Archaeological Diggings, Au 2015-03 04 Vol. 22 No. 2 - Animals of Ancient Egypt

VOL 22 NO 2 MARCH/APRIL 2015 DIGGINGS.COM.
AU

Behistan Secrets of
Ancient Aryan Language 34

Diggings Tour Report 50
The Corvus of the

Roman Marines 28
SHROUD OF TURIN EMPEROR CLAUDIUS YIGAEL YADIN PAPYRUS BROOKLYN
ANIMALS
OF ANCIENT
EGYPT
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Contents
Features
6 Dating the Shroud
Volume 22 Issue #2
March/April 2015
56 The Innocents Abroad

BaalbekIn Sight of
the Promised Land
of Turin
An image of a crucified
man with similarity to
accounts of Jesus of
Nazareth. But is it real?
16 The Papyrus Brooklyn

In the Bible, a Hebrew
presence in Egypt prior
to the Exodus is fact. But
scepticism remains.
Regular Features
5 Editors Comment
Reflections of a
Curious Traveller
56
12 From Jerusalem
With Danny Herman
47 The Archaeologist
22 Animals of Ancient
Yigael Yadin, the man

behind acquiring the Dead
Sea Scrolls for the public.
Egypt
As god or pet, they were

adored and worshipped,
as indeed, they still are
today the world over.
60 News from the World

of Archaeology
65 Your Letters
65 The Agora
28 The Corvus of the

Roman Marines
Community news, events

and notes of interest
It was a mechanism that

made Romes legionaries
the most successful
marines of the age.
66 Archaeological
PuzzlePicture this
34 Behistan Secrets
of Ancient Aryan
Language
A fascinating tale of ancient
kings and their queens,
and their place in history.
Who, What, Where and When
22
42 Claudius, a Political
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Emperor
On the cover: Statue of Anubis depicted

completely in animal form. Originally
from the tomb of Tutankhamun, it is now
housed in the Egyptian Museum, Cairo.
Many of the ancient Egyptian gods took on
animal forms with Anubis one of the most
important gods. He was seen as a guardian
of the cemetery leading the deceased to the
next world.
Conquering hero or
brow-beaten emperor?
50 Diggings Tour: Iran,

Jordan, Greece and
Turkey
David Currie reports on
the 2015 Diggings Tour.
50
Cover photo: Gerard Gratadourisifa/

Getty Images
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EDITORS COMMENT
Volume 22 Issue #2
(March/April 2015)
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Reflections of a
Curious Traveller
eading the recent Diggings Tour to Egypt, Rome, Mexico and Peru has left
me more than a little curious about some things we saw. How can we account for similarities in religious practices among people living half a world
away from each other? Here are some samples.
1. Widespread sun worship: in ancient Egypt (the largest sun temple complex
in the world is the Karnak Temple at Luxor); in Rome (a Mithraic altar in the
excavations beneath the Church of St Clemente); at Teotihuacan just outside
Mexico City; by the Aztecs at Tenochtitlan; by the Maya at Chichen Itza; and at
Cusco by the Incas who worshiped Inti the sun god.
2. Feathered or winged serpents: in ancient Egypt and among the Aztecs and
Maya
3. Human sacrifice: in the Roman Empire in the cult of Diana; by the Mayans,
Incas and especially the Aztecs.
4. Pyramids: in Egypt; and in the Mayan, Aztec, Inca and other
Mesoamerican civilisations.
How can we account for such similarities in religious practices among people
living so far from each other, in some cases, separateds by vast periods of time?
To have just come up with similar beliefs, practices and objects of worship
totally independent of each other would seem to be a stretch. Perhaps the
biblical claim that the human race spread across the world from the region of
Mesopotamia (Genesis 11:19) has merit. Maybe the concept of winged snakes
(see Genesis 3:4; Isaiah 14:29; 30:6) in ancient times should be taken seriously.
And could it be that human sacrifice likewise arose as a counterfeit to the
promise that God would sacrifice His only Son to remove human sin and guilt
(Isaiah 53:612)?
Anyway, enough of my curious musings. You have in your hand very interesting material in this issue of DIGGINGS. For example, Matthew Williams will
reveal why the controversy surrounding the Shroud of Turin just wont go away,
Alison Buckley brings some fascinating insights on the Behistun Inscription,
Erich Anderson takes us to Mesopotamia to reveal why ancient gods were
abducted (or appropriated) and Titus Kennedy brings to light fascinating
evidence in support of the biblical proposition that Hebrews were in Egypt prior
to the time of the Exodus.
Now, I hope that you enjoy your read!
Gary Webster
Editor
Dating
the
Shroud
In this analysis of archaeological, historical and scientific
methods, Matthew Williams reviews the processesand
outcomesof science applied to archaeology.
HE SHROUD OF TURIN IS PERHAPS ONE OF THE MOST

studied artefacts in history. It bears an image of a crucified
man with stark similarity to the accounts and representations
of Jesus of Nazareth. For centuries, it was venerated by the Catholic
Church and viewed by many to be the actual burial cloth that covered
Jesus after His death, and found lying in the garden tomb (Luke 24:12;
John 20:5). It was not until 1988, when a team of scientists were able to
radiocarbon-date the Shroud, that it was determined to be a product
of the mediaeval period, dating between a.d. 12601390 (1000 years
after the death of Christ), hence bringing into question its authenticity.
Since the initial scientific dating, however, many challenges have
arisen against the radiocarbon procedure, both for sampling accuracy
and dating calibration. One of those challenges proposes that organic
contamination of linen fibres can produce an altered date, although
while organic contamination has been observed on Egyptian mummified ibis, it has yet to be observed on the Shroud of Turin.
6
Archaeological DiggingsMarch/April 2015
The Shroud of
Turin A full length
negative of a
centuries old linen
cloth that bears the
image of a crucified
mana man that
many believe to be
Jesus of Nazareth.
But what does
science say?
The Hungarian Pray Manuscript is an ancient document

created between 1192 and 1195. It is named after Gyrgy Pray
(17231801), a Jesuit scholar who first studied it. This illustration
from the manuscript shows Jesus burial and resurrection with
depictions consistent with the Shroud of Turin.
An alternate proposition was biofractionation and

isotopic exchange as a result of the 1532 fire in Sainte
Chapelle, Chambry, where the Shroud was housed,
which damaged the cathedrals interior. This theory is
largely based on unobserved theoretical calculations and
unrepeatable models.
Yet, arguments continue to exist that the a.d. 12601390
radiocarbon dates do not correspond with the date of the
Shroud because of the questionable quality of the sample.
This article will contextualise the inadequate sample
theory within the broader body of evidence stemming
from archaeology and historical accounts.
The Mandylion of Edessa usually takes pride of place in the

Popes private chapel in the Vatican. It is rarely seen in public, it is
an artistic illustration from a.d. 593 of a cloth that showed the face
of Christ, allegedly formed when He dried His wet head on a piece
of cloth leaving an indelible mark.
Jesus is depicted naked with arms crossed over the pelvis

in the same fashion as the image on the Shroud, the
herringbone patterning of the illustration is the same as
the Shroud and there are four small circles on the lower
part of the illustration forming an L-shaped letter, that
likewise appear on the cloth.
Another point of interest is the Sudarium of Oviedo (Latin
for a sweat cloth), which is claimed to have wrapped the
head of Jesus after He was crucified. It was housed in an
ark built by King Alfonso II of Asturias in a.d. 840. Many
aspects of the Sudarium and the Shroud are in accordance
with each other, including the geometry of the markings
and pollen samples (Moreno et al. 1998). The only major
Historical-archaeological background
discrepancy between the Sudarium and the Shroud is the
There are a number of archaeological artefacts and radiocarbon dates, as the Sudarium of Oviedo is dated to
historical documents that indicate an earlier date for the approximately a.d. 700 (Moreno et al. 1998), whereas the
Shroud of Turin than what the majority of documents and Shroud is dated to the mid-thirteenth century.
radiocarbon records reveal.
There are also some historical records which indicate a
The Hungarian Pray Manuscript (a.d. 11921195) is a possible first century origin for the Shroud. The Mandylion,
collection of medieval manuscripts that contain an il- or image of Edessa, is an artistic illustration of a cloth that
lustration depicting the crucified Jesus with significant depicts a portrait of the crucified Christ of divine origin
similarities to the image on the Shroud. In the Manuscript, (Lorusso et al. 2011). This may be an early reference to the
The Arca Santa (Holy Ark or chest) is an oak reliquary that contains the relics of several saints, the most notable being the Sudarium of
Oviedo, a piece of cloth measuring approximately 84 x 53 cm that tradition claims was used to cover and clean the face of Jesus after His
crucifixion. Unlike the Shroud of Turin which has an image of a crucified man, there is no image on the Sudarium, only stains of blood and
lymph. The Sudarium is preserved in a purpose-built chapel in the Cathedral in Oviedo, Spain.
Shroud. It is dated to a.d. 593 from the writing of Evagrius

Scholasticus, and was later moved to Constantinople in
1204 during the Fourth Crusade, where it was recorded
that a cloth bearing the figure of Christ was exhibited
every Friday (Lorusso et al. 2011; Fanti 2012).
The argument for a first century date based on the evidence
from archaeological artefacts and historical documents
is not conclusive. However, this date is supported by the
fact that there are multiple pieces of evidence, made up
of different mediumsone painting and the other two
fabricand they all seem to corroborate the existence of
the Shroud in the late first century. The inclusion of minute,
though intricate details, such as the L-shaped holes in the
painting and the matching geometric stains on the head
cloth, seems an improbable duplication by chance. Despite
this, linking any of the previously mentioned artefacts
to the Shroud is still based on inference of similarity,
regardless of how improbable the similarities are.
The clearest historical documentation of the Shroud
originates from the year 1357, when it was displayed in
a church in Lirey, France. From this point, it is believed
that the Shroud was placed in the hands of Duke Louis

of Savoy, who stored it in a silver chest in a chapel at his

capital, Chambery. In the year 1532, a fire raged through the
chapel slightly damaging the Shroud, which was protected
inside its silver chest located within a wooden closet. Part
of the chest melted and gouts of molten silver burned the
outsides of the Shroud. The Shroud was doused with water
before further damage could occur and the burn holes
were later patched. The Shroud also underwent numerous
repairs by nuns from the Order of Saint Clare who applied
patches and fixed the Shroud on a backing made of cloth.
It must be noted that there is no documentation of the
origin of the Shroud and its earliest reference during the
Middle Ages places it in a context of veneration, that is, it
was at this point already viewed as a sacred artefact by the
Church and the state. From this perspective, linking the
Shroud (a.d. 1357) to the Hungarian Pray Manuscript (a.d.
1195) or the image of Edessa (a.d. 1204) is not conclusive, but
carries lines of contextual evidence as stated earlier. This
is where the strength of scientific dating in archaeological
and historical investigation can be applied to further the
understanding of the date of the Shroud, which could
consequently unlock its origin.
Dating the Shroud
photographing of the shroud. When Secondo Pia took the

first photos of the Shroud in 1898, he discovered on the reverse
plate this previously undetected image.
Analysis and radio-carbon dating

The first photographic documentation of the Shroud
was performed in 1898 when the lawyer Secondo Pia
photographed the image and discovered that it was clearer
in negative form (Lorusso et al. 2011). This intrigued many
scientific minds including biologist Paul Vignon, who
assisted on a second photographic experiment in 1931. It
wasnt until 1978 that the Shroud of Turin Research Project
(STURP) was initiated, comprising an international team
of scientists. At this time, Professor Gilbert Raes of the
Ghent Institute of Textile Technology cut the 1973 sample,
storing it for later analysis. Further extensive analysis
was performed on the Shroud, with methods such as
(UV-F) photographs, digital image processing, chemical
makeup and infrared analysis, were all performed within
a 120-hour period of examination.
What makes the scientific analysis more unusual is
that it has revealed the image to be in three-dimensional
orientation, with both front and reverse details; the
method of creating the image is still unknown. The level
of difficulty of recording the image is described as like
painting an acid on each individual coloured thread fibre
around its circumference, but avoiding the adjacent fibres,
using a hypothetical paintbrush whose bristle is about 10
l in size (Accetta et al. 1980; Fanti 2012).
Furthermore, because the image disappears from our
visionary limitations as you move within one to two metres
10
of the cloth (Schwalbe et al. 1982), all these markings

would have to be performed from this distance if it were
created by an artist (Fanti 2012). Thus it appears that the
creation of the Shroud is as unrepeatable as the event it
is thought to describe.
As a result, the STURP project came to the conclusion
that the most likely explanation for the image was a
burst of short-lived and intense energy emanating from
the body whilst it was wrapped in the Shroud (Fanti
2012). However, the significance of dating the Shroud
with radiocarbon methods whilst not knowing how the
cloth was created has raised some doubts as to whether
this violates one of the fundamental assumptions of the
radiocarbon method, namely the object under analysis
must be known (Fanti 2012).
It was not till 1986 that STURP and the Vatican agreed to
a final protocol, appropriately titled the Turin Protocol,
to enable radiocarbon dating of the cloth. Three independent laboratories were chosenOxford, Tucson and the
Swiss Federal Institute of Technology in Zurich. These
final protocols brought heavy criticism from Harry Grove,
the director of the Rochester Laboratory, because it was
eliminating the more effective double blind method
(Lorusso et al. 2011).
On April 21, 1988, Franco Testore took a single sample
measuring 8.1 cm x 2.1 cm, which was divided into two,
with one kept for further analysis and the other further
divided into three, each weighing 40 mg, to be sent to the
three laboratories. It is important to note that the original
sample had 5 mm removed because of the presence of
several coloured threads of unknown origin (Lorusso et
al. 2011), which could imply possible contamination. The
results of the radiocarbon dating were announced on the
October 13, 1988, by Cardinal Ballestra and published in the
February 16, 1989 issue of Nature. The overall calibrated
mean radiocarbon age is 12601390 (Damon et al. 1989).
The radiocarbon results are in accord with the historical
documentation of the Shroud located in France in a.d.
1357, but its earliest radiocarbon date of a.d. 1260 with a
95 per cent confidence level places both the Hungarian
Pray Manuscript (a.d. 11921195) the image of Edessa (a.d.
5931204), and the Sudarium of Oviedo (a.d. 700) outside
the scope of the date range. It is important to note, yet
obvious, that all three artefacts are recorded to be in
existence before the fire of Chambery in 1532, because
this fire event has become one of the main objections to
the original radiocarbon date.
Quality of the radio-carbon sample

The presence and subsequent removal of several cotton threads from the original radiocarbon sample has
caused a number of scientists to express concern over
how accurately the sample represents the Shroud on a
whole. Among these scientists is Raymond Rogers, one
of the original scholars, who had been part of the team
assembled to do the sampling. Rogers caught onto a hypothesis presented by Joseph G Marino and Sue Bradford,
stating that the sample used for the radiocarbon analysis
was part of a rewoven section of the cloth (Rogers 2004;
Lorusso et al. 2011).
In response to these claims, Giovanni Riggi, who removed

the sample from the Shroud, said that [the sample] was
cut from just above the place where a sample was previously removed. . . . The strip came from a single site on
the main body of the Shroud away from any patches or
charred areas (Rogers 2004, 189). Further clarification of
the authenticity of the sample were made by Gabriel Vial
and Franco Testore, who stated, We carefully inspected
the Shroud and we are sure that this sampling place was
representing the whole Shroud. . . . I examined carefully
the cloth all along the warp and filling of the threads
concerned without noticing any splicing (Gove 1990).
Whilst the statements made by Vial, Testore and Riggi
must be taken with merit, the argument made by Marino,
Bradford and Rogers is that the rewoven fabric was so
designed that it would have remained invisible to the
naked eye (Rogers 2004; Lorusso et al. 2011). The basis of
their argument was that in 1531, a document was written
detailing the removal of part of the Shroud and replacing
it with coloured cotton fabric woven together with the
original linen (Lorusso et al. 2011). Furthermore, what
makes the original sampling questionable is that it was
executed privately with no chemical investigation prior to
its removal (Rogers 2004). To test the hypothesis that the
sample was not representative of the Shroud, Rogers made
detailed analysis and comparisons of sections of the 1973
and 1988 samples, both of which he was in possession of.
His analysis revealed many discrepancies between
the radiocarbon samples and the rest of the Shroud. The
radiocarbon sample contained a gum/dye/mordant coating that was not present on the other areas of the Shroud
(Rogers 2004). It also had a specific dye, alizarin and red
lakes, that Rogers (2004) claims were not in use in Europe
before approximately a.d. 1291, along with indications of
colour manipulation. As a result of his studies, Rogers
(2004), stated that the combined evidence from chemical
kinetics, analytical chemistry, cotton content, and pyrolysis/
ms proves that the material from the radiocarbon area of
the Shroud is significantly different from that of the main
cloth and was thus not part of the original cloth.
Further clarification of this hypothesis has been
performed through an unauthorised and unpublished
carbon-14 test by Alan Adler, John Heller and George R
Rossman from the California Institute of Technology, or
CalTech (Benford et al. 2002). The 1973 RAES thread was
cut in half, separating what was described as starch
contaminate and tested (Benford et al. 2002). Each
sample was dated in a fourier-transform ion cyclotron
resonance mass spectrometry by Rossman (Benford et
al. 2002). Rossmans results revealed that the starched
sample dated to a.d. 1200 whilst the non-contaminated
sample dated to a.d. 200 (Benford et al. 2002).
Until the results of the Benford et al (2002) radiocarbon
study are published, they should be met with scepticism,
regardless of the credibility of CalTech and the work of
Rossman. What cannot be ignored is the comparative
sample analysis by Rogers (2004). Without further examination, it isnt possible to state with surety that the two
samples are of different origin, though what Rogers (2004)
demonstrates at the very least, are serious differences in

the chemical structure between the radiocarbon sample

and the remaining Shroud.
Discussion
The practice of archaeological science utilises multiple
lines of evidence to answer complex questions of the
past. Regarding the question of the date of the Shroud of
Turin, archaeological evidence in the form of artefacts,
historical written documents and scientific analysis such
as radiocarbon and isotope analysis have all been utilised
to try and piece together an answer.
Using strictly the historical and archaeological evidence,
a reasonable case could be made for a late first century
origin for the Shroud, but with the inclusion of the original
radiocarbon dating ages, this seemed no longer the case.
However, with further investigation of the questionable
nature of the sample used for the radiocarbon dating, it
appears that once again, the pendulum has swung back
to the zone of uncertainty.
When the body of evidence is brought together, it creates
a number of indisputable facts: (1) Based on the initial
radiocarbon dates, chemical analysis of the Shroud and
historical documentation, the Shroud was in existence
during the Middle Ages and underwent fire damage but
was later repaired through the sewing of new cotton mixed
with the original fibres. What is of less certainty is that: (2)
as a result of the repairs, if the sample taken for the initial
radiocarbon analysis was part of the original Shroud; and
that organic contamination of bacteria and fungi could
affect the radiocarbon results. The lowest category of
certainty is left for arguments that are contingent upon
the results of the more reliable facts.
The argument that the Shroud of Turin is the very
Shroud mentioned in the Hungarian Pray Manuscript
is only possible if the initial radiocarbon dates are not
representative of the main body of the Shroud. Thus, the
Hungarian Pray Manuscript, Image of Edessa and Sudarium
of Oviedo arguments are all classified amongst the lowest
category of certainty.
Conclusion
Unfortunately, further analysis needs to be done to
bring any more clarity upon the question of the origin
of the Shroud, which entails receiving the permission of
the Vatican. Due to the difficulties faced getting the first
and second samples of the Shroud, it seems unlikely that
a third investigation will be permitted anytime soon. So
what can be concluded from the available evidence is that
the 1989 radiocarbon age range of a.d. 12601390 is no
longer the terminus post quem for the origin of the Shroud
of Turin. It is our most secure reference point, but due to
the questionable nature of the sample, its radiocarbon
date does not exclusively prohibit an earlier origin.
Although a definitive origin date could not be established,
the archaeological, historical and scientific dating methods,
instead of being in conflict, were complementary towards
one another. The significance of the conclusion is that,
as with many scientific investigations, the mysteries
regarding the origin of the Shroud of Turin remain open
to further discovery. u
Dating the Shroud
11
FROM JERUSALEM with Danny Herman
The Roman Arch

