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HowSpecificPositiveEmotionsInfluenceConsumerBehaviorandWellbeing
by
LisaAnnCavanaugh
DepartmentofBusinessAdministration
DukeUniversity
Date:_______________________
Approved:
___________________________
JamesR.Bettman,Cochair
___________________________
MaryFrancesLuce,Cochair
___________________________
GavanJ.Fitzsimons
___________________________
BarbaraL.Fredrickson
Dissertationsubmittedinpartialfulfillmentof
therequirementsforthedegreeofDoctorofPhilosophyin
theDepartmentofBusinessAdministrationinthe
GraduateSchoolofDukeUniversity
2009
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ABSTRACT
FeelingGoodandDoingBetter:
HowSpecificPositiveEmotionsInfluenceConsumerBehaviorandWellbeing
by
LisaAnnCavanaugh
DepartmentofBusinessAdministration
DukeUniversity
Date:_______________________
Approved:
___________________________
JamesR.Bettman,Cochair
___________________________
MaryFrancesLuce,Cochair
___________________________
GavanJ.Fitzsimons
___________________________
BarbaraL.Fredrickson
Anabstractofadissertationsubmittedinpartialfulfillmentof
therequirementsforthedegreeofDoctorofPhilosophyin
theDepartmentofBusinessAdministrationinthe
GraduateSchoolofDukeUniversity
2009
Copyrightby
LisaAnnCavanaugh
2009
ABSTRACT
Marketersseektocreateandconsumersseektocultivateavarietyof
positiveemotionalexperiences.Despitetheirimportancetoconsumerbehavior,
researchershavelackedaclearunderstandingofthedistinctbehavioral
consequencesofspecificpositiveemotions.Mydissertationexamineshow
differentpositiveemotions(e.g.,hope,love,andpride)candifferentiallyaffect
consumersdecisionsandbehaviors.Ifindthatpositiveemotionscannotonlybe
differentiatedbutalsothatspecificpositiveemotionsleadtodistinctlydifferent
patternsofconsumptionbehavior,suchasconsideringmoreoptions,donatingin
differentways,engaginginmoreeffortfulactions,orperformingmoresocially
consciousconsumptionbehaviorsbenefitingdistantothers.Ifindimportant
differencesbothwithmomentaryemotionalexperiencesanddownstream
consequencesofchronicemotionalexperiences.
Positiveemotionsdifferreliablyinthedegreetowhichtheycreatealens
ofproblemsolving,socialconnection,andperceivedcontrol.Forexample,Ifind
thatpositiveemotionscharacterizedbyasocialconnectionlens(e.g.,loveand
gratitude)leadtoincreasesinsociallyconsciousbehaviorsbenefitingdistant
others.Thetendencytoperceiveonesenvironmentthroughaproblemsolving
iv
lens(whichcharacterizeshopeandinterestbutnotloveandgratitude)leadsto
largerconsiderationsetsandengagementinmoreeffortfulenvironmental
actions.Ialsoexaminehowpositiveemotionscharacterizedbydifferentlenses,
suchasperceivedcontrol(e.g.,pride)andsocialconnection(e.g.,love),produce
distinctbehaviorswithinthesameconsumptioncontext(e.g.,givingindifferent
waysinresponsetoafundraisingappeal).Fivestudiesdemonstratethatpositive
emotionscanbecharacterizedinwaysthatallowpredictionofdistinctformsof
broadeningandspecificconsumptionbehaviors.
Dedication
Iameternallygratefultotheincrediblepeoplewhohavehelpedmein
thisjourneytowardearningmyPh.D.andbecomingauniversityprofessor.To
myhusband,Taymon,youhavebeenmyrockasourceofmental,emotional,
andphysicalstrength,comedy,andunwaveringsupportsinceourfirstyearat
DukeUniversitydespitethestressesofbasketballandyourownintense
medicalschoolprogram.Fromlisteningtopracticetalksafterafulldayatthe
hospitaltohelpingmebuildmyinlabgrocerystoreonweekends,Icannotthank
youenoughforallofyourlove,support,andconfidenceinme.Youaremy
inspiration.
Tomymomanddad,youhavebeenmycheerleadersfromdayone.
Whetherattendingschoolperformances,athleticcontests,oracademicawards
banquets,youhavealwaysbeenmytwobiggestfans(untila610Taymon
enteredthescene)andcheeredmeontheloudest.Tomysister,Laura,thankyou
foralwayskeepingmepluggedintothenewsworthyworldaroundme,being
upforlatenightchats,andsharinglotsoftheheartfeltsisterlylaughteroverthe
years.Thankyouforeverything.
Tomyfabulousdissertationcommitteefourtalentedscholarswhohave
inspiredmeandhelpedmetogrowasanacademician.Tomyawesomeco
vi
chairsandacademicsuperheroes,JimandMaryFran,thankyouforchallenging
meandshepherdingmyintellectualgrowth.Ihavelearnedsomuchfromyou
andfeelincrediblyprivilegedtocallmyselfyourstudent.ToBarb,thankyoufor
kindlingmypassionforpositiveemotionsandbringingme,aDukeinterloper,in
asamemberofyourPEPlabatUNC.ToGavan,thankyouforyourgenerous
adviceandconfidenceinmyresearchideas.AsIembarkonmynewadventure
asafacultymemberattheUniversityofSouthernCalifornia,ItrulyfeellikeIam
surfingontheshouldersofgiants.
TotheDukemarketingfacultyandmymentorsatDukeduringmy
undergraduateyears,thankyouforalwayschallengingmetoasktough
questions,tousemycreativitytoseekoutthoughtfulanswers,andtoblazemy
owntrail.Iamespeciallygratefultomymentoranddearfriend,KayLemon,
whofirstinspiredandencouragedmetopursuethispath.
TomykindredspiritsofSolterraKim&Tom,Susan&Doug,Emilie&
Ericyouarethebestfriendsandadoptedfamilyanysentientbeingcouldever
askfor.Thankyouforallthenourishingmealsandconversations,laughterfilled
musicandgamenights,andyourwonderfulexpressionsofloveandsupport.
TomyfellowPh.D.studentfriendsandPEPlabpeeps,whohavetraveled
thispathwithmethankyouforyourfriendship,humor,andmoralsupport.A
vii
specialthankstomydearcollaboratorsandfriends,Rosie,Hillary,Sarah,
Eugenia,Keisha,Stephen,Isilay,Kimberly,Tanya,Sara,Erika,MarieJoelle,and
Janetforbeingsomeofthebesttravelcompanions(bothliterallyand
figuratively)adoctoralstudentcouldeverhave.Ithasbeenasinceretreatforme
tosharethisjourneywithyou.
Finally,tomyincrediblydedicatedandaffectionatecaninecompanion,
Lucky,whohasspentcountlesshourscurledupbeneathmydeskandrestingin
mylapasIworkandwrite.Yourunconditionalloveandplayfulspirithas
helpedmeperseverethroughsomeofthetoughestandcelebratethemostjoyous
momentsofmyPh.D.lifethankyouforbeingwithmeeverystepoftheway.
viii
TableofContents
ABSTRACT ...................................................................................................................... iv
GENERALINTRODUCTION.........................................................................................1
OVERVIEWOFRELEVANTRESEARCH ....................................................................7
PositiveEmotions..........................................................................................................7
AppraisalTendencyApproaches ...............................................................................9
BroadenandBuildTheoryofPositiveEmotions ..................................................12
KeyAppraisalDimensionsImportanttoConsumptionBehavior ......................14
ANINTEGRATEDAPPROACHTOCONSUMERSPOSITIVEEMOTIONS
ANDBROADENING .....................................................................................................20
Study1:PositiveEmotionsMoreEmotions&NewDimensions ........................25
Method..........................................................................................................................26
Results...........................................................................................................................27
EFFECTSOFAPPRAISALSONCONSUMPTIONBEHAVIORS...........................30
Study2:DifferentPositiveEmotionsLeadtoDifferentPatternsofSocially
ConsciousBehaviors.......................................................................................................35
Method..........................................................................................................................36
Procedure .....................................................................................................................36
Results...........................................................................................................................39
Discussion ....................................................................................................................42
Study3:DifferentPositiveEmotionsBroadenInDifferentWaysWithinthe
SameConsumptionContext..........................................................................................43
Method..........................................................................................................................46
Procedure .....................................................................................................................46
Results...........................................................................................................................50
ix
Discussion ....................................................................................................................54
Study4:DifferentPositiveEmotionDispositionsInfluenceDifferent
ConsumptionBehaviors.................................................................................................57
Method..........................................................................................................................60
Procedure .....................................................................................................................60
Results...........................................................................................................................64
Discussion ....................................................................................................................67
Study5:TelevisionCommercialsActivateAppraisalsandInfluence
EnvironmentalBehaviors ..............................................................................................69
Method..........................................................................................................................71
Procedure .....................................................................................................................71
Results...........................................................................................................................74
Discussion ....................................................................................................................76
GENERALDISCUSSION...............................................................................................77
SummaryofResults....................................................................................................77
TheoreticalContributions ..........................................................................................80
MarketingImplications ..............................................................................................82
FutureResearch...........................................................................................................88
TECHNICALAPPENDIXTOSTUDY1......................................................................90
TABLES.............................................................................................................................92
FIGURES.........................................................................................................................100
REFERENCES................................................................................................................105
BIOGRAPHY .................................................................................................................118
GENERALINTRODUCTION
Consumptiondecisionsareoftendrivenbyadesiretocultivatepositive
emotionalexperiencesforourselvesandforothers.Wegivegiftstofriends,plan
romanticeveningsforspouses,watchmovies,goonvacations,andprayor
meditatetocultivateawiderangeofspecificpositiveemotionshappiness,
gratitude,love,amusement,pride,interest,hopeandcontentment,among
others.Marketers,likewise,gotogreatlengthstoengineerpositiveemotional
environmentsandexperiencesforconsumers.Advertisingagenciescreate
commercials,retailersplaymusic,andsalespeoplestrikeupconversationswith
consumerstoelicitpositivefeelingstowardproductsandbrands.Intheprocess,
consumerscommitvastamountsoftimeandresourcestothosepeople,places
andactivitiesthatmakethemfeelgood.However,notallpeople,places,and
activitiesmakeconsumersfeelthesamepositiveemotions;thesedifferences
makeitimportanttounderstandthedistinctionsacrosspositiveemotions.
Despitetheimportanceofpositiveemotionstoconsumerbehavior,researchers
lackaclearunderstandingofthedistinctbehavioralconsequencesofdifferent
positiveemotions.Infact,therelativelyscantresearchexaminingtheeffectsof
specificconsumeremotionshasgenerallyfocusedonnegativeemotions(Cryderet
al.2008;Garg,Inman,andMittal2005;Lerneretal.2003;Lerner,Small,and
Loewenstein2004;RaghunathanandPham1999).
Researchershavelookedatpositiveemotionasamotivatorof
consumptionbehavior(HirschmanandHolbrook1982;Holbrookand
Hirschman1982)andhavefocusedonunderstandingconsumerphenomena
relatedtotheexperienceofpositiveemotionssuchashopeinproductchoice(De
Mello,MacInnis,andStewart2007;MacInnisanddeMello2005),loveingift
giving(BelkandCoon1993),warmversusupbeatfeelingsinadvertising(Burke
andEdell1989),anddesireforparticulargoods,experiences(Belk,Ger,and
Askegaard2003),andselfrewards(MickandDeMoss1990).However,thereis
nooverallframeworkforsystematicallycharacterizingthepropertiesofdifferent
positiveemotionsthatmaydifferentiallyinfluenceconsumerbehaviors.
Theoreticaldevelopmenthasfocusedontheinfluenceofpositivemoodsand
positivitymoregenerally.Mostofwhatisknownaboutpositiveemotions
derivesfromthestudyofthelowestcommondenominatorgeneralized
positiveaffect.Inaddition,themajorityofempiricalworkontheeffectsof
positiveemotionsdrawsfromvalencebasedtestscontrastingagenerally
positiveversusnegativemoodoremotionalstate.
Insum,priorworkdoesnotprovideanintegratedapproachtoexamining
thedifferentialeffectsofspecificpositiveemotions.InthepresentresearchI
buildfromtwoinfluentialtheorieswithintheemotionliteratureappraisaltheory
andthebroadenandbuildtheoryofpositiveemotionstopredicthowspecific
positiveemotionsmaydifferentiallyaffectandsystematicallyinfluence
consumptionbehavior.
Appraisaltheoriessuggestthatemotionscanbecharacterizedbyavariety
ofunderlyingdimensions.Appraisaldimensionshaveprovenusefulfor
understandingdifferencesbetweendifferentnegativeemotions,forexample
angerandfear(LernerandKeltner2000,2001)orsadnessandanxiety
(RaghunathanandPham1999).However,relativelylittleisknownaboutthe
appraisaldimensionscharacterizinganddifferentiatingpositiveemotions(see
EllsworthandSmith(1988b)andTong(2007)fortwoattemptsusingdifferent
methods).Todateresearchhasfocusedonasmallnumberofspecificappraisal
dimensionsthataccountformostofthevarianceinnegativeemotion.Examining
abroaderrangeofappraisaldimensionsspecifictopositiveemotionswillnot
onlyhelptodifferentiatepositiveemotionsbutalsoadvancepredictionsof
consumptionbehaviorslinkedtospecificpositiveemotions.
Thebroadenandbuildtheoryofpositiveemotionsuggeststhatunlikenegative
emotions,whichnarrowactiontendencies,positiveemotionsfunctionto
broadenmomentarythoughtactionrepertoiresandbuildenduringpersonal
resources(Fredrickson1998;Fredrickson2001).Althoughthebroadenandbuild
theorysuggeststhatallpositiveemotionsbroadenthoughtactionrepertoires
similarly,Iarguethatspecificpositiveemotionsmaybroadenindistinctly
differentways.
Inparticular,althoughappraisalsofcontrolandcertaintyhaveproven
usefulfordistinguishingamongnegativeemotions,additionalappraisalsmaybe
neededtounderstandimportantlinksbetweenpositiveemotionsand
consumptionbehavior.Forexample,mightsomepositiveemotionschangethe
degreetowhichapersonfeelsconnectedtootherindividuals,whileother
positiveemotionsalterthefocusofattentiononthepresentversusthefuture,
andstillothersinfluencetheamountofeffortputintoadecisionmakingtask?
Researchhasshownthatdifferencesinselfconstrual(Singelis1994,e.g.,see
AgrawalandMaheswaran2005),temporalconstrual(TropeandLiberman2003,
e.g.,seeChandranandMenon2004),andneedforcognition(CacioppoandPetty
1982,e.g.,seeInman,McAlisterandHoyer1990)areconstructsthathave
predictedimportantdifferencesinconsumptionbehaviors.Thus,different
specificpositiveemotionalexperiencesarelikelytodifferentiallyinfluence
consumerbehavior.
Thisdissertationexploreshowbothmomentarilyandchronically
experiencedpositiveemotionsinfluenceconsumersdecisions,behaviors,and
wellbeing.ThroughaseriesofstudiesIwillshowthat:1)differentpositive
emotionscanbereliablydistinguishedbyunderlyingappraisaldimensions
(LernerandKeltner2000,2001;RaghunathanandPham1999;Smithand
Ellsworth1985),2)differentpositiveemotions(momentaryanddispositional)
predictdistinctandenduringpatternsofconsumptionbehavior(e.g.,certain
positiveemotionsbroadenaconsumerssenseofselfwhileothersbroadenthe
consumerseffortandconsiderationset),and3)distinctpatternsofemotional
appraisalcanbeactivatedbyviewingtelevisioncommercialsandimpact
subsequentbehavior.
Thus,inthisdissertationIaddresshowspecificpositiveemotionsand
specifictypesofpositiveemotionsinfluenceconsumptionbehaviorsand
consumerwellbeing,focusingparticularlyontheappraisaldimensionsofsocial
connection,temporalfocus,problemsolving,andperceivedcontrol,whichIwill
describeindetailintheresearchoverview.Thisdissertationresearchis
importantforavarietyofreasons.First,itintegratestwoimportantemotion
theoriesappraisaltheoryandthebroadenandbuildtheoryofpositive
emotionstogeneratepredictionsthatdifferentiateamongalargeclassof
emotionsvitallyimportanttoconsumerbehavioryettodatelargelyregardedas
undifferentiated.Second,itdemonstratesthattheappraisaldimensionsthat
explaindifferencesamongpositiveemotionsaredistinctfromthosefocusedon
fornegativeemotions.Third,itprovidesanexplanatorylinkbetween
momentaryandchronicexperiencesofspecificpositiveemotionsanddistinct
consumptiontendencies.Finally,itprovidesthefirstempiricaldemonstrationof
differentialbroadening,showingthatspecificpositiveemotionsbroadenin
differentways.
Inthenextsection,Ireviewtherelevantliterature,offeramoredetailed
descriptionofmyapproach,andhighlightappraisaldimensionsthatmaybe
particularlyimportantforexaminingtheinfluenceofdifferentpositiveemotions
onconsumptionbehaviors.Ithendescribefivecompletedstudiestoprovide
evidencethatspecificpositiveemotionsfunctiontodirectconsumptionbehavior
indifferentways.
OVERVIEWOFRELEVANTRESEARCH
Themajorityofempiricalworkonpositiveemotionsmakesgeneral
statementsabouthowsimilarlyvalencedemotionsinfluencebehavior.Findings
indicatethatnegativeemotionsnarrowwhilepositiveemotionsbroadenthought
andactiontendencies(Fredrickson2001).Infact,positiveaffectandpositive
emotionalstateshavebeenshowntohaveamultitudeoffacilitativeeffects(e.g.,
increasedcreativityandimprovedproblemsolving),buttheseeffectshavenot,
todate,beentiedtospecificcharacteristicsofpositiveemotions.Moreover,while
mostconclusionsaremadeaboutpositiveemotionsasawhole,itisunclear
whetherallpositiveemotionssimilarlyproducethedemonstratedeffectsandto
thesamedegree.Inowturntotheliteratureonpositiveemotionsandappraisal
tendencyapproachestospecifywhatisknownabouthowpositiveemotion
influencesbehavior.
PositiveEmotions
Positiveemotionsfacilitateapproachbehavior(Cacioppo,Priester,and
Berntson1993)andcontinuedaction(CarverandScheier1990).Potentialtargets
ofapproachandpotentialactionsvarywidely,yetmostofwhatisknownabout
positiveemotionsderivesfromthestudyofgeneralizedpositiveaffect.
