= 60 29 compen rego conte seed shee Bor pin tSee 111 = sober boda ate ASD yp. 679 or 2.40 > ea resin congrenion: aig sens 2 eet of rt ee steph ee he > Sin es tmiton R14 ntensoncn ba jo ocombned sare eon aes in Table tones re ASD sabe ar es he rene of so pei comnctom) = dow enaon ena TEE Pons can et tne Fearne an {Et dans ane bs ued tc eet et {Sew maine ai) (GecTRFDae oceatanonty ots 1 tc reenact en Pls (Chp. 1) sy Bn hg 1 ™ ig dtu ote eal aust th ie fie the compen seth tc nr ‘ome of ren het he fr yas tgetly otro soe or Mamet fer a he sso ae ane tit deed lowing Bg soni rk etin met nn femme sco hag er Pred o ert fedSae 710) ~ Nitsa un erie ago 14 es wig ett Ba 1628 sng cosuar Sa 9.3 yee conta = Sa eS = concen fr weed ape 4) ane hace ty tcc i to ht wd sph Eye St ad St Ege ge, htt op a = ret ey tr es = ASD: umn nay eset ewig Fy ~ ‘eduntance mae in ey i ae ap ~ LRFD- oun aera see gin rig = Ma, 9463 TERED mex ray rl gtr ag a 882rs SD: mses waco ng fr aie ama ent Fi: = OF. wen 5 siti fen inspite nd ee Ce HMM mae ond pan, expel al whaceseet 946.1 mM ~ eu cama ane Croco io aed ame abet event ome Mand M Aner benting moment v6 oe Mange (EC. Ni) aM atone pomeeta my aun re we rein! moment engi the presence of shear Mr = pay tase moment fen none Ream cle Moy Rel men stents aie a yas pec So 116 & 9.8) Maga, = die moment np, ZF-ntkrert ote an aes eon sand stp nal moet Seno an) C808) “hed ye hn mone ate 86 cg sn hs Me? Ete met on ee Me Pein taal moet ra nig fx (has 87 Spent ht eben ment en 1) Sears ly Se ea me eh A on a ee 9 * ‘oi tyra £6 nb otter Cap. Gel hing cpio ks sn 1, = barat btn aro om ig een) rh = TP EAKLLP tar nie ago absent tes Bn Bg 2” Tyme at aay nad open ee FA mia hot wa an aeting Pett aa Se. 19 eed enw iets gs hs tment ecm 44) ea be et 8 ene Pech er et ome eS 1h mo so hl Ray abt an SBS Er Ui ieSTEEL STRUCTURES Design and Behavior Fourth Edition Emphasizing Load and Resistance Factor Design Charles G. Salmon University of Wisconsin-Madison John E. Johnson University of Wisconsin-Madison # HarperCollinsCollegePublishersSpore Es Miu Sth en Canyon Be: ug he Cobra Re a7 opr © 1985 by Hap Cs Paci Hapealie® an pitt api Liar af Cones Calon inion Dat tales orp eens an.Contents PREFACE xd CONVERSION FACTORS xv CHAPTER 1 Introduction 4 1 Structural Design 1 12 Principles of Design 13, Hite Background of Sse Structures 3 Ve Longe 1S) Types or Structural Stel Members 13 He Stes Structires 18 17 Specifications and Bulking Codes 23 ER Philosophies of Design 24 19. actors of Safety—ASD and LRED Compared) 30 t t 1 Why Should LRFD te Used? 34 1 Analy ofthe Steure 36 Sected References 36 CHAPTER 2 Steels and Properties 41 21 Structural Steels 41 2 Fastener Slee 47 23 Weld Electrode and Filer Mater 48 24 Seres-Siruin Behavior (Tension Test} at ‘Almoshenie Temperaures 49 Material Toughness 51 ‘Yield Strength for Multan States of Stress $3 High Temporaure Behavior 5SCold Wivk and Strain adenine — 57 Brite Fracture St Lamellar Tearing 62 Fatigue Strength @ {Corrosion Resistance ad Weathering Ste Selected References 67 66 CHAPTER 3 Tension Members. 71 Introduction 74 Nominal Stength 72 Novara 73 Efect of Staggered Hoes on Net Arca TH Effective Net area 78 Tearing Flue at Bol Holes 81 7 Slime ac Design Citron 84 Load Tansfer at Connections 84 ‘9 Load and Resstance Factor Design —Tersion Members 86 S10 Tension Rods 93 S11 Allowable tess Desizo—Tension Members 96 Seleted References 98 Problems 99 CHAPTER 4 Structural Fasteners 104 SL Types of fastens 108 42 Historica! Background of High-Strength Bolts 107 43 Canes of Rivet Obolscence 108 AY Detain or Highs Strength Bas 108 43 Installation Procedures 111 46 Nominal Seength of Fuividual Fasteners 114 47 Lol and Restance Factor Design Fasteners 119 48 Bxamples—Tenson Member Bearing-Type Connections ERED 124 49° Slip-Caitieal Joints 130 410 Allowable Sires Design —Faslencrs 134 S11 Examples Tension Memes Using Allowable Stress Design 4A2 coon Shear U8 413 Fasteners Acting in Avil Tension 157 413 Combined Sheurand Tension 161 4515 Shear and Tesnon fom Excenrie Lash Sekevted References 178 Problems 180 i)conTeNTs wv CHAPTER 5 Welding 188, $1 Iniraductin and Hisirial Development 188 52 Basie Procenes 190) 53 Weldapity of Suetaral Steel 198 35 Typesof ins’ 196 53 Typesof Weldh 198 56 Welding Symbols 20 5.7 Factors Afecting the Quality of Welded Connections 204 58 PosiblsDefecs in Welds 207 39. Inspection and Control 209 5.10 Economic of Welded Buileup Members and Connections. 211 Sl Sizeand Length Limitations for Fillet Wells 212 S12 Effective Areas of Welds 215 5.13 Nomina Strength of Welds” 217 SLL Load and Resistance Factor Desiga-—Welds 221 S15 Allowable Stress Design Welds 227 5.16 Welds Connecting Members Subject wo Disc Axial Load 231 S17 cere Shear Connections Strength Analysis 243 S18 eventie Shear Connections Elastic (Sector Analysis 251 S19 Loach Applic Exventi tothe Pane of Welds 258 Selected References 263, Problems 268 CHAPTER 6 Compression Members 276 PARTI: COLUMNS — 276 G1 Geserst 276 62 Bier Elastic Buckling and Witrieal Background 276 63 Basie Colum Sueagth 278, G4 Tnelive Bucking 284 65 Resa Sues 284 66 Devekyment of Column Strength Curves Including Residual Stress 287 7 Strutaral StabiiyReeaech Couned ISSRC} Strength Curves 205 GS Lead and Resseance ctor Devin 300 69 ‘Eflectne Length 308 6.10 Laid und Resstace Factor Design of Rolled Shapes (Sad M) Subject w Axial Compression 311 Alinable Stes Design 817 ‘Shear EMect 318 Design of Luticed Members 321 PARTI: PLATES 327 6.41 lateaton w Stailly of Plates 227 GIS Strenghof Plates ander Uniform Eige Compresion 3366.18 AISC Width/Thickress Limits A, 19 Achiove Yield Stress Without Local Plate Buckling 839 6.7 AISC Width/Thickeess Limits, 0 Asseve Signicant Plastic Deformation 342 6.18 AISC Prosisions to Aecoun for the Buckling and Poss Buckling Strengths OF Pate Elements 345 6.19 Design of Compression Members as Alieted by Local Buckling Provisions 351 Selected References 388 Problems 368 CHAPTER 7 Beams: Laterally Supported 370 TL tewroduction 370 72 Simpie Bending of Symmetrical Shapes 370 13 Behivior of Laterally Stable Bears 372 74 Laterally Supported Beams—Load and aesstance ctor Design 375 TS Lateally Supported Beams—Allowable Stress Design 381 716 Serviceability nf Beams 388, 7.7 Shear on Roled Beams 390 78 Conceatrted Loads Applied wo Rolled Bears 396 79 Holes in Beams 402 7.10 General Flexural Theory 408 TIL Bianal Bending of Symmewie Sesto 410 Selected References 415, Problems 418 CHAPTER 8 Torsion 424 8.1 Introduction 424 52 Pare Torsion of Homogencous Sections 425 53 StearStrsses Dae w Boning of Thin all Open Ceone-Sections 428 B4—ShearCemer 430 85 Torsional Stresses in Shaped Steel Seations. 432 8.6 Analogy Between Torsion and Plane Bending 83 87 Practical Situations of Torsonal Loading 447 88 Loud and Resistance Factor Desig for Torsion —Lateally Stable Beums 452 8.9 Allowable Stess Design for Torsion —Laterally Stable Beams 458 8.10 Torsion in Closed Thin-Wall Sections 458 811 Tonion in Sections with Open and Chased Parts 462 S12 Torsional Buckling 462 Selected References 469 Problems 471conrents i CHAPTER 9 Lateral-Torsional Buckling of Beams 479 9.1. Rational Analogy wo Pure Columas 479, 92 Lateral Support 480 53 Siength of I-Shaped Beams Under Uniform Moment 482 94 Elastic Latera-Tersional Bucking 484 95 Incas LateralTorsonsl Bucking 488 9 Load ard Resistance Fator Desigh—I-Shaped Beams Subjected 1 Strong Axis Bending 491 on lawable Steve Design-—I-Shaped Beams Subjected to Swrong-Axis Bending 499 9.8 Effective Latrally Unbvaced Length S09 99 Examples: Load and Resistance Factor Design SII 9.10 Example: Allowable Stress Design $26 9.11 WeakvAxis Bending of FShaped Sections 532 9.12 Lateral Buckling of Channels, Zees, Monosymmeric -Shaped Sections ‘nd Tees $32 9.13 Lateral Bracing Design 542 9.14 Biaxial Bending of Doubly Symmetric LShaped Sections 555, Selected References 560 Problems 964 CHAPTER 10 Continuous Beams $71 Your Introduction — S71 102 Pasie Strength of « Staticaly Indeterminate Beart S71 103 Plasie Aral Load and Resistance Factor Design Examples S81 104 Elastic Analjis—Laad and Resitance Factor Design Example 596 105 Baste Analyss—Allowable tres Design Examples 598 106 Spices 60s Selected References 605, Probiems 606 CHAPTER 11 Piate Girders. 610 im "2 ns us 6 ur ts no Inirodustion and Hisorcal Devekpment 610) Difference Between Beam and Plate Gitdor 613 Vertical Plane Buckling Limit State 614 ‘Nomina! Montent Stongth-—Loud and Restance Factor Design 618 “Moment Surength—Alowable Stress Design 623, “Moment Strength Redvction Due to end:Buckling ofthe Web 624 Nominal Moment Stength—Hybeid Geders 631 Nominal heat Strength—Elasic and Inelastic Buckling 633. Nominal Shear Sirength—Inclding TensionFied Action 639contents 3120 Secngth in Combined Bending and Shear 619 TAL Inermedinte Tanserse Stifeners 654 112 Beanng Sitfener Design 651 1113 Longtail Web Stfeners 663 11.14 Proportioning he Section 665 IIS Plate Girder Design Example ERED 671 Selected References 693, Problems 695 CHAPTER 12 ‘Combined Bending and Axial Load 702 at Introduction 702 Dilernis) Equation fr Axiaf Compression and Bending 703 Moment Meznifestion —Sinplied Treatment foe Members in Single Curvature Without End Trarslaion 707 “Moment Magnifeation Members Subject to End Momeats Only: NoJoin Transition 7H) ‘Moment Magnification —Members with Sidesway Possible 713) [Nominal Strength- Testability inthe Plane of Bending 71S ‘Nominal Siength—Falure by Combined Bending and Torsion 717 Nominal Strength—Hateraction Equations 717 Bisnisl Bending 720 Lina and Resistance Ficlor Design Criteria 722 UUnbraced Frame -—Lond and Resistance Factor Design 127 Design Procedures —Load and Resistance Fac Design 734 Examples Lond and Resianee Facir Design 737 Alowable Suess Design Criteria 740 evgn Procedures-—Allowsble tess Design 766 Seketed References 774 Problems 777 CHAPTER 13, Connections 788 i 2 B3 6 Br Gs 59 ‘Types of Connections 788 Simple Shear onections 792 Seated Beam Connections —Unsifened 809 Siilfened Sear Connections 816 Triangular Bracket Plates 823 ‘Continous esmn-To-Columa Connections 828 ‘Continooos Hezino- Beam Conacctions 86 RigilFrume Kness 862 Colum Base Plates $70‘CONTENTS. ix 15.10 Beam Spices 876 Seleted References 881 Problems 888 CHAPTER 14 Frames—Braced and Unbraced 895 Mal General 895 142 Flas Buckling of Frames 899 M3 rocedre for Etective Length 907 a of Frames under Primary Bending Moments 907 14S Bracing Reguiements—Braced Frame 913 146 Overall Stabity When Plasic Hinges Form 918 Selected References 919 CHAPTER 15 Design of Rigid Frames 923 Is Inroduction 923 152. Plastic Analysis of One-Sory Frames 923 15.3 Load and Resistance Factor Design —One-Story Frames 935 154 Multstory Frames 981 Selested References 982 Prebloms 953 CHAPTER 16 Compost Steel-Concrete Construction 955 16.1 Historical Background 985 162 Composite Action 957 Ved Advantages and Disadvantages 959 164 Effective Width 960) 16.5 Computation of Elastic Seton Properties 962 166 Service Load Streses With and Without Shoring 965 16.7 Nominal Moment Strength of Fully Composite Sections $67 Shear Connectors 972 Hybrid Composite Giders 981 Composite Pleural Members Containing Formed Steel Deck 082 Design Procedure—Load and Resistance Fistor Design 983 Design Procedure—Allowable Stres Design 983 LLRFD Examples—Simply Suppored Beans 985 ASD Example—Simply Supported Beam 992 Deletions 995 Continuous Beams — 961617 Composite Columns 999 Selected References 1001 Problems 1008 APPENDIX 1007 TABLE A1 APPROXIMATE RADIUS OF GYRATION 1008 TABLE A2 TORSIONAL PROPERTIES — 1008 INDEX 1010Preface “The publication af this ert dion elects the continuing changes cecrsng i design sequlrement fr suctral sel. poriculal the fist sifcant updating bythe Amer en institute of Steel Cosiratin (AISC) of the Load end Resivance Factor Desi CLRED} Speciation for Srarral Ste! Balding. Design of sructura tea! members hae developed ver the pis 98 years fom 2 ‘spe approach olin a few be properties of te td eementarymatherais 10 2 ophistated trestment demanting thorough knowledge of sreteral and materi ‘behavior reson den pace utlzes knowledge of mechanics of Water, srr aly. abd particulary. structural stability @ combination with manly recognized ‘Seign rules for salty. The most Widely quod design sues ae those of the America lose of Stel Consruction (NISC), gic ia Load and Revstonce Factor Desi Specfation for Srucral Ste uli an Speiftion for Sractaral Set Bul ings Altace Siax Design and Pic Devin eeferted 0 hereuter a LRED Speciation and ASD Speefiation especie “The specie occrrence dictating eis Kurth din the gulbication ofthe 1983 LLRFD Speciation fetfecie December 1.1993) with Commentary. along withthe ontesponding LRED handbook, Maal of wel Conseuton Lo und Resistance Factor Design, 2nd alton. 1994, Volume U (Siracrural Members, Specifications. & Cones) sind Value I (Connections) References ure comtnied 10 the WHO ASD Speciation (effective Jue 1, 1989) with Commentry: and the cvreponding ASD hind, Mena! of Sie! Contraction —Allmuble Sires Deven and Plastic Dei. th Edion, 1989, Stel member and compponenhy ae ssid from tse handbooks referred to hereafter us LRAD Maal 30 ASD Man. “The fourth edition floes the same pisopical approach that has aie wide scceptate of wr since te fis ton Ws published in 1971. Ts edition cotiniss to asic presenti gical manner the theoreti! background needed fr develping and explaining dessn requirement, prticelry the of the 1993 LRED Sprcitstion Beginning with eoerape of backer material. isdn relerences fo Fetinent scars he development specie forms we inthe AISC Speciation alowed by sonorous umber of design examples explaining In dal the proves of sling iim weight member sas zen conditionsPREFACE Emphasis throughout tis our eon son the 1988 LRED Speciation, That speciation bane on stil se ads andthe esitances Wel sibtues| jet ovaries tes Bod effin, ssh ax bsoing moment she, nl fre, and fosional momen Tae rational exten of oth loads including Nod effets) and Festance ess nse siretures ning ore uf safety troyehout, This modern sop af design, discs only rif i one section af the secon eto, maine tsar ting the predominant approach to dss {Censlerabe exons han boon plced om presenting for te beginners Nl a6 the udsancd sudce the sew cane sd iaatc maby concepts. the under Sanding o hich essential wo propor ppl te design rls, The sme concept are fsppiable whether design is acconing’ Wo the LRFD Speciation or the. ASD Speciation. The explanation of ibility concept is incorporated nt he taps is ich way thatthe eadee may’ eter sud im detail the aby concepts ogc sequence rani posgone sy of sections otaising detailed Jevelopment merely Accepting qualitative npanation and poceeding iret to desig, ‘Ashi fourth edition s repre a majority of desig sil done according tothe tradiionalAllovable Stress Design ie, Working Sens Deng) That method facses On Service (working) ads and lst computed sexes, compatingthoe stress oth able ining values. However be kp teaver eat Set peara sould be toward tbe more rational Loot id Resance Fistor Deion Speciation. Stength ‘even phiksopy (reflected inthe 1986 and 1998 LRED Specifcation) anes tored erage lads and compares the seegth proved with sich cored leads or lead Sse). Thesrength it ay given case deers he “lumi Sa” or me ofan, Sch an ycing.frctre, or bushing. The tational “plastic design ineade a6 {Chaps ofthe 1989 ASD Speciation, ian option intepaly includ put of he RFD Speciation. “Thowghout the tex the deory ard bachround mer. ing common both the LRED and ASD plsoiss of design hie Been verted. The specie devin ‘roves nd lasetiveeximpcn se weve, eagerly in sepa sections thin the chaps that tary tay iter he Allowable Sree Desig the Usd and Restance Fair Desi ptions sera “The tet eto contin the we of Sluis an aon othe primary we ‘oF toh Pound uns Although neither the LRFD nor the ASD Speciation contains SU Uni some se of SI ite appease Ie tet LRED and ASD fel ve thee St fauialent conversions are the practical ones mode by the author sen a footnote ‘nthe fet pare containing the AISC-specthed Inch od wats. Tabs and grams feral contain bath Ich Pound ad Stans. Depending on the peatccny ried of the xen, this ext prides mate ria foe po autses of tres ofr semeircre burs each, 1 suggested ha the bearing ours in eel sactre fr undesradute ss ight conti he mail [Chapter F throu 7.9. 10, 12 and 16 except Sections 4, 66.612 19 6.19. 