Astronomy & Astrophysics

Preprint typeset using LATEX style emulateapj v. 12/16/11

A BRIEF REVIEW OF ACCRETION DISKS IN CLOSE BINARY SYSTEMS

G. Sanchez Serra1,2
Petnica International Summer Science Camp 2015 Astrophysics Department
Astronomy & Astrophysics

Abstract
We firstly review some of the main characteristics of accretion disks. We define accretion rate, angular
momentum transport and the Eddington limit (together with its implications on the stability of such
objects) and we depict some of the mechanisms responsible for their energy loss. We relate these
phenomena to their formation and evolution. A detailed description of accretion disks in close binary
systems (CBSs) is then provided, where the noninertial reference frame approach, the Lagrange
Points, the Roche Potential and the Roche Lobes are accordingly covered. Roche Lobe overflow is
also discussed both phsyically and mathematically, and different parameters are used to complete its
description. Finally, a mathematical model for geometrically thin accretion disks is presented. We
describe its dynamical behaviour with three different quantities, namely, M (R, t), J(R, t) and E(R, t),
and we then analyze its evolution from a mathematical and a physical perspective.
Keywords: Accretion rate, mass transfer, angular momentum transport, thin disk approximation,
Eddington limit, Roche Lobes, Roche Lobe overflow, circularization radius, close binary
system
1. INTRODUCTION

An accretion disk is a structure formed by some diffused material that at some stage has been gravitationally gathered by a massive body under certain circumstances. They may arise in a wide variety of different astrophysical contexts such as active galactic nuclei (AGN),
planet and star formation (proto-stellar disks), close binary systems (cataclysmic variables, X-ray binaries, etc.)
and so on. In the last decades they have become an
important field of research in modern astrophysics because the numerous implications they have in describing the evolution of different physical systems. Their
complete description is however rather difficult, and although there have been several attempts to correctly
model them, there are still some uncertainties regarding their behavior and evolution. In the following paper,
we review their main properties, their structure and the
primary mechanisms that drive their evolution. We also
briefly introduce some of the basic characteristics of models that have been proposed during the last decades and
we present some of the last results obtained regarding
their numerical study through computer simulation.
Because their intrinsic relation with close binary systems
we specially focus on their evolution in such type of environments. We present some of the most important parameters that describe these systems together with the
equations that allow us to determine their evolutionary
behavior. We then mathematically proof their expansion
and we also refer to some of the mechanisms that drive
angular momentum transfer and radiative cooling in accretion disks.
Nevertheless, the purpose of this research is to qualitatively reproduce the formation stage of an accretion disk
guifre.sanchez@gmail.com
1 Physics & Mathematics former student at the Autonomous
University of Barcelona (UAB).
2 Present address: CR. Riera Sobirans, 6, Arenys de Munt
08358, Barcelona, Spain.

within a close binary system. In order to do so, since

the best way to accurately describe such systems is using a non-inertial reference frame, we account for the
Coriolis effect, the centrifugal force and the Roche potential. From the latter, we also obtain the Lagrange
points and the so called Roche Lobes which quantitatively describe the gravitational domain of each of the
stars or celestial objects that may form the system. The
simulation was built using C++. We implement the
Runge-Kutta Method (Fourth Order Integrator) which
is comparatively more accurate than other classical integrators and we finally provide some interesting results
from which we discuss the validity of our simulation.
2. GENERAL PROPERTIES OF ACCRETION DISKS

As we previously commented, accretion disks are structures that arise in many different astrophysical situations. They can also appear surrounding blackholes
(which in such cases are commonly referred as collapsars 3 ) and as mentioned, in certain binary systems which
may include neutron stars, white dwarfs and other astronomical compact objects. It is worth knowing that up
to 50% of stars are coupled in binary systems, so that,
accretion disks extend their influence even further, also
in blackhole binaries. They are mainly characterized by
their accretion rate, their energy loss mechanisms and
their angular momentum transport which is intrinsically
related to the latter. Accretion rate, M , refers to the
amount of mass that is being transferred per unit time
in the disk and it can be used to infer the total energy
release experienced by the disk and also the spectrum
of the outgoing radiation. Energy loss mechanisms are
required for accretion disks to form. Because of that,
there are several ways these structures can actually lose
energy, such as magnetically driven turbulences, tangen3 Which more specifically defines a type of blackholes that do
not emit electromagnetic radiation neither produce gravitational
fluctuations