inscribed in Latin
to Emperor Hadrian
in honour of his
visit to Jerusalem
in A.D. 130. The
block was later
incorporated in
a secondary use
around the opening
of a deep cistern.
12
that time, perhaps for the visit of

n a recent salvage excavation conducted in the old city
of Jerusalem, near Damascus gate, an important ImpeHadrian in Jerusalem in that year.
rial Roman Inscription surfaced. The excavations were
During his visit, Hadrian declared he
would Romanize Jerusalem as Aelia
carried by Dr Rina Avner on behalf of the Israel Antiquities Authority in an area destined to be a shopping centre. Capitolina, an act that led two years
The excavations uncovered stone slabs set around the top later to a Jewish Rebellion (The Barof a mediaeval cistern. One of the stone slabs turned out
Kokhva rebellion, of A.D. 132135).
to be a Latin Inscription from the second century a.d. Its
Another part of this inscription
was uncovered in the same area over
lower part was cut off to fit the top of the cistern, but the
100 years ago and is now on display
rest of the inscription could be read relatively easily.
in the Franciscan monastery at the
The Inscription was originally installed in a monument
in Jerusalem, perhaps near Damascus gate, in the time of First Station of the Via Dolorosa.
Emperor Hadrian. It reads: To the Imperator Caesar Traianus
I hope that it will be possible to
display both parts of the inscription
Hadrianus Augustus, son of the deified Traianus Parthicus,
together, so the public can appreciate
grandson of the deified Nerva, high priest, invested with
the full discovery.
tribunician power for the 14th time, consul for the third time,
father of the country (dedicated by) the 10th legion Fretensis.
The inscription is dated to A.D. 130, and was perhaps
installed in front of Damascus gate which was built at
PHOTO: YOLI SHWARTZ, COURTESY OF THE ISRAEL ANTIQUITIES AUTHORITY
Danny Herman
Israeli archaeologist
and tour guide
with a passion for
sharing the history
of his country with
visitors.
Roman period imperial

inscription found in Jerusalem
PHOTO: ASSAF PERETZ, COURTESY OF THE ISRAEL ANTIQUITIES AUTHORITY
Engraved graffiti left by Australian soldiers: The initials RAE at the bottom right
stand for Royal Australian Engineers. Above them the name Walsh can be read, and
above that his military number (NX9168). To the right is Marshalls name and number.
Australian
WWII graffiti
erhaps my best moments in

archaeology is the surprise when
an extraordinary find is exposed,
followed by the intellectual challenge
of explaining it and putting it in its
historical context. Most of the time,
the finds from digs in the Holy Land
are in the form of pottery shards,
bits of glass and coins, ranging from
Canaanite to Ottoman times. But
occasionally archaeologists make a
totally unexpected discovery.
Such was the experience for Yoav
Tzur when directing salvage excavations before widening Road 38 in the
Elah Valley, about 20 km (12 miles)
south west of Jerusalem. The Elah
Valley is best known as the site of the
famous battle of David and Goliath
of 1 Samuel 4, but the discoveries
Tsur made ranged from a totally
different period.
The dig at that site exposed several
underground halls. One was of an
1800-year-old Jewish ritual bath
(mikveh) with broken oil lamps and
pots found on its steps, apparently
from the time when the Romans
suppressed the Jewish rebellion in the
second century a.d. (the Bar-Kokhva
Rebellion) and terminated the use of
the mikveh.
But the big surprise I was referring
to was recorded on one of the walls

where some Latin graffiti was traced.
It read, CPL Scarlett and Walsh.
Next to them the initials RAE were
inscribed, as well as two numbers:
NX7792 and NX9168, along with a
date, 30/5/1940obviously something of a more recent origin!
A search of Australian Government
archives revealed the following:
Corporal (CPL) Philip William Scarlett
and comrade Patrick Raphael Walsh
were members of the Australian Sixth
Division, which was stationed in the
country at the time of the British
Mandate and were undergoing training prior to being sent into combat in
France. Because France surrendered
before the troops were deployed, they
were sent to Egypt in October 1940,
where they fought in the campaigns
of the Western Desert.
Corporal Scarlett was born in
Melbourne in 1918 and was drafted
into the army in 1939. He survived the
war and died in 1970, shortly before
his fifty-second birthday. His comrade,
Corporal Walsh, was born in 1910 in
Cowra, New South Wales, was drafted
in 1939, also survived the war and
passed away in 2005 at the age of 95.
But Tsur wanted to know more
about these soldiers. If the relatives
Above: The interior of the Jewish ritual bath

(mikve) found during salvage excavations in
the Elah valley, 20 km from Jerusalem.
of these people are acquainted with

the story, well be happy if they contact us and well share with them the
warm greetings left behind by Scarlett
and Walsh.
Reporting on this discovery in this
Australian periodical, I hope some
family members of Corporals Scarlett
and Walsh might be traced.
Pablo Betzer, the district archaeologist for Judah of the Israel Antiquities
Authority (IAA), points out that in
the wake of the discovery, the Israel
Antiquities Authority requested that
the company widening Road 38
modify the junctions construction
plan in order to preserve the finds
and rehabilitate them as part of the
landscape alongside the road, which
the company has agreed to do.
From Jerusalem with Danny Herman
13
The enigmatic circular structure at kh.Jiljil: Danny Herman

visiting the site of Stephanos. The central stone is undoubtedly part of
a winepress, but perhaps in its original use, it presented relics relating
to Saint Stephen.
Kh. El-Jiljil
Another commemoration site of Stephanus?
14
noted that the chances of turning a

holy Christian site into a winepress
as early as the Byzantine period is
very unlikely.
Being bedridden for the past two
months after a bicycle accident, Ive
had time to read, including much
literature on Kh. Jiljil. On one of the
first days that I was able to hobble
about on crutches, I drove to the site
to view it for myself.
The circular structure would indeed
been an impressive winepress. But
why would anyone care to have hewn
stones in a wine press? And why was
its floor tiled with what looks like reused marble? And why would anyone
care to install near a winepress an
official inscription?
Although Gibsons arguments are
convincing, Im still a little puzzled
by the anomalies at Kh. Jiljil. I look
forward to further research, which I
hope will clarify the full history of this
most intriguing site.
PHOTOS: DANNY HERMAN
carried to Jerusalem.
n a previous report, I wrote on Beit
In 2003, near this same circular
Jimal, a monastic complex in the
structure, a stone lintel with a tabula
Shephela, about 20 km (12 miles)
ansata was discovered. Traces of
south west of Jerusalem, believed
Greek text on the stone were read
to be the place where the burials of
by epigraphist Emile Peuch, as:
Rabbi Gamliel and Saint Stephanus,
DIAKONIKON STEPHANOU PROTOMARthe first Christian martyr, were reTYROS. Diakonikon means a place
covered. I mentioned briefly another
for conserving relics. If the reading is
site next to Beit Jimal that might be
related to the local Christian tradition, correct, then this is strong evidence
in support of Struss theory.
which I will expand on.
Yet in 2007, Dr Shimon Gibson,
The site is Kh. Jiljil, about 300
who co-directed the dig at the site
metres south of Beit Jimal. Kh. Jiljil
with Strus, and epigraphist Dr Leah
was discovered and eventually excavated in 1999 by Polish archaeologist Di-Segni, published an article criticising the conclusions of both Puech and
and Selesian father, Andrzej Strus.
Strus.
There he unearthed remains of a
Gibson and Di-Segni argue that only
circular structure, which undoubtedly
functioned as a winepress in the Byz- six letters of the original inscription
are legible, and so reconstructing the
antine Period. But Strus suggested
that its original use was a funeral
original text is impossible. Furthermore, the site itself was re-examined
monumenta mausoleumbuilt in
honour of an important person or
by Gibson and his conclusion was
that the circular site was never more
even the Christian saint Saint Stethan a well-built wine press! He also
phen, when his bodily remains were
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The
Papyrus
Brooklyn
A lack of evidence does

not exclude a possibility.
So when the evidence
is there, suggests Titus
Kennedy, we need to
accept it as a probability.
PHOTO: TITUS KENNEDY
16
HE PRESENCE OF HEBREWS IN EGYPT PRIOR TO THEIR

departure is a key component in the story often called the
Exodus, which leads to the eventual formation of the Israelite nation
and their subsequent settlement of Canaan. However, scepticism
about the historicity of the Exodus story has spread widely over the
last century. A key problem for asserting the Exodus narrative as historical fact
has to do with the supposed lack of archaeological confirmation for Hebrews
living in Egypt. Current academic consensus views the events described in the
biblical book of Exodus as myth, without any indication of a historical core,
and now a topic that the vast majority of scholars decline to investigate due
to their certainty that the story is fictional.
Archaeologist Zeev Herzog made the claim that according to archaeological
investigations, Israelites were never in Egypt. . . . The many Egyptian documents
that we have make no mention of the Israelites presence in Egypt. Another
archaeologist, William Dever, concluded that investigation of the Exodus story
is pointless, because of the alleged absence of evidence, stating that not only
is there no archaeological evidence for such an exodus, there is no need to
posit such an event. . . . I regard the historicity of the Exodus as a dead issue.
Are claims that there is no evidence to support the idea that Hebrew people
were in Egypt prior to the time

of the Exodus consistent with current
archaeological and historical data? Any possible
evidence of Hebrews living in Egypt must obviously be
prior to the time of the Exodus in order to maintain that
the story recorded in the Bible is an accurate historical
narrative. So approximately when might have the Exodus
occurred?
According to a reading of specific chronological information in the books of Kings, Judges and Numbers, combined
with chronological information from Egyptian, Assyrian,
Babylonian, Hellenistic and Roman documents, the Hebrew
Exodus from Egypt occurred around 1440 b.c. (1 Kings 6:1;
Judges 11:26; Numbers 32:13; Ptolemys Canon; Neo-Assyrian
Eponym List; Manethos King List; Uruk King List; Roman
Consul Lists). This approximate date of 1440 b.c. is a crucial
chronological marker, which restricts investigation of
archaeological and historical material to a particular window
of time. Prior to this date, one would expect evidence for
Hebrews
in Egypt and an
Egyptian policy of slavery towards Asiatics or Semites,
the larger ethnic groups to which the
Hebrews belonged, if the Exodus account is historical.
According to the narrative in the Bible, near the end of
the patriarchal period calculated at approximately 1680
b.c., Jacob (who is eventually renamed Israel by God) and
his family had settled into the northeastern Nile Delta
region known as Goshen, with their livestock and various
possessions (Genesis 46:6, 47:1). Earlier, Abraham had
resided temporarily in Egypt but he moved back to Canaan
for the remainder of his life (Genesis 12:1013:1). Around
the time of these patriarchs, during the periods called the
Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period in Egypt,
and the Middle Bronze Age in Canaan, many people from
western Asia or Canaan immigrated into Egypt. A famous
PAPYRUS BROOKLYN. When complete, the papyrus to which this fragment belonged measured 2 metres (7 ft) long. Its importance lies in
the papyruss record of an Egyptian noblewomans desire to establish legal ownership of 95 household servants, whose names indicate
that 45 were of Hebrew origin. This prior to the Exodus by approximately 120 years, confirming Israelites were in Egypt.
17
PHOTO: TITUS KENNEDY
Khnumhotep II tomb at Beni Hasan, Egypt. The scenes decorating the walls of Khnumhoteps decorated rock-cut tomb are more
colourful and lively than others around Beni Hasan and make this perhaps the most interesting and distinctive of the Beni Hasan tombs.
On the north wall is a famous scene depicting a caravan of Semites from Canaan in their striped robes, bringing gazelle and other items to
trade. These are sometimes considered Hyksos or at least their forerunners. Could this be depicting the Hebrew migration?
LAND OF
GOSHEN
tanis
rameses
bubastis
Pithom?
Pyramids of Giza
On (Heliopolis)
Part of modern day Cairo
memphis
EGYPT
Minya
Beni Hasan
18
contemporary depiction and description of this immigration was found painted

on one of the walls of the tomb of Khnumhotep II, in Beni Hasan, Egypt. The
scene, paired with a text, depicts a group of 37 Semites from Canaanmen,
women and children, along with their livestock and suppliesimmigrating
into middle Egypt during the early nineteenth century b.c.
While this would be slightly earlier than when Joseph, and subsequently his
father, Jacob, arrive in Egypt, the events occur in the same general historical
period. According to archaeological excavations and information derived from
various ancient documents and artwork, during this time, large numbers of
people from western Asia immigrated into Egypt, settling primarily in the
Nile Delta region, just as Jacob and his family did. Following this period,
the Egyptian Pharaoh Ahmose I retook Lower Egypt and began enslaving
Semites or Asiaticsan Egyptian designation for people from the area of
greater Canaan which would have included the Hebrews and other tribal
groups (Exodus 1:614).
The transition from a Pharaoh who did not know Joseph (who served as
vizier, one of the highest official in ancient Egypt) to the forced labour of the
Hebrews and other Semites seems to fit the transition from the rule of the
Hyksos to the Eighteenth Dynasty and the subsequent policy of forced labour
upon Asiatics and other non-Egyptians. Papyri such as Leningrad Papyrus
1116A from the Eighteenth Dynastyprobably the reign of Pharaoh Thutmose
III prior to around 1450 b.c.specifies that immigrant people were subjected
PHOTO: CHARLES EDWIN WILBOUR FUND
Relief of King Sobekhotep III offering vessels to the goddesses Satis and Anukis. This relief is a basic element of Egyptian temple
decoration and devoid of indications of time or setting and is only intended to convey the kings religious beliefs. Sobekhotep is named on
the Papyrus Brooklyn but due to the fragmentary history surrounding the Second Intermediate Period it is difficult to establish the precise
date of his kingdom and thus the papyrus that speaks of him.
to compulsory labour such as public building projects after

the expulsion of the Hyksos under Pharaoh Ahmose I and
subsequent rulers. This would be exactly the time of the
enslavement of the Hebrews. Just as this papyrus describes
Asiatics or Semites being forced to construct public buildings, the book of Exodus records that the Hebrews were
involved in constructing storage buildings in the cities of
Rameses, Pithom and On (Exodus 1:11).
Artwork in tombs from the early and middle Eighteenth
Dynasty, up through the reign of Thutmose III just prior
to the Exodus, also demonstrate the type of slave labour
forced upon Semites as described in the book of Exodus.
Wall paintings in the tombs of Intef and Rekmire show
Semitic slaves performing agricultural tasks, making mud
bricks and constructing buildings. Egyptian artwork depicts
different ethnic groups very distinctively, so distinguishing
Semites in a particular scene is relatively simple.
The making of mud bricks by Hebrew slaves and the
difficulties of this task are detailed in the Exodus account
(Exodus 5). A remark on the scene in the tomb of Rekmire
about an Egyptian master reminding slaves to not be idle
lest they receive a beating with the rod, brings to mind

the biblical episode in which the Hebrew Moses saw an

Egyptian taskmaster beating a Hebrew slave (Exodus 2:11).
Although many of these connections are circumstantial,
the lack of contemporary texts or inscriptions directly
attesting to Joseph, Moses or a large scale enslavement
of the Hebrews specifically, may be due to the fact that
no sites of the period have been excavated in either the
central or western Nile Delta region and that few records
from the Nile Delta region in this period have survived.
However, one important Egyptian document from Upper
Egypt has survived the millennia. While the current
scholarly consensus asserts that there is no definitive
evidence for Hebrews living in Egypt prior to the Exodus,
an Egyptian list of domestic servants written in the Second
Intermediate Period, perhaps in the eighteenth century b.c.,
contains not only Semitic names, but several identifiably
Hebrew names. This document was designated Papyrus
Brooklyn 35.1446.
Rediscovered on the antiquities market, this papyrus was
examined by archaeologists William Albright and Kenneth
Kitchen, and published in a book by Egyptologist William
Hayes of the Brooklyn Museum. Several references to Thebes
The Papyrus Brooklyn
19
TOMB OF REKMIRE in Thebes. Rekmire was the highest ranking official under pharaoh Tuthmosis III. In this fifteenth century B.C. tomb
the walls depict Semitic slaves making mud bricks. A combination of clay and sand were the basic ingredients, while the straw which the
Israelites sought in the fields held the clay together.
20
based on high precision radiocarbon samples, this could

place the Pharaoh sekem re sewadjtowy Sobekhotep in
the approximate range of 17001620 b.c. Further, studies
of the phrases and handwriting of the servant list on the
papyrus also suggest a date in the Second Intermediate
Period. Therefore, the list of servants probably comes from
a time during, or just after, the life of Joseph.
A section of Papyrus Brooklyn 35.1446 contains a list of
95 servants, many of whom are specified as Asiatic or
coming from western Asia (that is, Canaan). The servants
with foreign names are given Egyptian names, just as
the Hebrew slave Joseph was, when he was a household
servant under Potiphar (Genesis 41:45). The majority of
the names are feminine because domestic servants were
typically female, while the male servants often worked
in construction or agricultural tasks. Approximately 30
of the servants have names identified as from the Semitic
language family(Hebrew is a Semitic language), but even
more relevant to the Exodus story is that several of these
servants, up to 10, actually have specifically Hebrew
names. The Hebrew names found on the list include:
Menahema, a feminine form of Menahem (2 Kings 15:14);
Ashera, a feminine form of Asher, the name of one of the
sons of Jacob (Genesis 30:13); Shiphrah, the name of one
of the Hebrew midwives prior to the Exodus (Exodus
1:15); Aqoba, a name appearing to be a feminine form of
Jacob or Yaqob, the name of the patriarch (Genesis 25:26);
Ayyabum, the name of the patriarch Job or Ayob (Job 1:1);
Sekera, which is a feminine name either similar to Issakar, a name of one of the sons of Jacob, or the feminine
PHOTO: PATTERNS OF EVIDENCETHINKING MAN FILMS
on the papyrus indicate that it was originally composed in

or around that city, the capital of Upper Egypt, although it
is not certain exactly where in that region it came from,
as information about its original place of discovery was
lost. The section of the papyrus dealing with the servants
is thought to date from the Thirteenth Dynasty of Egypt,
or at least from some time in the era known as the Second
Intermediate Period. The end of this period preceded the
Exodus by approximately 120 years, while the period began
around 300 years prior to the Exodusencompassing
the time that the Hebrews were in Egypt as settlers and
perhaps even slaves. The dates for Pharaohs and even the
existence of the Pharaohs themselves from this period are
often tentative and highly disputed, so it is difficult to date
anything with absolute certainty. However, the papyrus
does contain the name of a Pharaoh called Sobekhotep
who may have reigned around either the late eighteenth
or the seventeenth century b.c.
While various publications have suggested rather definite
and specific date ranges for the servant list section of the
papyrus, it is difficult to establish the precise date due to
the fragmentary history of the Second Intermediate Period.
Pharaohs Sobekhotep III and VIII, who shared almost
identical throne names, could possibly have been the same
ruler. All of the monuments of Sobekhotep III are located
in the south, and the only monument of Sobekhotep VIII
is also located in the south at Karnak, indicating both
were Theban kings during the sixteenth or seventeenth
Theban Dynasties. With the Eighteenth Dynasty beginning
ca. 1570 b.c. according to the latest chronological studies
AUS
PHOTO: GARY WEBSTER
Mud bricks made from mud and straw from the Temple of
Rameses III at Medinet Habu. Such bricks, as mentioned in
Exodus 5, are found in many ancient Egyptian sites
form of it (Genesis 30:18); Dawidi-huat a compound name