7910 FHI, 91849915. 98, 9.12409,14,amd 12.619 12.7, The second couse would review some (the same topics the te couse tut mre ap. emphasing ems mite ithe fit couse. br abltion, se Fetiningchaprs—-nately Chapter on lorsan, Chaplr Tes pate gies Chapter 13 om connections Chae [o frame, and Chapter 15 fon fame Sgn are sugested for incision, The primary philnophy emphasized in bv courses sul be Lag and Ressance Factor Desig‘The reader will need ready acces tothe LRFD Manual” thcustout the td of te ‘ext paisolrh when working With te examples, Hosexer: ene eben his tes thatthe reader become prfcent in the routine se of tbls the tables se¥s only {ha gide to obwining experience wih aration of sign parameters nd ae 28 Sirising a good deen The LRED Specification and Commentary ae contained Inthe [ERED Morual andar therefore nt inched 0 this book excep for varices nisi proxisons qoted sere they ate explaies. “The deat we ofthe compute snot specials employed an where inthe eX “The authors the to of Pas pecpes in the clasroom is he Bhan pint However the eer may find ha acquiring the dat seo standard section properties. fvalable for purchise fom AISC. sl he hapa. The authors recommend the ake of 3 Spreadsheet safware seas Lows 1-2-2 or Micronoft Exel, slong ih tha sea the htabse properties. estes ofthis fourth edition at: (1) detailed presentation of seeagt-reated hacksround and design sles for Loud and Resistance Factor Desig (2) af inepraled treatment of bth the 1993 Enad nd Renseanes Facto Dssign Speciation slg wih ‘he 1989 Allowable Stass Design Speciation ‘Other special features a Is fext are (3) comprekensie treatment of design of “-xhaped members sujet frson (Cheper 8-Inaing spied practical metho: (4) deta eaten of plate girder theory at relates o Loa and Resistance Factor Design (Chapter 1) anda comprehen dsge example of atwo-spancontinwus dee ting two fret gro wel (5) ete tear ment of connections (Chapter 13) Including significant dension and lation ofthe deg of components, Chapters ‘which nese extesvelyrewetan othe hid eition ty st LRFD appt othe 1986 seit, hve bee upted forthe 1983 LRED Speciation and improved fot ote Yea nd wndertaing 262 eeu of SBS fom aes The aus edb to stdens oleae nd et urs of he Ks tes cations wp ne sugstsed improvements of wording. the errors and recom ‘mended item or ncesion or dton The suggestions have been carefully comldeed resting ns complete evo, Te continued esoperation a lp of AISC toh Neste nani, Direct, Research and Codes. also appr “The ttt are etl adele a Dr. Robert E Andro ols State Let ‘sty fe his exonaive und dete maggesions to eee 70s and prove esty ‘paring al eager The detailed suzzetins rn Dr, Patrick. Zaank of Coulian State University rgarng Chapt [= are sincerely apres Special thane are duc Dr. Dil C. Salon of the Buy ofthe Univers of [eashiLineoin for his many snc sagzestons and ace reardiag the etre smanasstip SRA LAPD Sect Coes an asc paxiv PREFACE ne suoes abo acknoweage with thanks ie comments ad sugestons ein inaterrs iron clarity. and general improve vob: by Dr. Thomas M. Mure fof Vezina Posten: Tastus, De. Gary 1. Krats of the Unversy € Nebraska Lincoln Dr. Abdl-Hamil Zarek of Georgia Insite of Tecnolegy abd Dr. Grezory c G. Deen of Corl Unversity {Users his fourth edition are urged to comarca with he authors paring aspects of his book patculars om identi fers and suggestion or improve “The serior autor affectionately dedicates this Book in emery of his Ite wie ‘Bere Saino, fo er pllnee ahd encouragemest thaugh he Test eee eons, Carle G, Salmon Join E Johnson — February 1995 SeConversion Factors sen ne Pond Un ra iV, Ue a sina ce SeuChapter 1 Introduction 4.1 STRUCTURAL DESIGN Sirvtural design may be defined as @ mistare of art and science combining the Mpurtencad engineers inutvefeling for he behavior of structure with a sound Ceeicte ofthe prvcples of sacs, danas, mechani of materials, and struc. reat netsh produce a safe economical structure tha wil serve ts intended pepo. ‘att about 1850, structural design was largely an art eelying on inition fo determine the size and asrangement of whe siractural elements, Early man-made iy conform those which could also Be observed in nature, suc ichea, As the prinipies governing the behavior of stretures ane 2 para anaes hive become beter wadestond. xn procedures have become sore sient aethations involving sce principles should seve as a ade wo deiion making a notte followed bey. The art or inne abiiy ofthe experienced ‘elmer uiized to make the decisions. ide by he computations ress 1.2 PRINCIPLES OF DESIGN ‘Design isa process by which an optimum souton is obtained nts ext te concern pen the Senn af artes pica. set structures, any design, eral at mua be established to vate whether or nt ax optima has bse sieved Fae itunes typical eriria may be (a) mintoum cents (b) iim weigh Fo" Snr construction ine: mim [bor isin cost of manufatere 1G Bane’: products, and (7) maximum efficiency of operation to owner. Usual aera ave invotved, cach of which may require weighting. Observing the TARE oul crtera,ihmsy be apparent tat setting ecarly mcrae enteia sey eae and eos forestablishing an optimum fequensy willbe ificl, and (tape mpi. Ino practical tation, de evaleation mast Be qualita Me neejne bjetveetron cas be expressed mathematical then ouiina: sion ech gues ay be employed to obtain # maxim oF nim for te objectivefaction. Opinization procure and tsniguss comprise an ene subject that ‘outside the scope of this tex. The citron of eininam wei i emphasized {roughout ander the general ssnpion that minum materia epresens mi fu cost, Other subjective criteria tbe kept in mind ven though the nkegraion ‘of behavioral principles with design of sical Met clement i this text ules ‘only simple cbjctve criteria ch a weigh es Design Procedure The design proceuse my be comiderol to be comps of ow pacts—fanetional design and structural Irumowork design, Panctioal design eases that intended resuls are achieved, sich 3s (a adequate working areas apd clearances: (b) proper entiation andfor air conditioning: fe) adequate tramsportation faites, sich a ‘evar, surwag nd cranes orto handing equipment: adegate light Ing and ie) attic. “The stun framework deen ithe skction ofthe arangement and sizes of strat element so that service Toads maybe sel cated and isplacements re within acepiable lini13 MISTORICAL BACKGROUND OF STER STRUCTURES 3 “The iterative design procedre may be outlined 48 flows 1. Plonning.Esablishmentof the unetions for sich he sactare mus serve Set ertevia against which fo niesure the resting Jesyn for being 40 psimum, 2, Preliminary structural configuration. Atrngemment ofthe elements fo serve the funtion ia sep 3. Establishment ofthe loads wo be cacie, & Preliminary member selection. Based on the decisions of tps 1,2. and 3 Selection of the member sizes o sity sn objective eaterion suchas kas tweight or eos. ‘8 Anas, Stroctral analysis ivotsing odsing the loads and the structaral framework o obtain intro forces and any desited defections. 6, Bvaltaion Areal seagth and szviceabiltyrequtemens satisfied aad the result optimucn? Compare the result with predetermined ene 17. Redesign, Repetition of any par ofthe sequence I through 6 found neces Sar of desirable asa est 0” evaluation, Steps 1 dough 6 represat an erative process, Usiaiy inthis text only steps 3 through 6 wil be subject to this iteration since the tractral configuration an external loading wil be prescribed 8 Final decision The devermination of whether or tan optimum design has been sciove, 1.8 HISTORICAL BACKGROUND OF STEEL STRUCTURES. Mets as.a structural material been with east eon used on 2 100-1 (30m) are span ‘sti was but in England 1777-1779 [1.1] A numberof easton bidges were built daring the psi 1780-1820, mostly arch-shaped with main srdersconsising 0-130 Orato 620) estas) fs ro. “Host! tert 66) 70-898) 5) Apomea ows 7 in tsesasy ay cratesy “SD s0=100 Tt 2 is) 8S) "as) AsoGaaso 4075) 58.38) force ds ASua10} 1804) Gee) SK) 8518S) AmGweene Pn we. a 90) t8) ‘iso, crteso os we ay Bas) G0) Go ceateco 0 is wit was Grate 65 os 0 Wit nasTABLE 214. (Continue) 21 STRUCTURAL STEELS 48 ‘07 Ga Cras ‘Grae 68 ate Crake 168 Gs CT ‘Gudea rate sow cat 100 ‘S100 vr 51 Gre Grae 68 Grae 10 Moetun S034) Ss\i80) aavsiss sso) 50.330) S045) 0048) 4) 85) ss) ‘war ssn) ross) s Maxum Terie eens ASTI AG fwereh —ferpaies “reuse te fn ver es om shapes omses — oretns. - ‘ino Sous S380) ssa; $680) S00) 265) Souls) fe Tievalle a0 Tea 7 0-550) “G0 cs “o0) ™ wa au 20-750) “Gon, 102-130 Over 24 cones) ei tio-30 ap 0-0) “eh 6202750) “00, 75 20) s01580) 90,620) produ AISC Spain 15,1] ep ABI A “Astacio ape 3 MSs nea Et tsa te eh cnc crane magnus api Jn ASTAU AOIAEM 18) and inte AISE Manes 118) seas Atenas ate acl ASTM Speccnton4 CHAPTER 2 STEELS ANO PROFCRTIES AST seater 5 hae | Alas ied ve oped ert AISE Spectatos -5 120 epe N Cenmsnoao8 ‘ele blige cosracon we odontal only spony Ge 98 ‘Sap ne heed wld a ea a “Seta ohne Hen het il. eg eel in Gras 42d Sony sal pede eo gen “Sera stipes i Sci pce hon eer: trina 1 3 1006 ras eae wae epee tec io Aa concen see tmp22 FASTENEASTEEL2 47 Figure 24.1 Typical stress-strain cures 2.2 FASTENER STEELS ‘The detailed treatment of the design of threaded fasteners appears in Chapter 4. A brief description of the materials used for bolts appears in he following paraeraphs. ‘The headings are the ASTM specification exace ties. ‘A307 [2.4], Carbon Stee! Bolts and Studs, 60,000 psi Tensile Strength ‘This material i wed fo what are commonly referred tas “machine bolts," These are usually used only for temporary installations. Included are Grade A bolts for general applications, which have 2 manimum tensile stength of 60 ksi (415 MPa); and Grade B bol for flanged joints in piping systems where one or both flanges arc cast iron. The Grade B bolts have 4 muasimum tensile strength limitation of 100 ksi (700 MPa). No well-defined yield point is exhibited by these bols, and no ranimum Yield strength (for instance, 0.2% offset strength) is specified A325 [2.5], High-Strength Bolts for Structural Stee! Joints ‘This quenched and tempered mesdum carbon steele wsed for blts commonly known as “high-strength structural bolts," or high-strength bolts. This material has maxt- ‘mum carbon of 0.30%. lis heat-treated by quenching and hen by rebeating (temper48 cHaer A449 (2.71, ‘A490 [2.8], Tensile Str ER 2 STEELS AND PROPERTIES ing) to a temperature of at least 800°F, This steal behaves in a tension tet more similarly to the hear-ueated I-alloy stels than to carbon steel. It has ax ultimate tensile strength of 105 ksi (733 MPa) (110 1 -in-diam bots) 0 120 ks (838 MPa) Go Lin-diam bots). Is yield strength, measured at 0.2% ole, iv prescribed at SL ksi (365 MPa) minimum for 1310 1(-in-diam bolts, and 92 ks (643 MPa) for bolts to L in. diam Gee Table 4.1: Quenched and Tempered Steel Bolts and Studs “These bolts have tensile strengths ard yield steesss (strength at 0.2% offset) the same 4s,A325 for bolts 1 in diam and smuller; however, they have the regular instead of heavy) hetagon head aod longer theead length of A30" bolts, They are also available in diameters up 3 in, The AISC Specifications [15,116] permit use of Ad4 bolts, ‘only for certain structural joints reqnising diameters exceeding | in. and for high strength anchor bolts and threaded ros. Heat Treated, Steel Structural Bolts, 150 ksi (1035 MPa) rength ‘This material has carbon content that may range up to 0.53% for 1 nium bol, and has alloying elements in amousts similar the AS14 [2.11] sees. After quench= ing ino, the aerials tempered by reheating to at least 900°F. The vinimam yield strength, obtained by 0.2% offit, ranges from 115 ksi (803 MPa) (ver 240.14 in iam) 40 130 ks (908 MPa) for 2 in. diame and under, Galvanized High-Strength Bolts In order to provide corrosion protection, A325 holts may be galvanized. Hot-ip {galvanizing requires the molten zinc temperature to be in the range of the heat ‘restment temperature; thus, the mechanical properties obtained by heat treatment may be diminished, Whenever galvanized bots are use, the nuts must be “oversized.” Ifthe nuts ave also galvanized, they’ must be “double oversized.” Steels having tensile strength in the range of 200 ksi or higher are subject to hydroper embrittlement when hydrogen is permitted to remain inthe stel and high tensile stress is applied, The intraduction of hydrogen occurs dusing the pickling operation ofthe galvanizing process andthe subsequent “sealing-in” of the hydrogen tnd zine coating [2.24], The minimom tensile strength of A325 bots is wel below the tical 200 ksi range. On the other hard, A490 bots have a maximum tensile strength OF 170 ksi a value considered too close to the entical range. Thus, galvanizing of ‘8490 bolts is not permitted. 2.3 WELD ELECTRODE AND FILLER MATERIAL ‘The detited treatment of welding und welded connections appears in Chapter 5. The clectrodes use in shielded metal are welding (SMAW) (see Sec. 5.2) also serve as the filer materia! and ate covered by American Welding Society (AWS) AS.1 and [ASS Specifications [2.25], Such consumable electrodes are clasiied EOOXX,24 STRESS STRAIN TABLE2311 ELECTRODES UScD FOR WELDING HAVIOR (TENSION TEST] AT ATMOSPHERIC TEMPERATURES Sihided Sioned «Gases owed Wweane wating wisn weidrg «Mn Gum Sawn Gia fea ANSAG! ANSE? aWSaSte AWSaszo | _S! crass "wrasza—weabae eras) Pa FOXSEXNX BS rox HRSX MTX Fr 45 sox & Foxxx ext esos SS soaxx Soo FrowKENax fos sot is ioe oo Finacen as eux 8 os “Pl sui rapremeatanerby ANSDI IES) machi wri s num sn os) ra Ginn as 70-9) 485-055 Omi $80 s0"100 $sh-600 mie S30 oon 690 Too"130 —o-kos ron 130 Moe ho-3s 49 [ETOXX, ESOXX, E9OXX, E1OOXX, and ELOXX. The “E" denotes electrode, The frst ow cits indicate the tensile iength Ks; thus the tensile strength range from {60 t 110 ksi (414 t0 760 MPa). The "X's" represent numbers indicating the usage of the electrode, For submerged arc welding (SAW) (se See. 52), the electrodes which also Serve a filler material are specified under AWS AS.17 and A5.23. The wel-electrose combinations are designated FEXXEXXX, FIXX-EXXX, etc. up t0 FIIAX-EXXX ‘The “F” designates a granular Mux material that shields the weld as itis made. The frst one or two of the three digits following the “F” indicate the tease strength (6 means 60 ksi, 11 means 10 ks). The “E" stands for electrode and the other X's represent numbers relating 1 use. The yicld suesses and tensile srengty of com- monly used electrodes are given in Table 23. 2.4 STRESS-STRAIN BEHAVIOR (TENSION TEST) AT ATMOSPHERIC TEMPERATURES ‘Typical stress-strain curves for tension are shown in Fig 21.1 for the three categories, of steel alrendy discussed: carbon, high-strength low-alloy, and heat-treated high: strength lovwalloy. The same behavior occurs in compression when support i pro vide so as to preclude buckling. The portion of each ofthe stzess-strait curves of Fig. 2.1.1 chat is utlized in ordinary design is shown enlarged in Fig. 2.4.150 CHAPTER 2 STEELS AND PROPERTIES 2 ere ome oon, i [Bess opee eet Pil Figure 24.1 Enlarged ypical stress-strain curves for diferent yield seses, ‘The stress-strain curves of Fig. 2.1.1 are determined using a unit siress obtained by dividing the load by the original cross-sectional area of the specimen, and he strain (inches per inch) is obtained as the elongation divided by the original length. Such Ccuves are known ab engineering siessrain curves and ese co a maximum sess level (known asthe tensile strength) and then falloff with increasing stain until they terminate as the specimen breaks. Insofar a the material itself is concerned, che unit ‘ress continues 10 se nti failure eccurs. The so-called true-stress/rue:strain ‘cave is obtained by using the actual cross-section even after necking down begins and using th instantaneous incremental seis, ‘Strese-stain curves (as per Fig. 241) show a straight line relationship up 10 @ point krown asthe proportional limi, which essentially coincides withthe yield point for most structural steels with yield poins not exceeding 65 ksi (450 MP2). For the ‘quenched and tempered low-lloy sees the deviation from a straight line occurs {radually, asin curve (@), Fig. 24.1, Since the term Yield point is ot appropriate to ‘ouve (eyelid strength is used for the sess at an offiet sain of 0.2%; or alerna- wey, 2 0.5% extension under lal, as shown in Fig 2.4.1. Weld stress the general term to clude the unit stress a a yield point, when one exists, othe yield strength, ‘The ratio of sires t0 strain in the initial straight line region is known as the modulus of elasticity, or Youns's modus, E, which for structural steels may be taker25 MATERIAL TOUGHNESS 51 ‘appeosimatsy’ 36 29.000 ksi (200,000 MPa). In the staighe-ine resin, long and unloading results i so permanent deformation: hence itis the elosic range. The service load unit stress in sel design is always intended w be safely below the ‘proportional limit, even though in ordre ascertain safety Fciors agaist failure or excessive delormation. knowledge Is required of abe stress-strain behavior up to a Strain about £5 t9 20 times the maximum elastic sain, For steels exhibiting yield points, as curves (a) and (b) of Fig. 2.41, the long. plateau for which essetially constant sres exists is known as he plastic range. The Tod and resistance factor design method consciously uses this range. The higher strength sels typified hy curve ca Fig, 24.