2
tial stresses between disk layers, internal viscous torques
or radiative cooling. Their evolution is highly influenced
by the effects these mechanisms can produce. They are
in fact, responsible for the outward transfer of angular
momentum that also characterizes energetically isolated
accretion disks. Causes and consequences of the majority
of effects here aforementioned will be briefly examined in
following sections.
Angular momentum redistribution in accretion disks is
at the same time responsible for changes in their structure. During their evolution, current models show that
they will gradually spread out in radius to a certain limit.
This limit is commonly referred as the Eddington limit
and it is a theoretical boundary from which physical limitations can be inferred such as the maximum possible
flux (FE ), luminosity (LE ) or mass transfer/accretion
rate (M E ) that accretion disks can afford to maintain
their structure in equilibrium. Now, we present their respective mathematical derivations. Firstly, we consider
a small volume of gas V which has a finite absorbing
scattering surface area (Thomson Surface) T through
which photons can pass and radiate. Given the flux F at
which this volume radiates, we can infer the force exerted
by the scattered photons on V :
Z r
Z r
dW
dr
P =
=
F
=
F dv
dt
dt
r0
r0
(1)
FT
F v = Fv
=F
c
Comparing this force to the one experienced by a test
particle placed at a certain distance R from the center of
the disk (hence approximately the center of the accreting
object) we obtain the Eddington flux, FE :
F E T
M1
M1 c
= G 2 FE = G 2
c
R
R T

M1 c
T

3. ACCRETION DISKS IN CLOSE BINARY SYSTEMS

Accretion disks can form in close binary systems (astrophysical systems composed by two bodies that are relatively close one to each other). In most of them, we
differentiate the primary component of the system (the
accreting object) and the secondary component (the accreted object), and we usually refer to them as M1 and
M2 respectively. Because the distance between the objects is fairly close, some of the orbital and rotational
energy they had at the beginning is dissipated, so that
the system reaches a minimum energy level. This implies
conservation of angular momentum, and a tendency to
reach synchronous rotation and circular orbits. After
these processes have taken place, tidally driven oscillations can be responsible for more energy losses.

(2)
3.1. Non Inertial Reference Frame Description

If we now consider this flux to be spherically symmetric

we obtain the Eddington luminosity:
LE = FE 4R2 LE = 4G

thought to be circular structures governed by a spiraling motion that can be fairly well approximated as Keplerian. At a given radius R, we assume then that the
angular speed K (R) is constant (we will comment later
the implications of this assumption). They are also usually modeled4 as geometrically thin and optically thick
structures (their height z is much more smaller than
their radius z  Rdisk and they absorb quite efficiently
the light they receive) and they are normally made by
gas (part of the interstellar medium ISM). General
relativistic effects have to be taken into account when
R < 3Rg (Schwarzschild radius) where stable circular
orbits are not possible. Also radiation appears between
Rg < R < 3Rg but it does not appreciably contribute to
the total radiated energy and it is estimated that around
0.06c2 energy per unit mass is released in general (the
disk would have total luminosity L0 = 0.06c2 M ). However, when matter falls into the relativistic region there
are no external observational effects.