utilising the name David and meaning my beloved is he
(1 Samuel 16:13); Esebtw, a name derived from the Hebrew
word eseb meaning herb (Deuteronomy 32:2); Hayah-wr
another compound name composed of Hayah or Eve and
meaning bright life (Genesis 3:20); and finally the name
Hybrw, which appears to be an Egyptian transcription of
Hebrew (Genesis 39:14). Thus, this list is a clear attestation
of Hebrew people living in Egypt prior to the Exodus and
it is an essential piece of evidence in the argument for an
historical Exodus.
Although it appears that the Israelites were centred
around the northeast Nile Delta areathe regions of
Goshen and Rameses and the cities of Rameses, Pithom
and Onthis document is from the area of Thebes to the
south and includes household servants like Joseph in his
early years, rather than building and agricultural slaves
of the period of Moses. Thus, the list appears to be an
attestation of Hebrews in Egypt in their earlier period of
residence in the country, prior to their total enslavement
and perhaps shows that a group may have migrated south
or was taken south for work. While remains of material
culture such as pottery, architecture or artefacts may be
ethnically ambiguous, Hebrew names and possibly even
the word or name Hebrew clearly indicates that there were
Hebrews living in Egypt. Although rather obscure, the list
includes the earliest attestation of Hebrew names that has
ever been recovered in Egypt, and it demonstrates that
Hebrews were in Egypt prior to 1440 b.c., just as the story
in the book of Exodus indicates. u
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CAN WE STILL
BELIEVE THE
postage
BIBLE?
As one of the most ancient of texts,

with clear provenance, the Bible cannot
be ignored let alone dismissed from
history. But, can we believe the Bible?
Retired academic Dr Bryan Ball answers
that question in this revised edition
of the book of the same name.
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KJV 400th anniversary edition

containing 2 new chapters
Animals
of Ancient
Egypt
For the ancient Egyptians, animals have always been a significant part of
their lives, either as adored pets, a food supply or worshipped in temples
as gods. Suzette Hartwell unwraps the history of animals in Egypt.
animals have been discovered in other later settlements

nearby, proving that they did in fact exist and were not
simply a stylized drawing, the whimsy of an earlier
artist. As time progressed, illustrations of animals such
as ibex, flamingo, ostrich, fish, snakes, scorpions, wild
bovid and even hunters with spears were also painted
onto ceramics recording life as it existed along the Nile
so many millennia ago.
But was there a purpose for representing such images?
Was it in an attempt to preserve their visual existence? It
may have been simply to signify good hunting territory
by indicating the variety of animals located in the region.
The depictions may also have been created out of a sense
of awe, spirituality or in gratitude for a successful hunt;
after all, animals were the primary source of food and
means of survival. Animals had many valuable uses: their
pelts providing warmth and protection from the elements,
their bones and horns could be fashioned into tools and
were ornately carved into adornments such as combs for
personal care, craftwork and even inventory tags.
As an invaluable asset to a community, cattle could be
used as draught animals, with their meat and milk also
being vital. In addition, poultry, donkeys, sheep, pigs and
goats were also farmed. Oxen are depicted on tombs and
Mummified Birds. Archaeologist Salima Ikram flicks away caked mud to free a mummified ibis from the earthenware jar it was buried in
2700 years ago at Abydos, when millions of stilt-legged ibises lived along the Nile. Symbol of the god Thoth, the birds were mummified in
greater numbers than any other animal discovered at sites in Egpyt.
22
PHOTO: RICHARD BARNESOTTORAVEN & SNOW
S THE HUNTER STOOD STILL IN THE SHADE

of a huge boulder, he closely observed the bovid,
which he hoped to overcome to provide food
for his family and community. He hesitated
as he held the spear, closely scrutinising the
animal with its thick, bent horns, its ears alert, twitching
often. He wasnt sure if the animal had heard him, so he
hesitated. The animal was powerful, and he stood in awe
of it. With its strong jawline, solid muscular chest and
hump, sturdy legs and hoofs that could trample a man,
it was going to be quite a challenge to encounter this
beast in action.
Later that night, after recalling the days successful hunt,
his meal consumed, the hunter reflected more about the
animal. Wanting to record what he had observed led him
back to the same boulder where he took the time to carve
the image of the animal, giving great attention to detail
as he chiselled and chipped the surface.
It might well be that his petroglyph was among the
first that a hunter or member of that community ever
etched. But well never know. The earliest petroglyphs
in Egypt depict a now extinct wild cow called aurochs
(Bos primigenius) and are found at the site of Qurta, about
640 km (400 miles) south of Cairo. The horns of these
23
PHOTO: MARIO SNCHEZ
MUMMIFIED Cats, estimated to be from the first century A.D currently on display at the British Museum. Animals associated with deities
were regularly mummified in ancient Egypt. The main concentration of cat burials was at sites with an association with a feline deity, the
goddess Bastet, whose cult centre was at Bubastis in the Delta, although there were other feline deities elsewhere in Egypt. Unfortunately,
many cat cemeteries were plundered before archaeologists could work in them. A shipment of as many as 180,000 mummified cats was
brought to Britain at the end of the nineteenth century to be processed into fertiliser.
temple walls, ploughing the land for their owner in the and was found within the spoil heap of a mastaba near
afterlife and their meat was valued as temple offerings. the Great Pyramid of Khufu, Giza. It is not known which
Indeed, on many tomb walls, the food offerings for the pharaoh the dog served, but he was held in such esteem it
afterlife depict a haunch of beef, geese and ducks, and is likely that Abuwtiyuw was mummified, as the ancient
actual mummified haunches of beef have been preserved text (translated by Reisner, 1936) relates:
from ancient Egypt. Their function was to serve as an
The dog, which was the guard of His Majesty, Abueternal food source for the deceased.
wtiyuw is his name. His Majesty ordered that he be
For their playful antics and ability to be domesticated,
buried [ceremonially], that he be given a coffin from
many animals such as cats, dogs, monkeys, baboons, birds
the royal treasury, fine linen in great quantity, [and]
and geese became domestic pets. The ancient Egyptians
incense. His Majesty [also] gave perfumed ointment,
adored cats, so much so that when a pet cat died the owner
and [ordered] that a tomb be built for him by the
would shave off their eyebrows as a sign of mourning! And
gangs of masons. His Majesty did this for him in
similarly for dogs, with their natural guarding ability, as
order that he [the dog] might be Honoured [before
Herodotus noted:
the great god, Anubis].
The occupants of a house where a cat has died a
The inscribed text typifies Abuwtiyuws breed to be
natural death shave their eyebrows and no more;
comparable to a greyhound or sight hound, with its curly
where a dog has died, the head and the whole body
tail and erect ears. Ancient Egyptians identified the breed
are shaven. (Histories II, 66)
as Tesem and a drawing of this dog appears very early in
The tale of a dog known as Abuwtiyuw is quite extraordi- the Egyptian archaeological record, back in the Predynastic
nary. Although no picture or body remains, this particular period of Egypt in Naqada.
dog is identified from an inscribed stone tablet discovered
The Egyptian museum in Cairo houses an incredibly
in 1936. Abuwtiyuw was so special that he had gifts be- well preserved, mummified saluki dog, with the hairs
stowed upon him from the pharaoh! The tablet dates to of the pelt of the magnificent animal still visible! Many
the Sixth Dynasty of the Old Kingdom (c. 23452181 b.c.) other mummified animals are on display, including cats,
24
PHOTO: MARTIN MUNRODREAMSTIME.COM
Tomb painting in the Valley of the Kings. On the right is Anubis, a jackal-headed god associated with mummification and the afterlife
in ancient Egypt. On the left is Horus god of vengeance, sky, protection and war. Horus is one of the oldest and most significant deities in
ancient Egyptian religion and is most often depicted as a falcon, or as a man with a falcon head as seen above.
monkeys, ibis, crocodiles, shrews and gazelles among

others. Some animals were wrapped in intricately folded
linen painted with obvious features leaving no doubt as to
what is preserved underneath. However, occasionally X-rays
of animal mummies have discovered secrets, with these
animals being merely bundles of rags and a few bones!
The concept of sacred animals, the repository for the
ba (soul) of the god in its familiar appearance, led to the
formation of cults built on this premise. It is possible that
such animal cults began in the Predynastic era, and more
specifically, cattle cults. The deliberate placement of bull
and sheep bones in one grave, and a fully articulated bull
in another, each covered with layers of wood, clay and
finally sandstone rubble, have been found in Nabta Playa,
100 km (60 miles) west of Abu Simbel and said to date to
c. 4200 b.c. The presence of the bones of domesticated,
long-horned cattle, and given the care and deliberation
was afforded their burials, demonstrates their significance
to the people of the early Egypt.
Many of the gods of ancient Egypt took the guise of
animals and birds, whereby the animal was both the
representation and also the repository of the god. Their
appearance might be personified, with an animal head
on a human body, or as the complete animal itself. The
gods that were half-animal and half-human such as the
jackal-headed god Anubis (who presided over embalming
and the dead) are known as theriomorphic or hybrid, while

the gods that appeared as animals, like Hathor in her

cow form, are known as zoomorphic. It isnt difficult to
see the transition from pet to sacred animal; dont cats
rule our homes even today? But seriously, for the ancient
Egyptians, their gods with animal manifestations were just
as important and ingrained in their culture and religion
as the gods that were represented as the anthromorphic;
the all human.
All gods had to be appeased in order to benefit from
their protection, blessings, assistance, fertility, love,
guidance in the afterlife and in understanding creation
itself. In one version of the creation, it was the ram-headed
god Khnum sitting at his potters wheel who formed
humanssomething akin to the biblical creation story
of the formation of Adamfrom clay; he was also linked
with the Nile, controlling the inundation. Such was his
importance, that he was still being consulted in Ptolemaic
times (c. 30530 b.c.). This is evidenced by prayers inscribed
on a rock called the Famine Stela, located near Aswan on
the island of Sehel. Here the prayers acknowledge him as
ending the famine that was triggered by low Nile floods.
Gods in their animal appearance could be represented
in a human form as well, the images were not static and
changed as the situation necessitated. Hathor, the goddess
of love, happiness, joy, music, turquoise, motherhood,
women, mother or wife of the king, foreign lands and their
produce, also took on different guises; she even identified
Animals of Ancient Egypt
25
The goddess Sekhmet, the ancient Egyptian lioness-faced

goddess, at the temple of Medinet Habu at Luxor, Egypt.
Sekhmet was a protector of the king in a motherly fashion.
However, when angered, as in the myth of The Destruction
of Mankind, she almost slaughters all of humanity.
26
Golden throne of tutankhamen.

In ancient Egypt the chair was a symbol
of status, prestige and authority. This
magnificent golden throne is perhaps
the finest of all yet found from any
ancient civilisation. It features lionshaped legs and two lion heads with
eyes inlaid with semiprecious stones,
indicating the power and the might of
the king.
PHOTOS: ICON72 | JAROSLAV MORAVCIK DREAMSTIME.COM
as the Mistress of the West, as required.

There is a gloriously painted and
detailed scene in the tomb of Nefertari
where Hathor greets the queen in her
anthromorphic appearance. It is only
by the bovine horns securing a sun
disk above Hathors head that we can
identify her as a goddess.
But not all was beauty and sublime
with divinities in animal representations. There could be dual sides to
their personality, one as protector
and healer, and yet when angry they
could be treacherous and destructive.
Taking the icon of a lioness-headed
woman, Sekhmet was a protector of
the king in a motherly fashion. However, when angered, as in the myth
of The Destruction of Mankind, she
almost slaughters all of humankind.
The impact of animals upon the
lives of the ancient Egyptians went
beyond that of food, pets and divine
icons. It also delved into the area of
architecture and furniture embellishments. Consider the feet of many
stools, tables and chairs of this time,
you will see lions paws with claws unsheathed, or the legs
of bulls and hoofs. These are symbols of power, strength
and majesty. On the golden throne of Tutankhamen,
itself a symbol of authority, a leonine form has been used
that features lion-shaped legs and apotropaic lion heads
guarding from the front. On the so-called Painted Box
of Tutankhamen, the pharaoh is depicted on both ends
with a sphinx body, confidently trampling his enemies
underfoot. The divine power of the animal gods continued
in the symbolism employed in the furniture in Tutankhamens tomb with three ritual couches taking the form of
Ammut the devourer, another as a lion or leopard and
also as the cow-goddess Hathor. Many animals depicted
with the vulture wings of protection wrapped around the
shoulders of a pharaoha common themewere employed
across Egypt. The nemes striped crown of Tutankhamen
features a cobra and vulture on his brow, ready to strike.
Another aspect of animals extended into Egyptian

medicine and magic. There was an esoteric belief in the

effect that specific qualities of animals could transfer to
a human, in what is known as sympathetic magic. One
account of such is recorded in the Ebers Medical Papyrus
(c. 1550 b.c.), where animal produce was used for remedies,
assisting with such things as covering grey hair in a wash
or making hair thicker and stronger. The process involved
to cover grey hair was facilitated by using the colour of
the produce or animal part such as black ox or black calf
blood boiled in oil; and to avert the onset of greying, the
black horn of a gazelle was ground into a balm mixed
with oil and applied.
Numerous gods with animal guises were worshipped in
ancient Egypt. Whether they were adored at pets and faithful
companions or worshipped in temples as gods, animals
both wild and domestic have always been a significant
part of the lives of ancient Egyptians, whether living or
dead, as indeed, they still are today the world over. u
Animals of Ancient Egypt
27
THE
CORVUS
of the Roman Marines
It was a solution that allowed the Roman legionaries
to become the most successful marines of the age,
as Erich B Anderson explains
Pictured
Roman bireme fitted with a corvus for grappling enemy vessels, attributed to Duilius.
28
Corvus boarding bridge
Ships prow
Roma
A Roman coin featuring the prow of a galley, possibly a quinquereme with a Corvus,
illustrating the importance of naval power during that period of Romes history.
PHOTO: MARY EVANS PICTURE LIBRARYALAMY | YURI CHE
N 264 B.C., THE ROMAN REPUBLIC SENT AN ARMY

against the forces of the North African city of Carthage
garrisoned within the Sicilian city of Messana. And
thus began the First Punic War, which ultimately
became a conflict over dominance of the island.
Yet while their legionaries had conquered the Italian
Peninsula, the Romans had never ventured to war at sea,
something that would have to change if they hoped to
defeat the dominant power over the waters of the Western
Mediterranean. After the Romans had built their first navy
in 260 b.c., Roman consul Gnaeus Cornelius Scipio led
its small fleet of 17 ships on a surprise attack against the
Carthaginian held territory of Lipara. However, reports
of the Romans movements alerted the Carthaginian
commander, Hannibal, stationed at the Sicilian city of
Panormos before the Romans could strike. In response,
Hannibal ordered a senator belonging to the Council
of Thirty that ruled Carthage, Bodes, to intercept the
invading fleet with 20 ships.
Then having found his prey, Bodes ordered his fleet
to attack at daybreak, catching the Romans completely
off-guard. Many of the Roman ships were close to shore
and confined in the adjacent harbour, so they were unable
to manoeuvre and sufficiently respond to the attack. It
was not long before the inexperienced Roman sailors
panicked and fled their ships for the nearby shore. So, not
only did the new Roman navy suffer its first defeat, but
consul Scipio was taken captive. The Romans desperately
needed a strategy to overcome the overwhelming advantage
in skill and experience of the Carthaginian navy. Their
solution was an ingenious innovation that allowed their
legionaries to become the most successful marines of the
age, which is now known as the corvus.
Prior to the onset of the Punic War, the Romans had
been completely reliant on ships provided by allies. For
more than 50 years, this auxiliary navy had adequately
fulfilled the Romans need, patrolling the waters just off
the coast of the peninsula. However, it fell way short in its
capability to fight the Carthaginians for control of Sicily.
On the other hand, Carthage had a long naval tradition that
had been firmly established in the region for centuries.
The supremacy of the Carthaginian navy was apparent,
as evidenced by its consistent prevention of Hellenistic
attempts to expel them from the island.
Following the embarrassment of Lipara, the Romans
proved that they could match the Carthaginians when

it came to the exploitation of resources, however. When
Hannibal led 50 ships to destroy the remnants of the
Roman fleet, he quickly had to retreat after realizing that
the Romans had rebuilt at an extraordinary rate, by then
outnumbering his fleet two to one. It was a significant
victory for the Romans, who gained control of the Messina
Strait, which separates Sicily from Italy, and most of the
surrounding waters north of the island. The Carthaginians
were forced to move their fleet to nearby Mylae. Regardless, the Romans were well aware that they would not
be so lucky if and when they faced an equal number of
Carthaginian vessels.
In an attempt to even the odds he would face the next
time the Romans encountered the Carthaginian fleet, the
commander, Caius Duilius, who was co-consul with Scipio,
decided to utilize the corvus. Although it is unknown
who exactly invented the corvus, it is certain that Duilius
was responsible for the adoption of the radical device on
most of his ships. The consul knew that the vastly more
experienced Carthaginian crews could move their vessels
much faster and ram enemy ships with more efficiency
than the crews of his own ships. Therefore, the Roman
commander took a risk by adding the unique boarding
mechanism to nearly all of the larger quinquereme vessels of the fleet that could potentially utilize the Roman
armies deadly legionaries to negate the Carthaginians
advantages in naval warfare. No ship smaller than the
quinquereme could handle the weight of the contraption,
yet at this period, the hefty ships had become the default
vessel of Mediterranean warfare, so these were the most
common ships in the Roman fleet. Yet, especially on the
bulky quinqueremes, adopting the corvus was a huge
gamble for Duilius, because the large boarding device
added a considerable amount of weight and thus slowed
his ships even further.
The Roman boarding device is referred to as the corvus
(which meant raven in Latin) by modern scholars due to
the metal spike that resembled a ravens beak located at
the peak of the large mechanism. However, it is unknown
whether the Romans actually used this term because the
only name that is consistently used to describe the tool
is the Greek word for raven, korakes, as in the account of
Polybius. Duilius inevitably felt that the extra weight of the
device was worth the risk since the beak was attached to
29
IL
R
LY
II
Ad
CORSICA
Aleria
ROME
IT
AL
Y
BALEARIC
ISLANDS
tic
Se
Capua
Nora
Battle of the Aegates

Islands, 241 B.C.
Panormos
Segesta
Mylae
Lilybaeum
Utica
Agrigento
NU CARTHAGE
MI
DIA
Carthaginian won battles

Territory at the start of the war
Battle of Hermaeum,
255 B.C.
Thapsus
Rome
US
Battle of the Lipari