{ also have a tepion that might be called the plastic range: however, in tis Zone the stress is continuously increasing (instead of remalning constant) as strain creases. For lack of having a region of constant stress with increasing strain, the sels wlose yield stress exceeds 65 ksi are a0 ‘permitted to be used for plastic analysis (LRFD-AS.\ and ASD-N2), Plastic analysis (reated in Chaps. 7 and 10) relies onthe ability of sel to deze strain) at constant For stains greater than 15 1 20 times the maximum elastic strain, the sess agsin increases but with a much fatter slope than dhe original clastic lope. This increase in ssength is calle strain hardening, which continues up 9 the tensile siength. The slope of the stress-strain curve is known a5 the strsin-hardening mod ‘les, E,. Average values fortis tdulus and the strain , a which i begins have been Setermined [2.26] for evo steels: A36 steel, ,, = 900 ksi (6200 MPa) at, = (0.014 in. per in: and for A441, E, = 700 ksi (4800 MPa) at, = 0.021 in, pe i. ‘The strain-hardening range is not coasciously used in desips, but certain of the bckling limitations are conservatively derived to preclude buckling even at stains well beyond onset of strain hardening. ‘The stress-strain curve also indicates the dtilty. Ductlity is defined as the amount of permanent strain (1e. strain exceeding proportional limit) upto the point Of fracture. Measuremen of ductility is obtained from the tension test by determining the percent elongation (comparing final and original lengths over a specified gage Uistance) of the specimen. Duetlity is important because it permits yielding locally Adu to high stesso and thus allows the stress cstibution to change, Design proce- ‘dures based on inelastic behavior require large inherent ducsility, pariculaiy for treatment of stresaes near holes or abropt chase in member shape, as well as for design of connections. 2.5 MATERIAL TOUGHNESS “The use of steels having higher strength than A36 without beat treatment has rested in problems relating Tack of ductility and materish facture (2.28) at east the use of ‘sch stocls requlfes the structural engineer tbe more enscious of material behavior In strtural steal design, toughness @ measure of the ability of steel to resist fracture: ie to absorb energy. Accordiag to Rolfe [2.27], material toughness is defined as “the resistance 1 unstable crack propagation in the presence ofa notch.”52 CHAPTER. STEELS AND PROPERTIES Unstable crack propagation produces bs growth ofa subertcal crack trom fatigue For unas tension, roughness can be expresed as the toa area under the stces-sirain curve cut 1 the facture point where the diagram terminates. Since Uniasal tension early exists in real stctures, a more useful index of toughness is tase on the more complex stress condition a the rot of a note. Notch roughness i the measure of the resstance of a metal 0 the stat and propagation ofa crack atthe hase ofa standard notch, commonly using the Charpy notch tet, Ths test uses a small rectangular simply sepported beam having a ‘V-notch at midlenath, The bar is factured by alow fom a swinging pendulum, The amount of energy absorbed is calculated from the height the pendulum ruses alter breaking te specimen. The amount of energy absorbed will increase with increasing temperature at which the tests conducted, "Though the Charpy V-notch fest has been a common means of determining notch toughness, other Fracture criteria and more revenly fracture mechanics have been used (2.27) Barsom and Rolfe [2.29] and Barsom [2,30, 2.31 Jhave excellently presented the important factors relating wo fracture of see. Figure 2.5.1 shows the typical relationship between temperature and toughness, tnd also shows the transition Irom dict o bitte behavior. such as one may obtain from the Charpy V-notch test. The temperature atthe point where be slope is seepest (point A of Fig 2.5.1) ithe transition femperstore, Since beitleness and ductility are ‘qualitative terms, the varius structural steele have differen requirements for ductility ft various temperatures depending on their service environment (leading. tempera ture, stess and strain levels, loading fate, and number of lad repetitions) For example, a moderate amount of ductility may be required for ordinary structures where very low lemperatures ae not expected: in sach cases, 15 feb has tle froeture, as apposed 0 stable creck of Seesgey ee ® ae Nim Figure 25.1 Transition temperature curve for carbon see! obnined from Charpy ‘V-notch mo tess. dap rom Re. 220)26 VeLD STRENGTH FOR MULTIXAL STATES OF STRESS 59 commonly been the enemy absorption required. The corresponding temperature jebiained from the test resus shown in Fig. 25.1 would be abou {7"F The temper tue at which marked deetease in slope begins to occur is known as the diclity transition tenperatare, This would indicate tha the material may Be expected to be brite when service temperatures ae below 17°F. 2.6 YIELD STRENGTH FOR MULTIAXIAL STATES OF STRESS Only when the load-carrying member is subject 10 niaxial tensile stress ca the properties from the tension est be expected to be identical with those of the structural member. Icis easy 0 forget that yielding in 9 real srucure is usually nor the well- defined behavior observed in the tension test. Yielding #8 commonly assumed to be achieved when any one component of sires reaches the eslawal valve F, For all states of stress ther than naa, «definition of yieking is needed, ‘These definitions, and there are frequently several fora given state of sires, are alle Yield conditions (or theories of failure) and are equations of interaction between the Stresses acting. Energy-of-Distortion (Huber-von Mises-Hencky) Yield Criterion ‘Tis most conmonly accepted theory gives the wail yield stress in terms of the thee principl sttesies, The yelderterion® may be sated ia, ~ 9: ad + o)') e6) where 0, 04 are te tensile or compressive stresses that sc inthe thre principal directions. the sesses that atin the three mutually perpendicular plans of 210 shear, and 0, is the “yield stress" that may be compared withthe uniaxial valve F For most structural design stations, one ofthe principal sess i either zero ‘or small enough be neglected: hence Ea. 26-1 reduces tothe following forthe case ofthe plane sess Gl sresses considered ace acting in» plane) 262) ‘When stresses on tin lates are involved, the principal stress acting transverse © the Plane of the plate is usually zeto (atleast first-order approximation) Flexural Stresses on beams assume Zero principal sess perpendicular tothe plane of bending Furthermore, structural shapes Fig 1.5.1) are comprised of thin plate elements, so ‘that cach i subject to Eg. 2.6.2, The plane sess yield erterion, Fg, 26.2, i the one ‘sed throughout the remaining chapters where needed, ai illustrated in Fig. 2.6.1 See Ath Boe. Richard J. Schmit and Omar Mido, Advanced Mecanes of Mori ve New Nore Don ey & Sos ne. 195: p. 38138,5 CHAPTER? STEELS AND PROPERTIES t -.—-D—-# t igure 26. Energy-c-dstorton yi criterion for plane ares ‘Shear Yield Stress “The yc point for pureshear can be determine from astess-stran cure wit shear loading, or if the malta yield esteron ic known, that relationship con be used. Pure sear occurs on 45" panes tthe principal planes when; ~ 0; andthe shear sures 7 = 0, Substation of; = —o io Eq. 262 ves o} = at + 03 — of-a) = 307 263) = oJNG = shear yield 264) hich nites thatthe yee conton for shear ses ating alone is a,/V3 = 0580, 265) Poisson's Ratio, 42 ‘When tess i applied in one direction, strains are induced not only i the direction cof applied siress but also in the other two mutually perpendicular directions. The usual ‘value of jase is that obtained from the uniaxial sess condition, where itis the ratio ofthetransverse strain longitudinal stain under load, For structral sees, Poisson's ratio is approximately 0.3 in the elastic ange where the material is compressible27 HIGH TEMPERATURE BEHAVIOR 55 ‘and approaches 05 when in the plastic range where the atrial is esseatially incom- pressible (ie. coxstant resistance no matter what the strain), ‘Shear Modulus of Elasticity Loading in pure shar produces stress-strain curve with straight line portion whose slope represents the shear modulus of elasticity If Poissons ratio and the tension- compression miodalus of elasticity are known, the shoar modulus Gis defined bythe theory of elasticity as * 2, On oe hich for srictral sels stoner 1,000 ks (78.800 MP. 2.7 HIGH TEMPERATURE BEHAVIOR “The design of suuctres to serve under atmosphere temperature rarely involves concer abot hightemperature behavior. Knowle of ck behavior i desabie when specifying Welding procedures, ane iS necessary when concerned with the fost of fe ‘Whon temperatures exceed about 200°F (93°C), the stress-sraincurve bein ‘become nonlinear gradually eliminating the well-defined yield point The modulus of ‘elasticity, yield strength, and tensile trenath all reduce a temperature increases. The ange from 800 1 LOKFF (430 to SA0°C) i where the rate of decrease is maximum, ‘While each steel, because ofits different chemistry and microstructure, behaves somewhat differetly, the general relationships are shown in Fig. 2.7.1. Ste's having relatively high percentages carbon, such as A36, exhibit “strain aging” inthe range 300 0 700°F (150 to 370°C). Ths s evidenced by a relative rise in yield strength and tensile strength is that range. Tensile strength may rise to about 10% above that st oom temperature and yield stength may recover abou its room temperature valve ‘when the temperature resches $00 10 600°F (260 ro 320°C), Stain aging results in eereased ductility, “The modulus of elasticity decreas is moderate up to 1000°F (540°C); thereafter 1 decreases rapidly. More importantly, at temperatures above about 500 to 600°F (250 to 320°, steels exhibit defarmetion which incteases with increasing time under Jad, a phenomenon kaaun as creep. Creep is wel known in concrete structures; and its effect in steel, which does not occur at atmospheric temperatures, increases with increasing temperature ‘Other high temperature effects are (a) improved notch impact resistance up 10 about 150 10 200°F (65 10 95°C), as discussed in Se. 2.5; (byincreased britleness due ‘to metallrpical changes, such as carbide precipitation discused in Set. 2.1, beg to ‘occur at about 950°F (510°C); and (€) corrosion resistance of structural ste in- ‘ereases for temperatures up fo about 1000" (540°C), Most stels are used in applica tions below 1000°P, and some heat treated steels should be Kept below about 800°F 300).5 CHMPTER 2 STEELS AND PROPESTIES Rant ese I i Figure 27. Typlol eects of high temperature on sts ftrin car properties af stucturl steels. (Adapted from Ret. 226)28 COLO WORK AND STRAINHARCENNG 87 2.8 COLD WORK AND STRAIN HARDENING Alter the strain ¢, = F./E, at frst yield has been exceeded appreciably: and the Specimen is unloaded, reloading may’ give a stress-strain relationship difeing from that observed during tbe inital loading. Elastic loading and unleading tests ia 20 Id point, suchas © poinc A of residual strain: however, inl loading beyond the » ing toa ain at point B.A permanent st OB has occurred Fig, 2.8.1, results in umlo ‘The ductility capacity has been cedaced fom a stain OF tothe srain BF. Reloading exhibits behavior as ifthe sres-strain origin were at point B: the plastic zone prior to strain hardening s also reduced. When loading has occurred until point C is reached, unloading follows the dashed line to point Die, the erigin fora new loading ts now point D. The length of the Tine CD is greater, indicating that the yield point has increased. The increased yield point is referred to asa strain hardening effect; the ductility temaining when ‘rom point D is severely reduced from its original value prior w the initat doa loading. The processof loading beyond the elastic range to cause a change in available phetic temperature, is known 38 cold work, Since real ly. when done ata ‘Sructufes are not loaded in uraxial tension-compeession, the cold work effect is ut ‘much more complex, and any theoretical stdy ofits outside the scope of the text ‘When stroctaral shapes are made by esldorming from plates at atmospheric temperature, inelastic deformations oceur at the hes, Cold working ino the stain hardening range at the bend locations increases the yield strength, which design | see a i elasonstip 5 sung ly pat jE ott et of veo Figure 28:1 Eset of string beyond the elas ange,58 Figure 282 Etet of srsin aging ater sessing into steao-hardesing rate and unleadig. specifications may permit taking ito account. The Specifcaion forthe Design of Cold-Formed Stee! Structural Menbers* [1-11 bas such provisions. Upon wnloading and ater 3 period of time, the steel will have acquired different properties from those represeates by points D, C, and F of Fig. 28.1 by a phe- hhomenon known as strain eging. Stain aging, as shown in Fig. 28.2 produces an {addtional inereae in yield point, restores aplastic zone of constant sires, and gives ‘new sirain hardening 7006 at an elevted stress. The original shape ofthe siress= ‘rain diagram is resor:d, bur the ductility is reduced, The new stress-strain diagram ray be uted as if it were the original for analyzing cold-formed sections, as long as the ductility that remains i sufficient. The corner regions of colé-frmed shapes ‘generally would not require high ductility for rotational strain about the axs of the bend. ‘stress relieving by annesling will eliminate the effects of cold work shoul that be desired, Annealing involves heating to a temperature above transformation range and allowing slow cooling; a recrystallization occurs to restore the orignal properties. BBittence [232] provides an excellent summary ofthe bases of heat eating. 