(3)

Here M1 refers to the mass of the primary (accreting

object or star), c is the speed of light and G the gravitational constant. From these equations it can also be
deduced a maximum accretion rate value M E . If we assume that energy is conserved in the accretion disk system, and if we also consider that when particles reach the
primarys surface they are generally at rest (so kvk 0),
then the minimum energy needed for decoupling them
from M1 is GM1 /R , where R is the stellar radius.
Since this quantity refers to energy per unit mass, we
have that:
c
M1
G
ME = LE M E = 4R
(4)
R
T
Where the first term on the left hand side of the equations refers (as the second does) to the maximum power
luminosity the star can produce as for keeping the structure of stable accretion disk. However, the presented
limits may be surpassed and the disk will still be able to
maintain certain stability.
Because most models suggest it, accretion disks are

Normally, when describing binary systems, we use a

non-inertial reference frame, i.e. an accelerated reference frame. This has origin at the center of mass of the
system and corotates with both stars, so that they appear at rest. However, non-inertial reference frames are
characterized by forces that arise from the fact that they
are accelerated. These forces are called fictitious forces
and they account for effects that are crucial for the complete description of their dynamics.
Binary systems also have the so called Lagrange points.
At these points a test mass particle (a very small mass
compared to the other objects of the system) could be
placed and remain static with respect to the chosen reference frame, corotating with the system. Consider then
the following system: Let primary have mass M1 and
position vector r1 (from the center of mass of the system
CM); and let secondary have mass M2 and position vector r1 . Let m be a test mass representing the satellite at
4 As mentioned before, accretion disks can also form around
compact supermassive objects such as neutron stars. There is a
particularly interesting case when this happens. If the magnetic
field of the neutron star is not aligned with its rotation axis, the
system will eventually form a pulsar. If it is indeed aligned, the
disk extends to the surface of the primary and releases half of the
energy it has through radiation by the accretion process, and the
other half through friction achieved at the surface of the neutron
star.

A Brief Review of Accretion Disks in Close Binary Systems

Fcen. = m(r) = m

d(r)
=
dr Z

= m2 rer (r) =

Z
=

2 rer dr

(8)

r0
r
1 2 2 
2
rdr = r 
2

r0

r0

If we set (0) = 0 we obtain the centrifugal potential,

Figure 1. Schematic representation of the restricted three body
problem where Rs/c r, R1 rr1 and R2 rr2 (respectively
referring to the distance from m to the CM of the system, to M1
and to M2 ).

position r (also with respect to the CM). From an inertial

reference frame, the force experienced by m is clearly:
F = G

M1 m
M2 m
(r r1 ) G
(r r2 )
kr r1 k3
kr r2 k3

(5)

We know that both r1 and r2 are functions of time since

M1 and M2 are orbiting. The Lagrange Points are solutions to the presented equation, in the sense that they are
defined as places where F = md2 r(t)/dt2 = 0. However,
solving this equation is rather difficult and the easiest approach is to use a corotating reference frame, i.e. non
inertial. In such case, M1 and M2 would look stationary,
although we would have to apply several corrections to
account for the acceleration that would describe our system. Thus, the total force exerted on m in such reference
frame would become slightly different from F:
 


dr
F = F m 2
+ ( r)
(6)
dt

1
(r) = (r)2 ,
(9)
2
which can be added to the initial gravitational potential
to obtain the effective potential of our rotating reference
frame:
M1
M2
1
(r) = g (r) + (r) = G
G
(r)2
r
r
2
(10)
The Lagrange Points can also be deduced from this expression. They are usually represented using a countour
plot of (r), which shows the equipotential surfaces
that characterize the potential distribution of the system:

The Lagrange Points are defined by five different locations r that satisfy the equality F = 0, and they are
mathematically found also considering that dr/dt = 0.
3.2. The Roche Potential

The effective gravitational potential is also another

quantity normally used to describe them. It results from
the gravitational potential associated with the inertial
reference frame together with the corrections provided
by the accelerated case (which accounts for the coriolis
and centrifugal forces). The coriolis force Fcor. is always
perpendicular to the velocity vector, it does no work on
m, and hence, it does not have an associated potential
(since it does not depend uniquely on r position). The
centrifugal force Fcen. is directed radially outwards, and
does work on m, so a centrigual potential (r) can be defined (also because, since = const., Fcen. Fcen. (r(t))
only depends on position). Then Fcen. can be expressed
as follows5 :
Fcen. = m ( r) = m2 rer

(7)

Where er is the radial unit vector. We now can use the

definiton of a force as a function of the gradient of its
associated potential to find (r):
5

Considering that m lies in a plane perpendicular to .