Islands, 260 B.C.
Battle of Drepana, 249 B.C.
Roman won battles
Paestum
IR
Mediterranean Sea
Carales
EP
Tyrrhenian
Sea
Tharros
SARDINIA
Carthage
ria
Croton
Messana
Tyndaris
i
on
an
Se
Battle of Mylae, 260 B.C.
SICILY
Syracuse
Battle of Ecnomus, 256 B.C.
MALTA
Battle of Agrigentum, 261 B.C.
Mediterranean Sea
FIRST PUNIC WARS, 264241 b.c. During the

course of the First Punic War, the Roman navy was
massively expanded and played a vital role in the Roman
victory. In the course of the first half of the 2nd century B.C.,
Rome went on to destroy Carthage and subdue the Hellenistic
kingdoms of the eastern Mediterranean, achieving complete
mastery of the inland sea. The introduction of the radical corvus
(pictured, right) had been a deciding factor of the war. Although
the Carthaginians encountered the device on several occasions,
they were unable to thwart it.
an 11 metre- (36 ft) long by one metre- (4 ft) wide boarding

bridge. A 3.6-metre (12 ft) long slot cut through the bridge
kept it raised against a 7.3-metre (24 ft) high pole with rope
and pulleys most of the time, but in battle the crew could
drop the bridge onto the deck of enemy ships and embed
the spike deep within its planking. The bridge could even
be swung to attach to a ship directly ahead or on either
side of the bow. The moment the two ships were locked
together, the elite Roman legionaries swarmed across.
Before the corvus, a normal compliment of marines of a
quinquereme was some 40 men. To maximize the potential
of the device, the Romans increased the complement to
a full century, or around 80 legionaries. Given that since
the Carthaginians were unaware of the corvus and thus
carried a normal contingent of marines, the Roman marines
were able to rapidly cross the bridgetwo abreastand
overwhelm the opposing crew. Helping to ensure success
was the addition of low railings on the boarding bridge
that protected the marines up to their knees, allowing
them to cover the rest of their body with their shield.
Furthermore, the Romans constructed towers from which
to rain missiles upon the enemy crew in support of the
marines. As the Legionaries had already conquered all of
Italia, with the corvus, Duilius believed the legions could
conquer the Mediterranean as well.
At Mylae, the Carthaginian fleet had increased to 130
30
vessels. Duilius led a Roman fleet of roughly the same

number of ships to confront them. At this point, the
Romans may have had less quinqueremes than their
enemy, but many of their ships were armed with corvi.
When the Carthaginians saw the Romans advance, they
overconfidently rushed out to meet them without properly
moving into formation. Eager to carry out another crushing defeat on the Romans, several of the Carthaginian
ships moved ahead of the supporting fleet. Once the two
sides engaged, the corvi of the Romans superbly fulfilled
their purpose and latched onto any Carthaginian ship
that closed on them. Before the bewildered crews could
react to this new weapon, the legionaries had swarmed
and captured 30 Carthaginian vessels, including their
enormous flagship, a seven-fitted heptere, previously the
property of King Pyrrhus of Epirus. After the initial loss
of so many ships, the Carthaginians began to use their
superior speed and manoeuvrability to avoid the corvi,
but the Romans managed to swing the device around and
latch onto more vessels. Eventually, the Carthaginians
retreated, with some 50 ships lost; some were sunk but
the majority were captured.
Duilius followed up his victory at Mylae with the capture
of Makella, as well as ending the Carthaginian siege of
Segesta, before returning to Rome. Upon his return to the
capital, Duilius received the esteemed honour of being
Remains from Carthage Military shipyards. According to Roman historians, the shipyards of the military harbour could house more
than 200 ships and was protected by high walls. The fleet was the main defence of Carthage and the citys most trusted protector.
PHOTO: ROBERTO PIPERNO
awarded the first-ever naval triumph. Furthermore, he

was given a flute-player and torchbearer as part of his
entourage in public, while the columna rostrata was
constructed to commemorate his achievements. However,
despite his martial ability, Duilius never again received
a major command, most likely due to the fact that he
was a novus homo, an outsider who was not part of the
Roman establishment.
Instead of continuing to focus on Sicily, the Romans
shifted their fleet, focussing on the conquest of the
neighbouring islands of Sardinia and Corsica. Little came
of this until the consul Caius Atilius Regulus was sailing
with the fleet near Tyndaris, when he was randomly spotted by the Carthaginians in 257 b.c. As the Carthaginian
fleet moved toward his position, Regulus became afflicted
by the same overconfidence that led to the demise of
the enemy fleet at Mylae; he moved ahead of his fleet
with only 10 ships. The Carthaginian fleet immediately
pounced, overwhelming the small force, sinking every
Roman vessel except that of the consul, which managed
to escape. However, unlike at Mylae, once the balance of
the Roman fleet reached the fray, the tide quickly turned
and the corvi managed to ensnare several Carthaginian
ships. Before long, the Romans had captured 10 vessels
and sunk another eight, forcing the Carthaginians to flee
to their base on the Lipari Islands.
The Roman navy won several victories and notched
some major achievements, mostly due to the adoption
of the corvus, but in the bigger picture, the losses were
minimal to the Carthaginians and their fleet remained a
major threat to the empire. So the Romans decided their

next course of action was to invade the Carthaginian

homeland, striking the city of Carthage in North Africa.
To pull off such a feat, the Romans built an enormous
invasion fleet of 330 ships. Additionally, the complement
of marines attached to each quinquereme was increased
from 80 legionaries to 120. Likewise, the Carthaginians
prepared for an epic showdown and amassed an even
larger fleet of 350 vessels. And thus it was that the Roman
fleet set off from Messana in 256 b.c., sailing around Cape
Pachynus and headed along the coast towards the hill of
Ecnomus, with the intention of then turning south to
the African coast, all the while fully prepared to confront
the Carthaginian fleet. Because of this, the warships also
escorted a large number of horse transports for cavalry,
who would support the legions once they had landed.
As it turned out, the Carthaginian fleet encountered the
Romans while the Sicilian coast was still in sight. If the
ancient sources are correct in respect to the number of
ships on each side, the battle that followed may have been
one of the largest to ever occur.
Traveling from Lilybaeum, the Carthaginian fleet headed
southeast along the coast before it sailed around Heraclea
Minoa and then encountered the Romans. The Carthaginian
admiral, Hamilcar, was desperate to overcome the corvi.
Therefore, he devised a strategy in which his faster, more
manoeuvrable ships would flank the Roman vessels and
ram them in the sides or astern to avoid the deadly devices
on their prows. As Hamilcar commanded from the centre,
he ordered the fleet to move into a formation with three
quarters of the ships sailing in a single line abeam, parallel
to the coast, while the far left wing moved slightly farther
The Corvus of the Roman Marines
31
ahead, forming an L. Although it is unknown who was in

command of the extreme left, the right wing that moved
alongside the admirals vessels was led by Hanno and was
comprised of the fastest ships of the fleet.
Whereas the formation of the Carthaginian fleet was
common for the time, the Romans formed into a unique
tactical configuration. Both consulsManlius Vulso and
Atilius Regulusshared the overall command of the fleet,
while also in direct control of their own squadrons, the first
and second respectively. Each of the consuls was on board
an enormous six-fitted hexereis and led the fleet with the
ships of both of their squadrons behind and slightly off
to the side of the vessel in front of it. Therefore, the fleet
was formed into a wedge with the consuls leading as the
spear point. A third squadron travelled behind the first
two in line abeam, forming the base of the triangle, as
these ships also towed the horse transports for the land
invasion. The final Roman squadron sailed behind the
third for support and was nicknamed the triarii for the
similar role the position fulfilled within the legions of the
time. Having a greater number than the third squadron,
the fourth also travelled in a line that extended somewhat
farther than the squadron in front of it.
Like a piercing lance, the flagships of the consuls aimed
straight for the centre of the Carthaginian fleet and broke
through. However, the thinness of the Carthaginian centre
was a ploy of Hamilcar for his vessels to easily turn away
from the Roman ships, allowing them to pass, then to turn
back to flank and attack from the rear. The manoeuvre
worked to an extent, however, the Romans still managed
to successfully utilize their corvi and capture several
Carthaginian ships. As the Carthaginian centre fought
against the first and second squadrons of the Romans,
the third and fourth squadrons, along with the horse
transports, trailed behind. Using the swift ships under
his command on the right wing, Hanno raced forward
to assault the triarii. Simultaneously, the left wing, that
had pushed further ahead of the rest of the Carthaginian
fleet, sailed forward to attack the third squadron. Thus,
the battle quickly divided into three separate conflicts.
The first squadron to break was the Carthaginian centre
of Hamilcar. Overwhelmed by the combined squadrons of
the Roman consuls, the Carthaginian admiral was forced to
flee. Vulso stayed behind to stabilise the captured vessels,
while Regulus took most of the available ships and headed
towards the other Roman squadrons under attack. Soon,
Hanno found his ships completely surrounded by Regulus
and the triarii. Even though he had almost defeated the
fourth squadron, the Carthaginian commander couldnt
withstand the assault and was forced to retreat as well.
In the final engagement, the Carthaginian left wing had
managed to push the third squadron far from the other
conflicts, pinning the Romans against the Sicilian coast.
However, with their prows directed at the Carthaginian
vessels, the corvi posed too great of a threat for the
Carthaginians to approach them, leading to a stalemate.
At that moment, the rest of the Roman fleet sailed up in
support and attacked the remaining Carthaginian ships.
Completely surrounded, the left wing of the Carthaginians lost 50 ships to the Roman corvi. Overall, including
32
some 50 vessels captured, Carthage lost 64 ships to the

corvi and 30 to Roman ramming attacks; the Romans
only 24, all sunk.
Up until the Battle of Ecnomus, the introduction of the
radical corvus had been the deciding factor for the First
Punic War. Although the Carthaginians had encountered
the device on several occasions, they were unable to thwart
it. Despite this, the Roman invasion of Africa ultimately
ended in failure. The Carthaginian fleet was once again
crushed at the Battle of Hermaeum in 255 b.c. If the battle
was as decisive as Polybius claims, the Romans managed
to capture 114 Carthaginian vessels. After the victory,
the Roman fleet sailed back to Sicily, then sailed along
the Carthaginian-controlled coastline in an attempt to
intimidate the enemy with their now enormous fleet,
which had been swelled with captured enemy ships. But
despite the warnings of the ships captains of the threat to
the fleet by Mediterranean storms, the consuls maintained
their course along the rugged, rocky coastline devoid of
safe anchorages.
As predicated, the fleet was struck by July gales. Many
vessels foundered in the high sea while others were wrecked
on the rocky Camarina coast. Of a fleet comprising more
than 350 ships, only 80 survived! A likely reason for the
excessive destruction and loss of life was the heavy weight
of the corvus. Located toward the prow, the boarding
bridge mechanism would have unbalanced the Roman
quinqueremes, greatly increasing their chances of listing
and rolling in turbulent waters. Since any mention of the
corvus ceased after the Battle of Ecnomus, it is believed
by many that the Romans decided the boarding device
was on balance too great a risk and ended the practice
on future vessels.
In 254 b.c., the Romans rebuilt the fleet, adding 220
ships to the 80 vessels that had survived the devastating
storm of the previous year. Both consuls then assaulted
Panormus from the land and sea and captured the city.
The Romans followed up their victory with several raids
along the African coastline in 253 b.c., only to lose a further
150 ships to another massive storm off Cape Palinurus in
Italy. Since the Romans had stopped installing the corvus,
nearly all of the ships that may have still contained the
device were very likely lost.
Regardless of the destruction of so many Roman ships
from storms, the Romans went on to win the First Punic
War through the mastery of traditional naval warfare
tactics, as well as the expert combination of land and sea
attacks to secure the rest of Sicily. In a complete reversal,
the Romans defeated the Carthaginians with their faster,
more manoeuvrable fleet at the Aegates Islands in 241 b.c.
After 24 years of war, the crews of the Roman navy had
gained enough experience to no longer need the corvus.
Even though the Romans had successfully mastered ramming manoeuvres, they continued to board enemy vessels
in the centuries following the First Punic War, but with
much lighter boarding devices that could be dismantled.
The corvus had been a decisive factor in Roman victories
over the Carthaginians in the early phases of the war, but
as usual, it was the overall ability of the Romans to adapt
and surprise their enemies that made them so successful. u
2015
The tour was fabulous. I had such a wonderful experience. I have
learned so much history. Great accommodations, professional and
knowledgeable tour leader, and I will definitely join in next years tour.
Banje Blanch, Casino, NSW
The Diggings Tour transformed our lives and understanding

of Biblical history. It was so special! Ian & Bev Story, Victoria
The four weeks were one of the best experiences I have

had in my lifetime. The value for money of this tour was
outstanding. Ed North, Sydney
TOUR 1
AMAZING DISCOVERIES TOUR
Hop on and hop off at any point below to

suit your time and budget
June 8 15: IRAN See the amazing archaeological

sites of Persepolis, Shush and Ecbatana that are also
connected with mighty Medo-Persian kings such as Cyrus,
Dairus I and Xerxes, and the narratives of Daniel, Esther and
Nehemiah.
June 16 21: TURKEY Travel to the incredible ancient cities of
Ephesus, Pergamos, Sardis & Laodicea, and journey to the island of
Patmos in the beautiful Agean Sea.
June 22 July 1: JORDAN & ISRAEL Visit the fabulous cities of Petra and
Jerash, and see archaeological sites connected to Roman history, Israelite kings &
sages and the story of Jesus.
July 2 9: GREECE & CARTHAGE Journey to Athens, Marathon, Thessalonica, and other famous
Greek historical sites. Walk in the footsteps of ancient psychics at Delphi, of Alexander the Great
and his father at Thessalonica & Vergina and of Paul in Corinth & Philippi. Travel to Carthage
in North Africa.
ARCHAEOLOGICAL DIG (July 10 20)
Adding the Archaeological Dig to Tour 1 above will give you a taste of the excitement of
discovering objects thousands of years old in our dig at the famous ancient Biblical city of
Lachish in Israel. During this Dig also visit archaeological sites generally unseen by tour
groups.
TOUR 2
AZTECS, INCAS & MAYANS (July 12-28)
Come on an unforgettable journey to lost civilizations of the Aztecs, Mayans and Incas in Mexico &
Peru. Visit amazing sites connected with sun worship and human sacrifice.
Optional extra: See beautiful Lake Titicaca and the Iguazu Falls in Argentina.
Go with someone who knows the way!

Phone: Free-call 1800 240 543 (Australia only) or email editor@diggings.com.au
to register your interest and receive more information.
* Tours subject to sufficient numbers and prevailing security conditions.
BEHISTAN
SECRETS
Deciphering the Ancient Aryan Language

As with all good stories, facts are better than fiction. Alison Buckley outlines a
fascinating tale of ancient kings and their queens, and their place in history.*
Bijan Ahmadi Sufivand (foreground) and his

sons join archaeologist Farid Saedi (at the rear)
for a rare close up look at the famous fifth
century b.c. rock relief of Darius on the side of
Mount Behistun, Iran.
34
35
PHOTO: BART VAN EIJDENOFFBEATTRAVELLING.COM
PHOTO: GARY WEBSTER
The Behistun Inscription is to cuneiform what the Rosetta Stone is to Egyptian hieroglyph. Authored by Darius the Great sometime
between 522 and 486 B.C., it describes his conquests in three different languagesOld Persian, Elamite and Babylonian.
HE BEHISTAN (ALSO KNOWN AS BEHISHTUN, place in history are described. The placement of the writing
Behistan or Bisotun) Inscription carved into around the pictorial material has created a spectacular
a rock face in western Iran is one of the most objet dart of great beauty within the minimalistic confines
remarkable monuments of the ancient Middle of the ancient Median and Persian traditions. Further,
East. Fifteen-metres- (50 ft) high by 25-metres- (82 Darius claim that parchment copies of his account were
ft) wide, it is situated 100 metres (330 ft) up a limestone made was verified by the discovery of some in Aramaic
cliff near an ancient road that once connected two major on the island of Elephantine in the Nile River near the
cities of the sixth and seventh centuries b.c.: Babylon (the city of Aswan in Egypt.
capital of Neo-Babylonia) and Ecbatana (the capital of its
The eastern approach to Behishtan features twin, rugged
ally, Media). The monument stands on a branch of the peaks towering above the flat landscape. At the base of the
great Aryan trade route, the Silk Road, later renamed the mountain, the visitor looks up to a pronounced scar on
Royal Road of Darius the Great. Opposite, a caravanserai the steep slope, emblematic of the inroads Darius made
still provides rest for travellers.
on history in his era. Part way up the mountain, a statue of
In his third volume of The Seven Great Monarchies, the Greek god Heracles, whose presence was noted by the
historian George Rawlinson reported that, the unusual Greek physician Ctesias of Cnidus as an Assyrian sacred
combination of a copious fountain, a rich plain and a rock site, sits in sublime contemplation. Depicted satiating his
suitable for sculptures, must have attracted the attention thirst from a large cup, Heracles statue is considered the
of the great monarchs who marched armies through the youngest Seleucid artistic piece in Iran. It commemorates
Zagros range, as a place where they might conveniently set the victories of the Seleucid Greek, Nicator Demetrius II,
up memorials of their exploits. His analysis is supported over Mithridates I of Parthia. Some writers have argued
by the 16 other monuments also occupying the 116-hectare that the figure displays a synthesis between an ancient
World Heritage site near todays city of Kermanshah.
Iranian legend and the Greek religion that supplanted it.
Three texts telling the same story in three different
Other reliefs include the larger than life Parthian reliefs
languages comprise this largest cuneiform document in of King Volgash hewn sometime between 50 and 200
the worldBabylonian (or old Akkadian); Elamite, the b.c., located near an altar on the Balash stone at the base
language of the administration of the Achaemenid Empire; of the mountain, which hints at the carvings religious
and Aryan, now called Old Persian by western scholars importance. Mystery surrounds a Sassanid inscription
to avoid the original Aryan nomenclature. Its discovery mentioning the Romeo and Juliet-style love affair of King
by Europeans in 1598 led to the translation of the ancient Khosrow and his wife Shirin. A relief of Mithridates I was
script on the monument, which has sometimes been partially obliterated by an arched niche ordered by the
referred to as the Rosetta Stone of cuneiform writing. Savafid Sheikh Ali Khan Zangenahat, a governor of the
Sculptures in the limestone cliff depict the supremacy of province of Kermanshah, in the seventeenth century
Darius the Great of Persia, whose ancestry, exploits and a.d. Another relief shows Gotarzes, the other Parthian
36
PHOTO: GARY WEBSTER
statue of the Greek god Heracles part way up the mountain at Behistun, which according to the inscription, was carved in 148 B.C. to
commemorate the victories of the Seleucid Greek, Nicator Demetrius II, over Mithridates I of Parthia.
king illustrated, to be deposing Mithridates II and his

hated Roman connection. However, the vanquished king
is afforded the protection of (or attempted assassination
by) an angel, which is looping a thick rope over his head.
Fortunately, the 1673 sketch of Mithridates II by the
French traveller, Guilliaume-Joseph Grelot, was made
before it was vandalised in 1673, and showed him with
four individuals before him.
Others include Darius precise dates and time frames
for his military actions. Sadly, damage to the monument
by soldiers using it for target practice in World War II,
and the irreparable destruction of the head of the Medes
and Persians depiction of their deity, has signified the
progressive loss of their ancient religion and many of its
most spiritually empowering and socially stabilising tenets.
Over the centuries, visitors to the site speculated on the
identity of the figures on the cliff face. An Arab believed he
saw a teacher beating his pupils and a Christian thought
he recognised Jesus and some of His disciples. Drawing
the scene in 1818, the British scholar Ker Porter concluded
it represented the conquering of the 10 tribes of Israel by
the Assyrian King Shalmaneser.
The ascent to the inscription of Darius the Great is perilous.
Originally, climbers made their way up a rock chimney, at
the top of which they followed a narrow ledge on the rock
face to the right to reach the ledge below the inscription.
The most perilous section of the ascent is about halfway,
where a step over a gap in the slight ledge is required. This
ledge was later removed to prevent intruder access. Today,
visitors ascend past cracked boulder-like shapes weathered
into iron and copper shades to eventually stand in front
of the great writings on another narrow ledge.
In the sculpture, the bow-wielding Darius the Great

holds political sway over all other figures. The five-bythree-metre bas-relief shows his foot on his opposition,
Gaumata, and reflects his subjection of the other nine
figures, whose hands are tied and necks roped. Two
servants, Intaphrenes, his bow carrier, and Gobyrus, his
lance bearer, attend Darius, and a symbolic faravahar,
a winged angel-like figure over his head, indicates the
spiritually based hierarchical nature of the Mede and
Persian governments. Two pieces of the composition, one
of the figures and Darius beard, are thought to be later
additions, as earlier copies of the original can be found
further along the road.
Early translations emphasize Darius self-righteous claim
that several imposters posing as legitimate candidates
for the throne threatened his kingship and were duly
eliminated. But the sculpture tells the real storyDarius
eliminated all the rightful heirs to the Median Empire,
one by one, as follows in the translation from the ancient
Aryan language:
1. Gaumta, the figure under his foot, was the last Shahanshah (king of kings) of the Median Empire; he was
Bardiya (Smerdis) son of Cyrus the Great, but it seems
likely that Darius the Great and his co-conspirators
called him Gaumata to hide their crime;
2. First standing in line is ina king of vja (Elam);
3. Second is Naditabaira king of Bbirush (Babylon);
4. Third is Martiya king of Prsa (Persia);
5. Fourth is Fravartish king of Mda (Media), grandson
of King of Kings Cyaxares the Great;
6. Fifth is Ciataxma king of Parthava (Parthian), grandson of king of kings Cyaxares the Great;
Behishtan Secrets: Deciphering the Ancient Aryan Language
37
Mithridates II relief
LEFT: The rock relief attributed to Parthian

king Valgash, at Behistun. It was carved on
three sides of an isolated rock at the base
of the mountain sometime between a.d.
51 and 228. The main panel shows Valgash
placing something in the altar with his right
hand while holding a bowl in his left hand.
Although showing a worshipping scene, the
relief is considered as not being religious.
On the altar is an inscription identifying the
king. What, or who, the other two panels
represents is unclear.
7. Sixth is Frda king of Mrgava (Margian);