2.9 BRITTLE FRACTURE ‘As has been discussed in several sections, te! that i ordinarily ductile ean become brittle under various conditions. ‘Barsom [2 30, 2.31], Barsom and Rolfe [2.29], and Rolfe [2.27] hve provided an excelent summary of fracture and fatigue control for stractual engineers. Rolfe Reeron hancfrth a he AISI Spin28 GRITTLE FRACTURE 59 [2.27] defines dvr fracture as “a type of catastrophic flare that scours without Prior plastic deformation and at extremely high speeds.” Fracture behavior is afected by temperature, loading rate, sess level, flaw size, pate thickness or constraint, jth seometry, and workmanship, Effect of Temperature [Notch toughness, 35 determined the Charpy’impact energy vs temperature curves Gee See, 2.5), is an indication of the susceptibility to brite facture, Temperature is vital ctor in several ways: (athe value below whic notch toughness is inadequate: () the 600 to 800°F (320 to 430°C) range causes formatin of bite rnicrstrecture and (6) over 1000°F (540°C) causes precipitation of carbides of slaying elements to sive more brite mucrostrcture. The othe temperature factors have already been tiscused in earlier sections Effect of Multiaxiat Stress: ‘The complex stress condition found in usual structures, particulasly at joints, is nother major factor affecting brtleness. The Primer on Britle Fracture [2.33] has provided an excellent rational presentation of this and forms the basis for what follows. The engineering stress-strain curve i for uniaxial stess; prior to fracture s ‘necking down occurs a shown in Fig. 2.912 If biaxial lateral loading as shown in Fig. 29.1b could be appliod, plastic necking down could be suppressed to the point where the bar would break in 4 brite maaner withoot elongation and without redve tion in area. The fractute stress based on the unreduced cross-sectional rea-sntld be the same high value as that based on the necked-down eross section jn the uniaxiat tension case, Te unit stress would be far above the nominal maximuru tensile strength, \ | Tiana (aah ae) Figure 2.9. Uniawil and wisi! loading60 CHAPTER? STEELS AND PROPERTIES of the engincering stss-sain cur, which is slvays computed on the bass of bigina eros section ‘Aso the effects of notches have been alluded to inthe discussion of noxch toughness in See. 25, The notch serves somewhat the same purpose as the theoretical triaxial loading of Fig. 29.1b, in that it restais plastic Now which otherwise would ‘occur ad thus at Some higher stress may likly fll n a britde mannet. Fgute 2.9.2 shows te lft of nash na tense test specimen. The cros-sectiona area the base ‘oF the notch corresponds to the area of the original spocimen of Fig. 29.1b. The reduced section tres to Become narrower asthe arial tension increases, bu is resisted. by the diagonal pull thar develops in che corners, as shown in Fig. 2.92. The test bar Wal a igs stress by bite fracture "Notches can occur in eal structures by use of unflleted corners indesign or from improperly made welds that may cfack. Such occurrences can lead to britenes Notches and cracked welds can, however, be minimized By good design and welding procedures ‘Unsial configurations and changes in section should be made gradually so the siress flow lines are not required to make abcupt changes. Whenever the complexity is such as to give rise wo threeimensional sess, the tendency for brittleness increases. Castings fr instance, hae the reputation for britleness. Primarily this is Ihecase ofthe uilein ehree-dmensional continuity. ‘Multiaxial Stress Induced by Welding In general, welding creates builtin resteain that gives rise to biaxial and triaxial stress and strain conditions, which reslt in brittle behavior. To illustrate, consider the Toaded simply supported beam of Fig, 2.9.3, which in tun supportsa plate in tension. Due to flexure, the botom flange of the beam isin tension therefore, the stress a point ais uniaxial tension (neglecting the small effects of beam width and attachment fof Mange wo web). Connecting the tension plate with angles and bots puts the flange bolts estentally in eniaual tension, pts the bolt which passes through the suspender plate in shear, and distorts the horizontal legs of the angles in bending: so that there t TTr re 29.2 Esc of notch on uniaxial tension vst29 BRITTLE FRACTURE 61 a I met tu htt | Figure 29.3. Comparison of ses condition in boted and welded jas is no appreciable effet on the sess at point A, In ther words the tres conditions i the connection of Fig. 2.0.34 ate approximately uniaxial in nature "Next, consider she tensile suspender plate welded 0 the tension Nange of the ‘beam, a6 in Fig. 2.9.3b. The stress at point A is now biaxial because of the direct attachment othe Mange at that point. The wel region, therefore, is subject tian ‘tress biaxial from the directly applied load, pls the resistance deformation along the axis ofthe welds resulting from continyous attachment (Poisson's rato effec), “The design of welded joints should consider the possbilites of brittleness due to three-dimensional stcssng. The subject of lamellar fearing is treated in See. 210, Effect of Thickness {As diseased in Se. 2.6, thin plats may usually be asured io be in tate of plane Stress in which the tree dimensional sres effects may be ignored. This wot eneally whe cise fo ck plate clement for wich thre-dinensional stess con tributes to brilenes Bitenes inthe pates als increases de to the manufactat- ing process. The sler cooling rate produces 9 coarser nicosructure, and. hight carbon comet fe rquied to aehove te strength stherwise obtained Bj hot working inthin plas “The ver thick rolled Weshapes (ASTM AS/AGM (1.8), Groups 4 and 5s, the so-called "jambo shapes” exhib face tooghaess athe core ofthe thick Age wo veb intion andthe center of te web aacent to t(224}, This ow fectare toughness may cause bile allure when these beavy Weshapes ae sed Tension tember For ths reason ie use is inesided only for compression members (2.38) "When ASTM AG/AOM, Groups 4 and 3 tolled shapes are 10 be "ed as members sje primary tale stresses det tesion o Hse, toughness ned tot be specied if spies are made by bolting. I atch members are speed Using62 CHAPTER? STEELS AND PROPEAT TABLE291 THE ELEMENT OF ASK: FACTORS TO ANALYZE IN GSHMATING SERIOUSNESS OF BAITTUE FRACTURE (ADAPTED FROM REP. 293), T Ware nium anripted erie peste? The ver the epee. he sete he ‘cep ees Be eion ees amohed” Beil fstrecun oct ny oder non of ene ste Howth the mas Tether vv ts pester the sees ile Face Ieiterestcediensioa coins! Tes imensona oma ging ie wma ‘Sats o ses ea wes teil ro ag and tees acepy bite ‘caches pein! The peesce sap moths incest sep wo eft 6 felony sped sa hah at? The higher the rae oan de gener ssp to le trace 7 ACIS tinggi ta ts ace cn or nis ising 8. ts wlng inne? We racks com at ene LES complete joint penetration welds, the see! shall be specified in dhe contract documents tobe supplied with Charpy V-Notch testing in acordance with ASTM A6, Supplemen- tary Requirement §5.” (LRED-A3.1¢) The Bettichem Steel Technical Bulletin, Use af Heany Structaral Shapes in Tension Applicata [2.36] provides additional puidance BBven though jumbo sections were not originally intended for tension applications, designers use them in such stations. Effect of Dynamic Loading “The stress-strain properties referred t $0 far have been for Satie fouding slowly applied. More rapid loading, sich as that of forge dop-hammers, earthquake, oF huclea blast changes the stress-strain properties. Ordinal. the inreased strain rate from dynamie loading increases the Feld point, tensile strength, and ductility. AL bout 600°F (320°C) there will be a small decrease in strength. Some increased brittleness hes been noted with higk strain rate, but it seems principally associated ‘with other factors already discussed, such as notches where sre concentrations exist, land the temperature effect on toughness, The more important factor relating to dy- ‘mn load application is not thatacapidly ineveasing strain rate oceurs, Dut that iti combined with a rapidly deereasing strain rate, The effect of stress variation is discussed inthe section on fatigue "Table 2.9.1, fom Ref, 2.22, provides list of fects “to elp determine whether lornot the risk of bite fracture is serious and requires special design considerations.” 2.10 LAMELLAR TEARING “Lamellar tearing sa form of brite fracture occurring “in planes essentially parallel to the rolled surtace of aplate under high through thickness leading.” [2.37] Beeause Strains resulting from service Joads are well below e,, normal loads are not believed to initiate of propazat lamellar eas, and something else must be responsible. In &210 LANELLARTEAANG 6 hightycestrained welded joint “thruthckness” strains e are induced by weld metal shriskage. The loealized stains resulting from weld metal shrinkage, which can be several times lager than yield strain eae the source ofthe problem, “The subject of lamellar tearing has received considerable attention since the any 1970s, reslting in tendency’ for structural engineers @ aime lamellar tearing for maoy brite fractures. The AISC has provided an excellent summary of the Figure 2304, Detition of dirction erminaligy (From Ref. 238) © Figure 2.102 Joins showing pica lara tears resulting from skate (fA Welds thick matcal Under high restraint. (Pom Ref. 238)64 CHAPTER? STEELS AND PROPERTIES igure 210.3 Suscepuibity o lamellar ering can te redooed by ciel dealing of welded connections. (From Ret. 2.38) ‘Reenomenon [2.38]. Thornton [2.39] has provides design and supervision procedures to minimize lamella tearing. For more detailed treatment, the reader is referred to ‘Kaufinan, Pens and Stout [2.37] and Holby and Smith (2.40), ‘AS a result of the hot rollig operation in manufacture, steel sections have it ferent properties in the direction parallel to rlling (ee Fig. 2.10.1), in the trans verse direction, and inthe “thrw-thickness” direction. In the elastic range, both the tolling and transverse directions exhibit similar behevior, with the elastic iit for the transverse direction being only tightly below that for the rolling direction. The uetility (train capability) owever, in the “thnu-thickness” direction may be well ‘low that for the rolling dretion ‘Generally, L-shaped steel sections are adequately ductile when loaded either parallel or transverse to tke rolling diection. They will deform focally to strains ter than the yield stain (,/E.), carrying load with some of the materil acting at the yield stress and bringing adjacent material into participation if added strength is heeded. When, however the sin i localized for instance in the “thru-thickness direction at one thick fange of « section, a restrained situation exists because the ‘Strain cannot redistribute from the ange through the web to the opposite flange. The217 FATIGUE STRENGTH 65 large localized “thrusthickness” strain may exceed the yield point st causing decobesion and leading toa lamellar eat Figure 2,102 shows conditions thar promote lamellar tearing in welded joins {nterna! joint restraint that inhibits large strains eresuitng from weld shrinkage can potentially cause Tamellar tearing. Figure 2.10.3 indicates weld shrinkage in the hrushickness” direction, increasing susceptibility 10 lamellar tearing. The Weld etal shonld be made soch that weld shrinkage ocedrs in the rolling destin so that the shrinkage pulls onthe bers longitudinally im thei strongest orientation, Refer- ences 2.38 ane 2.41 suggest ways of avoiding the prodtem, 2.11 FATIGUE STRENGTH Repeated loading and unloading. primarily in tension, may eventually resin faire even if the yield stress is never exceeded. The term farique means failure under cyclic loading. [is a progresive flue, the fal stage of which is unstable crack propagae tion. The fatigue siength is governed by thee variables (1) the numberof eycles of loading, (2) the range of service lnad stress difference benween the maximum and tinrmum stress) and (3) the initial size ofa las, A law is discontinuity, sachs tn extemely small exack In Welded assemblics, Maw could be the “notch intersection of two elements ‘ora “discontinuity” such asa bot hoe, Flaws may be the rest f poorly made weds, ‘ough edges esling fom shearing, punching, or fame cutag.o smal les, Such faws may be of no concern; however, unr many eyes of loudng the flew (noch effect) may give rise to a rack that increases in length with each eycle of lod and Fedces the section carrying the ad, consequently increasing the stress intensity on the uncracked par, Te fatigue strength is more dependent onthe loclied stat of stress than i Ue static strength. Fatigue is always a service load corsieration the cual sctvce load state of stess is what determines crack propagation. "The grade of steel has no apparent alec on the number feces to fire and te effect of minimum stress attributable to dead load) is considered to be nealigible fordesign purposes. On the otherhand, the specimen geometry, including the surface condition and interne! soundness ofthe weld have a significant effet. These fctrs fare reflected in the Structural Welding Code (2.25] aes for welded strctre design. ‘Work by Zaraski and Johnson [2.42] evaluating the remaining life in see! bridges has shown that unde certain Condition repeated sessing in steel sections can actually increase ie fatigue lif. The phenomenon, known ah coasting, was st Studied by Sinclair [2.43] and results from repeatedly stressing near, but below, the fatigue limit and gradoaliy increasing the sess ‘The AISC Specifications (1.5. 116] in LRED-App. K3 and ASD-App. Ka preserbe no fatigue effet for fer than 20.000 cycles, which approximately two {applications a day fr 25 years. Since mos loadings in buikings are in tat category. fatigue is generally not considered. The exceptions are crane-runway girders and stroctures supporting machinery. Fatigue is alays considered inte design of highsay bridges, which are expected to have in exces of 100,000 cycles of lading66 CHAPTER® STEELSAND PROPERTIES Bohs lo Figure 212.1. Comparative cososion of esi aa ‘ndusrial atmosphere. Shaded aes ndieate range for individual specimens. Adapted rom Ref. 245) ‘Volume {ofthe Weng Handboo (223, p42] shows several god exersples ofthe faiaue relationships for weet pats gndts and cove pated beans Exel tiseusion of fugue is given by Barsom and Rolf (2.23), 2.12 CORROSION RESISTANCE AND WEATHERING STEELS Since the earliest uses of ste, one ofthe important drawbacks was that painting was required to prevent the deterioration ofthe etal by corrosion (rusting). The lower- strength carbon steels were inexpensive but very vulnerable to corrosion. Coreosion resistance may be improved by the addition of copper as an alloy element, However, copper-bearing carbon steel I 00 expeasive for general use. High:strengt low-alloy steels have several anes [2.45] the corrosion resistance of structural carbon steel, with er without the addition of copper, as shown in Fig, 2.12.1, The high-strength low-alloy stels do net pitas severely as carbon steels {nd the rus that forms becomes 2 protective coating preven further deterioration, ‘With certain alloy elements the high-strength low-alloy stel will develop an oxide protective coating that i pleasing in appearance and is cesribed as follows": “Itis 8 very dense corrosion—actually a deeply colored brows, red, purple... It has & texture and color which cannot be reprodoeed atifcially—a character only’ nature can give, as with stone, marble, and granite.” When steels vet be unpainted aad lett exposed they are called weathering steels. 'As might be expected, the corrosion properties of ary Sel, including the ‘weathering steels, are dependent oa the chemical Composition, the degree of polation inthe atmosphere, and the frequeney of wetting and drying ofthe see Since its frst major use in 1958, forthe Administrative Cener for Deere & Company in Moline, Iinois, the use of weathering steel has received considerable Shrchectara Reco, Ags 198SELECTED AEFERENGES 67 tention. At fst such steels were specified under ASTM A242, which as previously fiscussed is very general, allowing & wide vatacion in chemist. With the adoption of ASSS steel in 1969, and A709 in 1975, A242 is now cesentially obsolete: A385 is generally used for weathering ste) in buildings and ‘A709 Grades SOW and 1OOW for weathering Stel in bridges (ee Table 21.2). Fabrication and erection of weathering ste! requites care. Unsightly gouges, scratches. and dents should be avoided. Painting. even for ideniiation, should be ‘minimized, since all marks most he removed ae the erection s completed. Scale ond discoloration from welding also must be removed. The extra expense resulieg from fabrication and erection is offset by the elimination of painting at intervals during the life ofthe srvcture “The practice of using weathering steals, including the results of 30 years expe ‘ence, has been summarized by Coburn [2.4 who presents the following “res 1. For optimum performance in the unpuited condition, the structure should be boldly exposed tothe elements, 2, The development ofthe protective oxide film is best achieved under normal ‘expoaire, wherein the surfaces are wet at night by dew formation and dry ‘ring daylight hours, 3. Because this wet-dry cycle cannot occur when the steel, regardles of is _rade, is buried inthe sol or immersed in water, the prowctive oxide will not form and the performance will resemble that of mild carben ste! exposed to the same conditions SELECTED REFERENCES 2.1, ASTM. Standard Specification for Structural Stel (A36/A36M-94), Pita pia, PA: American Society for Testing and Materials, 1994. 22. ASTM. Standard Specification for Pipe, Stee, Black and Hot-Dipped, Zine Coated Welded and Seamless (453-952). Philadelphia, PA: American Society {for Testing and Materials, 1993. 