Figure 2. Contour plot of the effective potential (r) and representation of the 5 Lagrange Points, denoted as L1 , L2 , L3 , L4 and
L5 .

3.3. The Roche Lobes

Equipotential surfaces resulting from the effective potential are almost spherical near star surfaces. As r
grows, their shape gradually transforms into a teardrop
because of the combined gravitational influence of both
stars on m. At even greater r, only an equipotential surface surrounding the system is observed, resembling the
shape of a dumbell that progressively tends to a sphere.
For some r, equipotential surfaces surrounding each star
converge into a point namely, the inner Lagrange point
L1 . The resulting teardropshaped surfaces are called
the Roche Lobes and are defined as the regions around
each star within which orbiting material is gravitationally bound to them, respectively, i.e. material can not
generally avoid being gravitationally attracted to them.
In Figure 2, they are represented by the gray colored
regions.

4
Roche lobes allow us to define three different situations
that may serve as a classification of accreting binary systems:
1. Detached binary: if the distance between the stars
is much bigger than their radii, they will normally
evolve independently and no accretion will be produced. Moreover, if they do not surpass throughout
their evolution none of their respective Roche lobes,
no material from a star will be more attracted by
the other and accretion will unlikely be produced.
However, accretion may be possible if the stars are
close enough and strong stellar winds6 arise from
one of them wind driven accretion.
2. Semidetached binary: when one of the stars surfaces fills or overfills its Roche lobe, material from
it receives a strong gravitational influence from the
other star and accretion may be produced through
a process called Roche lobe overflow (mass transfer
through L1 ), which we will treat in detail later. In
such case, an accretion disk can be formed around
the massive body (denoted as primary of the system).
3. Contact binary: if both stars fill or overfill their
Roche lobes, accretion is rarely observed although
there is mass transfer between stars, and material
from each of them can be merged, leading to the
creation of a common envelope within which they
will be orbiting.
4. ROCHE LOBE OVERFLOW

Roche lobe overflow is the main process driving accretion in close semidetached binary systems. It is identified
when mass transfer is produced through the inner Lagrange point (L1 ) and it has several implications when
describing the formation and evolution of accretion disks.
In order for us to mathematically characterize its causes
and physical consequences, we need to recall the following quantities: the effective potential (r), the q parameter (defined as q M2 /M1 , being M2 the accreted
object the secondary), the distance between the stars a,
the total mass of the system M = M1 + M2 , the angular
velocity of the system [GM/a3 ]1/2 ez (using Keplers
law), the period P 2/kk, the distance b1 from M1
to L1 , and the Roche lobe radii for each star, R1 and
R2 respectively. Approximations for R2 , R1 (Eggleton,
1983) and b1 (Plavec and Kratochvil) dependening on q
and a are provided:
R2
0.49q 2/3
=
a
0.6q 2/3 + ln(1 + q 1/3 )
b1
= 0.500 0.227 log q
a

(11)
(12)

R1 can be computed using q 1 instead of q in Eq. (11).

Since mass transfer will affect the structure of the secondary, a(t), q(t) and P (t) will change in time. To study
the evolution of these quantities we use the fact that
angular momentum J is conserved in isolated systems,
i.e. systems where there are no external torques (since
6 Outflow of matter from a star surface, e.g.: the Sun rate of
mass loss is approximately of 1014 M /year.