8. Seventh is Vahyazdta king of Prsa (Persia);
9. The last is King Skuxa of Sak (Scythian) xaudm:
tigrm : baratiy, meaning, He is wearing a pointed
hat.
At his inheritance, Darius, son of Hystaspes, received
23 countries from the Median Empire to rule. These
countries are listed in the first column of the Behishtan
cuneiform, with the direct translation in the Old Persian
language as follows:
: Auramazdha : adamshm : xshyathiya : ham :
Prsa : vja : Bbirush : A
patuka : Parthava : Zraka : Haraiva : Uvrazmy :

Bxtrish : Suguda : Gadra : Sa
ka : Thatagush : Harauvatish : Maka : fraharavam :
38
Translated into English, this reads:

Auramazd (God), he is mankind king, he is the king
and law givers, for these countries, Persian, Elamite,
Babylonian, Assyrian, Arabian, Egyptian, [those] who
are beside the sea, Sardisian, Ionian, Median, Armenian, Cappadocian, Parthian, Drangianan, Arian,
Chorasmian, Bactrian, Sogdianan, Gandaran, Scythian,
Sattagydian, Arachosian and Makan: the most known
countries are 23 kingdoms. Praise upon Darius.
Although Darius the Great claimed Persian heritage in
his memoir, he was also Median and perhaps even Jewish.
According to the Greek historian Herodotus, his father
Darius Hystapses was a Persian satrap from eastern Iran
and his mother was Rhodugune, thought to be the daughter
of the Jewish captive girl, Hadassah, who became Queen
Esther, third wife of Ahasuerus the Mede. Ahasuerus was
also father of Darius the Mede (see Daniel 9:1), born in 601
b.c. (Daniel 5:31), most likely to his first wife Queen Vashti
PHOTO: DYNAMOSQUITO
thur : Arabya : Mudrya : tyaiy : drayahy : Sparda :

Yauna : Mda : Armina : Kat
dahyva : XXIII : thtiy : Drayavaush
Angel looping a rope

over Mithridates II head
Inscription
in Greek
Gotarzes Relief,
vandalised in 1673
REmoved section by order of

Savafid Sheikh, 17th century
Above: At the base of the Behistun Inscription site is a composite rock relief consisting of a relief of Parthian king Mithridates II (12488
B.C.), a relief of another Parthian king Gotarzes II (A.D 3851), and a destructive panel authored by Safavid Sheikh Ali khan Zangeneh in the
seventeenth century a.d. Fortunately, we have a drawing (above, right), which French traveller Guillaume-Joseph Grelot sketched in 1673,
before this act of vandalism, so we know what the relief originally looked like. The sketch depicts the Mithridates II relief as being of an
individual, thought to be King Mithridates II, standing on the right with four individuals standing before him.
(see Esther 1:9), another little known figure. These biblical

notes and the distinct identification of Darius the Great
in the Aryan language on Behishtan clearly distinguishes
him from, and helps clarify, the origins of Darius the Mede,
Emperor of Media, a lesser-known figure of the era also
mentioned in the biblical book of Daniel.
After General Ugbaru (Gobyrus in the Greek) conquered
Babylon in 539 b.c. on behalf of Cyrus the Great, Cyrus
uncle, Darius the Mede, took the Jewish prophet Daniel
from the city to his capital, Ecbatana, where Daniel was
given the role of prime minister of the Medo-Persian
Empire after surviving his consignment to the lions den.
Daniel placed a copy of Cyrus decree to rebuild the Jewish
Temple in the palace at Ecbatana (see Ezra 6:2), and protests
in Judea over the enactment of the decree occurred until
Darius the Great took the throne of Medo-Persia in 522
b.c. (see Ezra 4:6).
The next verse in this biblical book applies the uniquely
Median generic title, Ahasuerus, to Darius grandfather.
This derivative of aha-shverous from the Aryan (Old Persian)
language is similar to that on the Behishtan Inscription.
It signalled the attack by Ahasuerus, the Medes father
King Cyaxares, on the Scythian King Madius, who had
occupied the Median throne from 635633 b.c. The victory
firmly established the kingdom of the Medes, which Darius
the Great tore down 100 years later to establish Persian
dominance of the empire.
The ancient Aryan language quickly fell into disuse after
Darius rule and has been described as forgotten. However,

when the British East India officer, Sir Henry Rawlinson,

was assigned to the army of the Shah of Iran in 1835, he
climbed the monument, copied the most accessible Old
Persian (Aryan) account, and began to decipher it using
the syllabary of the Danish linguist, Georg Friedrich
Grotefend. Rawlinsons translation was then applied to
the other two languages on the document. He decoded
the Akkadian in 1852, enabling the translation of clay
tablets from the ancient city of Nineveh and helping to
create the discipline of Assyriology.
In 2010, Hamma Mirwaisi, an Iraqi Kurd exiled to the
US, realised the Old Persian (Aryan) on Behistan closely
resembled his native dialect and compiled a more accurate
translation of the text. He discovered that from around
750 b.c., a common language was used by the Medes
(the Kurds forebears), Persians and the Elamites in the
Airyanem Vaejah (land of the Aryan people); the Median,
Achaemenid, Parthian and Sassanid empires. With that
discovery, Mirwaisi brought unprecedented knowledge
and understanding of this seminal Aryan language. His
translation affirmed historians conclusions that the Aryan
text on the Behishtan Inscription, was very similar to the
language of the surviving Zoroastrian religious texts of the
Avesta. Its now known that Aryan is very much alive and
active in the Middle East where it is spoken by segments
of todays Kurdish population. For example, words still
used in Iraq and Iran appear in the text on the cliff face,
while adam, the term for mankind, links another of the
oldest living languages to English and Hebrew.
Behishtan Secrets: Deciphering the Ancient Aryan Language
39
PHOTO: GARY WEBSTER
RUINS OF ANCIENT ECBATANA (also called Achmetha). In December 522 B.C., the Median rebel Phraortes occupied Ecbatana and
made it his capital; he was defeated, however, by the Persian king Darius the Great in May 521 B.C. Darius celebrated this victory and
other events in the famous Behistun inscription. According to the Bible (Ezra 6:25), a copy of the decree of Cyrus the Great to rebuild the
Hebrew temple was discovered by Darius the Great in this city.
On the Behishtan Inscription, Darius declared his allegiance and indebtedness to the singular, uncreated god
of light and wisdom, Ahura Mazda, and celebrated his
rule over an empire stretching from Armenia in the north,
south to Egypt; west to Cappadocia (in todays Turkey)
and east to the border with India. Darius elimination of
all his competitors, including the rightful heir, Bardiya,
son of Cyrus the Great and brother of Cambyses II, was
intended to attack three royal lines: the Lydian, the Persian
and the Median. However, Bardiyas grandmother, Aryenis
(princess of Lydia, daughter of King Alyattes), was the
second wife of Ahasuerus the Mede and their daughter,
Princess Mandane of Mede, became Queen Mandane of
Persia after her marriage to Cambyses I of Persia. This
resulted in only the Median line being destroyed, as per
the list above.
Heightened by Darius claim that Cambyses II (Bardiyas
brother) later died naturally of his own hand, the intrigue
then shifted to the mysterious figure of Gautama, who
Darius accused of being an interloper and magiian, or
member of the priestly component of the six Median
tribes. His subsequent massacre of the magi advisors
to the Median and Persian shahs heralded the moral,
spiritual and eventual political demise of both kingdoms.
Fortunately, their surviving descendants knowledge of
astronomy enabled them to follow a guiding star to Judea,
where they welcomed the expected Saoshyant or Deliverer
in around 5 b.c.
After crossing of the Tigris River on rafts of inflated animal
skins on his way to Babylon to investigate a secessionist
movement there, Darius explanation of how he quelled a
40
potential Babylonian uprising, made revolts throughout

the empire in Parsa, Elam, Media, Assyria, Egypt, Parthia,
Margiana, Sattagydia and Saka understandable. After
subduing them, he systematically sent his military leaders
to occupy these regions and keep control.
As Darius advertised his conquests, he took the moral
high ground, implying the support of Ahura Mazda, even
when entire subject populations rebelled against him. And,
although he professed to follow the prophet Zoroasters
right path of wisdom and knowledge, Darius the Great
was in fact the usurper whose merciless propaganda
against his enemies ascribes his own brutality to them,
including Gautama/Bardiya.
Enforced by violence and complete subjection of all
opposition, Darius political ambitions saw the end of the
benevolent Median Empire and its partnership with the
Persians. Wracked by hostility ever since, the relationship
between the two Aryan peoples has never been restored.
But with some repairs and much deserved respect, the
Behishtan Inscription remains to tell the story of the end
of the Semitic Neo-Babylonian age and the downfall of its
allies, the Aryan Medes of the Zagros Mountain plateau.
It demonstrates how the conflict between the descendants of the Medes, the Persians and the Babylonians, first
documented on the cliff face of Behishtan, continues to
this day. u
* Historical timelines in antiquity are not absolute. While
ARCHAEOLOGICAL DIGGINGS does not agree with all of the MedoPersian chronology laid out in this article, we have included it, as we
believe you will find the article both fascinating and informative.
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EMPERORS OF ROME
CLAUDIUS
A Political Emperor
Disfigured, awkward and clumsy is how history paints Emperor
Claudius, but is that really who he was? Daryn Graham looks
into this supposed unwilling leader.
Claudius became emperor that show a very different side

to this unlikely beneficiary of total power. According to
the Jewish historian Josephus, Claudius actually hid in a
certain narrow place, not behind a curtain. And he was
far from being an unwilling emperor. In fact, Josephus
related he had been encouraged to assume power by the
Jewish prince, Agrippa, who also promoted his candidature
as emperor to the Roman Senate.
What was in it for Agrippa? More power for himself, of
course. After Claudius had properly established his position, he gave Agrippa the kingdoms of Judea and Samaria
to rule as he saw fit. (Josephus, Jewish Antiquities, 19. 4,
5). Of course, that is the Jewish side of the story and no
doubt Agrippa and Claudius worked together to secure
their mutual ambitions. But Josephus was often one to
exaggerate the political importance of Jewish leaders in
his own time. Agrippa, therefore, was something less than
the instigator of Claudius rise to power. But there certainly
was the ambition Josephus described in both the minds
of Claudius and Agrippa. Most likely, it was Agrippa who
simply served Claudius real and long-standing ambitious
purposes in becoming emperor, for which he was duly
rewarded with Judea and Samaria.
Claudius was clearly prepared to become emperor. He
had no doubt counted down the days to the final demise
of his nephew Caligula, who was destroying his own
public image with every day that passed during his violent
reign. Thus, Claudius was not entirely an accidental hero.
Disabled though he was, Claudius could see for himself
that the worse Caligula became, the closer he was to
Bust of Roman emperor Claudius. This head was reworked from a bust of emperor Caligula in A.D. 50 to represent his successor and
uncle, Claudius. He is depicted wearing the corona civica, an oak wreath sacred to the god Jupiter to emphasise the emperors power. The
bust was discovered in 1779 in the so-called Otricoli basilica in Latina, Italy, and now stands in the Round Hall in the Vatican Museum.
42
PHOTO: ABXYZDREAMSTIME.COM
CCORDING TO ROBERT GRAVES FAMOUS

portrayal of the emperor Claudius in his historical novel I, Claudius, which was made into
a television series, and its sequel Claudius the
God, Claudius is very much the archetype of an
unlikely hero. A shy, unambitious character with several
mental and physical disabilities, Graves has his Claudius
unwillingly thrust onto the throne as emperor of Rome
by the same Praetorian Guards who killed his nephew
Caligula. In the mayhem of the murder, Claudius hides
behind a curtain in terror only to be found and seized, and
then proclaimed as the new emperor against his wishes.
Graves was right that Claudius was no ideal emperor. He
repeatedly allowed his wives and freedmen to browbeat,
bully and rule through him, and he was extremely harsh
with the Roman Senate, killing some 35 senators during
his 13-year rule. But Claudius was nobodys fool and he
was far from being the simple and unambitious character
Graves made him out to be.
On the night Caligula was assassinated in the palace
in Rome, Claudius was there, too. That much is certain.
But the ancient historians disagree on what happened
next. According to Suetonius, Claudius slipped behind
some curtains on a balcony to escape Caligulas fate at the
hands of the Praetorians, only to be found and unwillingly
proclaimed ruler of Rome by guards who whisked him off
in a litter to the Praetorian Camp to establish him as the
new emperor (Suetonius, Claudius, 10).
But that was merely the official narrative. In fact, there
were other accounts of what took place on the night
43
Atlantic
Ocean
BRITAIN
London
RH
BELGICA
INE
LA
Claudius launched his invasion on Britain in a.d. 43 to

legitimise his rule.
ND
Paris
Frankfurt
GERMANIA
GAUL
Vindobona
Augsburg
IL
AQUITANIA
Venice
Lugdunum
IA
SARMATIA
Y
AL
IT
Orange
LY
R
SPAIN
Odessus
SARDINIA
Olisipo
Caralis
Valencia
Gadir
Abyla
Icosium
NUMIDIA
The BibleAmisos
records Paul took
Byzantium donations,
from Ephesus back
A
I
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to
ATJudea, to assistIAin a famine
MACEDONIA
L
C of droughts.
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Thessalonica
Pergamum GA caused by a series
DO
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PA
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P
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A
Smyrna
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SICILY
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Athens
Tarsus
E
Agrigentum
Antioch
Corinth
Ephesus
SYRIA
Syracuse
Sparta
Carthage
Rhodes CYPRUS
ROME
Latina
Pompeii
Me
Regio Syrtica
AFR
Phoenix
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CRETE
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PALESTINE
Alexandria
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Jerusalem
Petra ARABIA
Memphis
(Modern borders shown)
00
1000
becoming emperor himself. Obviously, there may never

have been any certainty about this at the time, but Claudius
1000
Miles
was intelligent
(he would1500
later
author a history of the
Etruscans, among other mammoth works) and he could
1500
2000 Kilometres
see that things were moving in that direction. However,
he needed to plan for the event should it occur, and occur
it did. So, Claudius invented the official tale preserved
for us by Suetonius that he had actually made no plans
for power. To remain in power, Claudius knew he had to
distance himself from the scheming and machinations of
his predecessors Tiberius and Caligula. Both were hated
bitterly and Claudius certainly did not want to come to
their grizzly endings. What he needed were contingency
plans to effect a smooth transition for him to seize power,
and a positive public image to maintain it. He would
produce all of these things upon Caligulas death: by being
in the palace at the same time Caligula was murdered
and through stage-planning his proclamation as emperor
with the Praetorian Guards and others, like Agrippa, who
were complicit in making him absolute ruler in the place
of the despised Caligula.
However, it was what Claudius produced for Britain that
has given him his lasting fame among historians and
especially the British; the archaeologists in particular. Ever
since Julius Caesar tried unsuccessfully to invade Britain,
the Romans had dreamed of conquering the island. But it
was Claudius attempt that reaped success. In a.d. 43 he
launched his invasion with the aim of conquering the
fertile southeast lowlands south of the Severn and Trent
in present-day England.
44
After securing a bridgehead, the main invading Roman

force of 40,000 soldiers landed near Chichester and installed
a ruler friendly to Rome as dependent monarch, a local
by the name of Logidubnus. He would go on to prove a
loyal servant to Rome for many years. But even with this,
success was not assured. Opposing the Romans was a
British army of 80,000 warriors. However, the Roman
commander-in-chief, Aulus Plautus, proved himself a
gifted general, and he set about dividing his forces up so
that the Britons would divide theirs and thus neutralise
their numerical strength. The tactic proved effective. After
several battles, including one near Medway that lasted
two whole days, the Romans emerged victorious and were
able to penetrate safely beyond the Thames.
With these successes, Claudius finally appeared on the
scene to supervise the final victory. In a show of force,
Claudius brought with him to Britain war-elephants with
their mahouts and an army of parading troops. The display
had the desired effect and many of the local chieftains
surrendered to the emperor, including Cartimandua, queen
of the Brigantes in Yorkshire and Lancashire. Satisfied with
this, after 16 days of being in Britain, Claudius returned to
Rome to celebrate a massive triumphal procession through
its streets to the delight of Roman crowd. Of course, that
was not the end of the fighting in Britain; that would
continue throughout the 40s and well beyond, as Roman
armies pushed deeper and deeper into British lands. But
victory was now assured and Claudius could celebrate,
knowing such festivities were warranted.
Claudius exploited his victory in Britain to the utmost.
MAP: SHANE WINFIELD
By the time of his death in a.d. 54,