2.3, ASTM, Standard Specification for High-Strength Low-Alloy Structural Steel (A242/A242M93)- Philadelphia, PA: American Society for Testing ane Mate Fal, 195, 24. ASTM. Standard Specification for Carbon Stee! Bols and Studs, 60 000 psi Tensile Srengrh (4307-922), Philadelphia, PA: Amveican Society for Testing and Materials, 1992, 25. ASIM. Standard Specification for Structural Bolis, Steel, Heat Treated, 120/105 ksi Minimum Tensile Strength (A325)A325M-92a). Philadelphia, PA: American Society for Testing and Materials, 1992 2.6. ASTM. Standard Specification for High-Strength Low-Alloy Soractural Man- _ganese Vanadium Stee! (A481-85), Philadelphia, PA: American Society for “Testing and Maral, 1985, 2.7. ASTM. Standard Specifation for Quenched and Tempered Stet Bots and ‘Studs (449-920, Philadelphia, PA: American Society for Testing and Mater als, 199268 28. ASTM, Standart Specification for Heat-Teate Spel Stevcrurad Bois, 150 ksi Minar Tensile Siregtit (8490-82 also Specification for High Serengrh Steel Bolts, Classes 10.9 and 10.93, for Steuaural Steel Joints [Metric] (As90M-92), Philadelphia. PA: American Society for Testing and Materials, 1992, 29, ASTM. Standard Specification for Cold-Formed Welded and Seamless Carbo ‘Stee! Structural Tubing in Rownds and Shapes ($0093). Philadelphia, PA: [American Society for Testing and Materials, 1993 2.10. ASTM. Standard Specifcarion for Hot-Formed Welded and Seamless Carbon ‘Steel Structural Tubing (ASOL-93), Philadelphia PA: American Society for Test ing and Materials, 1993. DAL ASTM. Standard Specification for High-Yield Soength Quenched and Tem: ered Allov Stee! Plate, Suiabie for Welding (ASIS/AS14M-93a). Philadel ‘hia, PA: American Sociewy for Testing and Materials, 1993, 212, ASTM. Standard Specicaion for High-Sirengh Carbon-Mangonese Steel of Siructura! Quaity (AS20/4329N94, Philadelphia, PA: American Scciety for Testing and Materials, 1994, 23, ASTM. Standard Specification for Sie, Sheet an? Strip, Carbon, Hot Rolled, Sirucrural Quairy (A50-88). Philadelphia, PA: American Society for Testing and Materials, 1988, 2M. ASTM. Standart Specifcarion for High-Strengh Low-Alloy Colombian Vanadivon Stes of Structural Quality (AST2IASTM-94b), Philadelphia, PA ‘American Society for Testing and Materials, 1994 2S. ASTM. Standard Specification for High-Strength Low-Alloy Structural Steel vith 50 ksi {345 MPo) Minimum Yield Point 0. in. [100 mm} Thick (ASS8/AS88M-94). Philadephia, PA: American Society for Testing and Materi- als, 1994, 2.16. ASTM. Standard Specification for Stee, Sheet and Srp, High-Strength LowAl- loy, Hor-Rolled and Cold-Rolled, wie Improved Amaspkeric Corrosion Resi ‘ance (A696-512). Philadephia, PA: Anjrican Sasety for Testing and Materi- als, 1991, 2.17. ASTM. Standard Specification for Steel, Sheet and Strip, High-Strength, Low-Alloy, Colunbium or Vanadium, or Both, Hot-Rolled and Cold-Rolled (A607-92a). Philadelphia, PA: American Society for Testing and Materials, 1992, 2.18, ASTM. Specification for Seeh, Sheet, Carbon, Colé-Rolled, Structural Quality (A611-94), Philadelphia, PA: American Society for Testing and Materials, 1984, 2.19, ASTM, Standard Specification for Hot-Formed Welded and Seamless High Sivengih Low Alloy Structural Fubing (N618-92). Philadelphia, PA: American Society for Testing and Materials, 1992 2.20. ASTM, Standard Spectfation for Sructural Steelfor Bridges (A709/A700M- 943) Philadelphia, PA: American Society for Tesing and Materials, 1994, 2.21, ASTM. Standard Specification for Steel Sheet and Sirip. High-Strength, Low- Alloy, Hot-Rolled, and Stel Sheet, Cold-Rolled, High Strength, Low-Alloy with Improved Formabilty(AT15-91), Philadelphia, PA: American Society for Tesing and Materials, 1981SELECTED REFERENCES 69 ASTM, Standard Specification for Quenched and Tempered Lewsttoy Struc ‘ural Stel Plove ith 70 ksi [483 MPo} Mintauon Yelr Sonat oi {109 mun} Thick (A852/A852M-93), Philadlphis. PA: American Society for “Testing and Materials. 1993, AWS. Welding Handbook, Shag, Vol 1, Welding Technologs, 1987. Vol 2 Welding Processes. 1981, Miami. FL: American Welding Society, 1987, 1991 (550 NW. Lekne Road. PO. Box 351040. Miami. FL 33135), Research Council on Structural Connections. Conmentar on Specifications Jor Serytural Joins Using ASTM 325 or A490 Bolis. Chicago: American Institute of Steel Consruction. June §, 1988, AWS. Sinucrural Welding Code—Stel, Thiteenth Edition, Efective Decem- ber 30, 1993 (ANSU/AWS DI.1-98). Miami, FL: American Welding Scie 1994, RL Brockenbrough and B. G. Johnston. Sie! Dest Manual. Pitsburgh, PA United States Steel Corporation, 1968. (Chap. 1), 227. S.T. Rolfe. “Fracture and Fatigue Control in Steel Structures,” Engineering Journal, AISC, 4, 1 (Ast Quarter 1977), 2-15. 228, K. A. Gaditey. J. “High Strength Stee: Crisis or NOP", Chil Engineering, May 1585, 50-53, John M, Batson and Stanley 7, Rolle. Fracture and Fatigue Control tn Steve “ures Applications of Fracture Mechanics, 2nd ed. Englewood Chil New Jersey: Prentice-Hall. tne, 1987 2.30, Join M, Barsom, "Material Considerations in Suuctural Stee! Design” Pro- ‘ceedings, National Enginering Conference & Conference of Operating Per= “sonnel. Chicago: American Insinge of Stee! Construction, April 29-May 2, 1987, 1-1 tough 1-15, 2.31. 4. M. Barsoin. "Merial Considerations in Stuctural Stel Design,” Eusineer Ing Journci, AISC, 24,3 (30d Quarter 1987), 127-139, 232, John C. Bittence. "The Basis of Heat Treating. What it Does- How it Works- ‘Where t Specify i." Machine Desig, January 24,1974, 106-111; February 7, 1974, 117-121 233. A Primer on Brtle Fracture, Bookiet 1960-A, Steel Desge Fle, Bethe ‘Steel Corporation, Bethlehem, PA. 2.34, John W. Fisher and Alan W.Pense, “Experenve with Use of Heavy W Shapes in Tension.” Engineering Journal, AISC, 24, 2 (2ra Quarter 1987), 63-77. 2.35. “The Use of Jumbo Shaper in Non-column Applications,” Engineering Jour. ral, AISC. 23, 3 ed Quarter 1986), 96 226, “Use of Hany Strictural Shapes in Tension Applicstions” Construction Mar- sting Technical Buller 7.312, Bethlehem Stel Corporation, Jone 1992. 237, E. 1 Kaufman, A. W. Bense, and R, D. Steat. “An Evaluation of Factors Significant Lamsellar Tearing, Welding Jounal, 60, March 1981, Research ‘Supplement, 435-496, 238. “Commentary on Highly Restrained Welded Connections." Engineering Jour nal, AISC. 10, 3 (3rd Quatter 1973), 61-72 239, Charles H. Thornton. “Quality Cons! in Design and Supervision Can Elimi- ate Lamellar Testing.” Exglicering Journal, AISC. 10,4 (4b Quarter 1973), 12-116,0 240, 2s. 2.46, Holby and J. F Smith. “Lamellar Tearing The Problem Noboy Seems t0 ‘ant Talk About.” Welding Journal, $9, February 1980, 374 “Causes and Prevention of Lamellar Tearing.” Civil Engineering, Api. 1982 1. PD. Zuraski and J. E. Johason, “Research on the Remaining Life in Steet Bridges,” Proceedings, ASCE Specalte Conference on Probabilistic Mechanies and Structural Reliability. Berkeley. CA: January 11~13, 1983, 414-418, GM. Sinclair. “An Investigation of the Coaxing Effect in Fatigue of Metals Proceedings, ASTM, 52 (1982), 743-758, Seymour Ceburn, “Theory and Practice in Use of Weathering Steel,” Proceed Ings, Nationat Engineering Conference & Conference of Operating Personne. ‘Chicago: Ameriean Instiue of Steel Construction, pil 29- May 2, 1987, 14-1 through 14-25, €.P. Larrabes. “Corrosion Resistance of High-Strength Low-Alloy Stes 38 Influenced by Composition and Environment.” Corrasion, 9, August 1953, 59-271 ASTM. Standard Specification for High-Strength Low-Alloy Steel Shapes of Structural Quality, Produced by Quenching and Self Tempering Process (QST) (4913/A013M-93), Philadelphia, PA: American Society for Testing and Mater als, 1993,Chapter 3 ~ Tension Members 3.1 INTRODUCTION ‘Tension members are encountered in most stel structures. They occur as principal structural members in towers and wind braci sms in multistried buildings. Th 'e rods to stiffen a trussed floor system ort provide intermediate support fora wall Birt sytem, Tension members may consist ofa single structural shape or they may be built up from a number of structural shapes. The erass-sections of some Iypica tension members are shown in Fig. 3,11 4 9 aa L JL r { 1 It igure 31.1 Cross-section of typical ension members7 SOE \ Structural sol fam a nermaate Hoe Rel, This eel suspended rom roo space rs with emsnn rs Pho by © Sala) 3.2 NOMINAL STRENGTH ‘The strength of a tension member may be described in tems ofthe “limit states” that ‘govern, The controll strength lit state for tension member wil be one of the Following: (a) yielding of cross-section ofthe member aus from the con- rection, (b) fractir of the efectve net area. through the holes) athe connection Luar 1 bot holes atthe connection, Whe: 1 yielding ofthe gross section over the member Jengttyptio by ate er without Holes (he. with welded e>anection), the nominal strength 7, may be expressed = FA, G21) where F, = yield stress A, = gross cross-sectional area For tension members having hoes, such for bolts, the reduced cross-section is referred tous the ner area. Hols in a member cause stress concentrations at service foad as. for example shown in Fig. 3.2.la, Tory of elasticity shows that tensile stress adjacent to a hole will be about three times the average stress on the net area. However, as each fiber reaches yield strain e, = F/B. its sess then becomes & ‘constant F. with deformation continuing with inceasing load uni nally all fibers have achieved or execeded the strain , (Pig. 3.2.16),Figure 32.1 Sie dsebuton ith oles present ‘When the limit state is a loalized yielding resulting in fracture through the effective net area of & tension member bavng holes, the nominal strength, may be expresed 622) where F, = speciied minimum tensile strength (se Fig. 2.1.1) AA = effective net area = UA, (ee Secs. 3 and 3.5) A, = net ares 1 ~ reduction coefficient (an efficiency factor) Because of srain hordening, thats, the ris in resistance when the fensite strain ‘becomes large (See. 2), the actual stegth of a ductile member may exceed that indicated by Eq, 32.1 [3:1], However, the lage elongavons resulting from yielding fof the member along is entre length may cause the member ends to move unaceept- ‘bly far apart and distress the structure thus, the member po longer serves itsintended purpose Fither unrestrained yielding or facture through reduced section at hoes may Timit the structural usefulness ofthe member. Traditionally. a higher margin of safety has been used in design when considering the facture mit state than forthe yielding Timi state. 3.3 NET AREA |Whenever a tension member i to be fastened by means of bolts or rivets. oles must the provided atthe connection, As a result, the member cross-sectional area at the connection is reduced and the strength of the member may also be reduced depending ‘on the size and location ofthe holes. ‘Several methods are used to cut holes. The most common and least expensive method isto punch standard holes in. (1.6 mm) larger than te diameter ofthe rivet ‘or bolt, In general, th plate thickness s less than the punch diameter. During the punching operation, the meta at the edge ofthe hole is damaged. This is secounted for in design by assuming that the extent of the damage i limited wo a radial distance fof rim. (0.8 mm) around the hole. Therefore the total width 1 be deducted (LRED. fd ASD-B2) is o be taken as the nominal dimension of the hole nocmal tothe Alirection of applied load pls in. 1.6 mm). For fasteners in standard holes, the tal ‘deduction is equal tothe fasener diameter pus in. (3.2 mm)7 CHAPTER TENSION MEMBERS A second method of eutting holes consists of subpunching ther in. (4:8 mm) diameter undersize and then reaming the holes tothe inshed size after the pieces being joined are asembed, This method is more expensive than that of punching Standard holes but does offer the advantage of accurate alignment, This method and the next method produce beter strength both sate and faigue, but his is ignored in design procedures. 1 third method consists of cling holes toa diameter of the bolt or river plus ‘$in. (0.8 men). This method is used to jin thick pieces. nd is the most expensive of the common methods. ‘When greater latitude is needed in meeting dimensional tolerances during ec: ‘oo, larger than stand oles canbe used with high strength bols in, diameter and reer without adversely affecting the performance. The maximum sies for oversized, short stored, and long-slotted holes ate specified in LRFD and ASD-J3.2. EXAMPLES What isthe net area A, forthe tension member shown ia Fig. 3.3.17 Figure 33.1 Tension meiner for Example 33.1 Solution. A, = 40.25) = 10.4%, Width wo be deducted for hole = 3 + {= Zin A, = Ac ~ (width for bole thickness of plat) 10 ~ 03875 (0.25) = 0.78 sq in, mm 3.4 EFFECT OF STAGGERED HOLES ON NET AREA ‘Whenever there is more than one hale and the Holes are not lined up transverse to the loading direction, more than one potential fallure line may exis. The controlling {ailure ine i that which gives the largest stress on an effective net are, Tn any eases, the critial failure path is also the path that has the minimarn neta In Fig. 34.1a the filre line is along the section A~B In Fig. 34. 1b showing wo lines of staggered holes, the failure line might be through one hole (ection A~B) or itmight be along a diagonal path, A~C. At first glance one might think section AB isertical since the path A-B is obviously sorter than path AC. However, from path A-B,only one hole would he deducted while two oles would have tbe deducted from + pth A-C: In order to determine the controling section, both paths A~B and A-C rust be investigated. Accurate checking of streagth along path A-C is complex. However, a simpliid empirical relationship proposed by Cachrane [3.2] has been aGa EFFECT OF STAGGERED HOLES ONNET AREA 75 igure 341 Paths of ilar on net secon, adopted by LRFD and ASD-B2 w secount fr the difference berween the path A~C fd the path AB, expressed asa length correction. te “where s isthe stagger, or spacing of adjacent oles parallel 10 the loading direction (ee Tig, 34.1), and the gage distance transverse tothe loading direction, Thus the net lengths of paths A~B and A~C would be Set eth of 8 feogth of (AB) ~ (ith ole + in) Net length of A-C = length of (A-8) ~ 2d of le + jgin) + 5 “The minimum net area would then be determined from the minimum net length ‘multiplied by the thickness ofthe plate fn the yeas since Cochrane proposed the simple s?