P
dJ/dt = i ext,i = 0 kJk = J = const.). The total
angular momentum of the system (with respect its CM)
is:


J = j1 + j2 = M1 a21 + M2 a22
(13)
Where a1 = a(M2 /M ) and a2 = a(M1 /M ). Substituting
this in Eq. (13), we find:


1/2
M22
M12
GM
2
=
J = a M1 2 + M2 2
M
M
a3

1/2
M1 M2
GM
(14)
= a2
=
(M
+
M
)
1
2
M2
a3


1/2
1/2
Ga
GM a4
=
M
M
= M1 M2
1
2
M 2 a3
M
It is usually a good approximation to assume that all
the mass lost by the secondary is completely accreted
by the primary, so that M 1 + M 2 = 0 (with M 2 < 0).
Considering that, if we now logarithmically differentiate7
Eq. (14) with respect to time (t):
dJ
d ln J
=J
dt
dt

d ln J
d
1
=
ln M1 + ln M2 + (ln G + ln a ln M ) =
dt
dt
2

M1
M 2 M1 + M 1 M2
M2
1 a
1 a
=
=
=
+
+
+
M1
M2
2a
M2 M1
2a


M 2
J
M2
1 a
=
=
1
+
M2
M1
2a
J





2J
2M2
a
M2
2M 2
M2

=
1
=
1
a
J
M2
M1
M2
M1
(15)
Where we used that M 1 = M 2 due to previous considerations and also J = 0. From the last equation
we can draw the following conclusions: since M 2 < 0,
a > 0 M1 > M2 (which results from the fact that
M2 has to go further away from M1 in order for angular momentum to be preserved); the opposite situation
happens if M1 < M2 , then a < 0.
4.1. Accretion Disk Formation via Roche Lobe Overflow

The following list summarizes some important information regarding disk formation via Roche lobe overflow
in close binary systems:
Roche lobe overflow accretion drives material from
the secondary to the primary through L1 at relatively large speeds (which are mostly perpendicular
to the line defined by the position of both stars).
This implies that ejected material has rather high
angular momentum, and as a consequence, it can
not be directly accreted by the masscapturing star
(M1 ).
7 Logarithmic differentiation is a technique used to simplify the task of deriving functions that are composed by several products. For a given function f (x), we can first take
its natural logarithm ln f (x), then derive with respect to x:
d ln f (x)/dx = (1/f (x))df (x)/dx; and finally compute df (x)/dx as
f (x)d ln f (x)/dx.

A Brief Review of Accretion Disks in Close Binary Systems

If P is relatively short, the nozzle around L1 rotates rapidly enough to consider the gas stream
(almost) orthogonal with respect to M1 , so that
the radial component of the velocity of any particle participating in the masstransfer process can
be neglected in comparison with the perpendicular
one, i.e. vk  v .

(such as a main sequence star), being the compact object

the primary of the system, i.e. M1 . In such cases, we can
assure R to be smaller than Rcirc . The more compact
M1 is, the more effective accretion becomes as a power
source.

Gas stream through L1 is supersonic, which allows

us to neglect pressure forces when modelling its dynamics. Hence, its general motion and behaviour
can be approximated as ballistic, i.e. only accounting for the effects of gravity caused primarily by
M1 .

Several models have been proposed to study accretion

disks in the last decades. Here we present a mathematical description to model the evolution in time of some
of the most important parameters accretion rate M (t),
angular momentum J(t) and energy E(t) that define
geometrically thin accretion disks.
Geometrically thin accretion disks are primarily characterized by having a much smaller thickness (height)
zd than radius R (along their structure), i.e. zd  R,
which contributes to their structural description as cylinders. This is generally a fair approximation to model
such physical systems, but it is worth saying that in
some situations it is not valid the disk may behave
in a completely different way and its modelling has then
to accordingly approach its description. An example is
provided in Pringle et. al. (1981).
As previously derived, the total gravitational potential
(R) (R) computed from the center of the disk
satisfies the following conditions:

Because vk cs (where cs is the sound speed near

the envelope of M2 ) is much smaller than velocities
acquired during free fall towards the primary, initial conditions at L1 have in theory little effect
on the trajectory of the gas stream.
The gas stream trajectory can be initially approximated
as the orbit described by a test particle ejected from L1
with similar initial conditions. This test particle will not
move along a constant elliptic orbit, but will have a precessional motion. This behaviour is a consequence of the
fact that the system is rotating and also a reflection of
the combined gravitational influence of both stars. Because orbital precession is observed, the gas stream will
intersect itself several times, experiencing energy loss via
shocks between gas particles and other mechanisms (such
as viscous stresses). As a result, it will gradually decelerate until reaching the orbit of lowest energy for a given
angular momentum, i.e. a circular/Keplerian orbit. The
radius with respect to M1 from which this phenomenon
happens is usually referred as the Circularization Radius
Rcirc . At Rcirc , gas particles will have a circular velocity v (Rcirc ) (GM1 /Rcirc )1/2 . Again, because J = 0,
particles at Rcirc have the same angular momentum as
when they were at b1 , thus, the following equality holds:
Rcirc v (Rcirc ) = b1 (b1 )