Claudius had started the conquest of
Britain, the first major expansion since
the reign of Augustus.
Dyrrhachium
MALTA
Sites of battles
CLAUDIUS EMPIRE
Black Sea
PHOTO: KONSTANTIN32DREAMSTIME.COM
Colchester Castle, England. This eleventh century castle was built out of, and on, the remains of the earlier Roman temple of Claudius.
The original temple was built between A.D. 5460 to honour Claudius conquest of Britannia. Its foundations, with their massive vaults, have
since been uncovered and can be viewed today on a castle tour.
PHOTO: NUMISTA
His reign was new and he needed to legitimise his rule

in the minds and hearts of Romans. On Roman coinage,
he advertised trophies as taken from the Britons (RIC
Claudius 33), and on his triumphal arches he unashamedly
promoted himself as the first to subjugate to the rule
of the Roman people the barbarian tribes beyond the
Ocean [the English Channel]. The celebrations would
continue for years. After Claudius triumph in a.d. 44,
in a.d. 47, Plautus return caused fresh festivity, and in
a.d. 49, Claudius extended Romes walls to symbolise the
expansion of the empire into Britain. In a.d. 51, Claudius
proclaimed further celebrations when Caratacus, a British
rebel, was captured and brought to Rome.
However, despite all of his grandiose repeated and
heroic self-assertion, as historian Barbara Levick calls it,
it could not solve all of Claudius problems closer to the
seat of power (Claudius, 148). In fact, as historian Josiah
Osgood puts it, for all of his efforts, Claudius could never
ensure that he would be seen how he would have liked
to be seen, especially by those closest to power (Claudius
Caesar, 26). Within three years of the capture of Caratacus,
on October 13, a.d. 54, Claudius himself was poisoned
and died, Tacitus records (Annals, 66, 467). In his place
emerged the young, artistic and ruthless Nero, whom
Bronze Roman Sestertius coin from a.d. 50 depicting

emperor Claudius on one side and on the reverse, a horse
and rider between two trophies mounted on a triumphal arch
celebrating Claudius invasion and partial conquest of Britain.
Claudius had adopted as his heir upon the stern advice of

his wife Agrippina. It is unclear whether it was Agrippina
or Nero who instigated the plot initially. But what is clear
is that once the plot was hatched, both played their parts
in it with set purpose and ruthless determination, as
well as an actors skillsomething Nero would in time
become famous for.
Claudius reign intersected with Jewish and early Christian
history in various ways. Early into his reign, for instance,
there was a series of droughts that caused famine around
the empire, but especially in Judea. Claudius himself
personally intervened, sending grain and fresh water to
affected areas. These benevolent gestures Claudius then
commemorated on coinage and in inscriptions. Despite
the emperors efforts, however, many in Judea continued to
suffer and starve to such an extent that Christian leaders,
such as the apostle Paul, collected donations to send to the
churches in Judea. Of this very real historical event, Paul
A LETTER FROM CLAUDIUS. This Greek inscription is a copy of a decree of Emperor Claudius commanding L. Lunius Gallio, the governor, to
assist in settling people in Delphi in an effort to revitalize the city. The inscription dates between April and July A.D. 52, and helps to date
Claudius expulsion of Jews from Rome, as mentioned in Acts 18:118.
46
Aggressive Jewish groups were inciting riots and violence

through the empire against Christian missionaries like
Paul. According to the biblical New Testament book, Acts
of the Apostles, Paul himself repeatedly faced violence
from such groups throughout much of his missionary
ministry in Pisidian Antioch, Iconium, Lystra, Derbe and
Ephesus in modern-day Turkey (see Acts, 13:1352; 14:17;
14:820; 19:141), in Thessalonika in Macedonia (17:19),
and in Corinth in Greece (18:117). Incidentally, cities
that rioted could face harsh penalties, and luxuries and
privileges could be stripped from them by order of the
emperor. In Rome, however, Claudius came down upon
rioters harsher, hence he ordered all the Jews to leave
Rome, as Acts also states (18:2).
Claudius reign, therefore, was one of momentous change
for the Roman Empire, which had been his plan all along
of course. By becoming emperor and conquering parts of
Britain, Claudius was signalling a break from the military
inactivity under Tiberius and Caligula towards a more
militant, mobilised society. But once set in motion, that
volatility could not be controlled, even by Claudius who
was well-versed in maintaining his public image. Unwittingly, by ignoring peace and security, Claudius continued
to inspire those closest to himAgrippina and her son
Neroto sustain such aggression, which was ultimately
Claudius downfall. Just as Claudius reign was born of
murder and glorified violence, so too his own death would
come as a result of murder and violence. For all his talents
and flare for public image, in his death he showed all that
he was very much an ordinary man. u
PHOTO: CARL RASMUSSENHOLYLANDPHOTOS.ORG
writes in his biblical letter to the Romans. It was originally

put forward by the Christians in Macedonia and Greece and
given to him while he was with them to take with him to
the Jerusalem church (Romans, 15:1627). Paul was happy
to agree. The Jerusalem church was the mother church
and Paul could see that this would help unite Christians
around the empire. Consequently, Paul took it upon himself
to oversee the donations, and he appointed emissaries to
collect the money and bring it to him, so that he could sail
with it from the Greek city of Ephesus (on the west coast of
Turkey) back to Judea and from there share it with the poor
and starving (1 Corinthians 16:24; 2 Corinthians 8:1921).
Another intersection between Claudius, the Jews and
early Christianity took place when, as Suetonius recorded,
Because the Jews at Rome caused continuous disturbances
at the instigation of Chrestus, he [Claudius] expelled them
from the city (Suetonius, Claudius, 25). Some scholars
believe that what Suetonius was trying to say is that
militant Christian groups in Rome, led by a figure named
Chrestus, had rioted in the city. But that is not likely.
Suetonius knew the difference between Christians and
Jews. In fact, according to the early Christian apologist
Tertullian, the Romans could not pronounce the Greek
word for Christ, Christos, so they Latinized it, and hence
the Romans version Chrestus (Tertullian, Apology, 3, 5).
In other words, what Suetonius was saying is that a group
of fervent Jewsnot the Christianshad rioted in Rome
over the message that had been brought there about Christ
by Christians, missionary or otherwise.
Actually, that was nothing unusual for the times.
THE ARCHAEOLOGIST by Patricia Pierce
Yigael Yadin
PHOTO: ZEV RADOVAN/BIBLELANDPICTURESALAMY
RCHAEOLOGISTS COME IN MANY GUISES. THEY OFTEN START

out from humble beginnings, but if they work hard they can achieve
great success. Perhaps the greatest example of such was Yigael
Yadin, one of Israels greatest ever archaeologists.
Born in 1917 into a middle-class Jewish family of Polish background, Yadins greatest influence, after that of his loving mother and womens
activist Hasya Feinsod Sukenik, was his archaeologist father, Eleazar Sukenik.
As a child, young Yigael was fascinated with his fathers work along with
that of Heinrich Schliemann, about whom his father related many a story.
Schliemann became Yigaels childhood hero. What attracted Yadin to him
in particular was that he had proved that behind Homers epic poetic works,
the Iliad and the Odyssey, there was more than a kernel of truththe Trojan
War really was a fact of history, for exampleand that he had done so at a
time when Schliemanns contemporaries considered it to be just a tall-story.
Yadin would dream of doing the exact same thing, but not in order to prove
Homer right. It was Yigaels goal to uncover the factsand artefactsthat lay
behind the Bible to reveal its truths.
However, those dreams lay far into the future when Yadin became an
YIGAEL YADIN was best known for his

research into decoding and interpreting
several of the Dead Sea Scrolls and
acquiring them for the Israel Museums
Shrine of the Book, thus making these
archeological treasures more accessible
to the public.
47
King Solomons Gate at Tel Gezer. In 1957, Yigael Yadin identified this wall and gateway, identical in construction to remains excavated
at Megiddo and Hazor, as Solomonic, making it as the first archaeological proof of a biblical historical reference since the building of this
wall was mentioned in 1 Kings 9:1517. This discovery Yadin would nominate as his greatest achievement as an archaeologist.
48
patch-eyed Israeli General Moshe Dayan was accused of

stealing ancient artefacts, Yadin remarked with his typical
wit, that, I know who did it, and Im not going to say who
it is, but if I catch him, Ill poke out his other eye, too.
If there was one thing Yadin was serious about, though,
it was his sense of patriotism. Yadin continuously looked
for ways the Bible could be used to inspire the Israeli
military, and he did not have to look through it for long
to find what he was after. Yadin had seen how American
and Allied generals had used the events of the Bible to
inspire their soldiers during World War 2. But as Yadin
would later say, you could search every page of the Bible
and still never find any reference to the battlefields of
Normandy or Belgium. But in Israels case, its generals
could find many references to battles and wars in the Bible
that took place in their own country.
Yadins love for the Bible, however, went well beyond
national militancy. He genuinely loved the Bible and his
respect and confidence for it increased as he discovered
more through archaeology. When he and others found
evidence of fire and destruction at the Bronze Age layers
at Jericho, he knew they had hit upon proof for Joshuas
conquest of Canaan, just as the Bible describes. As Yadin
would later say, he had discovered that there was a substantial kernel of truth in the Jericho story as related
in the Bible. Yadin had finally matched Schliemann, as
PHOTO: TODD BOLENBIBLEPLACES.COM
adolescent. First, he needed to earn money and when he

turned 15, the young Yadin joined the Jewish paramilitary
organisation Haganah and remained with it for 10 years
until he decided to study archaeology at university. But,
although he loved his studies, he was nevertheless forced
to abandon them in 1948 when he was called up to serve
in Israels war of independence as Head of Operations.
He went on to be appointed Chief of Staff of the Israeli
Defence Force the next year.
In December 1952, Yigael Yadin retired from the military
yet again, but this time it was for good. He then came
into his own in the world of archaeology. He renewed
his studies and in 1956, Yadin received the Israeli Prize
in Jewish Studies from the Hebrew University for his
doctoral thesis, which translated the Dead Sea Scrolls.
Yadins light had begun to shine and he would quickly
go on to excavate many important archaeological and
biblical sites, among them Qumran, Masada, Hazor, Tel
Megiddo and Tel Gezer, where he discovered a city gate
dating to the time of the tenth century b.c. King Solomon.
This discovery Yadin would nominate as his greatest
achievement as an archaeologist.
Yigael Yadin was one to respect his political and military
leaders and he kept many top secret affairs confidential
to the end of his life. But he loved the study of humanitys
common ancient heritage more. Once, when the famous
Fire destruction layers in ruins of ancient Jericho (centre of picture).

When Yadin and others found evidence of such fire and destruction at the bronzeage layers at Jericho, he believed they had proof for Joshuas conquest of Canaan.
PHOTO: GARY WEBSTER
he had hoped to do as a boy.

Yadin continued to serve his country for the rest
of his life. In 1976 he formed a new political party,
the Democratic Movement for Change (Dash)
and in the 1977 elections, Dash won 15 seats out
of a total of 120. When the winning government
joined forces with Dash not long thereafter, Yadin
found himself the Deputy Prime Minister of Israel.
He would prove a stabilising influence in the region, and
proved instrumental in brokering a peace treaty between
Israel and Egypt. For all his political talents, though, by 1981
Yigael Yadin had become disillusioned with Israels government and with politics generally, retiring from office.
On December 28, 1984, Yadin died, leaving his wife, Carmela,
who had worked tirelessly editing and translating his books
and other writings over many years, and two daughters, Orly
and Littat. Yigael Yadin was buried in Mount Herzl military
cemetery in Jerusalem, receiving the honour by the nation
whose military, government and religion he had served for
most of his life. u
Portion of the temple scroll: At 8.15 metres (26.7 ft), this is one of the
longest of the Dead Sea Scrolls. The work claims to provide the details of
Gods instructions to Moses in regard to the construction and operation of
the Temple. In 1956, Yadin received the Israeli prize in Jewish Studies from the
Hebrew University for his doctoral thesis, which translated the scrolls.

The ArchaeologistYigael Yadin
49
Naqsh-e Rustam, the

ancient necropolis of
the Persian kings Darius
the Great, Xerxes and
Artaxerxes elaborately
carved into the rock of
the mountainside. It is
located about 12 km
(8 miles) northwest of
Persepolis, Iran.
IRAN,
JORDAN,
GREECE
AND
TURKEY
PHOTO: GARY WEBSTER
50
DIGGINGS TOUR 2014:
LED THE GROUP VISITING THE MIDDLE EAST, THROUGH IRAN, JORDAN,
Greece and Turkey, in August and September 2014. Our biggest surprise
was Iran, which I had twice before visitedbut that was before the days
of Ayatollah Khomeini, who closed its borders to Westerners. In those
days, it was a long journey to get to the Behistun Rock carvings, the tombs
of Esther and Mordecai at Ecbatana and the palaces of Shushan where the
prophet Daniel is buried. Things have changed considerably, including the
roads, which are very good, allowing us to more quickly see these special
places and much, much more.
IRAN
A big surprise to the group was the friendliness of the Iranian
people. For instance, we would be walking through a covered bazaar
or downtown Tehran or Shiraz, when people would stop and talk to
TEHRAN
us in very good English. They wanted to be photographed with us, on
Hamadan
their iPad or smart phone. They had the latest versions of the technolBehistun
ogy available in the West. Iran is supposed to be under sanctions, but
Shush
a visitor would never know it.
The women in our group were forewarned of the necessity to wear a
Pasargadae
Bishapur
Persepolis
headscarf to cover most of their hair. Although it was somewhat a relief
Shiraz
to them to be able take them off when we entered Jordanian territory, the
experience was novel. Iranian women have become used to them over the past
40 years or so; in my earlier visits, headscarves were seen only occasionally.
0
400 mi
Our first major destination was the Golestan Palace in Tehran, a World
Heritage site and former home of the royal family of Iran. On my previous
0
500 km
visits, one could only photograph the buildings outside; you could not see
inside the palace at all. But since the Shahs rule has long since ceased, access
is permitted, although photographs are not. It is a magnificent palace, and
together with the crown jewels, a visit to the country is a reminder of some
of the opulence of the rulers of ancient Persia.
When our children were young, they often had me read the story of Esther
and Mordecai from the book of Esther found in the Bible. So during this tour
of Iran by bus, the visit to their tombs was quite a spiritual experience. A
Jewish caretaker opened up the courtyard and tomb area for us and we could
photograph as much as we wished. The city of Hamadan, or Ecbatana, was once
a stronghold of Jews and there are still quite a number who live in the area.
Iran is known for its hills and mountains, many of which are covered in snow
during the winter. Our journey through Iran took us on roads that traversed
some of them and our bus laboured at times to ascend some of the higher
altitudes. On one range of mountains are the famous Behistun (Bisotun)
rock carvings by Darius the Great. He had his achievements inscribed in the
rock face in three languages (Babylonian or old Akkadian, Elamite and Old
Persian) enabling the British archaeologist, Henry Rawlinson, to decipher
the writings, opening up other ancient records. These are a massive 15m (50
ft) high by 25m (82 ft) wide, being the largest of its kind in the world. As they
are located some 100 metres (300 ft) up a cliff face, it took a real effort for the
archaeologist to take the imprints that he needed. Even today, its no mean feat
to reach the carvings. The area below the inscriptions is well preserved and
today it is a popular tourist destination for local Iranians as well as visitors.
The archaeological diggings and restorations at Shushan (Shush or Susa)
were vast and this amazing area has so much to offer those interested in
archaeology and biblical history. It was here, and near here, that the story
of Esther unfolded (see Esther 1:2, 5; 2:3, 8) and the prophet Daniel appeared
in the palace of the Persian kings and received his visions of the future (see
Daniel 8:2; Daniel 10:4). It is without doubt that it was at this palace that Daniel
served as prime minister for the Persians, having also served in a similar
position in Babylon, particularly under King Nebuchadnezzar (Daniel 6:13).
IRAN
In 2014, Diggings
conducted two tours.
In the previous issue,
DIGGINGS editor Gary
Webster reported on the
Lost Civilizations Tour he
led to Egypt, Italy, Mexico
and Peru. Now David
Currie, a tour leader with
a lifetime of experience
in the Middle East and
North Africa, reports on
the second tour, which
visited Iran, Jordan,
Greece and Turkey.
51
Left to right: This brick dome in Hamadan, Iran, is believed to hold the tomb of the Jewish queen Esther and her uncle Mardecai; the tour
group found the visit to this tomb quite a spiritual experience. In the heart of modern Susa (above) is the tomb of the prophet Daniel; Jews,
Christians and Muslims alike revere him, and when we visited, it was in the care of Muslims. The Forum or oval plaza of Jerash, Jordan, one
of the best preserved Roman cities in the Near East; Greek inscriptions have Alexander the Great founding the city in 331 b.c.
In fact, the city of Babylon is only 300 kilometres (200

miles) away, across the Tigris River. Here, in the heart of
modern Susa, is the tomb of Daniel. Jews, Christians and
Muslims alike revere him and when we visited, it was in
the care of Muslims.
Writing about the tomb of Daniel reminds me of our
visit to the tombs of Cyrus the Great at Pasargadae and the
tombs of Darius the Great and Artaxerxes in the Valley of
JORDAN
Jerash
AMMON
Madaba
Petra
Maan
0
0
52
100 mi
100 km
Our time in the Kingdom of Jordan, while brief, was

excellent. Our first stop was a splendid afternoon visit to
the citadel in the heart of Amman. This is a must-see for
tourists, as it contains a very fine archaeological museum
and ruins that go back some three-and-a-half millennia. It
is also a great place from which to view much of the city of
Amman, both modern and ancient. Just below the citadel
is a well-preserved Roman amphitheatre.
Our second day took us to the old city of Jerash, about
48 km (30 miles) north of Amman. On the way, we crossed
over the picturesque brook, Jabbok. (It is believed to be
near this site that Jacob wrestled with the angel (Genesis
32:2230) and had his name changed from Jacob to Israel.)
Jerash (biblical Gerasa) is a well-preserved city founded by
Alexander the Great around 365 b.c. and boasts Greek and
PHOTO: DOLLARPHOTOCLUB.COM | GARY WEBSTER
JORDAN
Aqaba
the Persian kings, known as Naqsh E Rostam. The tomb

of Cyrus the Great is an outstanding site near the ruins
of the city of Pasargadae, while the tombs of Darius the
Great and Artaxerxes are carved out of a significant cliff
face amid mountains a few kilometres away.
Our last visit to a place of significance in Iran was to the
Summer Palace of the Persian kings at Persepolis. This
vast palace area was used by the last shah of Persia, Shah
Mohammad Reza Pavlevi, to celebrate the 2500th year of the
continuous reigns of the kings of Persia. Celebrities from
around the world joined in the celebrations. The palace is
very well preserved, with only some places reconstructed.
A very early morning flight from Shiraz took us to Doha
and then to Amman, Jordan.
Roman architecture. Unfortunately, the Muslim conquests

destroyed much of the city about a thousand years after
it was founded, but what remains is a splendid example
of a large ancient city.
Our group then took a three-hour trip to Petra, where
we stayed in the very new Panorama Hotel. Petra was
established by the Edomites, the descendants of Esau, the
twin elder brother of Jacob. En route back to Palestine after
their Exodus from Egypt, these cousins of the Israelites
refused them permission to travel through their country
(Numbers 20:1418). Israel was forced to take a longer
route through Moab. Centuries later, the Edomites were
displaced by the Nabateans, who are largely responsible
for the rock-hewn caves, temples and buildings seen
there today.
At its peak, under the Nabateans, it boasted around
30,000 inhabitants. Today, its visited by at least 500,000
tourists yearly. The Siq, with towering cliffs, is nearly two
kilometres long. Depending on time of day and the season,
the Siq offers different hues, from brown to a light pink.
The first view of at the end of Siq is the Treasury or Al
Khazneh. This beautiful piece of work is not a building as
such but was left as the cliff face was carved away. It is a
remarkable achievement and similar to the larger Temple
of Ed Deir about three kilometres further up the valley.
Our group didnt have time to go to Ed Deir, but many
climbed up the steep stairway to the high place where
the ancients made sacrifices. Near the top are a couple of
Massebah pillars, left when the top of the mountain was
carved away. These represented deities to the ancients. Then
there is the pool where it is believed ritual washings of the