/4 expression, many inves tigators have proposed other rules [33~3.6] but none of them gives significantly better results, and al are more complicated, ‘Consistent with the general tzend toward using strength-related design ap- proaches the work of Bijlaard [3.7] and others [3.83.10] has provided limit analysts {hsories to obtain net area in tension. These theories do not deviate from the 5/4 method by more than 10 to 15 percent. "The reader is referred to MeGuite [3.11] fora more compete coverage ofthis subject of act section trough staggered lines of fasteners. [BXAMPLE 44) ———————_—_$<_$_$_$_$_______ Determine the minimum net area of the plate shown in Fig, 3.4.2, assuming iar hols are located as shown. “Solution. According to LRFD and ASD-B2, the width used in deducting for holes isthe hole diameter plus jr in. and the staggered length correction is fA, Pith AD (10 holes) [e-2l+76 CHAPTERS TENSION MEMBERS igre 342 Fuimpie 4 Path ABD (she oles 109 stage) 11), sr | e228) | ~ opt a5) + San + ar Path ABC (res hoe; so sugges) 3 a(S, 1) , Gunsy , (75 [ie a(i ge) Sr + SF Jo2s = 2.42 gin (oniols) mm Angles When holes are staggered on two legs of a angle che gage length g for use in the $°/4g expression is ebtained by using a length between the centers of the holes measured along the centerine of the angle thickness, Le. the distance AB in Fig. 3.4.3. Thus the gage distance g is beecbeetent ean ane ‘stage Gotete Figure3A3 Gage dimensions fran angle134 EFFECT OF STAGGERED HOLES ON NET AREA 77 TABLES.41, USUALGAGES' FOR ANGLES, INCHES FROM AISC MANUAL t4 LAN Mae 8h 7 209 Every rolled angle has a standard value for the lation of holes (i.e. gage stances g, and g.. depending onthe length of the leg and the numberof lines of hols. Table 34.1 shows usual gages for angks as ised in the AISC Manual. EXAMPLE 342 Determine the net area 4, for se angle given in Fig. 3.4.4 sed diam holes are Solution. For net area calculation the angle may be visualized as being Battened into a plate as shown in Fig. 3.4.5: An Ay~ SEE ‘where D is the width tobe deducted forthe Hole Path AC: 1s ies 16 as ~ (3 25 sain. Path ABC: 1s or oss * Lies Since the smallest 4 is 3.7559 in. that salue governs OF se i fos = 3960 in SCRPD Menno (18) p9-13¢A8D Bema LT) 1-8278 CHAPTERS TENSION MEMBERS. ep atnetnen ae wre 344 Example 3.4.2, Figure 34.8. Angle fr Example 3.42 with lege shown "atened” ato one plane 3.5 EFFECTIVE NET AREA ‘The net ares as computed in Secs. 3.3 and 3.4 gives the reduced section that resists: tension but still may aot correctly reRet the stength. That i particulary true when the tension member has profile consisting of elements notin a common plane and where te tensile lad is transmitted a the end f the member by connection Wo some but aot all ofthe elements. An angle section havirg connection to one leg only is an ‘example of such a situation, For such eases the lemsile force is not uniformly dis Iibuted over the net ares. LLRED and ASD-B3 provide t where U = reduction coeficient A, = nev aea, ‘The above equation logically applies for both fastener connections having holes and for welded connections. For welded connections, the net area equals the gross area A, sine there are no bok. ‘When tensile oadis applied eccentically toa wide plate, the stress distribution cross the width of the plate #8 nonuniform, The mechanism by which stress gts transmitted from the location of the applied load m sections distant from the load i by shear stresses acting in the plane of the plate. The fact thatthe ses is lower the farther the location i from the applied load meansthat the shear transfer “lags” ors infin i he nny of arene sorte ene fd sections when a tensile load is applied nonuniform, is refered to as "she or Bolted of riveted connetions, the cedetion eoefcet U tlates 10 the coceniricity¥ af leading in the connection, Whenever tension is transmitted through some but not all ofthe cross-sectional elements, LRFD-B3.2 indicates the flowing shall be used, u=1-isos 652)95 EFRECTIVENET AREA 78 where ¥ = distance finm centroid of clement being connected eccentically © pine of foad transfer (See Fig. 3.5.1 and also LRFD Commentary Figs. C-B3.1 and C-B3.2 for added guidance tg determine ¥) length of connection in the direction of loading Equation 3.5.2 is based onthe work of Munse and Chesson 3 9Jané correlates within 10% of tests [3.1]. A review of shear Zap research for both bolted and welded Connections, along with design recommendations, is provided by Easting and Giroux [3.13], In addition @ the reduction in strength because of shear lag, the efficiency of the fasteners is reduced in long (in the load direetion) connections, a tiscussed in Chapter 4, where detailed treatient of bolted tension members occurs, ‘The approximate values of U used prior to the 1983 LED Specification) for bolted and riveted connections to T-shaped sections, channels, and angles, are sill considered acceptable, acconding to LRFD Commentary B3, Por shire tension members (connecting elements), such as splice and gusset, plates, where the elements of the cross-section lie essentially ina common plane, the effective net area is taken equal to A, Dut tay no exceed 85% ofthe Bross area 4, Genet ae B Figure 35.1 Eccetrity in joints: determination of F for computing Ug. 38.2.80 CHAPTER.@ TENSION MEMBERS (LRFD-35.2.band ASD-B3), Tess [5] hue shown that when any hols are prevent ‘in such sort elements whee general yielding on the gross section cannot occur. there ‘sill beat least 15% redoctioninsiength fom that obtained based on viding of the gross section For welded tension connections, there ae three catagories (C1) Load transmitted to a member other than a plate by longitudinal welds, ot by longitudinal welds in combination with transverse welds A, = UA, = UA, 353) Although not specifically stated in the LRFD Specification, the intention is for Eg, 55.2 la apply also for welded connections when sheat lag is presen. This iaten- tion indicated both in the LRFD-Commentary B3. and ERED Manual, p. 2-L1 12) Load transinited only by transverse welds C= UA, = Ace esa) whore 4... = area of drcely connected elements. this caste shear lag effect is approximated indirectly by vsing the reduced area A, (3) Load transmited toa plate by longitudinal welds along both sides of the plate spaced apart such that! = Ww 4,= UA, ass) where = length of weld along one side of plate w © distance between longitudinal welds (i. plate width) U= 100 For! = 2w O87 For2v 51> 1Sw 075 For lise > 120 “Welded connections for tension members are created in Chapter S on welding EXAMPLE 3.8. Determine the reduction factor U'to be applied in computing the effective net area for AW 1482 section connected by plates atts to flanges, as shown in Fig. 3.5.2. There are three bolts along each connector line Soluron. In this ease, two elements (the flanges) of the cross-section are connected but one (the web) is not connected. In accordance with Ea. 3.5.1, there is Fediced eftciency of carrying load, The reduction factor U must bs ‘computed using Eq. 3.5.=. Because each lange connection can be thought of as load onthe cibueary portion ofthe W shape, the section may be treated as two tuctural tee, as in Fig, 3.5.Lc, The balf W shape corresponds to a sructral tee W741, whose central distance Fis given by the AISC Marval 8 1.39 in. The length £ ofthe connsction is 6 in, Thus, Eg. 3.5.2 gives 39 vai LRED Commentary-B3 indicates the 1986 LRFD Specification values smay sil be used. Thus, for W, M, ce S shapes having Mange wits not ess tha 077s 09 0K6 TEARNGFALURE ATBOLTHOLES 81 ee = | oF (. A. -—E 5 c = BY were Figure 352 Fample3 two-thirds of the depth, and stracual tees cut from these shapes, U = 0.90 fue there are atleast thre fasteers per lin in the direction of stress, For this oxample by _ ange width 10.13 991 5 967 27 fection depht ~ Jaan ~ 0717 067 OK “Thus, the reduction factor U ecu be taken as 0.90, However, the Speciation “approach isthe more cortectone ad seems mandatory (using the word “shall” ‘Thus, the 0.77 value should be used. mm 3.6 TEARING FAILURE AT BOLT HOLES When thin plates are attached by bots, a tearing limit state, known a8 block shear, shay control the stength ofa tension member, or the tension region at the end ‘Connection of a beam (see Chapter 13). Referring to Fig. 36.18, the angle tension frember attached to 4 gos plate may have a tearing failure slong the bolt holes, ection abe, The tearing (shear euptre) strength on section @~b plus the tensile Sfelding strength on sector be wil give the total resistance ta block shear fle JED. 12, 313] hve shown it tobe reasonable to add the strength tension yielding i one plane to the shear oture strength of the perpendicular plane. ‘the four oles in the plat of Fig. 36, tb andc will contribute ta tear-out failure ithe sumof the shear stengths along 2-b and c-d pls the tensile strength along b= is less than ether of the strengths in general yielding of the member (Eg, 3.2.1) or jracture along e~b-c-f (Eq. 3.2.2). ‘Combination she and tension tearing fulures are uncommon in tension mem: bers; however, this combination mode Frequently controls the design of bolted end {connettions to the thin webs of beams& Figure 361 Tearing fire imi state ‘Tests on block shear filure in angle members [3.14] have shown that block shear controls for short connections (ie., two or fewer connectors per gage line. ‘These tests also indicate that shear la i a factor in block shear failure of tension members, which is not currently accounted for by the LRED Specification [18 Furthermore. adding s2/4g t0 the net tensile area for block shear calculations on Staggered bolts may be unconservatve, depending on the direction of the stagger with respect the failure path [LRFD- 14.3, provides for considering two block shear failure moves (1) fracture slong the tensile plane (b=c in Fig. 36,10) fllowedby yielding along the shear planes (a-b and cmd in Fig. 3.6.16). and (2) fracture along the shear planes (ab and cmd {in Fig. 36.1) followed by ying along the tensile plane (Bc in Fig. 36.10). Block shear ia fractare limit state and the allure anode which governs in that which has the ‘reater fractare strength, CConsistont with the limit states discussed in See. 3.2, the gros area is used for ‘he yielang limit state snd the net area i used forthe fracture limit state In addition, {ollowing the enensy-ct-distortion theory (Ea. 2.6.5). the hear yield stress 7s taken 480.5, Similarly, the shear strength 7, is aken a8 O6F,,AB TEARING FALURE AT CLT HOLES 82 “The nominal strength T, [tension is thus given by 1. Shear yielding —tension fracture (Fay = O5F, An) T,= 06F.Ay + Fun Gon 2, Shear fractare —tension yielding (F.A,, < 0.6, T,=06F,An * Ay (3.62) where A, = gross area acted upon by shear ‘A, = gross area acted upon by tensios AL, = net area acted upon by shear ‘AL, = net area acted upon by tension iF, = specified (ASTM) minimom tensile strength F. & specified (ASTM) minimum yield stress. [Equation 3.6.1 indicates fracture (F,Ay) on the net tensile area followed by yielding (O6F,A,) along the shear plines. Equation 3.6.2 indicates fracture {oioF.a,.)on the net shear atea followed ty yielding (FA) onthe gloss teasion area Because yielding eapnot occur until after fracture has taken place, the appropriate ‘equation fuses the one having te greater ratio of fracture sitength o yield sirength “The comparison criterion that provides the bass for using ether Eq. 3.6.1 Eq. 362s slightly different from the aforementioned rationale. Instead of compa jn the fracture and yield components of the sireagth within 2 single equation, the Fracture components of Eqs, 3.6. and 36.2 are compared, The correlation between ting the equation having the larger proportion of fracture wo yield strength. and the ‘Compatison of fractere strengths ised for Eqs. 3.6.1 and 3.6.2 is as follows ‘Requiring & larger proportion of fracture strength to yield siengih in Eq. 3.6.1 an in Eg, 3.6.2 means that A, F064, (ati) = (5) 49 ‘Canceling the ratio (F,/F) 20m both sides and multiplying through by the denom “Taking the square root of both sides and multiplying each side by F, produces an ‘expression similar €o the criterion of Eqs. 3.6.1 and 3.6.2, Thus, FiAy 2 O6F,Ay te (3.6.5) “Therefore the erterion used for selecting either Eq. 3.6.1 or Eq. 3.62 isthe same at choosing the equation with the greater ratio of facture strength #0 yield84 CHAPTER 2 TENSION MEMBERS strength assuming te ratio of gross are to net area in tension is equal the ratio of ross area to net area in shear. This is approximatly tue when the hole spacings in the perpendicular directions are uniform and nearly eval 3,7 STIFFNESS AS A DESIGN CRITERION ven though stability is nota eriterion in the design of tension members, it s still necessary 1 iit their length to prevent a member from becoming too flexible both ‘during erection and final use ofthe stractre. Tension members that ae foo long may sag excessively because oftheir own weight. n adition, they may also vibrate when ‘subjected to wind forces as in an open tuss oF when supporting Vibrating equipment such as fas of compressors, "To reduce the problems associated with excessive deflections and vibrations a stiffness criterion was esablshed. Ths criterion isbased on the slenderness tio. Lr, fof member where Li the length and r the least radis of gyration (r = V/A). The preferable maximum slendemess ratio s 300 for members whose design i based on tensile force (LRED and ASD-B7). This limitation does not apply to rods in tension In applying the stiffness criterion to tension members, the highest slendernes= ratio must be used. A symmetrical member may Fave two different eadi of gyration, ‘and for nonsymmetrical members one must consider the Weakest principal ax. When ‘tension member is bul up from a number of sections, the radius of gyration must ‘be computed using the moment of inertia J and the evose-setional area A, The value for will be with respect to the same axis as thct used to calculate the moment of 9.8 LOAD TRANSFER AT CONNECTIONS Normally the holes in tension members are those for rivets or bolts to transfer load from one tension member into another ‘Although the detaled treatment of fasteners and their behavior isin Chapter 4, the basic assumption is that each equal size fasteer transfers an equal share ofthe load whenever the fasteners are arranged symumetrcally with respect fo the central axis of a tension member. The following example is to ilustrate the idea and its ‘relationship to net area calculations. EXAMPLE 38.1 Calculate the governing net area for plate A ofthe single lap joint in Fig. 3.8.1 and show free-body diaprams of portions of plate A wit sections caken through each line fof oles. Assume that plate B has adequate net area and does not control the strength 7. Solution. The full tensile force Tin plate 4 aes on section 1-1 of Fig 3.8.1 Examination of other sections in plate A to ‘he left of section 1-1 will invohe- less than 100% of acting, since part of that force will have already been8 LOAD TAANSFER AT conmECTIONS 8S te ft Leree] nee Figure 34.1 Sing op conection fr Example 381 transferred from plate A 10 plate B. At section 4~4, 100% of T must no be acting in paie 8 shile only 20% of T acts i plate A. Since there must be zer0 force acting on the end of plate a short distance to the It of section 4—4, the force T mus: have been eatirely transferred to pate B over the distance from sections |=1 to 4-4, The free bodies of the various segments are shown in Fig. 38.2 Deduction in width for 1 bole = Diam of hole + in Diam of fastener + £39, for standard bole US ~ 3) = 750. in ec azea (ection (=) fon which 100% of T acts (Fig. 3.8.2, Figure 382 Load dsteibusion i ato86 CHRETER 2 TENSION ueuaERS [Net aren (staggered path 1 a sty + 42] = 7.08 59 in Sfis—s0) al] = r00m ‘on which 1005 of T also ats, [Not area (staggered path 1-2. ‘on which 0.9 of Tis presumes to ct since one connector has already transfersed its share (0.10) of the lad prior w reaching section 1-2-2 1, The 7.29 sq i, ‘with O97 acting would compare with 7.29/0,9 = 8.105q in. with T acting, A comparison of 7.50, 7.08, and 8.10 shows that seetion 12~3~2: then A, = 7.08'sqin. ai 3.9 LOAD AND RESISTANCE FACTOR DESIGN— TENSION MEMBERS ‘The general philosophy of Load and Resistance Factor Design (LRFD) was deseribed inSees.1 Sand 1.9. Equation 1.8.1 givesthe structural safety requirement, as fellows or, = Dro, 8] where = resistance factor (strength reduction factor) , = nominal resistance (strength) (overload factors (LRED-A4.1} loads (Such as dead load ive loud, wind load, earthquake load) of load effets (such as bending moment, shear, axil force, and torsional ‘moment resulting from the various loads) @ Equation 1.8.1 requires thatthe design strength 6R, equal or exceed the summation of factored loads, or specially for tension memes, Eq. 1.8.1 becomes O12 7, Bo.) here d= resistance factor relating to tensile strength T, = nominal strength ofa tension member T, = factored load on a tension member Since the loading isnot related wo the typeof member, such as teasion member ‘or column, the various loed factor combinations given in LRFD-A4.