PositiveAffect.Positiveaffecthasbeendefinedasapleasantfeelingstate
orgoodmood(Estrada,Isen,andYoung1994),withamultitudeofbeneficial
effectsonthinkingandbehavior.Isenandcolleaguesarguethatpositiveaffect
enlargesthecognitivecontext(Isen1987,p.222)andshowthatpositiveaffect
leadstobroaderthinkingandcategorization(IsenandDaubman1984;Isen,
Daubman,andNowicki1987;KahnandIsen1993);increasedmentalfocus(Kuhl
andKazen1999);betterproblemsolving(Estrada,Isen,andYoung1997);less
biasedprocessingofhealthriskinformation(ReedandAspinwall1998);and
increasedhelping,generosity,andinterpersonalunderstandinginthecontextof
socialinteraction(Isen2001;Isen,Clark,andSchwartz1976).However,different
positiveemotionsmayfosterthesetendenciestodifferentdegrees.
SpecificPositiveEmotions.Whilemostpriorworkhasfocusedon
generalizedpositiveaffect,somerecentworkdemonstratesdifferenteffectsof
positiveemotions.Empiricalfindingssuggestthatincidentalgratitudebutnot
amusementincreaseseffortincostlyprosocialbehaviors(BartlettandDeSteno
2006);elevationbutnotamusementoradmirationmotivateskindnesstoward
others(AlgoeandHaidt2009);happinessbutnotpeacefulnessincreases
processingofselfreferenthealthappeals(Agrawal,Menon,andAaker2007);
prideandempathyappealsdifferentiallyaffectpersuasionofindividualistsand
collectivists(AakerandWilliams1998);pridegeneratesmoreselfcontrolthan
happiness(EyalandFishbach2006);andprideincreaseslikingbyinteraction
partners(WilliamsandDeStenoforthcoming).Whilethisrecentworkmakesit
clearthatspecificpositiveemotionscanhavedifferentialeffects,these
researchersoftendrawfromdisparatetheoriestoarriveattheirconclusions.I
believeconsumerresearcherswillbebetterabletopredictandexplainthe
impactofspecificpositiveemotionsiftheseemotionsarerelatedtooneanother
withinanoverarchingtaxonomyofappraisaldimensions.
Insum,priorworkdoesnotprovideanintegratedapproachtoexamining
thedifferentialeffectsofspecificpositiveemotions.Icombinetheappraisal
tendencyapproachwithFredricksons(2001)broadenandbuildtheoryof
positiveemotionstoprovideanintegratedapproach.
AppraisalTendencyApproaches
Numerousappraisaltheoristshavesoughttocharacterizeandcapturethe
underlyingstructureofemotion(Arnold1960;Frijda1986;Lazarus1991a;
Ortony,Clore,andCollins1988;Roseman1991;Roseman,Spindel,andJose1990;
SmithandEllsworth1985;Weiner1985).Appraisaltheoriesdifferconsiderably
intermsoftheparticularfacetsofemotionalexperiencetheycapture;however,
theysharecertaincharacteristics.Appraisaltheoriesassumethatemotionsare
mentalstatesgeneratedbycognitiveappraisalsreflectingwhataneventor
situationmeanstoanindividual(Lazarus1991b).Eachemotionischaracterized
byadistinctivepatternofappraisal.Forexample,angerisassociatedwitha
heightenedsenseofcertaintyandcontrol(SmithandEllsworth1985).Virtually
allappraisaltheoriesincludethedimensionofvalence(i.e.,positivevs.negative)
butdiffermarkedlyinthenumberandidentityofspecificappraisalsincluded.
Forthepurposesofthepresentresearch,IdrawonSmithandEllsworth(1985)
becausetheyprovidebothacommonlyreferencedappraisalframework(e.g.,
LernerandKeltner2000,2001)andanaccessibleempiricalmethodfor
investigatingdimensionsofemotionalexperience.SeeScherer,Schorr,and
Johnstone(2001)foramorecompletereviewofappraisaltheories.
SmithandEllsworths(1985)empiricalworkhasbeenparticularly
generativeinunderstandingappraisaldimensions(i.e.,themeaningsassociated
withaneventorsituation).Theyshowthatsixappraisaldimensionsattention,
pleasantness,certainty,anticipatedeffortorobstacle,agency,andsituational
controlreliablydiscriminate15differentemotions,ninenegative(sadness,
anger,boredom,fear,contempt,disgust,frustration,shame,andguilt)andsix
positive(happiness,challenge,hope,interest,surprise,andpride).Notethatthis
10
setofsixpositiveemotionslargelyneglectspositiveemotionscharacterizedby
lowerarousallevels,suchascontentment,andsocialemotions,suchasgratitude
andlove.
SmithandEllsworthandotherresearchersgenerallyhaveconcludedthat
positiveemotionsarerelativelyundifferentiatedintheirappraisalandaction
tendencies(EllsworthandSmith1988a,b;Shaveretal.1987;SmithandEllsworth
1985;Taylor1991).However,certainappraisalsmaybeespeciallyimportantor
centralforsomeemotionsbutnotothers(SmithandEllsworth1985).Thus,I
contendthatthesetofemotionsconsideredintheearlierappraisalworkmay
haveledtoaprematureconclusionduetothespecificsetofappraisal
dimensionsconsidered.Inotherwords,capturingdifferencesinpositive
emotionsmayrequireextendingthesetofappraisaldimensionstypically
examinedtomorefullycapturetheuniquefunctionpositiveemotionsserve.
Notonlyaredifferentemotionscharacterizedbydifferentpatternsof
appraisal,buttheseappraisalshavebeenshowntoaffectjudgments.Lernerand
colleagueshavesuggestedthatemotioncreatesaperceptuallens(Lernerand
Keltner2000),whichshapesthewaypeopleviewtheirenvironment.Researchers
havefoundthatdistinctemotionsofthesamevalence(e.g.,angerandfear)but
differinginappraisals(e.g.,highvs.lowcertaintyandcontrol)havedifferent
11
effectsonjudgmentsanddecisions.Forexample,angrypeoplemakemore
optimisticjudgmentsoffutureeventsthanfearfulpeople(LernerandKeltner
2000);sadindividualspreferhighrisk/highrewardoptionsmorethananxious
people(RaghunathanandPham1999);andsadnessanddisgustdifferentially
influencesellingandchoiceprices(Lerneretal.2004).However,withthe
exceptionoftheinclusionofhappiness 1 inonestudytocontrolforvalencein
makingthefocalfear/angerdistinction(LernerandKeltner2001),pastempirical
workhasfocusedprimarilyondifferentiatingnegativeemotions.
BroadenandBuildTheoryofPositiveEmotions
Fredricksonarguesthatunlikenegativeemotions,whichnarrowactionto
specifictendenciescharacteristicoftheparticularnegativeemotion(e.g.,anger
producesatendencytofightandfearproducesatendencytoflee),positive
emotionsservetobroadenmomentarythoughtactionrepertoiresandbuild
enduringpersonalresources(Fredrickson1998,2001).Broadenedthoughtaction
tendenciestoplay,toexplore,tosavorandtointegraterepresentwaysthat
positiveemotionsextendhabitualmodesofthinkingoracting.Thisbroadening
buildsanarrayofenduringpersonalresources,includingphysical,social,
According to Ellsworth and Smith (1988b), happiness is the least distinguishable of all the positive
emotions, characterized almost solely by valence.
12
psychologicalandintellectual(Fredrickson1998,2001),ultimatelybuilding
positiveupwardspiralsforwellbeing(FredricksonandJoiner2002).
Fredricksonandothersdemonstratethatpositiveemotionsbroadenthe
scopeofattention,thought,andaction(FredricksonandBranigan2005),reduce
ownracebias(JohnsonandFredrickson2005),andfacilitateintuitivecoherent
judgments(Bolte,Goschke,andKuhl2003).Althoughthetheoryaddresses
positiveemotionsmoregenerally,Fredricksonsempiricalworkhasfocusedon
joy,contentment,andamusement(comparedtoaneutralstateandnegative
emotionssuchassadness,anger,andanxiety).Iarguethatalthoughpositive
emotionsmayservetheoverarchingfunctionofbroadening,specificpositive
emotionsmayfacilitatedifferenttypesofbroadeningthatdifferentiallyaffect
thoughtandaction.Thatis,differentpositiveemotionsmayfacilitatedistinct
broadeningtendenciesassociatedwitheachemotionsappraisaltendencies(e.g.,
hopesassociationwithanappraisalofhighproblemsolvingmightincrease
considerationofoptionsindecisionmakingormoreeffortfulbehavior).
Insummary,mostappraisaltendencyworkfocusesonnegativeemotions.
Mostofwhatisknownaboutpositiveemotionisvalencebased,stemmingfrom
workcontrastingpositiveandnegativeemotionsormoodsandneglecting
appraisaldimensionsotherthanvalence(i.e.,pleasantness).Greaterattentionto
13
appraisalsimportanttopositiveemotionsandexaminationoftheappraisal
dimensionscharacterizingabroaderrangeofpositiveemotionsmayhelpto
provideanapproachforbetterunderstandingtheeffectsofdifferentpositive
emotions.Oneroutetogainingaricherunderstandingoftheeffectsofdifferent
positiveemotionsistoexaminenewappraisaldimensionsspecificallytailoredto
awiderrangeofpositiveemotions.
KeyAppraisalDimensionsImportanttoConsumptionBehavior
Positiveemotionisacriticalmotivatorofconsumptionbehavior
(HirschmanandHolbrook1982;HolbrookandHirschman1982).Whilethe
emotionliteraturesuggestsavarietyoffunctionsthatemotionscanserve,the
particularbehaviorsmotivatedbydifferentpositiveemotionshavebeenlargely
unexplored.Theconsumerbehaviorliteratureofferssomeinsightintothetypes
ofbehaviorsoftenmotivatedbypositiveemotionalexperiences.Further
examinationoftheseconsumptionexperiencesandtendenciesmayhelpto
elucidatethedimensionsofemotionalexperiencethatdifferentiallydrive
consumptionbehaviors.Inaddition,considerationofestablishedindividual
differencesmayfurtherinformthispursuit,asindividualdifferencesessentially
formchroniclensessimilartothewaythatdifferentemotionscreatemomentary
14
lenses.InthepresentresearchIfocusonfourfocaldimensionsparticularly
relevanttoconsumptionbehavior:socialconnection,temporalfocus,problem
solvingandperceivedcontrol.
SocialConnection.Positiveemotionsserveanimportantsocialfunctionin
regulatingrelationshipsandmaintainingsocialbonds(KeltnerandHaidt1999;
Shiotaetal.2004).Inpursuitofpositiveemotionalexperiencesandsocialbonds,
consumersengageinfancommunities(Kozinets2001),brandrelationships
(Fournier1998),brandcommunities(MunizandOGuinn2001;MunizandSchau
2005),anddonationbehaviors(StrahilevitzandMyers1998)andview
possessionsasextensionsofself(Belk1988).Althoughthespecificdomainsof
consumptionvary,akeythemeacrossthisworkisthatconsumersoftenseeka
senseofconnection.Consumersachieveandperpetuatethissenseofconnection
andexpandedsenseofselfthroughtheirconsumption.Theconstructofself
construalalsosuggeststhatindividualsvaryintermsofhowtheydefine
themselves(e.g.,personalself(I)versussocialself(we);Ellemers,Spears,
andDoosje2002)aswellashowtheyrelatetoothers(e.g.,independentvs.
interdependent;MarkusandKitayama1991).Basedonthisliterature,an
importantquestioniswhetherdifferentpositiveemotionsmayengenderthis
tendencytowardsocialconnectiontodifferingdegrees.Specifically,might
15
certainpositiveemotionscauseconsumerstodefinethemselvesmorebroadlyin
termsoftheirconnectiontoothersormorereadilyexperienceanexpandedsense
ofselfand,indoingso,changetheirconsumptionbehavior(e.g.,willingnessto
engageinsociallyconsciousconsumptionbehaviorsbenefitingdistantothersor
makedonationstointernationalreliefefforts)?
TemporalFocus.Consumerbehaviorresearchershavesuggestedthat
differenttemporalorientationsmayinducedifferentmotivations,differentplans,
andconsumptionofdifferenttypesofproducts(Bergadaa1990).Findingsshow
thattemporalorientationaffectsresponsestoadvertising(MeyersLevyand
Maheswaran1992),consumptionimpatience(Li2008),susceptibilitytocontext
effects(Malkoc,Zauberman,andUlu2005),andperceptionsofrisk(Chandran
andMenon2004).Temporalconstrualtheorysuggeststhatdistantfuture
situationsareconstruedonahigherlevelthannearfuturesituations,and
findingsshowthatdesirabilityhasalargereffectthanfeasibilityformoredistant
futureoutcomes(LibermanandTrope1998).Thus,anotherimportantquestionis
whetherdifferentpositiveemotionsmayproducedifferenttemporal
orientations,whichmaythenshapeconsumersdecisionsandbehaviors.
Specifically,mightcertainpositiveemotionscauseconsumerstoplacegreater
16
emphasisonthepresentversusthefutureand,indoingso,changetheir
consumptiondecisions(e.g.,likelihoodofmakinganimpulsivepurchase)?
Problemsolving.Consumerbehaviorresearchershavelongbeeninterested
inunderstandinghowemotioninfluencescognitionanddecisionmaking.There
existsasubstantialliteraturecontrastingtheeffectsofpositiveandnegative
affectandmoodsonrelateddecisionprocesses,suchascategorization,depthof
processing,reasoningability,andriskperceptions(seeCohen,Pham,and
Andrade2008forareview).Findingssuggestthatpositiveaffectandpositive
moodenhancereasoningandproblemsolving(seeIsen2001;Isen2008for
reviews);however,thereexistsomenotableexceptions.Forexample,other
studiesshowthatpositiveaffectandpositivemoodreducebreadthofattention
anddecreasethedepthwithwhichconsumersprocesssubstantiveinformation
(BatraandStayman1990;Blessetal.1990;Bless,Mackie,andSchwarz1992;
Bodenhausen,Kramer,andSuesser1994;GableandHarmonJones2008;Mackie
andWorth1989;WorthandMackie1987).Thedepthofprocessingthatan
individualengagesinisalsorelatedtotheconstructofneedforcognition,which
suggeststhatindividualsvaryintheextenttowhichtheyengageinandenjoy
(derivepositivefeelingsfrom)effortfulcognitiveactivities(e.g.,payingcloser
attentiontotherelevanceofargumentspresented;CacioppoandPetty1982).
17
Mightdifferentpositiveemotionsfacilitatedifferenttypesofprocessingand
tendenciestowardproblemsolving?Specifically,mightsomepositiveemotions
causeconsumerstoengageinmoreeffortfulprocessingthanothers,and,inturn,
changetheirconsumptionbehavior(e.g.,sizeofconsiderationsetordepthof
productsearch)?
PerceivedControl.Appraisaltheoristsandemotionresearchershavelong
regardedcontroloragencyasanimportantdimensionofappraisal.Previous
studieshavefoundthatcontrolexplainssignificantvarianceamongemotions,
particularlynegativeemotions(SmithandEllsworth1985).Negativeemotions
characterizedashighincontrol(e.g.,anger)versuslow(e.g.,fear)predictmore
optimisticriskpreferences(LernerandKeltner2001).Researchershaveshown
thatperceivedcontrolproducesanimplementationorientedmindset(Chandran
andMorwitz2005);increasessatisfactionandinvolvement(WardandBarnes
2001);andexplainsreactionstoconsumerdensity(HuiandBateson1991)in
retailandserviceenvironments.Thus,specificpositiveemotionsmayalso
differentiallyincreaseordecreaseconsumersperceivedsenseofcontrol,and,in
turn,changetheirconsumptiondecisions.Asawellestablisheddimensionof
appraisal,perceivedcontroloffersanimportantpointofcomparisonforthe
otherkeyappraisaldimensionsoutlinedabove.
18
Totheextentthatspecificpositiveemotionsdifferalongdimensionssuch
associalconnection,temporalfocus,problemsolving,andperceivedcontrol,
importantdifferencesinconsumptionbehaviormayresultdependingupon
whichspecificemotionisactive.Ratherthanmerevalencedirectingbehavior,
goalsandassociationsrelatedtospecificpositiveemotionsarelikelyto
differentiallydrivebehavior.Bygaininganincreasedunderstandingofthe
appraisaldimensionsunderlyingspecificpositiveemotions,Iamabletomake
nuancedpredictionsabouthowspecificpositiveemotionswillinfluence
consumptionbehavior.Next,Ipresentfivestudiesexamininghowdifferent
positiveemotionsleadtospecifictypesofbroadeningbehaviorsbasedon
underlyingappraisaltendencies.
19
ANINTEGRATEDAPPROACHTOCONSUMERSPOSITIVE
EMOTIONSANDBROADENING
Iproposeanintegratedapproachdrawingonappraisaltheoryandthe
broadenandbuildtheoryofpositiveemotions.Iproposethatdifferentpositive
emotionsareassociatedwithdifferentappraisals,ultimatelyleadingtodifferent
formsofbroadening.Iconsideranextendedrangeofpositiveemotions,andI
proposenewappraisaldimensionstodistinguishamongtheseemotions.Iargue
thatthesedifferentappraisaltendencies(e.g.,socialconnectionandproblem
solving)leadtodifferentformsofbroadening,withimplicationsfortheprocess
ofchoosing(e.g.,constructinglargerconsiderationsetsoroptingformore
effortfulconsumptionbehaviors)andsocietalconsequencesofconsumption(e.g.,
charitablegiving,environmentalactions,andsociallyconsciousconsumption
behaviors).
AdditionalEmotions.Asnotedabove,existingresearchdoesnotcapturethe
fullrangeofpositiveemotionalexperiencerelevanttoconsumptionbehavior.
Thus,Iexamineabroaderrangeofpositiveemotionsbyincludinglowarousal
andsocialemotions(contentment,gratitude,andlove 1 )alongwithfour
A few appraisal theorists have included liking/love and gratitude in their theoretical frameworks
(Arnold 1960; Ortony, Clore, and Collins 1988); however, the dimensions upon which these emotions were
20
consideredbySmithandEllsworth(1985;happiness,pride,hopeandinterest)to
understanddifferencesintheappraisalsunderlyingpositiveemotions.