(16)

From this expression we can obtain Rcirc as a function

of a and q. Taking into account that Rcirc v (Rcirc ) =
(Rcirc GM1 )1/2 we have:

1/2

1/2
GM
M
1/2
1/2
2
2
(Rcirc GM1 )
= b1
Rcirc = b1
a3
a3 M1

 4
 4
M 2 b1
b1
Rcirc = 1 +
= a(1 + q)
M1 a3
a
(17)
Using now Eq. (12) we obtain Rcirc (a, q):
Rcirc
= (1 + q)(0.500 0.227 log q)4
a

(18)

By definition (and comparing Eq. (11) with the q 1

correction and Eq. (18)), it is easy to see that Rcirc <
R1 . However, in some scenarios the radius of the primary
R can be greater than Rcirc , which may prevent the
formation of an accretion disk (tipically, Rcirc is of order
R ). Nonetheless, semidetached binaries are normally
composed by a compact object and a less massive body

5. A MODEL FOR GEOMETRICALLY THIN ACCRETION

DISKS

(R) < 0
(R)
>0
R

(19)

Considering that v2 /R = /R where v is the circular velocity8 of a particle in the disk at radius R, the
specific angular momentum j (angular momentum per
unit mass) at radius R is:

1/2
3
j = v R = R
(20)
R
The mechanical energy e per unit mass is:
1
e = + v2
(21)
2
Another important quantity involved in the description
of geometrically thin accretion disks is the surface mass
density . It is defined as follows:
Z zd /2
(22)
d = (r, z)dz =
(r, z)dz
zd /2

Where (r, z) represent cylindrical coordinates ( is omitted because we consider a circumeference of the disk to
be approximately equal everywhere). Because of viscous effects (characterized by the dynamical viscosity of
the disk ) and differential rotation (appearance of shear
flow, i.e. d/dR 6= 0) a torque9 is created between
8 Circular velocities in thin accretion disks can be approximated
to depend uniquely on radius v (R) (since orbits around M1 are
assumed to be Keplerian is constant for constant R).
9 Being its expression:

d
= 2R
dR
3

zd /2

dz
zd /2

(23)

6
two adjacent cylinders and some thermal energy10  is
released due to their interaction.
To obtain the formulas that will describe the dynamics
of the disk, we consider the flow of mass, momentum
and energy between two adjacent cylinders separated by
a differential distance dR. The rate of mass transfer (accretion rate) can then be expressed as:
dM = (r, z)dS = (r, z)2RdR
(24)
dM
dR
M =
= 2R
= 2RvR
dt
dt
Where vR = dR/dt represents the radial velocity at
which mass is transferred from one cylinder to the other
(outwards).
The rate of angular momentum transfer J is computed
by combining the total angular momentum carried by
matter flowing into one of the cylinders (M j) and the
dissipative effect provided by the torque created between
the two of them due to viscous forces:
J = M j +
(25)
Finally, the rate of energy transfer between cylinders can
be expressed as follows:
E = M e + ,

dLd
= 4RF
(27)
dR
By definition, we have that the amount of mass, angular momentum and energy between cylinders at radii R
and R + dR is 2RdR, 2RdRj and 2RdRe respectively. According to that, equations of conservation
of all three quantities M (t), J(t) and E(t) are derived

using previous expressions for M , J and E:

dLd = 2(2RdR)F

(2R) +
=0
(28)
t
R
J

(2Rj) +
=0
(29)
t
R

E
(2Re) +
+ 4RF = 0
(30)
t
R
These three equations can be importantly simplified
if we now recall that some of the quantities describing them depend uniquely on radius R (due to
the thin disk approximation), i.e. (R), e(R), j(R);
and some others on both radius and time (R, t), i.e.