priests and sacrifices occurred in preparation for sacrifice

on the altar. Some believe human sacrifice took place at
this site, though this is yet to be proved. From the altar,
one can see many of the sites of Petra, even the urn on the
top of the Temple of Ed Deir. One also gets a magnificent
view of Mt Seir (Um El Biyara), which is believed to be the
site where Israel King Amaziah completed his destruction
of the Edomites by throwing them from the cliffs of the
mountain (2 Kings 14). It is of further interest that the
prophets of the Old Testament wrote against Idumea and
Edom, which the site of Petra was part of. For example
Jeremiah, writing around 600 b.c., said:
The pride of your heart, O you who dwell in the clefts
of the rock, who hold the height of the hill! Though
you make your nest as high as the eagle, I will bring
you down from there, says the Lord. Edom also shall
be an astonishment; everyone who goes by it will be
astonished (49:16, 17).
A similar prediction is found in the small biblical book
of Obadiah:
The pride of your heart has deceived you, you who
dwell in the clefts of the rock, whose habitation is
high; you will say in your heart, who will bring me
down to the ground? Though you ascend as high as
the eagle and though you set your nest among the
stars, from there I will bring you down, says the
Lord. (ch 3, 4)
It is amazing how these ancient predictions were so
accurately fulfilled!
DIGGINGS TOUR 2014: Iran, Jordan, Greece and Turkey
53
ABOVE: The theatre at Delphi, built in the fourth century b.c. can
accommodate around 5000 spectators, where in ancient times they
enjoyed plays, poetry readings and musical events.
Left: The Holy Monastery of Varlaam, the second largest
monastery in the Metora complex, built in 1541 by hermit monks,
seeking a retreat from the expanding Turkish occupation of Greece.
More than 20 monasteries were built, with only six remaining today.
Vergina
Thessalonica
Meteora
GREECE
GREECE
54
PHOTOS: ANASTASIOSDOLLARPHPTCLUB | DR. LE THANH HUNGDREAMSTIME.COM
Delphi
The original
Diggings tour
ATHENS
Corinth
itinerary was to
Olympia
take us to Israel, but
due to conflict along
the Gaza border at the
time of final planning, it was
decided to change to Greece. Ill
concentrate on the less well-known
0
places visited outside of Athens,
0
Corinth and Thessalonica.
Delphi is well up in the foothills
of Mount Parnassus at an elevation of some 600 m (2000
ft) about 180 km (110 miles) northwest of Athens. It is
probably one of the most famous of historical cult sites
in the world, with its Sanctuary of Apollo and the oracle
Sibyl, sometimes called Pythia. Rulers and army generals
consulted the oracle, originally a young virgin but later
a more senior woman with an impeccable background.
The oracle was alleged to have a gift of prophecy, able to
tell leaders how to conduct their wars. Interestingly, they
were very often successful!
There, too, are the remains of a 5000-seat theatre where

plays depicted such things as the struggle between Apollo
and the Python. Then there is the stadium where the
Pythian games were first held in 590 b.c., which were the
likely forerunner to the Olympic games.
Meteora (in the air) takes first-time visitors quite
by surprise; the group was impressed with the
monasteries built on top of the rock outcrops.
There are 24 perpendicular rock formations of
up to 300 m (1000 ft) in height and separated by
precipitous drops and ravines; however, few have
monasteries today. Monks of the Orthodox Church
have inhabited these since the eleventh century.
200 mi We visited three that are in pristine condition.
The tomb of Philip of Macedon at Vergina is very
300 km
impressive. Philip was the father of Alexander
the Great and his tomb is one of the more recent
(1977) archaeological finds which the Greeks have turned
into something well worth visiting. The site consists of
several remarkably well-preserved tombs in very close
proximity in an underground area, with a fine museum
displaying recovered artefacts. Among the most significant is the larnax or coffin of Philip II. The wooden box
containing Phillips bones was covered with thick sheets
of gold, together weighing almost eight kilograms. There
were hundreds of other objects in gold, silver and iron in
excellent condition.
Istanbul
Gallipoli
TURKEY
ANKARA
Pergamum
TURKEY
Smyrna
Ephesus
Laodicea
Bogazkoy
Hattusa
Cappadocia
PHOTOS: ANASTASIOSDOLLARPHPTCLUB | MADZIAISTOCKPHOTO.COM
Carchemish
This country is rich in
Antioch
0
300 mi
history, archaeological sites
0
500 km
and fascinating natural beauty. After a side trip
to Gallipoli, we went to Bergama with its ancient city of Pergamos towering
on the hill above. There is a cable car conveying visitors to the old city and its
archaeological diggings on top. We could only wonder at the funds spent by
the Turks in making their archaeological sites attractive to tourists. This was
evident at many of the sites visited, including ancient Smyrna and Laodicea,
all three cities being mentioned in the biblical book of Revelation as part of
a sisterhood of seven Christian churches of the wider area established in first
century a.d. Our travels included a stop at Antioch (in Pisidia, see Acts 13:1444)
as we made our way to most fascinating of Turkish destinations, Cappadocia.
Ah, Cappadocia! One of the most wonderful places in the worldabove and
below ground. Its underground cities, tunnelled vertically deep underground
for protection, were first built by the Hittites and then expanded by the areas
persecuted Christians. Some are as many as 10 storeys deep, connected by many
kilometres of tunnels to homes, communal cooking areas, even churches with
baptisteries. Its fascinating, but not for the claustrophobic. But the most attractive part of Cappadocia is visible above ground, with its hundreds of pinnacles
that once excavated became the homes of thousands of refugee Christians for
many centuries. Each pinnacle is different, and best viewed from a balloon of
which more than 100 might be in the air during the tourist season.
Last on our list were two sites of the ancient Hittites at Hattusa and Bogazkoy.
The first Hittite city to be found was at Carchemish in 1905. Prior to that discovery, many authorities felt that the Hittites, although mentioned numerous
times in the Bible, were a mythical race and non-existent. Today some 36 Hittite
cities have been identified. The centre of their activities appears to have been
Hattusa, where sanctuaries and temples have been discovered. The Anatolian
Museum in Ankara is home to many of the artefacts found in these sites.
And there our journey came to its end, returning to Istanbul for a flight home.
Some of the group went to other European destinations, while some joined
the Great Museums Tour in London with DIGGINGSs editor, Gary Webster.
Our tour was well organized and trouble-free, and I would invite readers to
join Diggings for one or both of its two 2015 tours (see page 68), through the
Middle East or Central and South America for the journey of a lifetime. u
TOP: The fairy chimney homes of

the city of Cappadocia, occupied
and expanded by the areas
persecuted Christians.
Bottom: A lion from one of the two grand
entrances of the Hittite capital of Hattusa.
Lions were popular figures of protection
throughout the ancient Near East and
adorned many doorways.
DIGGINGS TOUR 2014: Iran, Jordan, Greece and Turkey
55
THE INNOCENTS ABROAD by Mark Twain
Part 4
Baalbek:
In Sight of
the Promised Land
Mark Twains The Innocents Abroad chronicles the authors

(Samuel Langhorne Clemens) Grand Tour to Europe and the
Levant. Originally written as a series of newspaper dispatches,
it is a humorous and satirical account. Travelling aboard the
steamer USS Quaker City, the travellers (or pilgrims) visited Italy,
Greeece, Turkey, the Holy Land and, finally, Egypt. In this issue,
the fourth of our series, the tourists visit their first biblical site,
Smyrna, one of the so-called Seven Churches of The Revelation.
E ARE IN SYRIA, NOW, ENCAMPED IN

the mountains of Lebanon. We sailed from
Smyrna, in the wildest spirit of expectancy,
for the chief feature, the grand goal of
the expedition, was near at handwe
were approaching the Holy Land! . . . We are cut up into
parties of six or eight, and by this time are scattered far
and wide. Ours is the only one, however, that is venturing
on what is called the long tripthat is, out into Syria,
by Baalbek to Damascus, and thence down through the
full length of Palestine. . . . The other parties will take
shorter journeys. . . .
Over the way from us, and higher up the valley, we can
discern, through the glasses, the faint outlines of the
wonderful ruins of Baalbek, the supposed Baal-Gad of
Scripture. Joshua, and another person, were the two spies
who were sent into this land of Canaan by the children
of Israel to report upon its character . . . . Joshua reported
favourably, and the children of Israel journeyed on, with
Moses at the head of the general government, and Joshua
in command of the army of six hundred thousand fighting
men. Of women and children and civilians there was a
countless swarm. Of all that mighty host, none but the two
faithful spies ever lived to set their feet in the Promised
Land. They and their descendants wandered forty years
in the desert, and then Moses, the gifted warrior, poet,
statesman and philosopher, went up into Pisgah and met his
mysterious fate. Where he was buried no man knowsfor
. . . no man dug that sepulchre,
And no man saw it eer
For the Sons of God upturned the sod
And laid the dead man there!
He divided up this valley stretched out here before us,
and so it was once Jewish territory. The Jews have long
56
since disappeared from it, however. If ever an oppressed

race existed, it is this one we see fettered around us under
the inhuman tyranny of the Ottoman Empire. The Sultan
has been lavishing money like water in England and Paris,
but his subjects are suffering for it now. . . .
We had a tedious ride of about five hours, in the sun,
across the Valley of Lebanon. It proved to be not quite so
much of a garden as it had seemed from the hillsides. It
was a desert, weed-grown waste, littered thickly with
stones the size of a mans fist. Here and there the natives
had scratched the ground and reared a sickly crop of grain,
but for the most part the valley was given up to a handful
of shepherds, whose flocks were doing what they honestly
could to get a living, but the chances were against them. . . .
At eleven oclock, our eyes fell upon the walls and columns of Baalbek, a noble ruin whose history is a sealed
book. It has stood there for thousands of years, the wonder
and admiration of travellers; but who built it, or when
it was built, are questions that may never be answered.
One thing is very sure, though. Such grandeur of design,
and such grace of execution, as one sees in the temples
of Baalbek, have not been equalled or even approached
in any work of mens hands that has been built within
twenty centuries past.
The great Temple of the Sun, the Temple of Jupiter, and
several smaller temples, are clustered together in the
midst of one of these miserable Syrian villages, and look
strangely enough in such plebeian company. These temples
are built upon massive substructions that might support
a world, almost; the materials used are blocks of stone as
large as an omnibusvery few, if any of them, are smaller
than a carpenters tool chestand these substructions are
traversed by tunnels of masonry through which a train
of cars might pass. With such foundations as these, it is
PHOTO: GARY WEBSTER
The temple of Bacchus, Baalbek. Twain knew this by its neoclassical name, the Temple of the Sun, although he mixed the temples up.
The much older temple of Jupiter is the bigger one but with just six columns still standing, while the temple of Bacchus, commissioned by
Roman emperor Antoninus Pius and constructed between a.d. 150 and 250, is the smaller.
BA
LE
dite
rran
ea
Se
ON
slabs of stone, which are so finely sculptured on the

under side that the work looks like a fresco
from below. One or two of these slabs
had fallen, and again I wondered if
the gigantic masses of carved stone
that lay about me were no larger than
those above my head. Within the
temple, the ornamentation was
elaborate and colossal. What
a wonder of architectural
beauty and grandeur this
edifice must have been
byblos
when it was new!
I cannot conceive
BAALBEK
how those imBEIRUT
mense blocks of
stone were ever
hauled from
the quarries,
sidon
Damascus
or how they
were ever
Me
little wonder that Baalbek has lasted so long.

The Temple of the Sun is nearly three hundred feet long
and one hundred and sixty feet wide. It had fifty-four
columns around it, but only six are standing nowthe
others lie broken at its base, a confused and picturesque
heap. The six columns are their bases, Corinthian capitals
and entablatureand six more shapely columns do not
exist. The columns and the entablature together are ninety
feet higha prodigious altitude for shafts of stone to
reach, trulyand yet one only thinks of their beauty and
symmetry when looking at them; the pillars look slender
and delicate, the entablature, with its elaborate sculpture,
looks like rich stucco-work.
But when you have gazed aloft till your eyes are weary,
you glance at the great fragments of pillars among which
you are standing, and find that they are eight feet through;
and with them lie beautiful capitals apparently as large
as a small cottage; and also single slabs of stone, superbly
sculptured, that are four or five feet thick, and would
completely cover the floor of any ordinary parlour. You
wonder where these monstrous things came from, and
it takes some little time to satisfy yourself that the airy
and graceful fabric that towers above your head is made
up of their mates. It seems too preposterous.
The Temple of Jupiter is a smaller ruin than the one I have
been speaking of, and yet is immense. It is in a tolerable
state of preservation. One row of nine columns stands
almost uninjured. They are sixty-five feet high and support
a sort of porch or roof, which connects them with the roof
of the building. This porch-roof is composed of tremendous
Al Kiswah
Tyre
dan
area
Enlarged
SYRIA
hazor
Sea of
Galilee
57
JORDAN
Above: Diggings editor Gary Webster stands next to one of the many massive stones found in Baalbek.
right: The temple of Jupiter at Baalbek with six of its huge columns. Eight more were disassembled and
shipped to Constantinople on Emperor Justinians orders in the sixth century for the Hagia Sophia. The
Temple of the Sun, also known as the Temple of Bacchus, is in the background.
58
mass fourteen feet by seventeen, and but a few inches

less than seventy feet long! Two buggies could be driven
abreast of each other, on its surface, from one end of it
to the other, and leave room enough for a man or two to
walk on either side.
Properly, with the sorry relics we bestrode, it was a
three days journey to Damascus. It was necessary that
we should do it in less than two. It was necessary because
our three pilgrims would not travel on the Sabbath day.
We were all perfectly willing to keep the Sabbath day, but
there are times when to keep the letter of a sacred law
whose spirit is righteous, becomes a sin, and this was a
case in point. We pleaded for the tired, ill-treated horses,
and tried to show that their faithful service deserved
kindness in return, and their hard lot compassion. But
when did ever self-righteousness know the sentiment of
pity? What were a few long hours added to the hardships
of some over-taxed brutes when weighed against the peril
of those human souls?
It was not the most promising party to travel with and
hope to gain a higher veneration for religion through the
example of its devotees. We said the Saviour who pitied
dumb beasts and taught that the ox must be rescued
from the mire even on the Sabbath day, would not have
counselled a forced march like this. We said the long
trip was exhausting and therefore dangerous in the
blistering heats of summer, even when the ordinary
days stages were traversed, and if we persisted in this
hard march, some of us might be stricken down with the
fevers of the country in consequence of it. Nothing could
move the pilgrims. They must press on. Men might die,
PHOTOS: GARY WEBSTER
raised to the dizzy heights they occupy in the temples. And

yet these sculptured blocks are trifles in size compared
with the rough-hewn blocks that form the wide veranda or
platform, which surrounds the Great Temple. One stretch
of that platform, two hundred feet long, is composed of
blocks of stone as large, and some of them larger, than a
street-car. They surmount a wall about ten or twelve feet
high. I thought those were large rocks, but they sank into
insignificance compared with those which formed another
section of the platform.
These were three in number, and I thought that each of
them was about as long as three street cars placed end to
end, though of course they are a third wider and a third
higher than a street car. Perhaps two railway freight cars
of the largest pattern, placed end to end, might better
represent their size. In combined length these three stones
stretch nearly two hundred feet; they are thirteen feet
square; two of them are sixty-four feet long each, and the
third is sixty-nine. They are built into the massive wall
some twenty feet above the ground. They are there, but
how they got there is the question. I have seen the hull
of a steamboat that was smaller than one of those stones.
We went to the quarry from whence the stones of Baalbek
were taken. It was about a quarter of a mile off, and down
hill. In a great pit lay the mate of the largest stone in the
ruins. It lay there just as the giants of that old forgotten
time had left it when they were called hencejust as they
had left it, to remain for thousands of years, an eloquent
rebuke unto such as are prone to think slightingly of the
men who lived before them. This enormous block lies
there, squared and ready for the builders handsa solid
Above: Photograph taken sometime between 1900 and 1920 of the quarry of Baalbek. Twain was
impressed by the size of the stones used in the building of the temples and remarked on this enormous 21.3
metre- (70 ft) long block known as Hajjar al-Hibla (Stone of the Pregnant Woman). Recently a larger block
was discovered beneath this one, as reported in News from the World of Archaeology (see page 62).
horses might die, but they must enter upon holy soil next week, with no
Sabbath-breaking stain upon them. Thus they were willing to commit a
sin against the spirit of religious law, in order that they might preserve
the letter of it. It was not worthwhile to tell them the letter kills. I am
talking now about men who are good citizens; who are honourable,
upright, conscientious; but whose idea of the Saviours religion seems
to me distorted. . . . Apply the Testaments gentleness, and charity, and
tender mercy to a toiling, worn and weary horse?Nonsensethese
are for Gods human creatures, not His dumb ones.
Not content with doubling the legitimate stages, they switched off the
main road and went away out of the way to visit an absurd fountain called
Figia, because Baalams ass had drank there once. So we journeyed on,
through the terrible hills and deserts and the roasting sun, and then far
into the night, seeking the honoured pool of Baalams ass, the patron
saint of all pilgrims like us. I find no entry but this in my note-book:
Rode to-day, altogether, thirteen hours, through deserts, partly,
and partly over barren, unsightly hills, and latterly through wild,
rocky scenery, and camped at about eleven oclock at night on the
banks of a limpid stream, near a Syrian village. Do not know its
namedo not wish to know itwant to go to bed. Two horses lame
(mine and Jacks) and the others worn out. Jack and I walked three or
four miles, over the hills, and led the horses. Funbut of a mild type.
Twelve or thirteen hours in the saddle, even in a Christian land and
a Christian climate, and on a good horse, is a tiresome journey; but in
an oven like Syria, in a ragged spoon of a saddle that slips fore-and-aft
on a horse that is tired and lame, and yet must be whipped and spurred
with hardly a moments cessation all day long, till the blood comes from
his side, and your conscience hurts you every time you strike if you are
half a man,it is a journey to be remembered in bitterness of spirit and
execrated with emphasis for a liberal division of a mans lifetime. u