NewDimensionsofAppraisal.Mostappraisaltheoriesplaceapriorityon
explainingvarianceinnegativeemotions;thus,sourcesofvarianceparticularly
relevanttopositiveemotionsmayhavebeenoverlooked(Cavanaughetal.2007).
SmithandEllsworth(1985)suggestthatthreeappraisaldimensionsseemtobe
particularlyimportanttodifferentiatingamongpositiveemotions:certainty,
agency/responsibility/control,andanticipatedeffort.However,Iarguethat
someappraisaldimensionsimportanttodistinguishingvariouspositive
emotionsfromoneanotherhavenotbeenexplored.Inparticular,Iproposeand
demonstratethattheinclusionoftwoadditionalappraisals,socialconnectionand
temporalfocus,willhelptofurtherdifferentiatepositiveemotions.Thethird
appraisalpresented,problemsolving,canbecapturedthroughexaminationof
existingdimensionsofappraisal(i.e.,effortandgoalpathobstacle).
Iproposethatpositiveemotionsdifferintermsofwhetheroutcomesare
sharedwithorreflectiveofconnectiontoothers.Socialconnectioncaptures
appraisalsofanindividualssenseofconnectiontoothers.Positiveemotions
compared, e.g., beneficial/harmful, present/absent, difficulty (Arnold 1960) or attraction (Ortony, Clore,
and Collins 1988) do not capture the dimension of social connection, which I believe to be critical for
differentiating these emotions.
21
serveawiderangeofimportantsocialfunctions,suchasformingrelationships,
maintainingsocialbonds,andcoordinatingsuccessfulcollectiveaction(Keltner
andHaidt1999;Shiotaetal.2004).Differentpeopleseethemselvesasmore
separateorconnectedtoothers(BrewerandGardner1996;Markusand
Kitayama1991)andincludeothersintheselftovaryingdegrees(Aronetal.
1991;Belk1988).Theseselfconstrualscanvarybothchronicallyandsituationally
(Gardner,Gabriel,andLee1999).
Theseideas,however,arenotcapturedbypriorappraisaltendency
approaches.Forinstance,eventhoughpride,gratitude,andloveareall
importanttotheregulationofsocialrelationships(Shiotaetal.2004),these
emotionsvaryinthedegreeandtypeofconnectiontoothersandhenceintheir
implicationsforsocialregulation(Oveis,Horberg,andKeltner2007).Prideisa
selfconscious(Tangney,Dalgleish,andPower1999)andsociallydisengaging
emotion(Kitayama,Mesquita,andKarasawa2006),andthedegreeofpridean
individualexperiencesislinkeddirectlytoonessenseofpersonal
accomplishment.Thusprideislikelytobelowerinsocialconnection.Incontrast,
individualsexperiencinggratitudeshowincreasedtrust(DunnandSchweitzer
2005);improvedrelationshipswithothers(Algoe,Haidt,andGable2008);and
greaterwillingnesstoengageinprosocialbehavior,evenwhensucheffortsare
22
costlyortherecipientisastranger(BartlettandDeSteno2006;McCulloughetal.
2001).Similarly,loveisasociallyengagingemotion(Kitayamaetal.2006)that
servesacommitmentrelatedfunctioncriticaltobondformation(Insel2000;
Light,Grewen,andAmico2005);increasessocialsupport(Fredricksonetal.
2008);andencouragestheextensionoftheself(BelkandCoon1993).Socially
engagingemotionsderivefromandaffirmtheinterdependenceofself(Kitayama
etal.2006).Thus,bothgratitudeandlovemaybeassociatedwithhighersocial
connection.Suchhighsocialconnectionemotionsarelikelytobeimportantto
consumersdecisionstoengageinbrandrelationships(Fournier1998),
participateinbrandcommunities(MunizandOGuinn2001),andengagein
sociallyconsciousconsumptionbehaviors.
Inaddition,thetemporalfocusofemotionsisimportanttodistinguishing
amongpositiveemotions.Thecausalagentsandeffectsofemotionsmayoccupy
differentplacesintemporalspace.Forexample,researchershavenotedan
importantdistinctionbetweenthepositiveemotionassociatedwithanticipating
somethingversusthepleasureassociatedwithactuallyconsumingsomething
(BerridgeandRobinson1995).Inaddition,researchershavedistinguished
positiveexperiencesintermsofwhetherpeoplewerelookingforwardto,
enjoyingtheactualexperienceof,orlookingbackattheexperience(Bryant2003;
23
BryantandVeroff2007).Thus,temporalfocusmayberelevanttodistinguishing
positivefeelingsassociatedwithpastevents(prideorgratitude)fromthose
associatedwithfutureevents(hope),orpresentevents(happinessor
contentment).Ifocusontheimplicationsofsocialconnection,problemsolving,
andperceivedcontrolinthecurrentpaperandconsiderfutureresearchon
temporalfocusappraisalsintheGeneralDiscussion.
OverviewofStudies15.Iarguethatthedifferentiationamongpositive
emotionswillbebetterunderstoodifIaddressnewappraisaldimensionsand
additionalemotions.Inanextensivepilotstudy(study1),Iusefactoranalysisto
developataxonomyofpositiveemotionsthatincludesspecificemotionsand
newappraisaldimensionsnotincludedinpriorwork.Instudies2and3,I
manipulatespecificpositiveemotions.Instudy2,Imanipulatehopeandloveto
examinetheirinfluenceonsociallyconsciousbehaviorsbenefitingdistantversus
closeothers.Instudy3,Imanipulateloveandpridetoexaminewhethertwo
differentpositiveemotionsinfluencehowconsumersgiveandtowhomthey
giveinresponsetoafundraisingappeal.Instudies4and5,Iexaminehow
multiplepositiveemotionsinfluencebehaviorbasedontheirunderlying
24
appraisals. 2 Instudy4,Iutilizeanewapproachtocapturetheappraisal
dispositionsortendenciesassociatedwithaconstellationofdispositional
positiveemotions.Specifically,Iusetherevealedappraisaldimensionsfrom
study1inconcertwithmeasuresofconsumersdispositionalpositiveemotions
todevelopappraisaldispositionscoresthatarethenusedtopredictdifferences
intwodifferenttypesofconsumptionbehaviors.Instudy5,Imanipulatespecific
typesofpositiveemotionalappraisals(e.g.,socialconnectionvs.problem
solving)usingtelevisioncommercialstoexaminetheimpactoneffortful
environmentalactions(e.g.,regularlycheckingtirepressure,bringingreusable
bagstothegrocerystore).
Study1:PositiveEmotionsMoreEmotions&NewDimensions
Inanextensivepilotstudy,Icharacterizearangeofpositiveemotionsin
termsofbothpreviouslyestablishedandnewlyproposedappraisaldimensions
usingaproceduresimilartothatofSmithandEllsworth(1985).Inafullywithin
subjectsdesign,participantswereaskedtorecallpastpositiveemotional
experiencesandratetheirassociatedappraisals.Iincludedawiderrangeof
Appraisals and appraisal tendencies are used interchangeably as overarching terms throughout this
document. Appraisal dispositions are a particular instantiation of this concept based on original work
presented in the following pages.
25
positiveemotionsandnewappraisaldimensionsthathadnotbeenincludedin
theoriginalSmithandEllsworth(1985)study.Thisbroadermethodology
allowedforuniquepatternsofappraisalrelevanttoconsumptionbehavior(e.g.,
socialconnectionandproblemsolving)toemerge.
Method
ExperimentalOverview.Participants(N=27)recalledemotionalexperiences
associatedwithsevendifferentpositiveemotions.Foreachemotionalexperience,
participantsrespondedoutloudtoaseriesofquestionsdesignedtoencourage
themtodescribetheexperienceinasmuchdetailaspossible.Aftereach
description,participantsfilledoutaquestionnaireratingtheemotional
experiencealongthehypothesizedcognitiveappraisaldimensions.The
questionnaireconsistedof22items(seetable1),whichwererandomizedand
measuredonan11pointscale.Aftereachemotion,theexperimenterplayeda
selectionofneutralmusicfromoneoftwoChopinWaltzes(Greenetal.2003)as
apalatecleansingexercisebeforeparticipantsdescribedthenextemotional
experience.Theorderinwhicheachemotionalexperiencewasdescribedwas
randomizedacrossparticipants.
26
PositiveEmotions.Participantsdescribedsevenpositiveemotions:
contentment,gratitude,happiness,hope,interest,love,andpride.Iselectedthese
emotionsforanumberofreasons.Iincludedpositiveemotions(contentment,
love,andgratitude)thathadnotbeenincludedintheoriginalSmithand
Ellsworth(1985)study(whichusedhappiness,interest,hope,andpride)butthat
Ibelievedwouldbothshowuniquepatternsofappraisaldimensionsandbe
relevanttoavarietyofconsumptionbehaviors.
AppraisalDimensions.Imeasuredemotionsintermsofnineappraisal
dimensions.SevenofthesewerepreviouslyestablishedbytheSmithand
Ellsworth(1985)study:pleasantness,attentionalactivity,control,certainty,goal
pathobstacle,responsibility,andanticipatedeffort.Inordertoextendtheability
topredictdifferentialeffectsofspecificpositiveemotions,Ialsoincludedthetwo
newlyproposedappraisaldimensions,socialconnectionandtemporalfocus(see
table1).Iexpectedthesenewappraisaldimensionstoexplainasignificant
amountofvarianceamongstthedifferentpositiveemotionsconsidered.
Results
FollowingtheanalysisplansuggestedbySmithandEllsworth(1985),I
identifiedtheappraisaldimensionsthatexplainedthemostvarianceamongthe
27
emotionsusingfactoranalysiswithvarimaxrotation. 3 Theresultsshowthat
positiveemotionscanbereliablydistinguishedalongmultipleappraisal
dimensions,includingtwonewlyproposeddimensions:socialconnection(sense
ofconnectiontoothers)andtemporalfocus(focusonpast,present,future);see
technicalappendixfordetails.Therecovereddimensionssharedsomesimilarity
withpreviousresearch(EllsworthandSmith1988b;SmithandEllsworth1985),
buttherewerealsoimportantdifferences.Notably,thedimensionsthatexplainthe
greatestamountofvarianceamongthesepositiveemotionsaredifferentfromthe
dimensionsusedpreviouslytounderstandimportantdifferencesamongnegative
emotions.Ifindthatproblemsolving(senseofanticipatedeffortandgoalpursuit)
andsocialconnectionbestdistinguishamongthepositiveemotionsconsidered. 4
Table2summarizesthewayappraisalsdifferacrossthevariouspositiveemotions
bylistingthemeanscoresforeachemotionalongtherevealeddimensions(see
table6inSmithandEllsworth1985,p.829).Below,Ifocusonemotions
characterizedbyproblemsolvingandsocialconnection,comparingthese
dimensionstoeachotherandtotheestablisheddimensionofperceivedcontrol.
Additional analyses were run using an oblique rotation, allowing factors to be correlated. The structure,
however, remained largely unchanged.
4
The factor pattern revealed the following dimensions in decreasing order of variance explained: problemsolving, social connection, attention/pleasantness, control, certainty, temporal focus, and situational control.
28
Buildingfromtheseappraisaldimensions,Iofferaseriesofhypotheseslinking
specificpositiveemotionstoconsumersbroadeningindistinctlydifferentways.
29
EFFECTSOFAPPRAISALSONCONSUMPTIONBEHAVIORS
Study1suggeststhatproblemsolvingandsocialconnectionare
importantappraisalsdistinguishingamongthepositiveemotionsIconsidered.
Mygeneralframeworkproposesthatappraisaldimensionsprovideinsightinto
linksbetweenspecificpositiveemotionsandconsumptionbehavior.For
instance,SmithandEllsworth(1988a)arguethatcertainappraisalsseemtobe
centralandhighlyconsistentwiththecopingfunctionsofemotions.Ipropose
thatdifferentcopingfunctionsassociatedwithdifferentappraisalscan
differentiateamongbroadeningmechanisms.Thus,problemsolvingandsocial
connectionappraisalsarelikelytocauseconsumerstobroadenindistinctly
differentways.Below,Icastmyhypothesesintermsofappraisaltendencies,
asIuseappraisalsasthetheoreticalbasisforspecificpredictionsregarding
differenttypesofbroadeningbehaviors.
Totheextentthatconsumersconsistentlyexperienceemotionsthatare
highinsocialconnection(e.g.,love),theywillbemorelikelytoengagein
consumptionactivitiesthatreflectthisfeelingofconnectiontoothers(e.g.,
sociallyconsciousconsumptionbehaviors).Whereasallconsumersmaybe
willingtohelpcloseothers,thatispeoplemoresimilartothem(e.g.,friendsand
30
localcommunitymembers),highersocialconnectionmayparticularlybroaden
howfarapersonextendshisorherboundaryofcaringordefinitionofextended
self.Thus,socialconnectionmaydifferentiateconsumersintermsoftheirability
tofeelclosenesstodistantothers,resultinginincreasedhelpingfordistantor
dissimilarothers(e.g.,refugeefamiliesorinternationalgroups).Iexpecttodetect
effectsofsocialconnectionparticularlyforbehaviorsbenefitingdistantothers.I
expecttheeffecttobedampenedoreliminatedforcloseothersbecausea
broadenedcircleofconcernislessrelevantinthecontextofcloseothers.I
hypothesize:
H1:Positiveemotionswithhighsocialconnectionappraisaltendencies
willleadtomoresociallyconsciousconsumptionbehaviors
benefitingdistantothersthanthosewithlowsocialconnection
appraisaltendencies;thisdifferencewillbedampenedoreliminated
forbehaviorsbenefitingcloseothers.
Althoughsocialconnectionbasedbroadeninginfluencesthebeneficiaries
ofconsumption,othertypesofbroadeningmayinfluencetheprocessof
consumption.Asmentionedpreviously,thereareimportantinconsistencies
regardingtheinfluenceofpositiveemotiononprocessing.Mostfindingssuggest
thatpositivemoodsandemotionsencouragemoreheuristicprocessing,butthere
aresomenotableexceptions.Iconjecturethatappraisalsofproblemsolvingmay
31
resolvethediscrepancies.Study1showsthatproblemsolving(encompassing
anticipatedeffortandgoalpathpursuit)isimportanttodistinguishingamong
positiveemotions.Thus,problemsolvingappraisaltendenciesmayhelpto
distinguishwhichpositiveemotions(e.g.,hope)arelikelytoleadtomore
consumptionactivitiesthatfacilitatesolvingconsumerpurchaseproblems(e.g.,
seekingmoreinformation,consideringmoreoptions,engaginginmoreeffortful
behavior).Moreformally,Ihypothesize:
H2:Positiveemotionswithhighproblemsolvingappraisaltendencies
willleadtoconsiderationofmoreoptionsthanthosewithlow
problemsolvingappraisaltendencies.
Ihypothesizethattherewillbeadoubledissociationintheeffectof
appraisaltendenciesontypesofbroadening.Thatis,Ihypothesizethatsocial
connectionbutnotproblemsolvingwillpredictthelikelihoodofsocially
consciousconsumptionbehaviorsbenefitingdistantothersandthatproblem
solvingbutnotsocialconnectionwillpredictalargernumberofoptions
considered.Specifically:
H3:Differentappraisaltendencieswillleadtodifferenttypesof
broadening.
H3a:Socialconnectionbutnotproblemsolvingwillleadtomore
sociallyconsciousconsumptionbehaviorsbenefitingdistantothers.
32
H3b:Problemsolvingbutnotsocialconnectionwillleadto
seekingmoreinformationandconsideringmoreoptions.
Itisnotonlynewdimensionsthatmaypredictthesedifferentbroadening
tendencies.Jointconsiderationofbothnewandpreviouslyestablishedappraisal
tendencies(e.g.,perceivedcontrol)mayenablepredictionofdifferent
broadeningbehaviorswithinthesameconsumptioncontext(e.g.,charitable
giving)aswell.Previousfindingssuggestthatpositiveaffectuniversally
increasesprosocialbehaviorandcharitablegiving(Isen2001).Ipredictthat
specificpositiveemotions(e.g.,loveandpride)willshowdifferentpatternsof
givingbasedontheirdistinctappraisaltendenciesandthenatureofthe
fundraisingappeal.Forinstance,fundraisingappealsfrequentlyallowdonorsto
decidehowtodirecttheirmonetarygiftsintermsofthedonationtype(e.g.,
restrictedvs.unrestrictedgifts)andbeneficiary(e.g.,domesticvs.international
relieffunds).Socialconnectionappraisaltendencies(e.g.,love)arelikelyto
reflectincreasedtrustinotherstomakegooddecisionsabouthowtouse
donatedfunds.Perceivedcontrolappraisaltendencies(e.g.,pride)arelikelyto
motivateadesireforgreaterinfluenceoverhowdonatedfundsareused.In
addition,highsocialconnectionemotions(e.g.,love)whichbroadenan
individualscircleofconcernarelikelytoencouragesupportofinternational
33
relieffunds,whereashighperceivedcontrolemotions(e.g.,pride)whichincrease
senseofcontrolarelikelytoencouragesupportofeffortsclosertohome,thatis,
domesticrelieffunds.Moreformally,Ihypothesize:
H3c:Positiveemotionswithhighsocialconnectionappraisal
tendencieswillleadtomoreunrestrictedgiftsandpositive
emotionswithhighperceivedcontrolappraisaltendencieswilllead
tomorerestrictedgifts.
H3d:Positiveemotionswithhighsocialconnectionappraisal
tendencieswillleadindividualstogivemoretointernationalrelief
fundsandpositiveemotionswithhighperceivedcontrolappraisal
tendencieswillleadindividualstogivemoretodomesticrelief
funds.
Finally,itisimportanttoaddresstheregularoccurrenceofpositive
emotionblends(EllsworthandSmith1988a).Namely,advertisingandmarketing
effortsoftencauseconsumerstofeelmorethanonepositiveemotion(e.g.,both
loveandgratitude)inresponsetoatelevisioncommercialormarketingappeal.I
hypothesizethatappraisalbasedemotionblends(e.g.,experiencingmultiple
socialconnectionemotionsvs.problemsolvingemotions)willsimilarlyimpact
behavior.Specifically:
H4:Problemsolvingemotionblendsbutnotsocialconnection
emotionblendswillleadtomoreeffortfulenvironmentalactions.