| are the same for all members in the sructure. However, the resistance facior ¢ accounts for the possibilty that the atual strength ofthe member may be bss than the theoretically ‘computed strength because of variations in material properties and dimensional toler- ances. These variations while individually within accepted tobrance limits may com- Dine in the actual structure to give a strength Iss than the computed value. Neither28. LOAD ANG RESISTANCE FACTOR DESIGN—TENSION MEMBERS 87 the ¢ factor nor the overload fctors + are intended to account for careless errors in Uesign or constuction. The reliability of designs of bolied see! tension members using LRED has been reported by Bennett and Najem-Clarke [3.16] “The design strength 6,7, according to LRED-D_ is the smaller of that based on elding in the gross section, ar. cor fracture in the ner section, 87. = 8 FA. = O75EA, 093) Note that the resistance factor ei 0.90 fr the yielding mit tate and is 0.75 forthe fractuce Hm tate Th addition the designer mysttake into account rupture strength (tension, shear, ‘ora combination of both) along a potential tear-cut path (see See. 3.6). The design ‘rength requirements of LRFD-If ace OFA, = 0908.4, 892) 1. Shear rupture design strength OV, = G10.6F.IAy B98) 2, Tension rupture design strength 6 OT, = OF Aw 693) ‘3. Shear—tension combination design strength a. When Fy = O.6F Ay, OR, = HOGF Ay + FiAg) 896) which means shea yielding—tension fracture controls Db. When O.6F, Ay. > FeAyy AR, = HOGF Ay + FAQ) Gen which means shear fracture —tensio yielding controls ‘= er0ss area acted upon by shear 1038 area acted upon by tension ret area acted upon by shear = ret area acted upon by tension 1} = 0.75 for the facture limit state (Eqs. 3.9.4 through 3.9.7) FF, = specie (ASTM) minimum tensile strength F,= specified (ASTM) minimum yield stress In the 1993 LRED Manual (Tables 8~86 and 8-47), the deduetion for holes is ‘computed in accordance with LRFD-B2, par. 2 the same as forthe tension fracture limit state forte member, as discussed in Section 3.2. nthe 1986 LRFD Manual, the implied “recommendation” was to deduct the actua hole: Lethe bolt diameter plus 1/16 in. for standard holes when checking Block shear. ‘The Specification [1.16] sections used in Load and Resistance Factor Design of, tension members are sammanzed in Table 39.188 CHAPTER? TENSION WenBERS TABLE 8. TENSION MeMBERS— [NSC SPECIIOATIONS REFERENCES ‘Speafetn secon Tope taro fiie)_ AS0018) Seas Etecive nares @ Tene seth br Baiop enters pe bo Proconectes enter eehars DS D3 Tirade 8 B Boek tee aM i Coaneig eas as 1s EXAMPLE 38.1 Determine the service load capacity in tension foran LOX4x: of AST2 Grade 30 see) connected with Zn diam bolls in andard oles as shown in Fig. 3.9.1, Use ASC [Load and Resistance Factor Design, and assume the lve load te dead toad tio 3.0, Solution, The angle tension member is connected to a gusser plate, typical of ‘russ joints. The gusset plate is the plate atthe intersection of members t which they are connected. “The maximum strength willbe based on either section IL with one hole ducted, or on the staggered section 1-2 Uhrough two holes, The governing section will ave 100% of oad Faeting on it Per section |= nt jena ihe = 405 (+2)as0 25 sqin. For section 1-2, AL= A, = 2hokes + (6/4) oy 2 (Apso + sm = 395.08 475 — Figure 39.1 Tension member for Example 391139 LOND AND RESISTANCE FACTOR DESIGN—TENSION MENGERS 68 “The two design strengths to be used in accordence with LRFD-DI ate sivenby Eq, 39.2 based on general vieldng onthe gross section ofthe meme. OT, = FA, B92) = 0:90(50)(4.25) = 214 kips and by Eq. 3.9.3 based on fracture atthe connection, OT.= OFA, Bea) “The angle doesnot have both legs connected to transfer the vensile force, 9 the effective net area is les than the computed net area, accounting Tor the eesen- twiity atthe connection. "The effective net area A, i A.= UA where, according to LRFD-B3.2 the reduction coefficient 7 is to be computed from Bq. 35.2: uai-F (321 where the distance ¥ from centroid of element being connected eccenrically to plane of load transfer (se Fig. 3.5.1) is fr the ease ofthe angle 0.987 in. The fength L of the joints 14 in, Equation 3.5.2 then gives Use U = 09, A, = UA, ~ 090895) “Thus, Ba, 3.93 gives AT = OFA. “Thus, the controlling 7, the smaller ofthe values from Egs.3.9.2(214 kis) tnd 39.3 (173 kip). 56 59 in. 10.75(63)(3.56) = 173 kips AT, = 1D Kips "The averlad factors slate the design strength tothe service loads or toad cetiets, Using the gravity load combination Eg, 18.3 [LRFD-Eq (A4-2)). the factored load T, 7, = DQ = 12D + 16L + O5(L,orS ork) [1.83] where in this example the roof leading Z, $ (Snow), and R (cain) are pot valved. The ive loud (L) is given as three times dead load (D). Thus applying90 CHAPTER 2 TENSION MEMBERS ‘the safety requirement, Eq. 3.9.1: tha is, letting 6,7, equal factored load 7, ives OT. = 12D + LOL = 12D + 16D) = 60D 173 = 60D D = 28.8 kips L = 3D = 3128.8) = 864 ips ‘The total sae sevice load T's T= D+ L= 288 +864 = 115 kips Ishi angle connection consisted ofa very few loge fasteners or if either the gusset plate or the angle Were thin elements, the shearruprre limit state of LRED-14, represented by Eq. 3.9.4 through 3.9.7. mighs give & lower strength than the lesser of Eqs. 3.9.2 and 39.3. mm EXAMPLE 39.2 Iavestigate the shear rupture failure mode on the angle L4%<4! attached with three in.-diam bolts toa in, gusset plate, as shown in Fig. 29.2. The material is A36 feel, ‘Solution, The usoal general yielding and fracture limit states governed by the lesser of Bqs. 39.2. and 3.9.3 give OT, = FA, ~ 0.90(36)(198) = 62.9 hips OT, = BEA, = FUA, 26 Figure 39.2. Tenson member of Example 39.229. LOAD AND RESISTANCE FACTOR DESIGN-TENSION MEMBERS 91 Tas OT. = F.UA, = 0.75(58)(0.82)(1.94 ~ 025) = 60.3 kips ‘The biock shear potential failure along pah a~b=e of Fig. 3.9.2 must be investigated according to LRFD-H. Calelating the net areas A, and A. ‘Ag, = (length ab less 2.5 holes) X thickness as(osrs + 1)Joas = 1.25 sain = [75 ~23(0875 + J) Joas = 125 4 [is—os(oan fas 25 sain. Compare O6F Aa ith Aus {06F, Ay = 06(58)1.28 = 48:5} > dy = ‘which means Eq. 39.7 [shear facture, tension yielding) controls, AR, = HOSEA, + FAQ) Ben AR, = 075035 + F.3,) = 079{435 + 36(15)0.25] = 0754570) = 42.8 kips ‘Thus, block shear [42.8 kps] controls over tension yielding on gross section [62.9 kips) or fracture on effective net section (60.3 Kips] 810.25) = 14.5] EXAMPLE 393 Selecta tension diagonal memes for a roof truss of AST2 Grade 50 stel using AISC Load and Resistance Factor Design. The axial tension i 60 kips dead load and 6 kips live load and the members 12 ong. Assume {-in.-diam bolts re located on single nee line in standard hoes. Asume the preferable limiton slenderness ratio L/ris 40 ‘no: an LRED limi 1, Select the lightest single angle member. by Select the lightest double angle member having les separated by jin. backs to-back Solution. For vssion members, the design strength requirement is OT,=T, “where the factored load T, may be governed by Eq. 1.8 3in general, or Eg, 1.82 ‘when the proportion of dead Toad is large, as inthis case; thus T= 12D + L6L = 1.2(60) + 1.616) = 82 kips T, = LAD = 1.4(60) = 84 kips (contzols) Tn this ease, the factored load 1 be designed for is 84 ks92 The stength ofthe members may be controlled ny citer OT, = AEA, = 09015004, GT, = YEA, = 0.15165)A, ‘The design strength BT, must equal the fetored Ica T,. The area requirements become 4 Requied A, = gS = 1.87 in Sia Required A, = 5a5ig5) 7 1720 Extmating U forither a single or double angle section tobe 0.85, in accordance \with ERED Commentery-B3, Required A, = 4 = 172 = 203 sin ‘The net area requirement obviously controls since it exceeds the gross area requirement Aso, the minimum r to satisfy the given limitation of L/r = 240 is, (a) Select single angle memter. The required gross area in each case ‘depends on the area deducted for one hole, which in turn depends on the thickness, The following tabular procedure may be found useful in making the selection: Standard Deducion Regured (hes ron ‘retnoss “forone gree NSC marcel . tor wee age mole popes oa aah rere one ae 38.7 = 099 Use LAXAX single mgle member (least area, therefore lightes) (Select double angle member. For this rype of section two holes must be educied. Selection should be made from the double angle properties in AISC ‘Manual210 TENSIONRODS 95 StendeeGesicton Grates rom inctness “forte i or 278 Use 2192: with log legs acketo-back slightly undersrengsh. Block shear andthe eduction factor U can be caleulaed ony ater the numer of fasteners has been determined 3.10 TENSION RODS ‘A common and simple tension member isthe threaded rod. Such rods are usually secondary members where the required stength is small, so as (a sag rods to help Support paris in industria} buildings (Fig. 3.10.18): (b) vertical is to help support ‘irs in industrial building was (Fig 3.10. 1b; 6) hangers, such as tie rods pperting ‘balcony (Fig. 3.10.16 and (d) tie rods to resist the thrust ofan atch — ating i i A § + “ITH Ves sie | “ait | | igure 310. Uses of epson rodsoa CHAPTER TENSION MEMBERS Tie os ar frequently used witha initia! ensom as diagonal wind bracing in walls, 10018, and towers. The initial tension effectively adds wo the stifness and Fedaves defsction and vibrational motion, which tnd to cause fatigue failures in the Connections. Such initial tension canbe obtained by designing the member something ‘onthe order of in. short for a 20-1 length or by the use of tornbuckles whieh ean be tightened ater construction EXAMPLE A104 ‘Seloct the diameter for threaded round rd of AG steel to carry an axial tension of {ips live load and 3 hips dead load. Use ATSC Lad and Resisiance Factor Design, Solurion. The design strength of 2 threaded rod is given by LRED-J3.6 (lable 13.2) as OT, = O.79A,F, = 0.°5A,(0.758.) @ ‘The factored load T, 10 be carted is T,= 12D + 1.6L = 1.2(3) + 1.6(6) = 132 kips ‘Using the minioum tensile stength f, for A36 see as 58 ksi from Table 2.1.1 (oFLRFD "NUMERICAL VALUES" TABLE 2, and equating the factored load ‘T.to the design strength 6,7, gives the required gross area A, from Eg. (a) a8 Required OT; 132g sy sain 075(0.75F,) ~ O750.73)38) 4 ‘Choose a threaded rod from the LRFD Manual, p. 8~17, The area com- puted isthe gross area A, based on the diameter of the unthreaded body ofthe rod (LRFD “Table 13.2), Use indium rod (10 threads per inchy(A, = 0.482 5q in.) Required 4, = EXAMPLE 3102 Design sag ods to support the purlins ofthe industral building roof of Fig. 3.10.2, Sag rods are spaced at the third points between roof tuses, which are spaced 24 f apart. Use 20 psf snow load, A36 steel, and AISC LRED Specification, Solution. (3) Loais. Assume coldformed sz! roofing is used, weighing 3 psf, and thatthe purlins have already been designed. Theie weight may be approxi ‘mated as 83:5 pst roof load, ‘Snow load customarily s prescribed as having an intensity given in pounds per square foot (ps) of horizontal projection. Generally, a vlue not Iss than 20 pa suse, with 30100 pf 1. to 1.9 KN/m') boing sed in northern areas (see See. 1.4 “The horizontal projection of the root area is 25cos 25° over which the snow load ats, Because the oer loads on the roof are given in terms ofthe root tea, Ui sow hae cast be cones w haa pt saat foot of soe! atea by multiplying by cos 2 18.1 psf of roof310 TENSON RODS 95 Figure 3.10.2 Roof and sag reds for Example 3.102. () Compute factored load on roof. The structure weight is dead load ‘Because there arena ive leads other than snow, Eq, 1.8.3 wall control, 12D + 16(L,0r Sor R) (83) 1.2 + 35) + 1.6(18.1) = 368 pst {©) Compute factored load tobe carried by a single rod. Because the rods are spaced 8 f part, the load carried by each ro is that load over a4 ftp ‘Of roof on either sie ofthe rod, The sag rod indicated in Fig. 3.10.2 must carry the load forthe entre length (i... 28 10 of roof. The vertical factored load associated with alin of sig rods 36.8 vimes wibutary area (in 9 £9 '3658(25)(8)/1000 = 7.4 hips ‘omponent of te load parallel “The top tod parallel tote root eaeries ony thal to the of, equal to Jasin 25°) = (0.423) = 3. Kips988 chpTERs TENSION MEMBERS ‘The component of the vertical load perpendicular to the roof is cartied by tbeam action in the puns. The horizontal red atthe roaf pet, indicated in Fig. 3.10.2, mast cary 3.1/(c05 25. 1, = 4l/lo0s 25°) = 3.1/(0.906) = 3.4 kips (4) Select the diameter or rod. The strength requirement of LRFD-J3.6 5 OTT, OT, = 07500.75F day ‘Obtaining F, from Table 2.1 | (or LRFD "NUMERICAL VALUES” TABLE 2), nd equating he tactored load T, co the design strength 67, gives the required area Ay as 7. 34 DAS(OTS) ~ 07510-7558) From LRED Mona! [1.18], Table 8-7, p. 8-17, select a in, diam threaded rod having A, = 0.11 sq in 110 sq in). mt Required A, ~ 0.11 5q in 3.11 ALLOWABLE STRESS DESIGN—TENSION MEMBERS ‘The general philosophy of Allowable Stress Design (ASD) was desribed in Sees. 8 and £.9, Equation 18.8 gives the stuctral safety requirement, a follows: oh “p= Xe (188) hich expresses thatthe design strength OR, divided by a factor yfor overload must exceed the Sum ofthe service lads, Inthe allowable stress design method, the safety provision is 9/8. For tensioa members, taking the factor of safety FS = 7/4, the nominal strength R, as T, for ension members, snd 30, equal tthe service load T in tension, Eq. 18.8 becomes Gay ‘The nominal strength 7, for tension members may he controlled by either of Eqs. 32.1 0F 3.22, T= FA, [2a] Tn BA, B22) 0s cross-sectional area fective net area = UA, (Se See. 3.5) bet area Gee Sec. 3.4) 1U ~ redvction coefcient efficiency factor) (ASD-B3)317 ALLOWABLE STRESS DESIGN TENSION MEMBERS 97 Using a factor of safety FS of 1.67, substituting Eq. 3.2.1 into Eq. 3.11.1. and viding by A, 10 obtain a ste formar gives FAT a tees 3.12) Using 4 larger factor of safety PS = 2.0 as typically used for connections sobsiuting Eq, 32.2 into Eg. 3.1.1, and dividing by 4 0 obtain a stress former ives FAL WT fade a ous 200A, A , “Then defining f. as computed service bad stress, T/A, or T/A. Eqs. 3.11.2 and 3.11.3 beconte the requirements of ASD-D1. =fle [=F] =o, ea) ars z a { F] soso Gas) “The computation of net srea A is discussed in Sec. 3.5 and the effective net area is sreated in See. 38 “The Specification [1-5] sections used in Allowable Stress Design of tension members are suromarized in Table 3.9.1 [EXAMPLE 3144, —_———_—___$_—__________ Investigate the angle 44% selected in Example 29.3 10 serve as a single angle tensioe member of AS72 Grade $0 ste! to carry 60 kips dead load and 6kips ive load ‘sesame j-in-diam bolts wil be facated ona single gage line in standard holes to attach the member to & gusset plate Solution. (4) Compute the effective net area ofthe ember. The net area is A= A, ~ [hole = 240 ~ (0.895 + 0.125}0.3125 = 2.09 sq in “The member is attached 1 the gusset plate along one le (i... one ofits two elements), therefore, the nonuniform stzess across the section reduces the ficiency ofthe member to carry load. According to ASD-BS, the elective net #08 is O85 ofthe actual net area "Thus, the effective net area A, is A, = UA, = 0851208) = 1.78 sq in (b) Check the service lod streses. For AST2 Grade 50 steel, F, = 50481 and F. = 65 si, rT 66 fa T= = 2754s < IF, = 0608, = 304s) OK = SR = sransi> (F, = 0508, = 325 ksi] NG988 CHAPTER] TENSION MEMBERS ‘Thus, the section is not adequate by Allowable Stress Design and a larger section Would be required ‘SELECTED REFERENCES 3.1. Geofitey L, Kulak, John W. Fisher, and John H. A. Stik. Guide to Design Criteria for Bolted and Rivered Jains, 2nd ed, New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1987, V. H. Cochrane. “Rules for Rivet Hole Deductions in Tension Members, Engineering News-Record, 89, November 16, 1922, 847-848 3.3, W. M, Wilson, Discussion of “Tension Tests of Large Rivet loins,” Thansae sions, ASCE, 105 (1942), 1268 3.4. W. M. Wikon, W. H. Munse, and M, A. Cayei. “A Study of the Practical Ethcienty under Static Loading of Riveted Joints Connecting Pats.” Bulletin +402, U. of tlinois Engineering Experiment Station, Urbana, IL, 1952. 3.5. FW, Schutz. “Effective Net Section of Rveted Joints,” Proceedings, Second Minos Structural Engineering Conference, November, 1952. 36, *Heresa Better Way to Design Splics,” Engineering News Reva, 180, Part I. January 8, 1953, 41 3.7. P,P. Bijlard. Discussion of “Investigation and Limit Analysis of Net Area ia “Tension.” Transactions, ASCE, 120 (1955), 1156-1163, 3.8. G.W. Brady and D.C. Brucker. “Investigation and Limit Analysis of Net Area in Tension,” Transactions, ASCE, 120 (1955), 1133-1154 3.9. W. H. Muse and E, Chesson, J. “Riveted and Bolted Joins: Net Section Design," Journal ofthe Structural Disision. ASCE, 89, ST2 (February 1963), 107-126 3.10. E, Chesson and W. H. Munse. "Behavior of Riveted Connections in TrussType Members," Journal ofthe Structural Division, ASCE, 83, STI January 1957), Paper 1150, 161; aso Transactions, ASCE, 123 (1958), 1087-1128 3.11, William McGuire, Steet Structures, Englewood Clits, NI: Prentice-Hall Ine., 1968 (pp. 310-328), 3.12. James M. Rickes and Joseph A. Yora. "Strength of Double-Row Bolied Web Connections.” Journal of Structural Engineering. ASCE, 109, 1 Canuary 1983), 136-142, 3.13. Steve G, Hardash and Reidar Bjorhovde, “New Desiga Criteria for Gusset Plates in Tension,” Engincering Journal, AISC, 222 nd Quarter 1585). 77-94 3.14, Howard L Epstein. “An Experimental Study of Block Shear Fuilure of Angles in Teasion," Engineering Journal, AISC. 29, 2 (2nd Quatter 1992), 75-84. 