EDITORS NOTE
Since many of our readers will be unfamiliar with the term Sabbath, we felt a
little explanation would be helpful. Sabbath is a biblical word meaning rest.
It was given to humankind during the
creation week nearly 2000 years before
the time of Abraham and nation of
Israel to remind them they were created
by God in His likeness (Genesis 1:26,
27; 2:13; Exodus 20:811). Humans
were to rest in fellowship with God and
others for the whole of the seventh
day of each week. Since it was called
the Sabbath of the Lord, it became
known as the Lords Day, and was
observed by leaders and people in both
Old and New Testament times (Exodus
16; Ezekiel 20:12,20; Mark 2:27,28; Luke
4:16; Acts 13:42,44; 17:2; Revelation
1:10). By Twains time, most Christians
were observing the first day of the
week as the Sabbath, and like the Bible
Sabbath, keeping it carefully. Since
Jesus Christ taught it was lawful to do
good on the Sabbath, Twain rightfully
objected to the mistreatment of both
man and animal by the pilgrims in their
quest to keep the Sabbath sacred.
The Innocents AbroadPart 4Baalbek: In Sight of the Promised Land
59
NEWS FROM THE WORLD OF ARCHAEOLOGY
ANTIQUITIES
ROBBERY FOILED
Dead sea, Israel
n a dramatic operation on the cliffs

of the Judean Desert, police captured antiquities robbers trying to
plunder Dead Sea Scrolls. This is the
first time in 30 years that antiquities
robbers have been caught on the
cliffs. The dramatic capture was carried out by the Unit for the Prevention
of Antiquities Robbery of the Israel
Antiquities Authority (IAA), with the
assistance of the Arad Rescue Unit.
The apprehension of the robbers was
part of a complex operation to locate
the Dead Sea scroll robbers, which
lasted more than a year.
When members of the Arad Rescue
Unit were undergoing routine training
in the cliff of Nahal Zeelim, in the
region of the Leopards Ascent, they
noticed suspicious movement in a
cave. Inspectors of the Unit for the
Prevention of Antiquities Robbery of
the Israel were called, who placed the
cave under surveillance. They noticed
people in the cave carrying out an
illicit excavation while using a metal
detector and excavating equipment.
The suspects dug in an ancient cave
which is known in archaeological circles as The Cave of the Skulls. They
60
caused tremendous damage in

the cave by digging through layers
of earth while destroying archaeological strata and historical evidence
from the Roman period c. 2000 years
ago and the Chalcolithic period c.
5000 years ago.
Those apprehended were young
men from the village of Seir in the
vicinity of Hebron, and had reached
the cave by rappelling from the cliff.
Police awaited the suspects at the top
of the cliff.
Amir Ganor, director of the Unit for
the Prevention of Antiquities Robbery
in the IAA, said, For many years now
gangs of antiquities robbers have
been operating along the Judean
Desert cliffs. The robbers attempt
to locate and find Dead Sea scrolls,
pieces of ancient texts and unique
artefacts left in the caves, particularly
during the Great Revolt against the
Romans in a.d. 6670 and the Bar
Kokhba Revolt of a.d. 132135, when
Jewish fighters fearing the Roman
army, sought refuge in the desert. The
finds are sold for large sums of money
in the antiquities markets in Israel and
around the world.
Excav
license ating without
an
a
antiqui d destroying a
tie
n
a prison s site carries
ter
to five y m of up
ears.
Over the
years, many of the plundered finds
reached the antiquities markets in
Israel and abroad, but it has been decades since perpetrators were caught
red-handed. This is mainly due to the
difficultly in detecting and catching
them on the wild desert cliffs.
What makes the Judean Desert so
unique is its dry climate that enable
the preservation of rare leather, bone,
and wooden objects, including the
Judean Desert scrolls, pieces of parchment and papyrus, on which various
texts were written, among them the
Holy Scriptures, books of the Bible,
legal contracts and historical stories.
The IAA invests a vast amount
of resources and effort in order to
safeguard and protect the heritage
values of Israel. Excavating without a
license and destroying an antiquities
site carries a prison term of up to
five years.
UNIT FOR THE PREVENTION OF ANTIQUITIES ROBBERY OF THE IAA
Member of the Unit for the Prevention of Antiquities Robbery inspecting the
damage caused to the Cave of the Skulls by the robbers.
luxor, egypt. A three millenia-old colossal statue of Amen-
PHOTO: ROBERT KOOL, COURTESY OF THE ISRAEL ANTIQUITIES AUTHORITY.
hotep III has been unveiled at Egypts famed temple city of

Luxor. The restored statue had been toppled in an earthquake
3200 years ago.
The statue, showing him in a striding attitude, was re-erected
at the northern gate of the kings funerary temple on the west
bank of the Nile. The temple is already famous for its existing
3400-year-old Memnon colossi, twin statues of Amenhotep III whose
reign archaeologists say marked the political and cultural zenith of
ancient Egyptian civilisation.
The statue stands 12.92 m (43 feet) tall. The world-famous twin Memnon colossi are 21 metres tall but show the pharaoh seated. It consists of
89 large pieces and numerous smaller fragments and weighs 110 tonnes.
The statue shows the king wearing the
white crown of Upper Egypt and each
hand holding a papyrus roll inscribed
with his name, like the one standing
next to it that was unveiled earlier
this year.
Amenhotep III inherited an
empire that stretched from the
Euphrates to Sudan, according to
archaeologists, and became king
aged around 12 with his mother
as regent. He died in around
1354 b.c. and was succeeded by
his son Amenhotep IV, widely
known as Akhenaten. The
statue was toppled in 1200 b.c.
Luxor, a city of some 500,000
people on the banks of
the Nile in southern
Egypt, is an open-air
museum of intricate temples and
pharaonic tombs.
One of the 21 metres-tall Memnon colossi, twin statues of Amenhotep III showing the
pharaoh seated. Although the newly restored statue of Amenhotep III is smaller at
12.9 metres, it is still the highest effigy of a standing Egyptian king.
Farm
house find
Jerusalem, Israel
A 23-room farm house, some 2800

years old, was exposed in recent archaeological excavations by the Israel
Antiquities Authority in Rosh Ha-Ayin.
According to Amit Shadman, excavation director on behalf of the Israel
Antiquities Authority, The farm, which
is extraordinarily well-preserved,
extends across an area of 30 by 40
metres and was built in the eighth
century b.c., in the time of the Assyrian conquest. Farm houses during this
period served as small settlements of
sorts whose inhabitants participated
in processing agricultural produce. The
numerous wine presses discovered in
the vicinity of the settlement indicate
the wine industry was the most important branch of agriculture in the region.
A large silo, which was used to store
grain, shows that the ancient residents
were also engaged in growing cereal.
According to Shadman, the building
appears to have been in continuous
use during the Persian period (also
known as the Time of the Return to
Zion) in the sixth century b.c. and Hellenistic period as well, which began in
the country with the arrival of Alexander the Great, one of the greatest
military leaders of antiquity. Evidence
of a Greek presence in the region was
uncovered on one of the floors of the
building in the form of a rare silver
coin (pictured) bearing the military
leaders name N. One can
also discern the image of the god Zeus
on that side of the coin, while the head
of Heracles appears on its reverse.
News from the World of Archaeology
61
BACK ON HIS FEET

AFTER 3000 YEARS
Baalbek, Lebanon
(6
19.6 m
erman archaeologists at Baalbek in Lebanon have

uncovered the largest stone ever carved by human hands,
possibly dating to more than 2000 years ago.
The partially buried monolith measures 19.6 m (64 ft) in
length by 6 m (19.6 ft) wide and is at least 5.5 m (18 ft) high. Its
weight is estimated at a bulky 1650 tons, making it biggest ever
stone block from antiquity.
It was found by a team from the German Archaeological
Institute working in a limestone quarry about 500 metres from
the Baalbek temple complex. Known as Heliopolis, the city of
the sun, during the Roman rule, Baalbek housed one of the
grandest sanctuaries in the empire.
The block was found beneath the fully exposed Hajjar
al-Hibla stone that Mark Twain remarked on during his visit to
Baalbek (see page 54).
The level of smoothness indicates the
block was meant to be transported and used
without being cut, the German Archaeological Institute said in a statement.
Archaeologists believe the limestone blocks
date back to at least 27 b.c., when Baalbek
was a Roman colony and construction on
three major and several minor temples began,
lasting until the second century A.D.
Massive stone blocks of a 64-foot length
(19.5 m) were used for the podium of the
huge Temple of Jupiter in the sanctuary, the
archaeologists said.
Only portions of the temple remain, including six massive columns and 27 gigantic limestone blocks at its base. How these monoliths
were transported and precisely positioned
during the temple construction remains a
mystery. Some even argue the block was laid
by an unknown earlier culture predating even
The massive stone block. Its the one still partly buried. German
Alexander the Great, who founded Heliopolis
archaeologists working at the Baalbek site in Lebanon have uncovered
in 334 B.C.
PHOTOS: J. ABDUL MASSIH, GERMAN ARCHAEOLOGICAL INSTITUTE
6 m (19.6 ft)
THE BIGGER
BLOCK
G
4 ft)
the biggest stone block ever carved by human hands in antiquity.
london, uk. Every year, more than three million people get to see British
Museum exhibitions and objects on show as part of its touring exhibitions, spotlight
loans or through partner galleries. Now until May 30, 2015, an exhibit of some 160
items and artefactsRoman Empire: Power and Peoplefrom the museum will tour,
first at The McManus, Dundee (to May 10), then at Segedunum Roman Fort and Baths
(to May 30).
And continuing at the London museum itself, is its Ancient Lives, New Discoveries
exhibit, which due to public demand has been extended until April 19, 2015. Ancient
Lives is a face-to-face encounter with eight people who lived in ancient Egypt and Sudan, and
uses the latest in digital technology to reveal new information about each mummy, helping visitors
to better understand the mysteries of mummification and giving an insight into their lives.
62
PHOTO: BRITISH MUSEUM
British Museum tour
Deutsches Archologisches Institute.
PHOTO: CZGURISTOCKPHOTO.COM
Nevsehir province is already famous for its subterranean

city at Derinkuyu (pictured), and now an ancient city
has been found beneath the Nevsehir fortress that is far
larger than any currently known underground cities.
NEW CITY DISCOVERED

Nevsehir, Turkey. At the close of 2014, Turkey
announced the discovery of potentially the years biggest archeological find, a new underground city in the
Central Anatolian province of Nevsehir, known for its
Fairy Chimneys rock formations. The city was discovered
during an urban transformation demolition project near
the Nevsehir Fortress.
Said spokesman Mehmet Ergn Turan, It is not a
known underground city. Tunnel passages of seven
kilometres are being discussed. We stopped the construction we were planning to do on these areas when
an underground city was discovered.

The city is thought to date back 5000 years and is
located around the Nevsehir Fortress. Escape galleries
and hidden churches were discovered inside the underground city. While the urban transformation project
would be relocated at huge cost, Turan said that this
could not be seen as a loss, as this discovery may just be
the worlds largest underground city.
Hasan nver, mayor of Nevsehir, said other underground cities in Nevsehirs various districts do not even
amount to the kitchen of the new discovery.
2000-YEAR-OLD ROMAN ARTEFACTS

RECOVERED FROM THE SEA
PHOTO: GUEINGEMAR LUNDGREN
Aeolian Island, Italy. Divers from the nonprofit Global Underwater Explorers (GUE) discovered a 2000-year-old sacrificial altar while
exploring an ancient shipwreck in 120 metres (400 ft) of water. The
ship, dubbed Panarea III, is believed to have sailed around 218210
b.c., during the Second Punic War between Rome and Carthage. The
ship was discovered in the Mediterranean Sea, off the Aeolian Island
of Panarea near Italy, in 2010 by US archaeologists.
The artefact is one of many unique discoveries that promise to help redefine what we
understand about ancient trade routes
and commerce in the third century b.c.,
says GUE.
GUE technical divers working in
tandem with submersibles from
Brownies Global Logistics were able to
identify and recover 16 unique artefacts, including a number of amphora. The
recovery is likely the deepest ever archaeology
accomplished by volunteer technical divers.
Global Underwater Explorers, Florida, USA
Watch a short video on the
discovery of the sacrificial altar
on our iPad edition of DIGGINGS.

Divers with the

recovered 2000-yearold sacrificial altar .
News from the World of Archaeology
63
ANCIENT POTTERY REVEALS EARLY

DEPICTION OF CONSTELLATIONS
Halai, Greece
A fragmentary wine cup recovered

from excavations at the ancient
Greek acropolis of Halai in East
Lokris, displays what might be one of
the earliest depictions of constellations known from Greece. The piece
of pottery, called a skyphos, was
found in a trench believed to contain
debris from the destruction of the
first Archaic temple of the region
in 480 b.c., while the skyphos itself
is believed to be a local production
decorated in a Corinthianising style
consistent with 625 b.c. As such, it
was probably intended as one of the
earlier dedications in the temple.
About two-thirds of the skyphos
remains, and is currently on display
at the Lamia Archaeological Museum
in Greece. It features an animal
frieze, including a bull, a snake,
either a hare or a small dog, a large
dog, a scorpion, a dolphin and a
panther or lion, all of which face
left. While traditionally thought to
portray a hunting scene or typical
Corinthianising motif, John Barnes, a
classical archaeology doctoral candidate at the University of Missouri,
argues otherwise.
While panthers, lions and bulls

are common on Corinthian and
Corinthianising pottery, bulls are
less popular by the late seventh
century, he says. The dolphin
seems out of place surrounded by
land animals, especially with no
indications of water. The scorpion is
a generally uncommon motif and is
more often represented as a shield
emblem than as an actual animal.
The image of a dog chasing a hare is
a common trope in hunting scenes,
but the snake lying under the pair is
atypical. These irregularities suggest
that the frieze should not be read
as a normal hunting scene or as a
standard assortment of wildlife in a
conventional frieze.
Instead, Barnes says all of the represented animals have parallels to
constellations described by Homer,
Hesiod and later Greek writers and
can be read together as seasonal
representations of the night sky.
However, Barnes believes the
skyphos likely didnt function as an
ancient calendar, and instead merely
showed a generalised representation
of time throughout the year.
John Barnes from the University of Missouri says this ancient Greek cup depicts
constellations. From left to right, are a bull (Taurus), snake (Hydra), rabbit or small
dog (Lepus) and a larger dog (Canis Major or Canis Minor). If confirmed it would be
one of the earliest records of Greek astronomy.
CLOSE SHAVE FOR

TUTANKHAMUN
cairo, Egypt. The burial mask of Tu-
View the press conference on our

iPad edition of DIGGINGS.
64
PHOTOS: JOHN BARNES | JORG HACKEMANNDREAMSTIME.COM
tankhamun made headlines earlier this

year when it was reported the blue
and gold braided beard apparently fell
off and museum staff hastily glued it
back on with an epoxya strong adhesive normally used for metal or stone.
While the beard and the rest of the
mask were made separately and have
always been fixed together, the epoxy,
and subsequent actions to remove the
dried glue, have resulted in damages
to the artefact, including scratches
with many in the archaeological community becoming concerned with the
safety of the 3300-year-old priceless
funeral mask in the Egyptian Museum.
The mask should have been taken to
the conservation lab but they were in
a rush to get it displayed quickly again
and used this quick drying, irreversible
material, a museum curator
told the Associated Press.
There is now a visible gap
between the face and the
beard. Now you can see a
layer of transparent yellow.
Officials have finally confirmed the sequence of events in
a press conference in late January.
German conservator Christian
Eckmann, standing alongside
the Egyptian antiquities minister,
Mahmoud Damaty, said the damage to Tutankhamuns mask was not
necessarily permanent.
It is a delicate operation, Eckmann
said. It has to be done very carefully,
but it is reversible.
CORRECTION
I must compliment you on the
articles on Tiberius and Agatha
Christie, which I found fascinating.
Havent yet read the issue with
Caligula, but expect to enjoy that too.
Also, I couldnt agree more about
what you say about Christians in past
times. But I couldnt help noticing
your map (page 36), though, showing
Orange in Belgium. The only Orange
I know is in the south of France, close
to Arles and Nimes. I visited it as a
small boy in the fifties and saw the
theatre with a statue of Augustus. I
begged my parents to go to Arles and
Nimes. Wanted to see the amphitheatre and the Pont du Gard. But they
wouldnt go!
Colin McCulloch
Ed. Oops! Yes, you will notice that we

have shifted it back in this issue (page
44). It was accidentally selected and
shifted north in the design process.
LONG-TERM SATISFACTION
I have subscribed to ARCHAEOLOGICAL DIGGINGS from the very
first issue, and for the past
22 years I have always
looked forward to the delivery of the

next bimonthly edition. It seems to
me that the quality of the magazine
has continued to improve with every
new issue, especially in recent years.
The quality of the photographs is
outstanding, the layout is attractive
and inviting, while the choice and
presentation of topics is excellent.
As a non-professional archaeologist,
but an enthusiast for ancient and
middle eastern history, I find the
content of the articles very appropriate to my level of interest. Great
work! Glad also to see a good balance
between ads and articles. Please
keep up the good work, while I look
forward to the arrival of my next
ARCHAEOLOGICAL DIGGINGS.
In appreciation of a job well done.
Russel Stanley, NSW
CUDOS
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Solange Court, Qld
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Ancient Mysteries Reveal the Future
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For more information, contact the
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THE AGORA Public notice board of items of interest and readers comments
EVENTS
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10
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8. When?
9. Who?
10. What?
13
12
11 Where?
12. When?
13. Who?
15
14. What?
15. Where?
(Answers on page 67)
66
14
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Archaeological Puzzle (page 66) answers: 1. Diggings editor, Gary Webster (p5) 2. Temple Scroll (p49) 3. Cathedral in Oviedo, Spain (p9)
4. 1st century a.d. (p24) 5. Anubis (p1) 6. Behistun Inscription (p36) 7. Egyptian Museum, Cairo (p64) 8. a.d. 52 (p46) 9. Yigael Yadin (p47) 10. Shroud
of Turin (p9) 11. Tomb of Daniel, Susa (p52) 12. a.d. 50 (p43) 13. King Sobekhotep III (p19) 14. Golden throne of Tutankhamen (p27) 15. Baalbek (p57)

Archaeological Diggings, Au 2015-03 04 Vol. 22 No. 2 - Animals of Ancient Egypt

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Archaeological Diggings, Au 2015-03 04 Vol. 22 No. 2 - Animals of Ancient Egypt

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VOL 22 NO 2 MARCH/APRIL 2015 DIGGINGS.COM.

Diggings Tour Report 50

The Corvus of the

SHROUD OF TURIN EMPEROR CLAUDIUS YIGAEL YADIN PAPYRUS BROOKLYN

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An exciting introduction to the ancient world presented in three

1300 300 389

56 The Innocents Abroad

16 The Papyrus Brooklyn

Yigael Yadin, the man

As god or pet, they were

60 News from the World

28 The Corvus of the

Community news, events

It was a mechanism that

Who, What, Where and When

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On the cover: Statue of Anubis depicted

50 Diggings Tour: Iran,

Cover photo: Gerard Gratadourisifa/

PHOTO: GARY WEBSTER

HE SHROUD OF TURIN IS PERHAPS ONE OF THE MOST

of Jesus of Nazareth. For centuries, it was venerated by the Catholic

Archaeological DiggingsMarch/April 2015

The Hungarian Pray Manuscript is an ancient document

An alternate proposition was biofractionation and

The Mandylion of Edessa usually takes pride of place in the

Jesus is depicted naked with arms crossed over the pelvis

Archaeological DiggingsMarch/April 2015

Shroud. It is dated to a.d. 593 from the writing of Evagrius

of Savoy, who stored it in a silver chest in a chapel at his

photographing of the shroud. When Secondo Pia took the

Analysis and radio-carbon dating

Archaeological DiggingsMarch/April 2015

of the cloth (Schwalbe et al. 1982), all these markings

Quality of the radio-carbon sample

In response to these claims, Giovanni Riggi, who removed

the chemical structure between the radiocarbon sample

FROM JERUSALEM with Danny Herman

The Roman Arch

that time, perhaps for the visit of

Archaeological DiggingsMarch/April 2015

PHOTO: YOLI SHWARTZ, COURTESY OF THE ISRAEL ANTIQUITIES AUTHORITY

Roman period imperial

PHOTO: ASSAF PERETZ, COURTESY OF THE ISRAEL ANTIQUITIES AUTHORITY

erhaps my best moments in

to was recorded on one of the walls

Above: The interior of the Jewish ritual bath

of these people are acquainted with

The enigmatic circular structure at kh.Jiljil: Danny Herman

Another commemoration site of Stephanus?

Archaeological DiggingsMarch/April 2015

noted that the chances of turning a

PHOTOS: DANNY HERMAN

DIG DEEPER INTO THE PAST WITH THE PRINT EDITION