34
Iexaminetheeffectsofspecificpositiveemotionsinstudy2(loveand
hope)andstudy3(loveandpride),andtheeffectsofappraisaldispositionsfor
socialconnectionandproblemsolvinginstudy4.(Thedefinitionofappraisal
dispositionsisdiscussedindetailwhenstudy4ispresented).Instudy5,I
examinetheeffectsofpositiveemotionappraisaltendencies(socialconnection
andproblemsolving)throughpositiveemotionblendsexperiencedinresponse
toviewingtelevisioncommercials.Itesthypothesis1usingbothmanipulated
specificemotionsanddispositionalappraisaltendencies,hypotheses3c,3d,and
4usingtheformer,andhypotheses2,3a,and3busingthelatter.
Study2:DifferentPositiveEmotionsLeadtoDifferentPatterns
ofSociallyConsciousBehaviors
Leveragingtheappraisalfindingsfromstudy1,Idesignedstudy2totest
thehypothesisthatpositiveemotionscharacterizedbydifferentlevelsofsocial
connectionwouldleadtodifferentpatternsofsociallyconsciousconsumption
behaviors.Specifically,study2wasdesignedtotestthedifferentialeffectsoflove
andhopeonintentionstoperformsociallyconsciousbehaviorsbenefitingdistant
others.
35
Method
ParticipantsandSetup.Eightyfiveuniversitystudentsparticipatedina25
minutestudyonfeelingsandconsumerchoice.Thesampleconsistedof51males
and34femalesranginginagefrom18to30.Todissociatetheemotionprocedure
fromthedependentmeasuresofinterest,participantsweretoldthattheywould
becompletingamultipartstudy.Theyweretoldthatpartoneconsistedofa
writingexerciseonemotionalexperience,parttwoconsistedofaconsumer
choicesurvey,andpartthreeconsistedofmeasuresoftheirbeliefsandopinions.
Procedure
Studytwoconsistedofa3emotion(between:hope/love/neutral)x2
socialdistanceofbeneficiary(within:close/distant)mixeddesign.Participants
wererandomlyassignedtooneofthethreeemotionconditions.
EmotionInduction.Followinganestablishedemotioninductionprocedure
similartoLernerandKeltner(2001),Iaskedparticipantstoanswertwo
computerbasedquestions.Thefirstquestionaskedparticipantstodescribethree
tofivesituationsthatmadethemfeelthefocalemotion.Participantswereasked
towritetwotothreesentencesabouteachsituation.Thesecondquestionasked
participantstodescribeinmoredetailtheonesituationthatmadethemfeelthe
36
mostofthefocalemotion.Participantswereinstructedtowritethedescriptionso
thatapersonreadingitmightevenfeeltheemotionjustfromlearningaboutthe
situation.Thoseintheneutralconditionwereaskedtodescribeeveryday
activitiesinaformatdesignedtomatchthedetailandlengthoftheemotion
induction.
SociallyConsciousConsumptionBehaviorMeasures.Immediatelyafterthe
emotioninduction,participantscompletedapaperandpencilconsumerchoice
survey.Participantsweretoldthatresearcherswereinterestedinthelikelihood
thattheywouldengageinvariousconsumptionbehaviorsoverthecomingyear.
Theywereaskedtoreadalistof24itemsandtoindicatetheirresponsesona7
pointscale,where1=extremelyunlikelyand7=extremelylikely.Thelist
consistedofeightfocalsociallyconsciousconsumptionitemsaswellasfiller
items(e.g.,seeaforeignfilmandattendalivemusicconcert).Thesocially
consciousconsumptionitemsincludedweredesignedtotaptwotypesof
beneficiariescloseordistantothers.Asetoffouritems(=.60)comprisedthe
closeothermeasure(e.g.,Buylocallygrownproduce;donateuseditems/
clothingtoacharitableorganizationtohelplocalfamiliesinneed);anotherfour
items(=.70)comprisedthedistantothermeasure(e.g.,Refusetobuya
productifitismadeusingchildorsweatshoplaborinforeigncountries;donate
37
moneytoacharitableorganization/causebenefitingrainforestconservationin
foreigncountries).Inaseparatepretest,students(N=31)fromthesame
populationratedeachitemona7pointscaleassessingwhowouldbenefitfrom
theaction(anchoredbycloseothersanddistantothers).Resultsconfirmed
thatthedistantothermeasureactionswereperceivedtobenefitmoredistant
others(Mdistant=5.3)thanthecloseothermeasureactions(Mclose=2.6;t(30)=15.82,
p<.0001).
AppraisalCheck.Aftercompletingthedependentmeasures,participants
wereaskedtoanswerquestionsmeasuringappraisalsfortheemotionstorythat
theyhadwrittenonthecomputeratthebeginningofthestudysession.Iasked
themtoindicatetheextenttowhichtheyfelteachofthestatementsdescribed
whattheywerefeelingwhilewritingtheirstoriesona9pointscale,where1=not
atalland9=extremely.Therewerefoursocialconnectionitems(e.g.,towhat
extentdidyoufeelmoreconnectedtoanotherindividualorgroup)andfive
problemsolvingitems(e.g.,howmucheffort(mentalorphysical)didyoufeelthis
situationrequiredyoutoexpend;towhatextentdidyoufeeltherewereproblems
thathadtobesolvedbeforeyoucouldgetwhatyouwanted).
38
Results
PreliminaryAnalyses.Initialanalysesrevealedasignificantmaineffectfor
ethnicity,whichdidnotinteractwitheitherofthemanipulations.Specifically,
ethnicminoritiesindicatedagreaterpropensitytoperformsociallyconscious
behaviorsregardlessofemotioncondition.Tocontrolfortheinfluenceof
ethnicity,itwasincludedasacovariateinthetestsofallhypotheses.
Basedonparticipantsresponsestothefiveproblemsolvingandfour
socialconnectionitems,Icreatedappraisalcheckscores(problemsolving=.85
andsocialconnection=.87)reflectingthefocalappraisalsdifferentiatinglove
versushopeinthisstudy.ANOVAtestsonselfreportedproblemsolving(F(2,
82)=11.34,p<.0001)andsocialconnection(F(2,82)=17.84,p<.0001)appraisals
revealedsignificantemotioninductioneffects.Participantsinthelovecondition
reportedexperiencingsignificantlygreatersocialconnectionappraisalsthan
thoseinthehopecondition(Mlove=7.7,Mhope=5.5,F(1,82)=15.79,p<.0002)or
theneutralcondition(Mneutral=4.4,F(1,82)=34.06,p<.001).Similarly,
participantsinthehopeconditionreportedexperiencingsignificantlygreater
problemsolvingappraisalsthanthoseinthelove(Mhope=7.4,Mlove=5.3,F(1,82)
=15.36,p<.0002)orneutralconditions(Mneutral=5.0,F(1,82)=18.32,p<.0001).
39
HypothesisTests.Hypothesis1predictedanemotionbydistance
interactionwithlovedifferentiallyincreasingsociallyconsciousbehaviors
benefitingdistantothersrelativetothosethatbenefitcloseothers.Inthemodel
predictingthereportedlikelihoodofengaginginsociallyconsciousconsumption
behaviors,Ifoundamarginallysignificanteffectforemotion(Mlove=4.7,Mhope=
4.3,Mneutral=4.2,F(2,81)=2.72,p<.07.Thewithinsubjecteffectforsocialdistance
wasasignificantpredictorofsociallyconsciousconsumptionbehavior(Mclose=
5.3andMdistant=3.5;F(1,82)=206.57,p<.0001),reflectinghigherlikelihoodfor
closerbeneficiaries.Mostimportantly,andasspecifiedinhypothesis1,social
distancesignificantlymoderatedtheeffectofemotiononlikelihoodtoperform
sociallyconsciousconsumptionbehaviors(F(2,82)=5.61,p<.005).This
interaction(seetable3)suggeststhatindividualsexperiencingmomentarylove
(butnothope)aremorelikelytoengageinsociallyconsciousbehaviorsthat
benefitmoredistantothers.Therewasnodifferencebetweenhowmomentary
hopeandloveinfluencedthelikelihoodtoperformsociallyconscious
consumptionbehaviorsthatbenefitcloseothers.
Furtherexaminationoftheinteractionviaplannedcontrastsrevealedthat
thoseintheloveconditionexpressedsignificantlyhigherlikelihoodsof
performingsociallyconsciousconsumptionbehaviorsbenefitingdistantothers
40
thanthoseinthehopecondition(Mlove=3.8,Mhope=3.1,F(1,144)=8.79,p<.004).
Anotherplannedcontrastrevealedthatboththoseinthelovecondition(F(1,144)
=4.67,p<.03)andthoseinthehopecondition(F(1,144)=4.99,p<.03)expressed
significantlyhigherlikelihoodsofperformingsociallyconsciousconsumption
behaviorsbenefitingcloseothersthanthoseintheneutralcondition(Mlove=5.5,
Mhope=5.5,Mneutral=4.9).Hence,withcloseothersthereappearstobean
undifferentiatedeffectofpositiveemotiononsociallyconsciousconsumption
behaviors.
Usingtherecommendedbootstrappingtechniquefortestingconditional
indirecteffects(Preacher,RuckerandHayes2007),theresultsconfirmed
evidenceofmoderatedmediation.Specifically,thepathfrombreadthofsocial
connectiontobehaviorismoderatedbythesocialdistanceofthebeneficiary.The
bootstrappingconfidenceintervalfortheconditionalindirecteffectwas
significantfordistant(z=2.35,p<.02)butnotcloseothers(z<1,NS),providing
evidencethatthemeditationalpathpredictingbehaviorisconditionedonthe
socialdistanceofthebeneficiary(seefigure1).
41
Discussion
Study2demonstratedthatdifferentpositiveemotionsinfluencesocially
consciousbehaviorsbenefitingcloseversusdistantothersindifferentways.
Usingthesocialconnectionappraisalfindingsfromstudy1,Ipredictedthat
individualswhofeltlovewouldexpressgreaterintentionsofengagingin
sociallyconsciousbehaviorsbenefitingmoredistantothersthanthosewhofelt
hope.Myresultssupportedhypothesis1;Ifoundanemotionbysocialdistance
interactiononlikelihoodofengaginginsociallyconsciousconsumption
behaviors,withspecificemotionsmatteringfordistantothersbutnotclose
others.Specifically,Ifoundthatmomentaryloveincreasedintentionstoengage
insociallyconsciousbehaviorsbenefitingdistantothersmorethanhope.In
addition,Ifoundevidencethatappraisalsofsocialconnectionmediatedthe
relationshipbetweenemotionandsociallyconsciousconsumptionbehaviors
benefitingdistantothers.Incontrast,Ifoundthatloveandhopehavethesame
effectonintentionstoperformsociallyconsciousbehaviorsbenefitingclose
others.Inthelattercase,bothpositiveemotions(loveandhope)increased
reportedintentionsabovethelevelofthoseintheneutralcondition.This
42
undifferentiatedpatternforcloseothersechoesestablishedfindingsthatany
positiveemotionincreaseshelpingbehaviorforthoseinacloseotherscontext.
Study2demonstratesthatloveismorebeneficialthanhopeingenerating
animportantclassofsociallydesirablebehavior(i.e.,behaviorsthatbenefit
distantothers),basedonlovesspecificappraisalprofile.Mightlovegenerallybe
astronger,moremotivating,orsimplymorepositiveemotionthanhope?A
strongertestoftheappraisalapproachwouldbetodissociatetheimpactof
differentpositiveemotionswithinthesamecontext,showingthateachemotion
motivatesbehavior,butthebehaviorsmotivatedaredistinctfromeachother.
Study3:DifferentPositiveEmotionsBroadenInDifferentWays
WithintheSameConsumptionContext
Study2demonstratedthattwospecificpositiveemotions,loveandhope,
differentiallyinfluencedconsumerswillingnesstoengageinsociallyconscious
behaviorsthatbenefiteddistantothers.Specificallylovebutnothopeincreased
willingnesstoengageinbehaviorsthatbenefiteddistantothers.Buildingon
thesefindings,Idesignedstudy3totestadifferentpairofspecificpositive
emotionsinamarketingcontextknownforitsrelianceonconsumeremotion,i.e.
fundraisingappeals.Universityfundraisingappealsoftenentailemotional
43
remindersofanindividualsalmamater,includingfriendshipsforgedin
freshmandorms,professorswhoservedasimportantmentors,orchampionships
wonbyschoolathleticteams.Similarly,nonprofitappealsoftendescribewarm
momentssharedbetweenaidrecipientsandorganizersordepicttheproudfaces
ofvolunteerswhohaveworkedtobuildhomesandclinics.Dependingonthe
narrativeandimagescontainedintheseappeals,consumersmayexperience
differentemotions.Coulddifferentspecificpositiveemotionsdifferentially
influencehowaconsumergivestoauniversityornonprofitorganization?
Study3wasdesignedspecificallytotestthedifferentialeffectsofloveandpride
onpatternsofconsumergiving.
Instudy3,Iuseapairofpositiveemotionscharacterizedintermsofboth
anewappraisaldimension(socialconnection)andanestablisheddimension
(perceivedcontrol)todemonstratedifferencesinbroadeningwithinthesame
consumptioncontext.Priorworkindicatesthatpositivemoodsandemotions
encouragehelpingbehavior(BartlettandDeSteno2006;Isenetal.1976);
however,differentpositiveemotionsmaynotleadtohelpinginthesameway
(e.g.,restrictedvs.unrestrictedmonetarygifts)orgivingtothesametypeof
recipients(e.g.,domesticvs.internationalfunds).Aninterestingrelationship
existsbetweenloveandpride;loveishighinsocialconnectionbutlowin
44
perceivedcontrol,whereasprideislowinsocialconnectionandhighin
perceivedcontrol.Inaddition,bothloveandpridearerelativelymatchedinthe
dimensionsofproblemsolvingandattention/pleasantness.
Ipredictthatpositiveemotionshighinsocialconnectionappraisal
tendencies(e.g.,love)versusselfrelianceandperceivedcontrol(e.g.,pride)will
showdifferentpatternsofgiving.Thechoicetomakeanunrestrictedgiftimplies
alargertrustinotherstomakeagooddecisionabouthowtousethefunds(i.e.,
wherethestaffbelievesitisneededmost),whereasarestrictedgiftimpliesa
desireforgreaterpersonalcontrolorinfluenceoverhowthefundsareused.I
predictthatpridewillleadtohigherlevelsofrestrictedgivingandlovewilllead
tohigherlevelsofunrestrictedgiving.Thus,appealsaimedatraising
unrestrictedfundsmaybemoreeffectiveiftheyelicitloveratherthanpride.
Conversely,loveactuallymaybelesseffectivethanprideorneutralwhenused
inappealsencouragingmoreexclusiveorrestrictedgifts(e.g.,specificacademic
scholarshipfundorprogrammaticgiving)becausethebroadenedsenseof
inclusivenessandtrustinspiredbysocialconnectionmightactuallycausethe
decisionmakertoprefertomakeanunfetteredgift.Intheeventthatindividuals
mustchoosehowtodirectamonetarygift,Ipredictthatlove,anemotionhighin
socialconnectionandresponsibleforbroadeninganindividualssenseofself
45
andcircleofconcern,willincreasegivingtointernationalfunds.Incontrast,
pride,anemotionhighinperceivedcontrolandresponsibleforheighteningan
individualssenseofinfluenceandneedforcontrol,willincreasegivingto
domesticfunds.Thus,Iexpectbothemotionstomotivategivingbehaviorin
responsetoafundraisingappealinsuchawaythatthedonationsfavortargets
matchedtotheappraisalprofileoftheemotion.
Method
ParticipantsandSetup.Twohundredandeightuniversitystudents
participatedina25minutestudyonfeelingsandconsumerchoice.Thesample
consistedof128malesand80femalesranginginagefrom18to29.Todissociate
theemotionprocedurefromthedependentmeasuresofinterest,participants
weretoldthattheywouldbecompletingaseriesofshorterstudiesthathadbeen
bundled.Theyweretoldthatthestudysessionconsistedofthreeparts:1)a
writingexerciseonautobiographicalexperience,2)afundraisingappeal,and3)a
questionnaireaboutfeelingsandconsumptionbehaviors.
Procedure
Studythreeconsistedofa3emotion(between:love/pride/neutral)x2
(within:formofgiving/relieffunddesignation)mixeddesign.Participantswere
46
randomlyassignedtooneofthethreeemotionconditions.Aftercompletingthe
emotioninduction,allparticipantsviewedthesamefundraisingappealfromthe
AmericanRedCross.AdaptedfromactualAmericanRedCrossmaterials,the
fundraisingappealdescribedtheorganizationsactivitiesandwaysinwhich
peoplecouldgivetotheorganization.Participantswerethenaskedtomaketheir
donationdecisionsastheyreallywouldatthismomentandtoldthatthe
researcherswouldbeselecting1outofevery20participantsdecisionsand
actuallydonatetotheAmericanRedCrossastheyhavespecified.
EmotionInduction.Theemotioninductionprocedurewasidenticaltothat
describedinstudy2.
Restrictedvs.UnrestrictedFormofGivingDecision.Theappealindicatedthat
donorswereabletomakerestrictedorunrestricteddonationstoaidAmerican
RedCrossreliefeffortsanddescribedaccordingly.Inthecaseofrestricted
donations,youdecideandcontrolwhichofthereliefprogramsissupportedby
yourdonation.Inthecaseofunrestricteddonations,theAmericanRedCross
staffdecidesandcontrolswhichofthereliefprogramsissupportedbyyour
donation.Participantsweretoldthattheyhad$50todonatetotheAmerican
RedCrossandaskedhowtheywouldchoosetoallocatetheir$50(i.e.,howmuch
theywouldallocatetoarestricteddonationvs.unrestricteddonation).They
47
weretoldthattheymayallocatethe$50inanywaytheywishedandaskedto
enteranynumberbetween$0and$50inthespacesprovidedtoindicatetheir
decisionofhowmuchofthedonationwouldberestricted.Theformatofthis
dependentmeasureheldthetotaldollaramountdonatedconstantandmeasured
therelativeallocationofdollars.Italsoallowedacleartestofthehypothesisthat
prideshiftspreferencestowardsrestrictedformsofgivingwhilelovedoesthe
opposite.Thethreelevelrestrictedgivingdependentmeasurewasclassifiedas
follows:<$25,=$25,>$25.Asecondtwolevelrestrictedgivingmeasurefocusing
onthepredictedeffectofprideclassifiedparticipantsintothosewhomade
largelyrestricteddonations(>$25)andthosewhodidnot($25).
