding Journal, August 1972.
Blodgett, Omer W. Weight of Weld Metal, The
James F. Lincoln Arc Welding Foundation, Bulletin D417, April 1978.
Estuar and Tall. "Experimental Investigation of
Welded Built-Up Columns," AWS Welding Journal, April 1963.
Gayles and Willis. "Factors Affecting Residual
Stresses in Welds," AWS Welding Journal, August 1940.
Gensamer, Maxwell. "Strength of Metals Under
Combined Stresses," American Society of Metals, 1941.
Parker, Earl R., Brittle Behavior of Engineering
Structures, John Wiley and Sons, Inc., 1957.
Shanley, F.R., "Plastic Strain--Combined Loading,'' Strength of Materials, McGraw-Hill Book
Co., 1957; Chapter 11.

Steel Tips April 1995

11

STRUCTURALSTEELEDUCATIONAL COUNCIL
470 Fernwood Drive
Moraga, CA 94556
(510) 631-9570

Q
SPONSORS

Adams & Smith

Hoertig Iron Works

PDM Strocal, Inc.

Allied Steel Co., Inc.

Hogan Mfg., Inc.

Reno Iron Works'

Bannister Steel, Inc.

Junior Steel Co.

H.H. Robertson Co.

Baresel Corp.

Lee & Daniel

Southland Iron Works

Bethlehem Steel Corporation

McLean Steel, Inc.

Stockton Steel

C.A. Buchen Corporation

Martin Iron Works, Inc.

Verco Manufacturing, Inc.

Butler Manufacturing Co.

MidWest Steel Erection

Vulcraft Sales Corp.

G.M. Iron Works Co.

Nelson Stud Welding Co.

The Herrick Corporation

Oregon Steel Mills

The lcai strUctural Steel industry (aboVe spOnsors)StUdS ready to aSSist YOu in determining the most
economical solution for your products. Our assistance can range from budget prices and estimated tonnage
to cost comparisons; fabrication details and delivery ScheduleS.

Funding for this publication provided by the California Iron Workers Administrative Trust.
12

Steel Tips April 1995