M (R, t), J(R,

t), E(R,
t), (R, t), F(R, t), (R, t).
Which is described as follows:  = (Rd/dR)2 .

2R

(R, t) M (R, t)
+
=0
t
R

(31)

Eq. (30) accordingly transforms into:

(2Rj) = 2Rj
,
t
t
J

M
j

2 =
=
(M j + ) = j
+ M
+
,
R
R
R
R R


M
j

1 + 2 = j 2R
+
+ M
+
= 0.
t
R
R R
(32)
1 =

Using now Eq. (32), we obtain a simplified version of the

angular momentum conservation equation:
j(R) (R, t)
+
=0
M (R, t)
R
R

(33)

Proceeding similarly as in Eq. (33) the energy conservation equation Eq. (31) takes the following form when
applying the different variable dependence conditions (on
R and t):

(26)

provided that M e is the total energy carried by matter

entering the cylinder at R and the energy dissipated
per unit time due to the torque between adjacent cylinders (taking into account that dW dE = d E =
). Also, viscosity dissipates energy into heat, and part
of this energy is locally radiated from the disk surface at a
rate (flux) F. According to that, and taking into account
that each cylinder has two surfaces, we can compute the
amount of energy (luminosity Ld ) radiated away per unit
time between radii R and R + dR, i.e. dLd /dR:

10

Thus, Eq. (29) simplifies as follows:

M
+
+
+ 4RF = 0
R
R
R
Using Eq. (34) we observe that:



e
j
e

+
=M

M
R
R
R
R
e
j
1 (v2 ) v (v R)

=
+

R
R
R 2 R
R R

(34)

(35)

Recalling that v2 /R = 0 , where 0 = /R we obtain:

1 (R0 )

(R1 0 )1/2
(R3 0 )1/2 = 0 (36)
2 R
R
Which yields the following energy conservation equation:
0 +

(R, t)

(R)
+ 4RF(R, t) = 0
R

(37)

These three equations Eq. (31), Eq. (33) & Eq. (37)
complete the dynamical description of a geometrically
thin accretion disk and are therefore the basis for the
presented model11 . From these expressions we will be
able to mathematically proof that thin accretion disks
spread out in radius over time.
5.1. Evolution of Geometrically Thin Accretion Disks
5.1.1. Mathematical approach

Consider a disk that extends between two given radii

Ri and Rf , with vacuum for R
/ (Ri , Rf ). Assuming that decreases monotonically with radius, i.e.
d/dR < 0, R (Ri , Rf ); and that j increases monotonically with radius, i.e. dj/dR > 0, R (Ri , Rf )
which are general requirements satisfied by dinamically
stable disks, we observe that, in Eq. (37), as surface
11 Note that since and j are only dependent on R, j/R =
dj/dR and /R = d/dR.

A Brief Review of Accretion Disks in Close Binary Systems

brightness 4RF cannot be negative, has to be positive. We then have that R (Ri , Rf ), (R) > 0, and
as at Ri and Rf there is no matter, (Ri ) = (Rf ) = 0,
which implies that !Rm (Ri , Rf ) | (Rm ) = max( ).
At Rm , d (Rm )/dR = 0, and by Eq. (33), since we assume that dj/dR > 0, M (Rm ) = 0, i.e. mass transfer
vanishes where there is maximum torque. We can also
assume that generally, if R (Ri , Rm ), then d /dR > 0
and similarly, that if R (Rm , Rf ), then d /dR < 0,
which allows us to conclude, by using Eq. (33), that
M (R) > 0, R (Rm , Rf ) and that M (R) < 0, R
(Ri , Rm ). This means that for R Ri , since M (R) < 0,
mass flows radially inwards, leaving the disk, surpassing its inner boundaries and approaching a region with
R < Ri (where we initially assumed vacuum). The same
argument can be applied to see that for R Rf , as
M (R) > 0, mass flows radially outwards, since it is the
only way that these regions can have positive mass transfer (for R > Rf there is no matter). This automatically
translates into what we were intending to prove, that is,
the disk will spread out in time over a larger range of
radius.
5.1.2. Physical interpretation