Domesticvs.InternationalReliefFundDesignationDecision.Next,
participantscompletedtherelieffunddesignationmeasure.Specifically,
participantswereaskedIfunrestrictedgivingwerenotanoption(i.e.,youhad
todecidehowtodirectthe$50donation),howwouldyouallocateyour$50
donation?Pleaseenteradollaramount($0$50)ineachofthespaces
provided.Thedonationformlisteddomesticandinternationalrelieffundsthat
respectivelyprovidepeopleacrossthecountryoraroundtheworldwith
immediaterelieffromsufferingandneededlongtermsupport.Theorderin
whichthesefundswerelistedwascounterbalancedacrossparticipants;noorder
48
effectswerefound.Again,thedependentmeasurewasfocusedonprioritization
oftherecipientrelieffundsratherthanonthemagnitudeofgiving.Theprimary
predictionhereisthatlovewillincreaseinternationalfundgiving.Hence,this
dependentmeasureclassifiedallocationsintermsofwhetheramajorityoffunds
weredirectedtointernationalrelief(>$25)ornot($25).
AmericanRedCrossDonationBeliefs.Participantswereaskedaseriesof
questionsabouttheirfamiliaritywith,importanceof,andbeliefsaboutthe
AmericanRedCrossorganizationona7pointscale,where1=notatalland7=
verymuch.Theseitemsneitherexplainedsignificantvariancenorqualifiedthe
findings,sotheywillnotbediscussedfurther.
EmotionsCheck.Aftercompletingthedependentandbeliefsmeasures,
participantswereaskedtoanswerquestionsabouttheemotionsthey
experiencedduringthestorywritingatthebeginningofthestudysession.For
theemotionscheck,participantswereaskedspecificallyaboutwhattheywere
feelingorexperiencingwhilewritingtheirstories.Theywereaskedtoindicate
theextenttowhichtheyfelthappy,love,loved,pride,proud,andneutralaswell
ashowmuchtheyfeltthefocalemotions(i.e.,howmuchlovedidyoufeel,how
muchpridedidyoufeel)ona7pointscale,where1=notatalland7=very
much.
49
AppraisalsCheck.Fortheappraisals,participantswereaskedtorevisitthe
storythattheywroteearlierandrecallspecificallyhowtheywerefeeling.After
readingtheirstory,participantswereaskedtoindicatetheextenttowhicha
seriesofstatementsdescribedwhattheywerefeelingwhilewritingtheirstories
onan11pointscale,where1=notatalland11=extremely.Therewerethree
socialconnectionitemsandtwoperceivedcontrolitems.
Results
PreliminaryAnalyses.Initialanalysesrevealedasignificantmaineffectfor
genderandEnglishasafirstlanguage.Specifically,maleparticipantsindicateda
greaterpropensitytogiverestricteddonationsacrossallemotionconditions.
Genderwasalsofoundtointeractwithemotioncondition;thus,itwasincluded
asanadditionalfactorinthefollowinganalyses.ThoseforwhomEnglishwas
notafirstlanguageindicatedagreaterpropensitytogivetointernationalfunds
regardlessofemotioncondition.Tocontrolformagnitudeofpositiveemotionas
analternativeexplanation,ameasureofoverallpositivity(i.e.,anaverageofall
positiveemotionitems)wasincludedasacovariateintestingthehypotheses.
ManipulationChecks.Basedonparticipantsresponsestothefocalemotion
manipulationcheckitems,Icreatedthreeitememotioncheckscoresforlove
50
(love,loved,howmuchlove,=.94)andpride(pride,proud,howmuchpride,
=.95).Testsonthelove(F(2,205)=45.85,p<.0001),pride(F(2,205)=28.39,p<
.0001),happy(F(2,205)=15.48,p<.0001),andneutral(F(2,205)=32.32,p<.0001)
emotionchecksrevealedsignificantemotioninductioneffects.Participantsinthe
loveconditionreportedfeelingsignificantlymorelovethanthoseinthepride
(Mlove=6.0,Mpride=4.1,F(1,205)=53.95,p<.0001)orneutralconditions(Mneutral=
3.6,F(1,205)=81.73,p<.0001).Similarlyparticipantsinthepridecondition
reportedfeelingsignificantlymorepridethanthoseinthelove(Mpride=5.9,Mlove
=5.1,F(1,205)=10.93,p<.001)orneutralconditions(Mneutral=4.1,F(1,205)=
56.66,p<.0001).Participantsintheloveandprideconditionsreportedfeeling
significantlymorehappy(Mlove=5.7,Mpride=5.4)thanthoseintheneutral
condition(Mneutral=4.5,F(1,205)=29.08,p<.0001)andsignificantlylessneutral
(Mlove=2.6,Mpride=2.9)thanthoseintheneutralcondition(Mneutral=4.6,F(1,205)
=63.92,p<.0001).
Basedonparticipantsresponsestotheappraisalcheckitems,Icreated
appraisalcheckscoresforthefocalappraisalsuponwhichloveandpridediffer
(socialconnection=.91,perceivedcontrol=.75).Testsonselfreportedsocial
connection(F(2,205)=43.89,p<.0001)andperceivedcontrolappraisals(F(2,205)
=8.99,p<.0002)revealedsignificantemotioninductioneffects.Participantsin
51
theloveconditionreportedfeelingsignificantlymoresocialconnectionthan
thoseinthepride(Mlove=9.2,Mpride=6.6,F(1,205)=39.16,p<.0001)orthe
neutralcondition(Mneutral=5.3,F(1,205)=84.54,p<.004).Similarlyparticipants
intheprideconditionreportedfeelingsignificantlymorecontrolthanthosein
thelovecondition(Mpride=8.2,Mlove=6.7,F(1,205)=17.09,p<.0001)butnotthe
neutralcondition(Mneutral=7.8,F(1,205)=1.34,p<.25).
HypothesisTests.Hypothesis3cpredictedthatpositiveemotionswithhigh
socialconnectionappraisaltendencies(e.g.,love)willleadindividualstofavor
unrestrictedgiftsandpositiveemotionswithhighperceivedcontrol(e.g.,pride)
willleadthemtofavorrestrictedgifts.Inthemodelpredictingthethreelevel
restrictedgivingmeasure(i.e.,<$25,=$25,>$25),Ifoundamaineffectforgender
(2=8.12,p<.02)andasignificantemotionbygenderinteraction(2=12.23,p<
.02).Inanefforttobetterunderstandthisinteraction,Ialsoranananalysisonthe
twolevelrestrictedgivingmeasure.Inamodelpredictingthepercentageof
participantschoosingtomakearestrictedgift,Ifoundasignificanteffectfor
gender(2=8.06,p<.004),amarginallysignificanteffectforemotion(2=4.95,p
<.08)andasignificantemotionbygenderinteraction,2=9.00,p<.01.
Significantlymoremenmaderestrictedgiftsthanwomen(men=57%,women=
37%).Plannedcontrastsrevealedthatthoseintheprideconditionmade
52
significantlymorerestrictedgiftsthanthoseinthelovecondition(pride=58%,
love=43%;2=4.33,p<.04)butnottheneutralcondition(47%;NS).When
experiencingpride,womenmadesignificantlymorerestrictedgifts(56%)than
whenexperiencinglove(14%;2=8.68,p<.003).Womenexperiencinglovemade
fewerrestrictedgiftsthanthoseintheneutralcondition(2=3.55,p<.06).No
differencewasfoundbetweenneutral(44%;NS)andpride.However,men
showedsimilarlevelsofrestrictedgivingregardlessofemotioncondition(pride
=59%,love=64%,andneutral=48%;all2=NS),seetable4.
Theseconddependentmeasure,domesticversusinternationalrelieffund
designation,enabledmetotesthypothesis3d,whichpredictsthatpositive
emotionshighinsocialconnectionwillleadindividualstoprioritizegivingto
internationalrelief.Ihypothesizedthatparticipantsexperiencinglovewould
givemoretotheAmericanRedCrossinternationalrelieffundsthanthose
experiencingpride(i.e.,participantsexperiencingpridewouldbemorelikelyto
prioritizedomesticrelieffundsthanthoseexperiencinglove).Inthemodel
predictingthepropensitytogivetotheinternationalrelieffund,Ifounda
significanteffectforemotion,2=6.14,p<.05.Individualsexperiencinglove
(love=47%)weremorelikelytogivetotheinternationalrelieffundthanthose
experiencingpride(pride=33%,2=3.79,p<.05)oraneutralemotionalstate
53
(neutral=28%,2=5.36,p<.02),seetable5.Therewasnoeffectforgenderor
interactionbetweengenderandtheemotioncondition(F<1).
Discussion
Study3demonstratedthatdifferentpositiveemotionsleadtogivingin
distinctlydifferentways(e.g.,restrictedvs.unrestrictedmonetarygifts)andto
differenttypesofrecipients(e.g.,domesticvs.internationalrelieffunds).Using
thesocialconnectionandperceivedcontrolappraisaldimensions,Ipredicted
thatindividualswhofeltlovewouldmakemoreunrestrictedgiftsandthosewho
feltpridewouldmakemorerestrictedgifts(hypothesis3c).Ifoundsupportfor
hypothesis3cparticularlyamongwomen.Ifindasignificantinteractionbetween
genderandemotionpredictingmorerestrictedmonetarygiftsgiveninresponse
toafundraisingappealfromtheAmericanRedCross.Specifically,Ifindthat
momentaryprideincreasedthenumberofrestrictedgiftsrelativetomomentary
love(i.e.,similarly,momentaryloveincreasedthenumberofunrestrictedgifts
relativetomomentarypride)amongwomen.Womenfeelinglovemade
significantlymoreunrestrictedgiftsthanthoseinboththeprideandneutral
conditions.Althoughtheinteractionwasunexpected,itraisesaninteresting
questionastowhenemotioneffectsarelikelytobemoreorlesspronounced
54
betweengenders(i.e.,withparticularemotionpairsorwithinparticular
consumptioncontexts).
Inatestofhypothesis3d,Ipredictedthatindividualsfeelinglovewould
bemorelikelytogivetointernationalrelief(i.e.,conversely,thoseexperiencing
pridewouldbemorelikeltytogivetodomesticrelief).Resultsfromstudy3
supportedthishypothesis;Ifindasignificanteffectofemotiononthelikelihood
ofdonatingtointernationalrelief.Specifically,individualsfeelinglovewere
morelikelytogivetointernationalreliefthanthoseexperiencingprideora
neutralemotionalstate.Recentfindingssuggestthatmenandwomenmay
responddifferentlytodonationrequestsinvolvingingroupsandoutgroups
(Winterich,Mittal,andRoss2009);however,Ifoundnogenderdifferencesinthe
likelihoodofgivingtodomesticversusinternationalrelieffunds.
Study3demonstratesthatspecificpositiveemotions,basedonthe
appraisalprofilescharacterizingthem,haveuniquebehavioraleffectswithinthe
sameconsumptioncontext.Thesefindingssuggestthattheemotionalstate
potentialdonorsareinnotonlyinfluenceswhethertheygivebuthowtheygive
(i.e.,restrictedvs.unrestrictedgifts)andtowhomtheygive(i.e.,domesticvs.
international).Thesefindingshaveimportantimplicationsforahostof
55
organizations,includinguniversitiesandnonprofits,whichregularlyallow
donorstodecidewhetherandhowtodirectmonetarygifts.
Studies2and3demonstratethatspecificpositiveemotions(hope,love,
andpride)influenceconsumptionbehaviorindistinctways.Thesefindings
underscoretheimportanceofcharacterizingpositiveemotionsbasedontheir
uniquepatternsofappraisaltopredictconsequentialconsumptionbehaviors.
Thesedistinctionshaverealimplicationsformarketingaswellaspublicpolicy.
Whilesomecontextsallowforaspecificpositiveemotiontobetriggered
inisolation,inothercontextsconsumersareregularlyinfluencedbymultiple
emotionsconcurrently.Thisisparticularlythecaseforpositiveemotions,for
whichgreateremotionalblendingoccurs(EllsworthandSmith1988).Since
positiveemotionblendsareabundant(e.g.,loveandgratitude),itisparticularly
importanttodeterminehowtheseblendsmayinfluencebehavior.Specifically,
consumersmayexperiencemultiplepositiveemotionschronically(e.g.,
dispositionalemotions)orinresponsetoparticularmarketingefforts(e.g.,
televisioncommercials).Theseexampleshighlighttheimportanceofconsidering
multipleemotionsinconcertbasedontheirunderlyingpatternsofappraisal.
Thus,thenexttwostudiesfocusonblendsofpositiveemotioncharacterizedby
theirunderlyingpatternsofappraisal.Study4examineshowthetypesof
56
positiveemotionchronicallyexperiencedbyconsumers(measured)influence
consumptionbehavior.Study5looksathowthetypesofpositiveemotion
momentarilyexperiencedwhileviewingtelevisioncommercials(manipulated)
influencesubsequentconsumptionbehavior.
Study4:DifferentPositiveEmotionDispositionsInfluence
DifferentConsumptionBehaviors
Study4isdesignedtoaddresshowmeasuredpositiveemotions(i.e.,
dispositionalemotions)influenceconsumptionbehavior.Muchresearchhas
focusedondispositionalpositiveaffect.Atraitlevelpropensitytoward
experiencinggeneralizedpositiveaffectpredictsmaritalsatisfaction,social
activity,andcompetence(HarkerandKeltner2001),success(Lyubomirsky,
King,andDiener2005),higherincomeandjobsatisfaction(Dieneretal.2002),
andlongevity(Danner,Snowdon,andFriesen2001).Further,Shiotaand
colleaguesfindthatdifferencesinspecificpositiveemotiondispositionsare
linkedtodifferencesinpersonalityprofilesandattachmentstyle(Shiota,Keltner,
andJohn2006).Forexample,dispositionalcontentmentandpridearepositively
associatedwithselfandpeerratedExtraversion,anddispositionalloveis
positivelyassociatedwithselfandpeerratedAgreeableness.However,this
57
workdoesnotrelatepositiveemotionstooneanotherintermsofunderlying
appraisalsandhenceislessusefulforexamininghowoverallconstellationsof
specificdispositionalemotionswillfunctiontodeterminebehavior.Iwillusethe
expandedappraisalframeworkfromstudy1tocharacterizetheeffectsof
constellationsofdispositionalemotions.
Onewaytotestthehypothesesregardingtheroleofappraisaldimensions
inconsumerchoiceistodeterminetheextenttowhichanindividualseesthe
environmentthroughaparticularperceptuallens(LernerandKeltner2000).To
theextentthatapersonexperiencesemotionsassociatedwithspecificpatternsof
appraisal,heorsheismorelikelytohaveatendencytoappraisesituationsina
mannerconsistentwiththoseappraisals.LernerandKeltner(2001)haveshown
thatsuchpatternsemergeforbothnaturallyoccurringdispositionalemotions
andexperimentallyinducedemotions.
Pastresearchhasemployeddispositionalmeasurestoexaminedifferences
betweentwospecificnegativeemotions(angerandfear)andtheirunderlying
appraisals(certaintyandcontrol;LernerandKeltner,2001).Oneresearch
challengethatariseswhenfocusingonspecificemotionsishowthedifferences
foundinthedependentmeasurecanbeattributedtotheappropriateappraisal
dimension.Sinceanygivensetofemotionshasmultiple,perhapsconflicting,
58
appraisaltendencies,itispotentiallydifficulttodiscernwhichappraisal
tendencyisdrivinganygivenresult.
Inthepresentresearch,Idevelopanewapproachthatcharacterizes
emotionaldispositionsattheappraisallevel.Iconsidermultiplenaturally
occurringemotionsandexaminethenetappraisalpatternexperiencedbya
givenindividualtoquantifythestrengthofthechroniclensforaparticular
individualonaspecificappraisaldimension.Specifically,Imeasuretheextentto
whichagivenindividualchronicallyexperiencesseveraldispositionalemotions
andthensummarizeappraisaltendenciesacrossthesedispositionalpositive
emotions,essentiallycalculatinganappraisaldisposition.Detailsofthiscalculation
areprovidedinthemethodsectionofthisstudy.Ibelievethatthisappraisal
dispositionmethodologydemonstratestheusefulnessoftheappraisalapproach
byallowingmetosummarizeacrossvarious,potentiallyconflicting,specific
emotiondispositionstopredictconsumptionbehaviors.
Instudy4,Itestthehypothesisthatdifferentappraisaldispositionswill
leadtodifferenttypesofbroadeningbehaviors.Specifically,Ipredictthat
individualswithahighersocialconnectionappraisaldispositionwillbemore
willingtoengageinsociallyconsciousbehaviorsbenefitingdistantothers
(hypothesis3a).Ialsopredictthatindividualswithahigherproblemsolving
59
appraisaldispositionwillconsidermoreoptions(hypothesis3b).Ifurther
predictadoubledissociationsuchthatasocialconnectionbutnotaproblem
solvingappraisaldispositionwillpredictmoresociallyconsciousbehaviors
benefitingdistantothers,andaproblemsolvingbutnotasocialconnection
appraisaldispositionwillpredictlargerconsiderationsets.
Method
ParticipantsandCoverStory.Eightytwouniversitystudentsparticipatedin
a30minutestudyonfeelingsandconsumerchoice.Mysampleconsistedof44
females,37males,andoneparticipantwholeftthegenderquestionunanswered,
ranginginagefrom18to41.Todisassociatetheaffectandemotionmeasures
fromtheconsumerbehaviormeasuresofinterest,participantsweretoldthat
differentresearchershadpooledtogethertheirrespectivequestionnairepackets
andthattheywouldbecompletingthreeseparatestudies.
Procedure
Instudy4,allparticipantscompletedthesamemeasures.Participantsfirst
completeddetailedemotionmeasuresthatenabledcalculationofsocial
connectionandproblemsolvingappraisaldispositions.Next,theycompletedthe
60
dependentmeasuresforsociallyconsciousconsumptionbehaviorsbenefiting
closeanddistantothersaswellasaconsumerchoicetasktoprovidethemeasure
ofconsiderationsetsize.Theorderofthesemeasureswascounterbalanced.