3.15. W. Samuel Eastering and List Gonzales Giroux. "Shear Lag Effects in See ‘Tension Members,” Engineering Journal, AISC, 30, 3 (3rd Quarter), 199, 7-39, 3.16, Richard M. Bennet and F, Shiga Najem-Clarke. “Reliability of Bolted Steet ‘Tension Members," Journal of Structural Engineering, ASCE, 113, § (August 1987), 1868-1872PROBLEMS 99 PROBLEMS Allproblems are to be done according to the AISC Los and Resistance Factor Design fr Allowable Stress Design a indicated by the instructor. Assume fastener strength |S adeguate and does not contr. All holes ace andar holes, Volos of yield stress Fandtensilesrength F are available in Table 2-1. Forall problems where the total humber of less not known, asstie rupture stength of LRFD-14 doesnot control Where needed, assume distances from center of hole to end of ple are Tin 3.4. Compute the maximum acceptable tensile service fad that may aet ona snale sngle L6-db<} that is welded slong only one leg o a gusset plate thus, there tte no poles. The service live load is three times the dead Joad. Solve for (@) A36 steel and (b) AS72 Grade 50 steel 32. Compute the maximum acceptable tensile service load the angle in Prob, 3.1 ‘may carry when connected on both les. The d-i. leg contains a single gage Tine ot f-in-diam bolts, and the 6-in, kee contains a double gage line of ‘Fin.-diam bolts. Assume no stagger of bolts. and that all bolts participate fm carrying loa. 33. Compute the maximum acceptable service loud on an A36 ste plate wesion tember in. % 12 in. having a single line of Holes parallel tthe direction of Toading. The oad is 25% dead load and 75% live load, and j-in.-diam bolts are used 34, Compute the net area A, for the plate (a connecting element according to RED and ASD-15) shown in the accompanying figure. Then compute the ‘maximum value for service load T when A36 see is used, the ive load is four times the dead load, and the holes aze ff in. diameter. Problems 34 and 35 AS. Repeat Prob. 34 using A572 Grade 60 steel and #-in.-iam holes100 cnaetens 36, 37. 38. 39. 30. TENSION MEMBERS Selecta pir of angles to support a tensile live load (LL) and dead load (DL) forthe case assigned by the instructor. Assume the anglks are separated backtochack jin. bya coanected gusset plate, and that the connection is welded, Assume the slenderaess ratio is desired 1 not exceed 300, Coan (es) ow) Stel re Ate 2 8 ae i Sst crea took xe Sw AsmGrs0 6 5 Selecta single angle (forthe case assigned by the instructor) to support a tensile load. A single gage line of atleast three bolts is be used. ow ‘betaine Lana a ee) cH « 1 6 «Ae 38 is 21s AsmGrsy oe 1s 3s A aa 20 ee ee as ne) 8 2» 6 0 ASG 718 2» 7 sR 18 es sce aie & ‘Selecta standard threaded ro to carry a tensile force Tof 4 kis dead lod and 6 kis live load. Use A572 Grade 50 see ‘Selecta standard threaded rod to cary a tensile force Tf kips ded load and “4 kip Tve Toad, Use A36 stel Design sag ods to support the purtins of an indusral building roof whou span and slope are shown in the accompanying figure. Sag rods are placed at | Points between roof trusses, which are spaced 20 ft apart. Assume roofing end purlin weight is 9 pst of root surface. Use standard threaded rods and A36 Steel The snow load to be carried is 20, 30 or AO pst of horizontal projection, whichever is appropriate for your localeProaes 101 Problem 3.10 AML. Determine the maximum allowable tensile load (20S dead load, 80% live toad) fora single C15% 33.9 fastened wo $-in suse plate asi the accom nying Rigure. Use A36 stel and assume Hoke are for $-indiam belts Base fansver on tension strength ofthe channel, and ince shear rupsure strength, neat Problem 3.11 312. Repeat Prob, 3.11 using a C10%25 attached to a in, guset plate. Assume the 12 bolts are in lines parallel to the direction of loading, with the same 3 in. spacing: 33, Determine the tensile load (85% live load; 15% dead fond) permitted by AISC {or pit of angles L6%4% attached 1 a gusset plate as shown in the accom punying figure. Use A36 steel and -in--diam bolts on standard gage fines Sihose distances re given in Table 34,1, The force Tis transmitted t0 the [puset plate hy fasteners on lines A and By assume only open oles inthe 4-in. (outstanding) less. til— + Problem 3:13102 CHAPTERS TENSION EMBERS 3.44, Repeat Prob. 3.13 wsiig a pair of L862} angles with staggered j-in-diam bolts in he Si, le. BIS. Ginen the splice shown in zhe accompanying Fite: 4. Determine the masimam capacity 7 (25% ded load, 786 lve oad) based fon the AG stel plates having holes arranged as shown, 'b, Whar vale of «should be specified to provide the masimum capacity Tas ‘computed in par a) if the final design is haves, = 5) = 57 Problesn 15 3.46, An1.5%3{% angle, as shown inthe accompanying figure. isto carry 20 kips ‘dead loud and 70 kips live lod using the shorts! length of connection using two age lines of Bolts in the S-in. leg. What the minimum acceptable i, multiples). sing AS72 Grade 50 steel? Problem 3:6 347. An L%3,>< ange as shown inthe accompanying gue. i cary 20 kips ‘ead load and 60 kips ive lad. Using one gage line of hoes for -in-diam bolts ineach leg, what would be the oninimum stagger sreuired to secomplish this? ‘Consider the load to be transferred by bolts inthe Sn, lg. while te hoes in the 3 leg may be considered open ones (ie not transmit he tensile a), Use A36 set,PROBLEMS 103 Problem 317 348, Compute the minimum value of that could theoretically be used onthe angle of the accompanying figure sich that the maximum factored tensile force T, ‘nay'be earied. Assume mis large enough so tht a failure pattern through the ‘pen hole will not govern, Jnclude consideration of shear rupture strength a sve er wee Problems 3.18 and 3.19 3.19, Assuming thats for the angle of Prob. 3.18 is made as large as required in Prob. 3.18. compute the minimum distance m required so thatthe open hole inthe dn, leg il not reduce the stengt below its maximum possible value If Prob. 3.18 isnot solved, assume 58 3.75 in 320, Design an eyehar to carry 24 kips dead load and 76 kips lve load, using ‘Name-cut A572 Grade 50 seo plate. (Refer to LRFD or ASD-D3.)Chapter 4 Structural Fasteners 4.1 TYPES OF FASTENERS Every stroctore isan assemblage of individual parts or members that must be fastened together, usually atthe memher ends. Welding is one method and is treated in Caap- ter 5, The other method is 10 use fasteners, such as rivets or bolts, This chapter is ‘concerned with bolting: in particular, high-strength bolts. High-strength bolts have Feplaced rivets 3s the means of making aoswelded structural connections. Howevet, for completeness, a brief description of the other fasteners, including rivets and unfinished machine balls, s given, High-Strerigth Bolts ‘The two basic types of high-strength bolts are designated as ASTM A325 [2.5] and 4902.8), the material properties of which ate discussed in See.2.2and summarized in Table 4.1.1. Those bolts are heavy hexagon-head bolts, used with heavy ‘omifsisbed hexagon nuts, as shown in Fig. 4.1.1b. The threaded portion is shorter ‘than for bots in nonstructural applications, and may be cut or rolled. A325 bolts are ‘of heat-treated medi carbon steel having an approximate yield strength of 81 10 ‘92 ksi (560 to 630 MPa) depending on diameter. A490 bolts ae also heat-treated but Are of alloy stel having an approximate yield strength of 1)5 10130 ksi (790 o 900 MP2) Sepending on diameter. A449 bolts are occasionally used when diameters over $n up 03 in, are needed, and also for anchor bots snd tneaded rods igh-streneth belts range in diameer from 10 Tor Ad49) The most common diameters used in building construction are jin. and Jn. whereas the most common sizes in bridge dexign are i. and Lin, Hish-strenath bolts are usally tightened to develop a specified tensile stress in ‘hem, which results in a predictabie clamping force on the joint, The actual transfer ‘of service loads through a joint is, thereors, due tothe fiction developed in the pieces being joined. Joins containing high-strength bots are designed either as slip-eritcal Aormerty called frition-ype), where high sip resistance at service load is desire; of as bearing-type, Where high slip resistance at service lead is unnecessary.12 TYPES OF Fast asm “n A © ermper iy se (rene as 395) a035) Figure 41 Types of taseaecs108 Rivets CHAPTER ¢ STRUCTURAL FASTENERS For many years rivets were the accepted mans of connecting members but today (1995) they are virally obsolete in the United States, Undiiven rivets are formed from bar sce a cylindrical shatt with a head formed on one end, as shown in Fig. 4.1 1a, Rivet stel isa mild carbon see designated by ASTM as A302 Grade 1 (F, = 28 ks (190 MPa) and Grade 2 (&. ~ 38 ksi) (260 MP, withthe minimum specified yield strengths based on bar stk as rolled, The forming of undriven rivets and the driving of svets cause changes inthe mechanical properties. Installation requires heating the rivet a ight cherry-red color. inserting i into 4 hole and then applying pressure 1o the preformed head while a the same time Squeezing the plain end of the river to form rounded head. During this process the shank ofthe rivet completely oF nearly il the ole into which it had been inserted, Upon cooling, the rivet shrinks, thereby providing a clamping force. However, the amount of camping produced by the cooling ofthe vet varies rom rivet rivet and Therefore cannot he counted on in design calculations, Unfinished Bolts Bolts of low-carbon sel designated ASTM A307 [2.4] ate the ast expensive bolt ‘They may not, however. produce the last expensive connection since more are required in «particular connection. Tel primary us is night sractures, secondary ‘or bracing member, platforms, catwalks, parling,gtts, small wusses, and silat "pplication in which the loads ae primarily small and static ia nature. Such bolts are algo used as temporary fting-up fasteners in cases whetehigh-sirength bolts, rivets, for welding may be the permanent means of connection. Unfinished bolts are some~ times called common, machine, or rough bolts and may come with square heads and square mats Ribbed Bolts Bolts of ordinary rivet stel having rounded head and raised bs parallel othe shank ‘were used for many years as an alternative to rivets, The actual diameter ofa rbbed bolt is slightly larger than the hole into whic iis riven. fn ding te bol actually ‘cuts into the edges around the hoe, producing a relatively tight fi, The ribbed bolt was Particularly useful in besring-type connections and in connections that had stress reversals, 'A modern variation of the ribbed bolt isthe imterference-tody bolt shawn in Fig. 4.1.1e, which sof A225 bolt steel and instead of longitudinal bs, hs serrations around the shank as wells parallel othe shank. Because ofthe seritions around the shank through the ribs, this holt is often called an interrupted-rib lt. Ribbed bolts are difficult to drive when several layers of plates are to be connected, The A325 Inerference-body bolt may’ also be more difficult 1 inset Uhrough several plates; however, i is used when tight fit ofthe bolt inthe hole is desired, and it permits tightening the nut without simultaneously holding the bolt head as may be required with smooth loose-ting, ordinary A325 bots, These bolts are, however, are used in ordinary ste! structuresHISTORICAL BACKGROUND OF HGH-STAENGTH BOLTS 107 4.2 HISTORICAL BACKGROUND OF HIGH-STRENGTH BOLTS ‘The first experiments indicating the possibilty of using high-strength bolts in ste: framed construction were reported by Batho and Bateman [4.1] in 1934. They con: ‘nda that bolts with a minimum yield strength of 54 ksi (370 MPa) could be relied ‘onto prevent slipbenseen the connected parts, Follow-up testsby Wilson and Thomas [4.2] substantiated the earlier work by ceporting that high-strength bois smaller i> Siameter than the holes in which they were inserted had fatigue strengths eqeatw that fof welldviven rivets. proved that the Bolts were sufficiently pr=tensoned, The next major step occurred in 1947 with the formation of the Research CCounei oa Riveted and Bolted Steuctural Joints. This organization Bevan by sing and extrapolating information from stwdivs of riveted joins-in particular. the extensive annotated 1945 hibliogranby by De Jonge [43]. ‘By 1950 the eancept of using high-strength bolts anda summary of research and ‘behavior nas presented|+.4] co practicing ensineers andthe stee-fbrication industry. ‘The rst Specification in 1951 permitted replacement ofrives with holison a one 0 ‘one basis. t was conservatively assumed that fiction transfer ofthe load was neces: ‘ary in all joints under service nad conditions, The factor of safety against sip mas ‘established ata bigh enough level so that good fatigue resistance (1. 20 ship under ‘varying stress or stess reversal accuriag dating many load e)eies) was provided in ‘very joint, similar to or beter than that shows by rvetd joints In 1984 a revision was made in the Sgecifcation 10 include the use of Hat washers on 1:20 sling surfaces andeo allow the use of impact wrenches for insialing bls, AIs0, the 1984 revision permitted the surfaces in contacto be painted when the boli were used ina bearng-rype connection; e., when the strength ofthe connection was to be based on the bal n bearing against the sie ofthe hole In 1956 Manse [6.5] summarized bolt behavior and concluded that bolts myst havea high an initial tension es practicable if high-strength bolts were 1 he eficient snd economical. By 1960 the minimum bolt tension was increased. The Bearing-fipe Connection was eecognized as an acceptable subsiute fora eiveted connection, sha the connection designed on the basis of slip resistance, knowe chen a a fietion-type ‘connection, would probably only be necessary wher direct tension acts on the bolts fr when stress reversals occu ‘Also, in 1960 a simple inssiation procedure, known as the rurn-ofthe-aut ‘method, was introduced ss an alternative to the torque wrench method previously required, The economics of high-stengt bolting further improved when only one ‘washer {located under the element (head oF mat) Being turned}, instead ofthe previ ‘ously required two. could be nsed ifthe turn-of-tesnut method was used, In 1962 the requirement for washers was eliminated except in special situations [4.6]. In $964 the higher strength A490 bolt was introduced. “The 1985 and 1988 Specifications of the Research Cogn on Structural Con- nections (RCSC}|+4.7, 4.8] changed the philosophy of desige or bearing-type connec ‘ons and for Tricton-type connections, now cal slip-critical connections. A de {ale review of the historical backgrounds provided inthe RCSC Commentary [4.9] ‘The Guide 10 Design Criteria for Bolted and Riveted Joints by Kulak, Fisher, and Steuik [3.1] (hereinater refered! to as the Gude) summarizes research and makes108 CHAPTER. STAUCTURAL FASTENERS ecommentations which generally fort the bass for curent des of bolted connes- 4.8 CAUSES OF RIVET OBSOLESCENCE Riveting is a methodot connecting members at a joint by inserting ductile metal pins into les in the pieces being joined and forming ahead at each end to prevent the joint from coming apart. Typical ypes of rivets are shown in Fig. 4.3.1 (see also Fig, 4.1.13) Riveting required a crew of four or five experienced persons. On the other hand, the erews required foc high-srength bol instalation do not need o be highly skilled Iaspection was diffclt, and eating out and replacing bad rivets was an expensive procedure, Even the preheating immediately prior vo de the necessary tightness attr cooing, “The principal factor that delayed immediate acceptance of high-strength bolts \was the high cost ofthe material cluding two hardened washers. Inthe early 19505 the reduced labor cost for installing bots didnot offset the higher bolt material cos. After the washers could be reduced to on or eliminated and the greater strength of {bolt over that of rivet could be utilized in design, high-stength bolts became ‘economical. Now (1995) with even higher bor cot and conection design generally "requiring fever bots than would be required tor rivers, the economy is cleat wth high-strength bol ‘Welding, as rested in Chapter 5, has plays an important role in reducing the use of all fasteners. Both rivets and bolts. om Figure 421 Types of ives, 4.4 DETAILS OF HIGH-STRENGTH BOLTS Both the most commonly used A325 bolt and the occasionally used A490 bolt are heavy hexagon (ex) head bolls with heavy hexagon ats, identified by the ASTM

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