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Fundamental Receiver Operation
Digital Signal Transmission
Error Sources
Coherent Detection
Analog Receiver
Error Sources
Errors in the detection mechanism can arise from
various noises and disturbances associates with the
signal detection system.
The two most common samples of the spontaneous
fluctuations are shot noise and thermal noise.
Shot noise arises in electronic devices because of
the discrete nature of current flow in the device.
Thermal noise arises from the random motion of
electrons in a conductor.
N=
h
E
P(t )dt =
h
(7-1)
n!
F ( M ) = kM + 2
M
or
F (M ) M
(1 k )
(7-3)
(7-4)
Receiver Configuration
A typical optical receiver is shown in Fig. 7-4.
The three basic stages of the receiver are a photodetector, an amplifier, and an equalizer.
The photo-detector can be either an APD with a mean
gain M or a PIN for which M=1.
The photodiode has a quantum efficiency and a
capacitance Cd.
The detector bias resistor has a resistance Rb which
generates a thermal noise current ib(t).
b h
n
(t nTb )
n =
h p (t )dt = 1
q
i (t ) =
MP(t ) = R0 bn h p (t nTb )
h
n =
P1 (v) = p( y | 1)dy
(7-6)
which is the probability that the equalizer output voltage
is less than v when a logical 1 pulse is sent, and
P0 (v) = p ( y | 0)dy
(7-7)
which is the probability that the output voltage exceeds v
when a logical 0 is transmitted.
v
(7-8)
f ( s )ds =
1
2
( s m ) 2 / 2 2
ds
(7-9)
vth
vth
1
2 off
(v boff )
vth exp 2 off2
dv
(7-10)
vth
1
2 on
(bon v) 2
exp 2 on2 dv
vth
(7-11)
BER = Pe (Q) =
Q/ 2
x2
dx
(7-12)
1
1 e Q / 2
Q
= 1 erf
2
2 Q
2
where the parameter Q is defined as
vth boff bon vth bon boff
(7-13)
Q=
=
=
off
on
on + off
The approximation is obtained from the asymptotic expansion of
error function
.
erfc( x) = 1 erf ( x) =
x
e y dy large
x2
e
x
Calculation Examples
Example 7.1: When there is little ISI, 1- is small, so that
2
on2 off
. Then, by letting boff =0,
bon
1 S
Q=
=
2 on 2 N
which is one-half SNR. In this case, vth = bon /2.
Example 7.2: For an error rate of 10-9,
1
Q
Pe (Q) = 10 = 1 erf
Q = 5.99781 6
2
2
9
Pe ( on
1
V
= off ) = 1 erf
2
2 2
(7-16)
Pr (0) = e
(7-23)
Pr (0) = e
= 10
Eye Diagram
The eye diagram is a convenient way to represent what a
receiver will see as well as specifying characteristics of a
transmitter.
The eye diagram maps all UI intervals on top of one and
other. (UI = Unit Interval, i.e., signal duration time)
The opening in eye diagram is measure of signal quality.
This is the simplest type of eye diagram. The are other form
which we will discuss later
Eye Diagram
Information:
Width of eye-opening : time interval over which the received signal can
be sampled without ISI error.
Best time to sample = when height of eye-opening is largest
Rise time = time interval between 10% point and 90% point, can be
approximated by
Noise margin:
V1
Noise margin (percent) =
100%
V2
Coherent Detection
Primitive method : intensity modulation
with direct detection (IM/DD)
Since the improvement of semiconductor
lasers around 70s, coherent optical
communication systems become available.
Coherent detection depends on phase
coherence of the optical carrier.
Fundamental Concepts
Key principle : mixing incoming signal with a
locally generated continuous-wave (CW) optical
field.
Shot noise from local oscillator limits sensitivity.
Modulation Techniques
Transmitted optical signal given by:
Es = As cos[ s t + s (t )]
Direct Detection
The detected current is proportional to the
intensity IDD (the square of the electric field) of
the optical signal, yielding
1 2
*
I DD = Es Es =
As [1 + cos(2 s t + 2s )]
2
The double angle term gets eliminated since its
frequency is beyond the response capability of
the detector. Thus,
1 2
*
I DD = Es Es
As
2
1 2 1 2
= As + ALO + As ALO cos[( s LO )t + (t )]cos (t )
2
2
Homodyne Detection
s = LO , i.e., IF = 0. The power becomes
P(t ) = Ps + PLO + 2 Ps PLO cos (t ) cos (t )
Heterodyne Detection
s LO and no need for PLL.
Ignoring Ps, the detected current contains two
terms:
q
idc =
PLO
h
2q
iIF (t ) =
Ps PLO cos[ IF t + (t )]cos (t )
h
As T
1
V 1
= erfc
= erfc
2
2 2 2
2
2
-9
A
For example, to achieve BER=10 , V/ = 12 and s T = 36
Heterodyne System
Synchronous
Asynchronous
BER : Summary
BER
= 10-9
P ( t ) = Pt [1 + ms ( t )]
is (t ) = RMPr [1 + ms (t )] = I P M [1 + ms (t )]
I
m =
IB
S
= 2
N
iN
(1 / 2 )(R MmP r ) 2
=
2 q (R Pr + I D ) M 2 F ( M ) B + ( 4 k B TB / R eq ) Ft
(1 / 2 )( MmI P ) 2
=
2 q ( I P + I D ) M 2 F ( M ) B + ( 4 k B TB / R eq ) Ft
S
(1/ 2)(I P m)2
(1/ 2)m2R 2 Pr
=
N (4kBTB / Req ) Ft (4kBTB / Req ) F
Large signal level, shot noise dominates:
S m2RPr
N
4qB