BaselineEmotion.Sinceambientmoodisknowntoinfluencebehavior,the
PositiveandNegativeAffectScale(PANAS;Watson,Clark,andTellegen1988)
wasadministeredtoensurethatdifferencescouldbeattributedtothe
dispositionalmeasuresofinterestandnotparticipantspreexistingmoods.
ParticipantscompletedamodifiedversionofthePANAS,indicatingfelt
emotionsatthepresentmoment.Participantscompletedthe26item
questionnaireona5pointscale,rangingfrom1=veryslightlyornotatallto5=
extremely.
EmotionMeasures.Next,eachparticipantcompletedcomprehensive
measuresforaseriesofdispositionalpositiveemotionsbasedonestablished
scales,i.e.theDispositionalPositiveAffectScale(DPAS;Shiota2004)and
DispositionalPositiveEmotionScale(DPES;Shiotaetal.2006).The
questionnairecontained58items,towhichparticipantsrespondedona7point
scalerangingfrom1=stronglydisagreeto7=stronglyagree.Thequestionnaire
enabledmetocaptureeachindividualsdispositionalpropensitytoexperience
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thesevenfocalpositiveemotions:happiness,contentment,interest,hope,pride,
love,andgratitude.
Aftercompletingthefeelingsandemotionquestionnaire,participants
receivedseparatelythesecondandthirdquestionnairepacketswiththe
dependentmeasures.Theorderofthetwoconsumersurveytasksasocially
consciousconsumptionbehaviorstaskandacamcorderselectiontaskwas
counterbalancedacrossparticipants.Participantswereaskedtocomplete
demographicmeasuresaftereachtasktoprovidefacevalidityforthecover
story.
SociallyConsciousConsumptionBehaviorMeasures.Thesociallyconscious
consumptionitemswereembeddedinalargerconsumerchoicesurvey,asin
study2.Participantsweretoldthatresearcherswereinterestedinthelikelihood
thattheywouldengageinvariousconsumptionbehaviorsoverthecomingyear.
Thealphasforthefouritemdependentmeasureswere=.65forcloseothers
and=.75fordistantothers.
ConsiderationSetMeasures.Thecamcorderselectiontaskwasmodeled
afteranexistingmeasureofconsiderationsetsize(DiehlandPoynor2007).
Participantswereaskedtoimaginethattheyhadtakenanewjobandthatoneof
theirfirsttaskswastobuyacamcorderforaproject.Participantswerepresented
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withdescriptionsof32possiblecamcorders,includinginformationonfour
attributes:weight,resolution,memory,andzoom.Theirtaskwastoindicate
whichofthe32possibleproductoptionstheywouldconsiderfurther,the
dependentmeasureofinterest.Finally,someadditionalscaleanddemographic
itemsweremeasured.
CalculationofAppraisalDispositions.Isoughttoleverageappraisaltheory
bydeterminingthechronicprominenceoffocalappraisaldimensions(i.e.,social
connectionandproblemsolving)foreachparticipant.Ididsobycharacterizing
eachparticipantsoverallarrayofreporteddispositionalpositiveemotions.
Specifically,foreachappraisaldispositionIweightedeachdispositionalemotion
(measuredbytherelevantDPESsubscale)byitslocationontherelevant
appraisaldimensionasmeasuredinstudy1andreportedintable2.Recallthat
theselocationscapturedthedegreetowhicheachemotionisassociatedwith,or
characterizedby,eachappraisal.Indoingso,Iwasabletocalculateaunique
scoreforeachparticipantsummarizingthearrayofhisorherpositiveemotions
intermsoftheunderlyingappraisals.Specifically,Icreatedscorescapturingthe
focalappraisaldispositionsforsocialconnectionandproblemsolving.Inthe
followingequations,theWvariablesrepresentastandardizedweightforthe
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focalappraisalfromstudy1.TheMvariablesrepresenttheparticipantsown
meanlevelofthefocaldispositionalemotion.
SocialConnectionAppraisalDispositionScore=[WSChappiness
(Mhappiness)+WSCcontentment(Mcontentment)+WSCinterest(Minterest)+WSChope
(Mhope)+WSCpride(Mpride)+WSClove(Mlove)+WSCgratitude(Mgratitude)]
ProblemSolvingAppraisalDispositionScore=[WPShappiness
(Mhappiness)+WPScontentment(Mcontentment)+WPSinterest(Minterest)+WPShope
(Mhope)+WPSpride(Mpride)+WPSlove(Mlove)+WPSgratitude(Mgratitude)]
Results
PreliminaryAnalyses.Varianceinbaselineaffectdidnotqualifyanyofthe
mainfindings,andsurveyorderhadnoeffect.Forconsistencyacrossstudies,
ethnicitywasincludedasacovariate;however,itseffectwasnonsignificantin
thisstudy.Thus,thesevariableswillnotbediscussedfurther.Preliminary
analysesonthedispositionalemotionmeasuresshowedthatthemeasured
emotionsubscaleswerereliable:happiness(=.76),contentment(=.85),
interest(=.80),hope(=.81),pride(=.74),love(=.80),andgratitude(=
.71).
HypothesisTests.Fourregressionmodelswererunusingthesocial
connectionandproblemsolvingappraisaldispositionscorestotesthypotheses
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1,2,3a,and3banddemonstratedissociationbetweenthedependentmeasuresof
interest.
Inthefirstregression,Itestedhypothesis1usingsocialconnection
appraisaldispositionastheindependentvariable.Ipredictedthata)individuals
highinsocialconnectionwouldbesignificantlymorelikelytoengageinsocially
consciousconsumptionbehaviorsbenefitingmoredistantothersrelativetothose
benefitingcloseothersthanindividualslowinsocialconnectionandb)
individualshighversuslowinsocialconnectionwouldshowlessofadifference
forbehaviorsbenefitingcloseothers.Inthemodelpredictingthereported
likelihoodofengaginginsociallyconsciousconsumptionbehaviors,Ifindthat
socialconnectionispositivelyrelatedtosociallyconsciousconsumptionbehavior
(B=0.43;F(1,79)=7.78,p<.007).Ialsofindthatthewithinsubjecteffectfor
socialdistanceisasignificantpredictorofsociallyconsciousconsumption
behavior(Mclose=5.2andMdistant=3.2;F(1,80)=208.97,p<.0001).Most
importantly,socialdistancesignificantlymoderatedtheeffectofsocial
connectiononlikelihoodtoperformsociallyconsciousconsumptionbehaviors,
F(1,80)=4.06,p<.05.Morespecifically,thecoefficientforsocialconnectionwas
significantforbehaviorsbenefitingdistantothers(Bdistant=0.63,F(1,80)=11.80,p
B
<.001)butnotcloseothers(Bclose=0.22,F(1,80)=1.46,NS).Thissignificant
B
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interaction(seefigure2)supportstheappraisaltendencydispositionprediction
thatindividualswithhighersocialconnectionappraisaldispositionscoresare
morelikelytoengageinsociallyconsciousbehaviorsbenefitingmoredistant
others.
Ialsotestedwhetherindividualswithhigherproblemsolvingappraisal
dispositionswouldconsidermoreoptionsinconsumerchoice(hypothesis2)by
regressingthetotalnumberofoptionsconsideredontheproblemsolvingscores.
Asexpected,Ifoundthatproblemsolvingwasasignificantpredictorof
considerationsetsize(B=0.97;F(1,79)=6.25,p<.01).
Hypotheses3aand3bspecifiedastrongertestoftheappraisaldisposition
approachbypredictingadissociationbetweentheeffectsofsocialconnection
andproblemsolvingappraisaldispositions.Totestthesehypotheses,I
simultaneouslyenteredboththesocialconnectionandproblemsolvingappraisal
dispositionscoresintoregressionequationsandusedTypeIIISumsofSquares
sothateacheffectwastestedcontrollingfortheother.Itestedhypothesis3a,the
likelihoodthatsocialconnectionbutnotproblemsolvingwasasignificant
predictorofthelikelihoodtoperformsociallyconsciousbehaviorsthatbenefit
moredistantothers,byregressingthedistantotherbehaviorsdependentvariable
onboththesocialconnectionandtheproblemsolvingscores.Theresults
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revealedthatsocialconnection(B=.65;F(1,78)=10.65,p<.002),butnot
problemsolving(B=.03;F(1,78)<1,NS),wasasignificantpredictorofthe
likelihoodtoperformsociallyconsciousconsumptionbehaviorsthatbenefit
distantothers.Regressionlinespredictingintentionstoperformbehaviors
benefitingdistantothersbasedonstandardizedappraisaldispositionswere
plottedinfigure3.Thispatternofresultsalsoheldwhensocialconnectionhad
theopportunitytoexplainallofthevariance.
Finally,Itestedhypothesis3b,thelikelihoodthatproblemsolvingwould
beasignificantpredictorofconsiderationsetsize.Iregressedthetotalnumberof
productoptionsconsideredonboththesocialconnectionscoreandtheproblem
solvingscore.Theresultsrevealedthatproblemsolving(B=.84;F(1,78)=4.12,p
<.05),butnotsocialconnection(B=.54;F(1,78)<1,NS),wasasignificant
predictorofthenumberofoptionsconsidered.Regressionlinespredicting
numberofoptionsconsideredbasedonstandardizedappraisaldispositionswere
plottedinfigure4.
Discussion
Theseresultsdemonstratethatdifferentappraisaldispositionsleadto
differenttypesofbroadeningbehaviors.Instudy4,Iusedappraisalfindings
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fromstudy1inconjunctionwithindividualsdispositionalpositiveemotion
scorestocalculateappraisaldispositionsforsocialconnectionandproblem
solving.Usingtheseappraisaldispositions,Ilinkedspecificappraisaltendencies
withdifferenttypesofbroadeningimportanttoconsumptionbehavior.Ifind
thatsocialconnectionbutnotproblemsolvingpredictsanincreasedlikelihood
ofengaginginsociallyconsciousconsumptionbehaviorsthatbenefitmore
distantothers.Ialsofindthatproblemsolvingbutnotsocialconnectionpredicts
largerconsiderationsetsizes.
Study4furtherdemonstratestheimportanceofcharacterizingpositive
emotionsbasedontheirunderlyingappraisals.Thisstudyshowsthatthetypes
ofpositiveemotionconsumerschronicallyexperiencepredictenduringpatterns
ofbehavior.Namely,theblendofpositiveemotionsexperiencedbyaconsumer
formsanappraisaldispositionwhichactsasanimportantlens.Aninteresting
questioniswhethermanipulatedblendsofmomentarilyexperiencedpositive
emotions(e.g.,hopeandinterest)cansimilarlyformthistypeofappraisalbased
lens(e.g.,problemsolving)whichpredictsbehavior.Instudy5,Iexaminehow
televisioncommercialsactivatespecificpositiveemotionblendscharacterizedby
particularpatternsofappraisalandshowhowtheyinfluencesubsequent
behavior.
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Study5:TelevisionCommercialsActivateAppraisalsand
InfluenceEnvironmentalBehaviors
Thegoalofstudy5wastodemonstratetheuniquebroadeningeffectsof
distincttypesofpositiveemotionblendswithinasingleconsumptioncontext
usingemotioninducingstimuliwhichoccurnaturallywithinconsumers
everydayenvironments.Leveragingtheappraisalfindingsfromstudies1and4,
Idesignedstudy5totestwhethertheappraisaltendencieswhichcharacterize
distincttypesofpositiveemotioncouldbetriggeredbybrieftelevision
commercialsandsubsequentlyinfluencebehaviorcompletelyunrelatedtothe
consumptioncontextorbrandsfeaturedinthecommercials.Asecondgoalof
study5wastodemonstratetheinfluenceofspecificpositiveemotionblends
withinthesamedomainofbehaviorsexaminedinmypreviousstudies(i.e.,
sociallyconsciousconsumptionbehaviors).Studies24demonstratehow
positiveemotionshighinsocialconnectionincreasesociallyconsciousbehaviors
benefitingdistantothers.Inthesestudies,increasingthesebehaviorsreliesonan
individualsexpandedsenseofselforcircleofconcern.However,notallsocially
consciousbehaviorssharethischaracteristicnoraretheynecessarilybest
motivatedinthesameway.Specifically,sociallyconsciousbehaviorscanvary
notonlyintermsofwhethertheycreateasenseofconnectionbutalsointerms
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oftheamountofenergyoreffortrequired.Otherclassesofsociallyconscious
behaviors,particularlyenvironmentalactions,requireindividualstoexertmore
continuousenergyandeffort,thusmakingtheproblemsolvingappraisal
dimensionofpositiveemotionscrucial.
Instudy5,Itestthehypothesisthatatelevisioncommercialwhich
triggersproblemsolvingemotions(i.e.,hopeandinterest)willleadtomore
effortfulenvironmentalbehaviorsthanacommercialwhichtriggerssocial
connectionemotions(i.e.,loveandgratitude).InthepreviousstudiesIhave
shownthatsocialconnectionemotions(e.g.,love)increaseengagementin
sociallyconsciousbehaviorsthatbenefitmoredistantothers.Inthisstudy,I
showthatproblemsolvingemotions(e.g.,hopeandinterest)willincreasethe
numberofdifferenteffortfulenvironmentalactionsthatindividualsarewilling
totakewithinthedomainofsociallyconsciousconsumptionbehaviors.Thus,
study5isdesignedtoshowthatspecifictypesofpositiveemotions(e.g.,social
connectionvs.problemsolving)domorethansimplymotivatebehaviorina
particularconsumptiondomain.Rather,specifictypesofpositiveemotioncan
actuallydifferentiallyincreasedistincttypesofsociallyconsciousbehavior(e.g.,
purchasingaproductthatbenefitsrefugeefamiliesvs.bringingreusablebagsto
thesupermarket).
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Method
ParticipantsandSetup.193universitystudentsparticipatedina10minute
studyonfeelingsandconsumerchoice.Thesampleconsistedof126malesand
80femalesranginginagefrom18to29.Participantsweretoldthattheywould
beviewingacommercial,reportingtheirfeelings,andthencompletingachoice
taskandbackgroundquestions.
Procedure
Study5consistedofa3positiveemotionblend/appraisaltype
commercial(problemsolving/socialconnection/control)betweensubjects
design.Participantswererandomlyassignedtooneofthethreeconditions.
EmotionBlend/AppraisalInduction.Eachparticipantviewedoneofthree
commercialclipsselectedtoinduceaspecificpositiveemotionappraisaltype.
Bothofthepretestedpositiveemotionblendcommercialsfeaturedasports
context.TheproblemsolvingcommercialconsistedofaNikecommercial
featuringaseriesofathletesworkingoutandtrainingfortheirrespectivesports
(e.g.,basketball,swimming,gymnastics,running,soccer).Thesocialconnection
commercialconsistedofaJohnson&JohnsoncommercialfromtheThanks
MomOlympicGamescampaignfeaturingswimmerCullenJonestalkingabout
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hismotherssupportbeingkeytohisopportunitytocompeteintheOlympics.
Thecontrolcommercialfeaturedanacceleratedtimelapsevideoofaplant
growingfromseedtoadultplant.
AppraisalsandEmotionCheck.Afterviewingthecommercialclip
participantswereaskedtoreportontheirthoughtsandfeelingsinresponseto
thecommercialsviewed.Theywereaskedtoreporttheextenttowhichthey
thoughtaboutorfeltthetwofocalappraisals(i.e.,problemsolvingandsocial
connection)whileviewingthecommercial.Boththeproblemsolving(needing
toexpendeffortorovercomeobstaclesbeforegettingsomethingimportant)and
thesocialconnection(beingcloserormoreconnectedtoanotherindividualora
group)itemswereansweredona9pointscale,where1=notatalland9=very
much.Asanemotioncheck,participantsalsoreportedontheextenttowhichthe
commercialmadethemfeelthefocalpositiveemotionblendstates.Theproblem
solvingcommercialwasfoundtobehighinhopeandinterestbutnotloveand
gratitude;thesocialconnectioncommercialwashighinloveandgratitudebut
nothopeandinterest,asexpected(seetable6).Anoverallpositivityscorewas
createdforeachparticipantbasedonanaverageofthepositiveemotionswhich
werereportedona9pointscale,where1=notatalland9=verymuch.
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EnvironmentalActions.Afterreportingtheirfeelingsinresponsetothe
commercialstask,participantswerepresentedwiththechoicetask.Theywere
providedwithalistof15environmentalconsumptionbehaviors,whichhad
beenpretestedfortheamountofeffortorenergytheyrequired.Sampleitems
include:Checkyourcarstirepressureregularlyandkeeptiresadequately
inflated;Unplugelectronicsandsmallhouseholdapplianceswhentheyarenot
inuse;Bringreusableclothbagstothegrocerymarket,asopposedtousing
plasticorpaperbags.Notethattheemphasisoftheseitemsisonmoreeffortful
behaviorrequiringenergyandactiononthepartoftheconsumer.Participants
wereaskedtoindicatewhichbehaviorsyouwillcommittodooverthecoming
year.Theseitemswerepretestedwithagroupofcollegestudents(N=28)who
ratedthemasmoreeffortfulbehaviorsthatsolvedenvironmentalproblems
relativetothefulllistofenvironmentalbehaviorsprovided.Participantsplaceda
checknexttoeachbehaviortheycommittedtodo,andthetotalnumberof
environmentalactionscheckedcomprisedthefinaldependentmeasure.This
measurecapturedtheextenttowhichindividualswerewillingtoengageina
widevarietyofeffortfulenvironmentalactions.
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Results
PreliminaryAnalyses.Asinstudy3,anoverallpositivityscorewascreated
foreachparticipantbasedontheaverageofallfivepositiveemotionitems(=
.93).Theinclusionofthisoverallpositivityscoreallowsforamorestringenttest
oftheeffectofappraisalsonbehavior.Initialanalysesrevealedasignificant
effectforage,gender,andoverallpositivity,noneofwhichinteractedwiththe
emotionblendmanipulation.Specifically,women,olderindividuals,andthose
whoreactedmorepositivelytothecommercialindicatedagreaterpropensityto
performenvironmentalactionsregardlessofemotionblendcondition.Allwere
includedascovariatesinthetestsofhypotheses.Toensurethatthemagnitudeof
positivitydidnotexplaindifferencesfoundbetweenconditions,itwasincluded
asacovariateinthemanipulationchecksaswell.