The total value of angular momentum within an isolated accretion disk remains constant over time, since no
external torques are exerted on it. Nonetheless, internal torques provided by viscosity mechanisms may redistribute it. These mechanisms are also responsible for
generating some heat that is partially radiated away from
the disk surface. The total mass of the disk and its total
angular momentum are conserved quantities whereas its
energy is decreasing in time. This means that gas particles within the disk will gradually lose some of their
kinetic energy and radial velocities will also decrease. In
order for the disk to preserve angular momentum expansion over a larger range of radius is required, i.e. the disk
will spread out.
6. PRELIMINARY CONCLUSIONS

Throughout this brief research, we reviewed the main

properties of accretion disks (I), we described them in
close binary systems (II) and we mathematically modelled their behaviour (III).
I
General characteristics, such as mass transfer, angular
momentum transport or energy loss via viscosity mechanisms, have been studied, together with their implications in the description of the formation and evolution
of accretion disks. We also derived the most significant
quantities related to the Eddington limit, and we then
briefly discussed their stability together with their behaviour at different radii from the massive object.
II
Close binary systems (CBSs) have been described both
physically and mathematically to provide a complete
characterization of accretion disks in such environments.
We described noninertial reference frames and more
specifically corotating frames with constant , the Lagrange Points and their relevance in CBSs, the Roche

Potential and its relation with the Lagrange Points, the

Roche Lobes and their implications on the description
of accretion disks and Roche Lobe overflow, and we provided a classification for different types of CBSs.
Roche Lobe overflow has then been thoroughly examined. We defined the most important parameters involved in the description of accretion disks in CBSs, and
we concluded that a depends on the relation between M1
and M2 . We then provided some insight on the formation
of accretion disks via Roche Lobe overflow, noting three
particularly important facts: 1) gas particle motion can
be approximated as ballistic in the disk since velocities
there are supersonic and pressure forces can be neglected,
2) the gas stream initial trajectory intersects itself several
times due to orbital precession, which is caused by the
rotation of the CBS and 3) the disk reaches dynamical
stability near the Circularization Radius Rcirc .
III
A complete mathematical description of geometrically
thin accretion disks has been provided. We also studied
how the thin disk approximation could lead to an important simplification of the initial formulae in accordance
to the variable dependence on R and t (radius and
time). We intended to fully derive each equation from
very basic principles in order to accomplish as much
clarity as possible. We finally achieved to model the
disk using three different equations Eq. (31), Eq. (33)
& Eq. (37) which describe the evolution in time of
three of the main properties of accretion disks, namely,
accretion rate M , angular momentum J and energy E,
respectively.
We covered the study of the evolution of geometrically
thin accretion disks ,based on the presented model,
from two different perspectives. We first provided a
mathematical approach, that explicitly uses the three
aforementioned equations together with some reliable
assumptions, in order to proof that these structures
spread out in radius over time. We then analyzed this
phenomenon from a physical point of view, reaching
exactly the same conclusion.
These are preliminary conclusions because oficially,
the paper is not finished (references are to be updated).
Future work may include an introduction to the model
(Shakura & Sunyaev, 1973), a summary of the main
results provided by the latest computational simulations
of accretion disks, a more accurate and extended
description of energy loss mechanisms in such physical
systems, and a numerical simulation based primarily on
what has been presented in this article.
7. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

I would like to thank the Youth & Science program for

giving me the opportunity to attend the 2015 Petnica
International Summer Science Camp, to which I am also
grateful for its implication on this research.
REFERENCES
J. E. Pringle, 1981, Accretion Disks in Astrophysics, A&A
Princeton University, 2000s, Accretion Disks (Review)