Testsonselfreportedappraisalsofproblemsolving(F(2,189)=15.85,p<
.0001)andsocialconnection(F(2,189)=13.97,p<.0001)inresponsetothe
commercialsrevealedsignificantemotion/appraisalinductioneffects.The
problemsolvingcommercialwasseenashigherinproblemsolvingappraisals
thanthesocialconnectioncommercial(Mproblemsolving=5.3,Msocialconnection=3.8,(F(1,
189)=16.19,p<.0001)andthecontrolcommercial(Mcontrol=3.2,(F(1,189)=21.80,
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p<.0001).Thesocialconnectioncommercialwasseenashigherinsocial
connectionappraisalsthantheproblemsolvingcommercial(Msocialconnection=5.7,
Mproblemsolving=4.1,(F(1,189)=23.42,p<.0001)andthecontrolcommercial(Mcontrol
=3.6,(F(1,189)=19.04,p<.0001).
HypothesisTests.Hypothesis4predictedthatproblemsolvingbutnot
socialconnectionwillleadtomoreeffortfulbehaviorinthesameconsumption
context,inthiscaseeffortfulenvironmentalactions.Inthemodelpredictingthe
totalnumberofdifferentenvironmentalactions,Ifoundasignificanteffectfor
commercialcondition,F(5,187)=3.65,p<.03.Aspredicted,thosewhovieweda
problemsolvingcommercialcommittedtosignificantlymoreenvironmental
actionsthanthosewhoviewedthesocialconnectioncommercial,(Mproblemsolving=
5.5,Msocialconnection=4.4,F(1,187)=4.92,p<.03).Nosignificantdifferencewas
foundbetweentheproblemsolvingandcontrolcommercial(Mcontrol=6.1,NS).
Amediationanalysiswasconductedusingtherecommended
bootstrappingtechniquefortestingindirecteffects(PreacherandHayes2004).
Thebootstrappedestimateoftheindirecteffectwassignificant(z=1.65,p<.05).
Thisevidencesuggeststhatappraisalsofproblemsolvingmediatethe
relationshipbetweenpositiveemotionblendtypeandenvironmentalbehaviors
(seefigure5).
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Discussion
Study5demonstratesthatdifferenttypesofpositiveemotionblends(e.g.,
socialconnectionemotionsvs.problemsolvingemotions)leadtodifferent
behaviors,particularlydifferenttypesofsociallyconsciousconsumption
behaviors.Thesefindingsshowthatmomentarypositiveemotionblends
experiencedwhileviewingatelevisioncommercialcanchangesubsequent
behaviorinaconsumptiondomainentirelyunrelatedtotheemotionelicitation.
Specificallystudy5showsthatapositiveproblemsolvingcommercialincreases
consumerengagementineffortfulenvironmentactionsmorethanapositive
socialconnectioncommercial.Inaddition,Ifindevidencethatproblemsolving
appraisalsmediatetherelationshipbetweenpositiveemotionblendtypeand
engagementinenvironmentalbehaviors.
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GENERALDISCUSSION
SummaryofResults
Togetherfivestudiesdemonstratethatpositiveemotionscanbe
characterizedinwaysthatallowpredictionofspecificconsumptionbehaviors.I
findthatdifferentpositiveemotionsleadtodistincttypesofbroadeningdueto
differencesinappraisaldimensions.Instudy1,inclusionofafullerrangeof
positiveemotions(e.g.,contentment,gratitude,andlove)andappraisal
dimensionsspecificallyimportanttopositiveemotions(e.g.,addingsocial
connectionandtemporalfocus)allowsbetterdifferentiationamongpositive
emotions.Study1showsthatpositiveemotionscanbereliablydistinguished
alongmultipledimensionsofappraisal,includingproblemsolvingandsocial
connection,whichexplainthemostvarianceamongthepositiveemotions
considered.
Studies25showthatbothmanipulatedandmeasuredpositiveemotions
characterizedbydifferentappraisaltendenciesleadtodifferentpatternsof
consumptionbehavior.Instudy2,Ifindthatloveandhopeinfluencesocially
consciousconsumptionbehaviorsbenefitingcloseanddistantothersindifferent
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ways.Study2demonstratesthatpositiveemotionshighinsocialconnection
(e.g.,love)leadtomoresociallyconsciousconsumptionbehaviorsbenefiting
distantothersthanlowsocialconnectionpositiveemotions(e.g.,hope)butboth
hopeandlovesimilarlyincreasebehaviorsbenefitingcloseothers.Inaddition,I
findevidencethattherelationshipbetweenpositiveemotionsandbehaviors
benefitingdistantothersismediatedbybreadthofsocialconnection.Instudy3,I
findthatloveandprideleadtodistinctformsofgivinginresponseto
fundraisingappeals,particularlyintermsofthetypeofmonetarygiftgiven(i.e.,
restrictedvs.unrestricted)andtherecipientschosentoreceivethosegifts(i.e.,
domesticvs.internationalfunds).Study3showsthatpositiveemotionshighin
perceivedcontrol/lowinsocialconnection(e.g.,pride)leadtomorerestricted
givingthanlowperceivedcontrol/highsocialconnectionpositiveemotions(e.g.,
love)amongwomen.Inaddition,highsocialconnectionpositiveemotions(e.g.,
love)makegiftstointernationalrelieffundsmorelikelythanlowsocial
connectionpositiveemotions(e.g.,pride).
Studies4and5highlighttheimportanceofpositiveemotionblends
characterizedbytheirunderlyingpatternsofappraisal.Study4demonstrates
thataproblemsolvingbutnotsocialconnectionappraisaldispositionleadsto
largerconsiderationsetsizesandthatsocialconnectionbutnotaproblem
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solvingappraisaldispositionpredictsthelikelihoodofengaginginsocially
consciousconsumptionbehaviorsthatbenefitmoredistantothers.Study5
showsthataproblemsolvingcommercialbutnotasocialconnectioncommercial
leadstomoreeffortfulenvironmentalactions(e.g.,reducingenergyuseand
bringingreusablebagstothegrocerystore).Inaddition,Ifindevidencethatthe
relationshipbetweentypeofpositiveemotionblendandenvironmental
behaviorsismediatedbyproblemsolvingappraisals.Acrossstudies25,I
leveragethenotionofappraisalstodeveloptheoryandmeasurementlinking
positiveemotionstospecifictypesofbroadeningbehaviors.
Ialsointroduceanewmethodologyfortakingintoaccountmultiple
appraisaldimensionsunderlyingspecificemotionsandintroducetheconceptof
appraisaldispositions.Morespecifically,byaccountingfortheextenttowhicha
consumerregularlyexperiencesanarrayofemotions,Iamabletomeasure
whichappraisaldimensionsaremostlikelytobechronicallyactiveandserveas
alensaffectinghowindividualsperceiveandrespondtotheirsituationor
environment.Usingappraisaldispositionsandpositiveemotionblends,I
provideamorestringenttestoftheimportanceofconceptualizingpositive
emotionseffectsintermsofunderlyingappraisals.Thenewlyrevealedpatterns
ofappraisalunderlyingspecificpositiveemotionscanbeusednotonlytopredict
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responsestoasinglemomentaryemotionbutalsotopredictpatternsofbehavior
linkedtotheconstellationsofemotionsthataconsumerexperiencesregularlyor
tospecificpositiveemotionblendsinducedbyenvironmentalfactors.Thus,the
appraisaldispositionmethodologyanduseofmomentarypositiveemotion
blendsfurthervalidatetheorizingaboutthedifferencesbetweenspecificpositive
emotionsbycharacterizingthoseemotionsintermsofunderlyingappraisals.
TheoreticalContributions
Thisresearchoffersanintegratedapproachforunderstandingpositive
emotions.Ibringtogethertwoimportantemotiontheoriesappraisaltheoryand
thebroadenandbuildtheoryofpositiveemotionstoprovideamorenuanced
viewoftheeffectsofspecificpositiveemotionsanddifferentappraisal
tendencies.Iarguethatspecificpositiveemotionscanservetobroadenattention,
thought,andactionindifferentwaysandsuggestthatthesedifferentformsof
broadeningcanbeexplainedthroughthedifferentappraisaldimensions
characterizingdifferentpositiveemotions.
Ifindthatpositiveemotionscanbedistinguishedbasedonunderlying
appraisals.Ialsofindthattheappraisaldimensionsthatexplainthemost
varianceinpositiveemotionsaredistinctfromthosefoundtoexplainthemost
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varianceinnegativeemotions,e.g.,socialconnection,anappraisaldimensionnot
heretoforerecognizedasimportant,hasacriticalroleindistinguishingpositive
emotions.Specifically,appraisalsofcertaintyandcontrol,whichhavebeen
importanttounderstandingdifferencesinanger,fear,andsadness,areless
centraltoexplainingvarianceamongstpositiveemotions.Thesefindingsoffera
richerunderstandingoftheappraisaldimensionscentraltodifferentiating
positiveemotions.
Idemonstratethatspecificpositiveemotionspredictdifferentpatternsof
consumptionbehavior(e.g.,considerationofmoreoptionsoreffortfulbehaviors
vs.behaviorsbenefitingdistantothersordonationstointernationalrelief).I
showthatdifferentmomentarypositiveemotionsaswellasmomentarypositive
emotionblendsdifferentiallypredicttheseconsumptionbehaviors.Ialsoshow
thatchronicexperiencesofpositiveemotionspredictenduringpatternsof
behavior.Mytechniqueforcalculatingappraisaldispositionscoresallows
researcherstoassessmultipleappraisaldimensionsconcurrentlyanddetermine
whichappraisaldimensionismostpredictiveofobservedbehavior.Ishowthat
chronicappraisaldispositionsalsopredictdistinctbroadeningbehaviors.This
approachisbothaconceptualandamethodologicalcontributiontoappraisal
theoryandappraisaltendencyapproaches.
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Finally,Iprovidethefirstempiricaldemonstrationofdifferential
broadening,showingthatspecificpositiveemotionsbroadenindistinctlydifferent
ways.Ishowthatemotionscharacterizedashighinbreadthofsocialconnection
(e.g.,love)increasebehaviorsbenefitingdistantothers,whereasemotions
characterizedashighindegreeofproblemsolving(e.g.,hope)increase
considerationsetsizeandcommitmentstomoreeffortfulconsumption
behaviors.Thisdemonstrationofdifferentialbroadeningisacontributiontothe
broadenandbuildtheoryofpositiveemotions.
MarketingImplications
Specificpositiveemotionsandtheirassociatedappraisalshaveimportant
implicationsforconsumptionbehavior.Myresearchsuggeststhatthewaysin
whichconsumersregularlyappraisesituationshaveimportantdownstream
consequencesfortheextenttowhichtheya)engageinsociallyconscious
consumptionbehaviorsthatbenefitmoredistantothers,b)committoeffortful
environmentalactions,c)considermorechoiceoptions,andd)givedifferent
typesofmonetarygiftsinresponsetofundraisingappeals.Thisresearchalso
suggeststhatmarketersneedtobemorecognizantofthespecificpositive
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emotionsthattheirconsumersmaybeexperiencingbothmomentarilyand
chronically.
Marketershavemanytoolsattheirdisposaltoinfluencespecific
momentaryemotions,buttheyneedtobestrategicandidentifythespecific
positiveemotionsactivatedbytheirmarketingcommunicationsandstore
environments.Theyneedtoexaminewhichtypesofpositiveemotionmaybe
triggeredbythetext,imagery,music,andpersonnelthattheyselectfor
promotingtheirproductsandbrands.Ifmarketersusetherightpositive
emotions,theycouldbewellontheirwaytoachievingtheirstrategicobjectives.
If,however,theyusethewrongpositiveemotions,theycouldendup
underminingthosesameobjectives.
Itisnotthecasethatonepositiveemotionisuniversallybetterat
motivatingbehaviorthananother.Rather,theeffectivenessofeachpositive
emotiondependsonthegoalofthemanager,particularlywhattypeofbehavior
themanagerorpolicymakerwantstomotivate.Forexample,aretailercould
employemotionslikelytoincreasethenumberofproductsaconsumerconsiders
purchasingortheamountofeffortaconsumeriswillingtoexpend(e.g.,hope)or
emotionslikelytoincreaseaconsumerssenseofconnectiontostorepersonnel
orabrand(e.g.,love).Inthesocialmarketingcontext,apublichealthcampaign
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aimedatencouragingtheconsumertoconsideradditionalchoiceorbehavior
optionscouldusehope,whereasaconservationcampaignbenefitingdistant
otherscouldbemoreeffectiveusinglove.Forarelatedexamplefocusingonthe
effectsofselfandotherinhealthmessaging,seeAgrawaletal.(2007).Whileall
positiveemotionalthemeswillmakeconsumersfeelpositively,allpositive
emotionalthemeswillnotmotivatethesametypesofconsumptionbehavior.
Basedonmycharacterizations,marketingmanagersandpolicymakers
canstrategicallyusedifferentpalettesofspecificpositiveemotionstopromote
desiredbehaviors.Namely,multiplepositiveemotions(e.g.,hopeandinterest)
maybecharacterizedbythesameappraisaltendency(e.g.,problemsolving),but
eachofthoseemotionsisnotnecessarilysuitableorattainableforagivenbrand,
productcategory,orcontext.Theconceptofpalettesofpositiveemotionallows
marketerstostrategicallyselectfromagroupofemotionsonethatisappropriate
foragivensituation.
Thepositiveemotionpaletteconceptfurthersuggeststhatmarketers
cannotemployaonesizefitsallapproachinselectingemotionalthemes.
Specifically,marketersneedtobesensitivetocontextualcontingencies,suchas
theproductcategoryandparticularretailenvironment.Forexample,inproduct
categorieswheremultiplepurchasesarepossible(e.g.,apparel),usinga
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problemsolvingemotiontoincreasetheconsiderationsetandpotentiallythe
numberofproductsaconsumerseesaspurchaseworthyisprobablydesirable.
However,inproductcategorieswhereasinglepurchaseismoreprevalent(e.g.,a
digitalvideorecorder),usingthatsameemotionmaycausetheconsumerto
broadensearchbeyondtheretailersownbrandorstore,probablynotso
desirable.
Contextualcontingenciesareespeciallyimportantinretailenvironments.
Marketersmayneedtousedifferentcreativematerialstoevokeappropriate
emotionalthemesbasedontheenvironmentalcontextandthebrandsposition
inthemarketplace.Specifically,amarketerwouldberemisstousethesame
emotionaladvertisementordisplayinabrandsflagshipstoreandabigbox
storewherethebrandissold.Forexample,usingahopethemedNike
advertisement(thatbroadensconsiderationset)atNiketownmayincreaseNike
sales;however,usingthesameadvertisementatFootLockermayactually
decreasecategoryleader(Nike)sales,asconsumersmaybroadenbeyondthe
Nikebrandtoconsiderothercompetitivebrands(e.g.,Adidas,Asics)soldinthe
store.Converselyifthebrandisinafollowerposition,usingahopethemed
advertisementinabigboxstoremaybestrategicallyadvantageous.
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Marketerscanalsobemoresophisticatedintheiruseofmultipleemotions
andstrategicsequencingofemotions,particularlyincommunicationsovertime.
Forexample,itmaybeadvantageousforcompanieswhorelyonpersonalselling
(e.g.,Avon)toemployasociallyconnectedemotion(e.g.,love)earlytosecurea
consumerandthenuseaproblemsolvingemotion(e.g.,hopeorinterest)to
encourageaconsumertoconsiderabroaderrangeofproductsorservices.
Retailersandexperientialmarketerscouldalsoemploysequencesofemotionto
strategicallymoveconsumersthroughdifferentzonesofaretailspace.For
marketersofcitizenactioninitiatives,theremaybeinstancesinwhichasequence
ofemotionscouldbeemployedtoinfluenceconsumptiondecisionsandimprove
consumerwelfare.Forexample,apolicyinitiativeaimedatresource
conservationmaybemoreeffectiveifmarketerswereabletofirstactivate
heightenedsocialconnectionappraisals(vialove)followedbyproblemsolving
appraisals(viahopeorinterest).Specifically,policycommunicationsmayneed
tofirsthelpcitizensfeelmoresociallyconnectedtodistantotherswhomay
benefitfromtheiractionsandthenmotivatecitizenstobroadentheir
considerationofactionsthatcouldbetakentoachievethatgoalaswellasexert
efforttocarryoutthoseactions.
86
Similarly,socialconnectionappraisalsmightmoderatetheeffectsof
identifiableversusstatisticalvictimsoncharitablegiving(Smalland
Loewenstein2003).Inparticular,highersocialconnectionmightdecreasethe
normaldifferentialingivingbetweenidentifiableandstatisticalvictimsby
increasinggivingtostatisticalvictims(asopposedtodecreasinggivingto
identifiablevictims;Small,Loewenstein,andSlovic2007).Moregenerally,social
connectionappraisalsmaymoderateeffectsassociatedwithsocialdistanceforms
ofpsychologicaldistance(Trope,Liberman,andWakslak2007),withparticular
influenceonpsychologicallydistantconditions.Socialconnectionmayalsobe
importanttoconsumersdecisionstoengageinbrandrelationships(Fournier
1998)andparticipateinbrandcommunities(MunizandOGuinn2001).
Attentiontonotonlyconsumersmomentaryemotionalexperiencesbutalso
theirchronicemotionalexperiencesmayprovetobeparticularlyfruitfulinthese
contexts.
Inaddition,appraisaldispositionsofferapotentiallyusefultoolfor
segmentation.Namely,marketersknowthatpeoplevaryincognitivestylesand
haveusedthatinformationinconjunctionwithzipcodedatatotarget
consumers.Similarlythereisinterestingworkthatcouldbedonetyingappraisal
dispositionstokeydemographicandpsychographicvariables(e.g.,genderand
87
lifestage),inordertomoreeffectivelytailormarketingoffersandpolicyefforts
basedonknowledgeoftheemotionalprofilesofdifferentconsumersegments.
Theseinsightsontheappraisaldimensionscharacterizingpositive
emotionscouldleadtomoreeffectivecommunicationsstrategiesandmarketing
campaignsenablingmarketerstostrategicallymatchthecorrectpositiveemotion
toappropriatedomainsofdesiredbehavior.Thesefindingshaveimportant
implicationsforadvertising,personalselling,instoredesign,andmarketing
communications.
FutureResearch
Futureresearchshouldexaminethetemporalfocusdimensionrevealedin
study1,asithasimportantimplicationsforconsumerdecisionmaking.For
instance,whenexperiencinghappiness(presentfocused),anindividualmight
placegreaterweightonpresentbenefitsandlessweightonfuturecosts,whereas
anindividualexperiencinghope(futurefocused)mayplacelessweighton
presentcostsandmoreweightonfuturebenefitswhenmakingadecision.Tothe
extentthatdifferentpositiveemotionsarecharacterizedbyatemporalfocus
dimension,theymayengenderdifferenttemporalconstruals(Libermanand
Trope1998).Thus,differencesintemporalfocusmayhaveimplicationsfor
88
consumerpurchaseintentions,productsatisfaction,timingofproductfulfillment
decisions,aswellashealthpreventionandhealthriskbehaviors.
Consumerhopemaybeaparticularlyimportant,albeitcomplex,areafor
futureresearch.Researcherssuggestthatdifferinglevelsofinvolvementand
intensityofhopewillimpactattitudeformationprocessesandproductchoices
(MacInnisanddeMello2005).Empiricalfindingsshowthatthreatstohopelead
tomotivatedreasoningaboutproducts(DeMelloetal.2007).Whilemynew
appraisalfindingssuggestthathopemayfacilitateconsumerproblemsolving
tendencies,additionalresearchisneededtounderstandwhenconsumerhope
willbeanassetversusadetrimenttochoicequality.
Bothmarketersandconsumersneedtounderstandtheimportanceofhow
differentpositiveemotionsanddifferentappraisalsinfluenceconsumption
behaviorsindifferentways.Byunderstandinghowdifferentpositiveemotions
influenceconsumers,marketerscandomorethanjustmakeconsumersfeelgood,
theycanalsohelpconsumersdobetterforthemselvesandforothers.
89
TECHNICALAPPENDIXTOSTUDY1
90
Note:Forclaritythecomponentloadingmatrixhasbeenarranged
sothatthecolumnsappearindecreasingorderofvarianceexplainedby
components.Therowshavebeenarrangedsothatforeachsuccessive
component,greaterloadingsappearfirst.Loadingslessthan0.50have
beenomitted.
ThefactorpatternforthePCArevealeda7dimensionalsolution.
ThefirstPCAdimension,explainingthemostvarianceamongthepositive
emotions,wasahybriddimensionIlabelproblemsolving,whichreflects
anticipatedeffortandgoalpathitems(bothoriginaltotheSmithand
Ellsworthstudy).Thissuggeststhatcertainpositiveemotionsaremore
likelythanotherstobeassociatedwithappraisalsofrequiringactionor
needingtoexpendeffortinagoaldirectedway.ThesecondPCA
dimensionwasoneofmyproposeddimensions,socialconnection,which
representedtheextenttowhichanindividualfeelsconnectedtoothers.
ThethirdPCAdimensionwasanotherhybriddimensionconsistingof
attentionandpleasantnessitems(originaltotheSmithandEllsworth
study),suggestingthatcertainpositiveemotionsaremorelikelythan
otherstobeperceivedaspleasantandabsorbinginattention.Thefourth
andfifthPCAdimensionswerecontrolandcertainty,twoclassicSmith
andEllsworthdimensionsthathavehelpedemotionresearchersto
understandimportantdifferencesinnegativeemotions.ThesixthPCA
dimensionrepresentedmyothernewlyproposeddimension,temporal
focus,reflectingtheextenttowhichanindividualisfocusedonthe
presentversuspastorfuture.TheseventhandfinalPCAdimensionwas
situationalcontrol.
Tofurtherevaluatehowspecificpositiveemotionsdifferintheir
associatedcognitiveappraisals,componentscoreswerecomputedforthe
PCAsolution.Table2liststhemeanscores(standardizedforeach
dimension)foreachemotionalongthesevenPCAdimensionsand
summarizesthewayappraisalsdifferacrossthevariousemotions(see
table6inSmithandEllsworth1985,p.829).Forexample,hopeand
interestarehighinproblemsolving,whereashappiness,contentment,
andpridearelowinproblemsolving.Loveisahighsocialconnection
emotion,whereasinterest,hope,pride,andcontentmentarelowinsocial
connection.Happinessandcontentmentareverypresentcenteredintheir
temporalfocus,buthopeandgratitudearenot.
91
TABLES
Table1:AppraisalDimensionRatingsItems
Dimension
Item
Pleasantness
Pleasant
Enjoy
Attentional
activity
Attend
Control
Situational
Control
SelfControl
OtherControl
Certainty
Understand
Uncertain
Consider
ItemWording
Howpleasantorunpleasantwasittobeinthis
situation?
Howenjoyableorunenjoyablewasittobeinthis
situation?
Thinkaboutwhatwascausingyoutofeelhappyin
thissituation.Whileyouwerefeelinghappy,to
whatextentdidyoutrytoconsiderthisthing
further,ortowhatextentdidyoutrytoshutitout?
Thinkaboutwhatwascausingyoutofeelhappyin
thissituation.Whenyouwerefeelinghappy,to
whatextentdidyoutrytodevoteyourattentionto
thisthing,ordivertyourattentionfromit?
Whenyouwerefeelinghappy,towhatextentdid
youfeelthatcircumstancesbeyondanyonescontrol
werecontrollingwhatwashappeninginthis
situation?
Whenyouwerefeelinghappy,towhatextentdid
youfeelthatyouhadtheabilitytoinfluencewhat
washappeninginthissituation?
Whenyouwerefeelinghappy,towhatextentdid
youfeelthatsomeoneotherthanyourselfwas
controllingwhatwashappeninginthissituation?
Whenyouwerefeelinghappy,howwelldidyou
understandwhatwashappeningaroundyouinthis
situation?
Whenyouwerefeelinghappy,howuncertainwere
92
Predict
Goalpath
obstacle
Obstacle
Responsibility
Other
Responsibility
Anticipated
effort
Effort
Social
connection
Connected
Problem
Self
Responsibility
Exert
Close
youaboutwhatwashappeninginthissituation?
Whenyouwerefeelinghappy,howwellcouldyou
predictwhatwasgoingtohappeninthissituation?
Thinkaboutwhatyouwantedwhenyoufelthappy
inthissituation.Whileyouwerefeelinghappy,to
whatextentdidyoufeeltherewereproblemsthat
hadtobesolvedbeforeyoucouldgetwhatyou
wanted?
Thinkaboutwhatyouwantedwhenyoufelthappy
inthissituation.Whenyouwerefeelinghappy,to
whatextentdidyoufeeltherewereobstacles
standinginthepathbetweenyouandgettingwhat
youwanted?
Whenyouwerefeelinghappy,howresponsibledid
youfeelforhavingbroughtabouttheeventsthat
weremakingyoufeelhappyinthissituation?
Whenyouwerefeelinghappy,howresponsibledid
youthinksomeoneorsomethingotherthan
yourselfwasforhavingbroughtabouttheevents
thatweremakingyoufeelhappyinthissituation?
Whenyouwerefeelinghappy,towhatextentdid
youfeelthatyouneededtoexertyourselftodeal
withthissituation?
Whenyouwerefeelinghappy,howmucheffort
(mentalorphysical)didyoufeelthissituation
requiredyoutoexpend?
Whenyouwerefeelinghappy,towhatextentdid
youfeelcloseorclosertoanotherindividualor
group?
Whenyouwerefeelinghappy,towhatextentdid
youfeelmoreconnectedtoanotherindividualor
group?
93
Thought
Temporalfocus
Present
Past
Future
Whenyouwerefeelinghappy,towhatextentdidit
affectthewayyouthoughtaboutyourrelationship
withsomeindividualorgroup?
Atthetimeyouwerefeelinghappy,towhatextent
wereyoufocusedonthepresent?
Atthetimeyouwerefeelinghappy,towhatextent
wereyoufocusedonthepast?
Atthetimeyouwerefeelinghappy,towhatextent
wereyoufocusedonthefuture?
Note:Thetableuseshappinessasanexample.
94
Table2:EmotionLocationsforAppraisalDimensions
AppraisalDimension
Emotion
Happiness
Contentment
Hope
Love
Pride
Gratitude
Interest
Problem
Solving
Social
Connection
Attention/
Pleasant
0.51
0.48
0.85
0.32
0.48
0.10
0.76
0.36
0.27
0.33
0.73
0.30
0.21
0.37
0.52
0.40
0.41
0.26
0.29
0.46
0.19
0.28
0.56
0.34
0.21
0.87
0.62
0.55
Temporal
Focus
Situational
Control
0.27
0.14
0.48
0.15
0.19
0.04
0.24
0.65
0.38
0.91
0.11
0.14
0.35
0.01
0.12
0.01
0.02
0.21
0.29
0.07
0.06
Control Certainty
Note:Scoresstandardizedforeachappraisaldimension.
95
Table3:PatternofMeansforSociallyConsciousConsumptionBehaviors
BenefitingDistantOthersandCloseOthers
Emotion
DistantOthers
CloseOthers
3.1a
5.5c
4.9d
5.5c
Hope
Neutral
3.5a,b
Love
3.8b
Note:PlannedcontrastfordistantothersMlove=3.8vs.Mhope=3.1,F(1,144)
=8.79,p<.004;plannedcontrastsforcloseothersMlove=5.5vs.Mneutral=4.9,F(1,
144)=4.67,p<.03,andMhope=5.5vs.Mneutral=4.9,F(1,144)=4.99,p<.03.
96
Table4:PercentageofPeopleChoosingtoMakeRestrictedDonations
Gender
Love
Neutral
Pride
Men
64%(n=39)
49%(n=43)
59%(n=46)
Women
14%(n=28)
44%(n=25)
56%(n=27)
Note:Plannedcontrastformen=57%vs.women=37%,2=8.06,p<.004;
pride=58%vs.love=43%,2=4.33,p<.04;pridevs.neutral=47%,NS.Within
women,pride=56%vs.love=14%,2=8.68,p<.003;pridevs.neutral=44%,
NS.Withinwomen,love=14%vs.neutral=44%,2=3.55,p<.06.Withinmen,
pride=59%,love=64%,andneutral=48%;all2=NS.
97
Table5:PercentageofPeopleChoosingtoDonateaMajorityofFundsto
InternationalRelief
Love
Neutral
Pride
47%a
28%b
33%b
Note:Plannedcontrastforlove=47%vs.pride=28%,2=3.79,p<.05;
love=47%vs.neutral=28%,2=5.36,p<.02;neutral=28%vs.pride=33%,2<
1,NS.
98
Table6:SelfReportedFeelingsinResponsetoPositiveEmotionBlend
TelevisionCommercials
Emotion
Happiness
Hope
Interest
Love
Gratitude
Neutral
ProblemSolving
Commercial
5.9a
5.8a
6.3c
4.0d
3.8d
4.2d
SocialConnection
Commercial
5.8a
4.7b
4.8b
5.6a
5.0b
4.2d
Control
5.6a
5.6a
5.5a
4.5b
4.6b
5.3a
Note:Testsonselfreportedfeelingsofhope(F(2,189)=14.24,p<.0001),
interest(F(2,189)=23.16,p<.0001),love(F(2,189)=26.67,p<.0001),gratitude
(F(2,189)=15.26,p<.0001),andneutral(F(2,189)=2.13,p<.12)revealed
significantemotioninductioneffects.Nodifferencewasfoundforfeelingsof
happiness(Mproblemsolving=5.9,Msocialconnection=5.8,Mcontrol=5.6,F<1).Participants
intheproblemsolvingconditionreportedsignificantlyhigherfeelingsofhope
(Mproblemsolving=5.8,Msocialconnection=4.7,F(1,189)=28.44,p<.0001)andinterest
(Mproblemsolving=6.3,Msocialconnection=4.8,(F(1,189)=43.85,p<.0001)thanthosein
thesocialconnectioncondition.Problemsolvingconditionreportedsignificantly
higherlevelsofinterest(Mcontrol=5.5,(F(1,189)=8.26,p<.005)butnothope
(Mcontrol=5.6,NS)thanthecontrolcondition.Thesocialconnectioncondition
reportedsignificantlyhigherfeelingsoflove(Msocialconnection=5.6,Mproblemsolving=4.0,
(F(1,189)=53.11,p<.0001)andgratitude(Msocialconnection=5.0,Mproblemsolving=3.8,
(F(1,189=26.86,p<.0001)thanthoseintheproblemsolvingcondition.Social
connectionconditionalsoreportedsignificantlyhigherlevelsoflove(Mcontrol=
4.5,(F(1,189)=11.88,p<.0007)butnotgratitude(Mcontrol=4.6,(F(1,189)=1.24,p
<.27)thancontrolcondition.Controlconditionreportedsignificantlymore
neutralfeelings(Mcontrol=5.3)thanthoseintheproblemsolving(Mproblemsolving=
4.2)andsocialconnectionconditions(Msocialconnection=4.2,(F(1,189)=3.96,p<.05).
99
Figure1:SocialConnectionAppraisalsMediateRelationshipBetween
EmotionandBehaviorsBenefitingDistantOthers
Breadth of
Social Connection
1.03**
(.15)**
Behaviors
Benefiting
Distant Others
Emotion
Condition
.41** (.25)
Breadth of
Social Connection
1.03**
(.01)
Behaviors
Benefiting
Close Others
Emotion
Condition
.01 (.03)
Note:Coefficientswithoutparenthesesrepresentparameterestimatesfor
simplelinearregressionmodels.Coefficientsinparenthesesrepresentparameter
estimatesforaregressionmodelcontainingbothpredictors.Doubleasterisks
indicateparameterestimatesdifferentfromzeroatp<.01.Moderatedmediation
wastestedusingthebootstrappingtechnique;theconditionalindirecteffectwas
significantfordistant(z=2.35,p<.02)butnotcloseothers(z<1,NS).
100
Figure2:SocialConnectionAppraisalDispositionPredictsIntentionsto
PerformSociallyConsciousBehaviors
Note:Figure2depictsregressionlines.TheslopesareBdistant=.63,p<.001
andBclose=.22,NS.
B
101
Figure3:SocialConnectionandProblemSolvingAppraisalDispositions
PredictDifferentTypesofConsumptionBehaviors:LikelihoodofBehavior
BenefitingDistantOthers
Note:Figure3depictsregressionlines.ThereportedslopesareBsocial
connection=.65,p<.002andBproblemsolving=.03,NS.Standardizedappraisaldisposition
scoresareplottedabove:Bsocialconnection=.44,p<.002andBproblemsolving=.03,NS.
B
102
Figure4:SocialConnectionandProblemSolvingAppraisalDispositions
PredictDifferentTypesofConsumptionBehaviors:
NumberofOptionsConsidered
Note:Figure4depictsregressionlines.ThereportedslopesareBproblemsolving
=.84,p<.05andBsocialconnection=.54,NS.Standardizedappraisaldispositionscores
areplottedabove:Bproblemsolving=.83,p<.05andBsocialconnection=.37,NS.
103
Figure5:ProblemSolvingAppraisalsMediateRelationshipBetweenPositive
EmotionBlendTypeandEnvironmentalBehaviors
Appraisals of
Problem-Solving
1.59**
(.18)*
Positive
Emotion
Blend Type
Environmental
Behaviors
1.14** (.85)
Note:Coefficientswithoutparenthesesrepresentparameterestimatesfor
simplelinearregressionmodels.Coefficientsinparenthesesrepresentparameter
estimatesforaregressionmodelcontainingbothpredictors.Singleasterisk
indicatesparameterestimatemarginallydifferentfromzero;doubleasterisks
indicateparameterestimatesdifferentfromzeroatp<.05.Mediationwastested
usingthebootstrappingtechnique;theindirecteffectwassignificant(z=1.65,p<
.05).
104
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Biography
LisaCavanaughisanativeoftheGreatLakeStateofMichigan.Shewas
borninRochester,MichiganandgraduatedasValedictorianofRochesterHigh
School,whereshewasadecoratedfouryearvarsityletterwinner,honoredwith
aHighSchoolHeismanAwardandnamedTheDetroitNewsOutstandingHigh
SchoolGraduate.LisawentontoearnherBachelorofArtswithHonorsand
HighestDistinctionfromDukeUniversity,withanacademicconcentrationin
PublicPolicyandMarkets&ManagementStudies.
BeforepursuingherPh.D.atDukeUniversity,Lisaworkedin
Albuquerque,NMandWashington,DCforeconomicdevelopmentandhunger
relieforganizations.InWashington,DC,sheworkedastheManagerofNew
BusinessDevelopmentforoneofthenationsleadinghungerrelief
organizations,ShareOurStrength.Lisawaspartoftheteamleadingthelaunch
ofTheGreatAmericanBakeSale,whichfeaturedthefirstevercoverstoryonthe
issueofchildhoodhungerinPARADEMagazineandwasthefirsttointegratea
grassrootscampaignintoanABCTelevisionsitcom.
DuringherdoctoralstudiesLisahasbeenamemberoftheUnconscious
ConsumerLabatDukeandBarbFredricksonsPositiveEmotionand
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PsychophysiologyLabattheUniversityofNorthCarolina.Lisasresearch
interestscenteronhowemotionsinfluenceconsumptiondecisionswith
consequencesforindividualsandsociety.Morespecifically,sheexamineshow
momentaryemotions,chronicallyexperiencedemotions,andemotionalcuesin
naturalshoppingenvironmentsshapeconsumersperceptions,decisions,and
behaviors.LisasscholarlyworkhasbeenpublishedintheJournalofConsumer
PsychologyandtheJournalofBusinessResearch.
In2007,LisawasawardedtheuniversitywideDeansAwardfor
ExcellenceinTeachingatDukeUniversity.Lisahasalsobeenhonoredasoneof
NorthCarolinasStrongWomenOrganizingOutrageousProjects,forher
environmentalconservationandcommunityorganizingaccomplishments,and
honoredbytheYWCAasaWomanontheMove.Shehasservedonthe
Markets&ManagementAdvisoryBoardatDukeUniversityandtheBoardof
DirectorsforPeacecraft,anonprofitfairtradeorganizationdedicatedtohelping
cooperativesofartisansandfarmersindevelopingcommunities.Shecurrently
livesinanecofriendlycohousingcommunityinDurham,NorthCarolinawith
herhusband,TaymonDomzalski,andtheirtrustycaninecompanion,Lucky.
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