1

CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION

1.1

GENERAL
A dielectric is an electrical insulator that may be polarized by an

applied electric field. When a dielectric is placed in an electric field, electric

charges cannot pass through the material, as in a conductor, but only slight
shift from their average equilibrium positions causing dielectric polarization.
Because of dielectric polarization, positive charges are shifted towards the
field and negative charges are displaced in the opposite direction. This creates
an internal electric field that partly compensates the external field inside the
dielectric. If a dielectric is composed of weakly bonded molecules, those
molecules not only become polarized, but also reorient in symmetry axis
aligns to the field. Although the term "insulator" refers to a low degree of
electrical conduction, the term "dielectric" is typically used to describe
materials with a high polarizability. The latter is expressed by a number called
the dielectric constant. A common, yet notable example of a dielectric is the
electrically insulating material between the metallic plates of a capacitor. The
polarization of the dielectric by the applied electric field increases the
capacitor's surface charge.
The polymer nano composites have an excellent mechanical
properties like elastic stiffness and strength with only a small amount of these
nano additives. This is caused by the large surface area to volume ratio of
nano additives when compared to the micro and macro additives. Other

superior properties of polymer nano composites include barrier resistance,

flame retardancy, scratch/wear resistance, as well as optical, magnetic and
electrical properties.
Various studies have been made comparing the performance of
nano to micro-particle filled composites. Compared to micro fillers, nano
fillers have been reported to mitigate more efficiently the space charge
formation in polymeric materials. It has been reported that the use of nano
fillers improves the corona resistance of polyimide films. In addition, the use
of nano particle of Alumina oxide in low density polyethylene has shown a
decrease in the resistivity of the polymeric matrix compared to micro fillers.
The ageing of cable material due to electrical treeing in epoxy resin has been
increased using nano particle fillers compared to micro particle fillers.
Various favorable phenomena have been elucidated on dielectric
and electrical insulation properties of emerging polymer nano composites.
Polymer nano composites are structured in the form of a polymer matrix with
different weight percentage of nano-fillers in homogeneously dispersed state.
Nano fillers in polymer nano composite are so defined in size that they are
less than 100 nm. It can be recognized that interfaces will play a significant
role in the properties of nano composites. Series of literatures have been
published to give deep insight into interfaces of polymer nano composites
from the viewpoint of physics, including the quantum mechanics and the
electromagnetic theory. A concept of Interaction Zones is introduced to
explain some performances such as change in permittivity and recombination.
Some morphological ordering is recognized in polyimide layered silicate nano
composites from the measurement of the wide angle X-ray diffraction.

Nano fillers filled polymers has offer high resistance for

degradation and show improvement in thermo-mechanical properties without
causing a reduction in dielectric strength.
Scaling down of the dimensions of materials may have the
following consequences:

Decreasing the thickness of insulating layer, increases the

electric field and the probability of field related effects, such as

1.2

electron tunneling and avalanche breakdown.

Dispersion of bulk properties of materials.
Quantum phenomena in low dimensional systems.
Problems of heat dissipation.

PROPERTIES OF INSULATING MATERIAL

Designing of insulation system requires adequate information of the

type, magnitude and duration of electrical stress with consideration of

ambient condition. On the other hand, the proper selection of material and
optimum design plays a vital role of an insulation system. Dieter Kind and
Hermann Karner (1985) have explained the electrical, mechanical, thermal
and chemical properties of insulating material.
1.2.1

Requirements for Insulating Materials

The most important function of the insulating material is to insulate

voltage-carrying conductors against one another as well as against earth. But,

in addition, they must be frequently performing mechanical functions and
must be in a position to withstand certain thermal and chemical stresses. Such
stresses very often occur simultaneously, so that mutual effects of the
parameters must be considered for the design of electrical appliances.
Decisive for the economical application of an insulating material is,

ultimately, its long-term or ageing durability under various types of stress

encountered in practice.
Depending on the importance given to the type of application, the
following requirements are specified for the electrical properties of the
insulating material:

High dielectric strength to realize small dimensions and low

cost using as little material as possible.

Low dielectric losses to keep the heating-up of the insulating

material within limits.

High tracking strength during surface stress, to prevent erosion

or tracking.

Appropriate dielectric constant.

Important thermal properties of insulating materials are,
High thermal withstand strength
Good shape-retention under heat
High thermal conductivity
Low thermal expansion coefficient
Non-inflammability
Good arc-withstand strength

The choice of an insulating material for a particular purpose often

depends on the cost of the filler to be used.

1.2.3

ELECTRICAL PROPERTIES
The performance and life time of the electrical appliances are

mostly depend on the proper design and properties of insulating materials.

The desirable electrical properties of insulating materials are as follows.
Breakdown field strength
The breakdown field strength is an important property of insulating
material for dimensioning an insulation system. Although it does not
represent a constant specific to the material .It depends more or less strongly
upon several influencing parameters as radius of curvature and surface finish
of the electrodes, layer thickness, type of voltage, stress duration, pressure,
temperature, frequency and humidity.
Insulation resistance
Practical insulation systems frequently comprise many dielectrics
of high ohmic value which are stressed in parallel. Thus, for example, the
insulation resistance of a support insulator consists of the combination of
surface resistance and volume resistance in parallel. The volume resistance is
commonly expressed as specific resistance in cm and is often independent
of surrounding medium. The surface resistance is appreciably influenced by
ambient conditions such as pressure, temperature, humidity and dust etc.
Tracking strength
When an insulation system is electrically stressed, a current which
is determined by the surface resistance flows on its surface and is referred to
as leakage or creepage current. It is easy to understand that the ambient

conditions temperature, pressure, humidity and pollution, essentially

determine the magnitude of this leakage current.
Leakage currents result in thermal, and due to by-products, also
chemical stressing of the surface. The visible effect of overstress creates
tracks which results in material decomposition; these can appear in the form
of a conducting path. It is making further electric stress on the dielectric
material. Although the insulating properties are adversely affected by erosion,
e.g. by the ease of dust deposition, yet further electric stress ability is not
precluded. Erosion occurs either in plates or as pits.
Tracking is not restricted to insulating surfaces of outdoor
arrangements, but can also occur under unfavorable circumstances, indoor
applications or even in the interior of the equipment. It is influenced, for
instance, by the material properties, by the form and finish of the electrodes
and surfaces and also by the external conditions. Due to merging of several
localized tracks, a complete flashover can be facilitated or initiated.
Arcing resistance
Flashovers along the surface of insulating materials, with a
subsequent power-arc, are indeed very rare, but basically unavoidable in
insulation systems. Insulating materials exposed to the influence of the arc
must therefore experience no, or only minimal, variations in their electrical
and mechanical properties, viz. be arc resistant. Due to the high arc
temperature and as a consequence of incomplete burning of the insulating
material, conducting tracks can remain which no longer permit further electric
stressing.

Dielectric constant and dissipation factor

A dielectric constant

different from 1 is caused by polarization

effects in the insulating material. For practical insulating materials, apart from
the deformation polarization electronic, ionic, lattice polarization, the
orientation polarization is of particular significance since many insulating
materials have permanent dipoles in their molecular structure. This is major
cause of polarization losses and is responsible for the frequency dependence
of

and tan , which is important for technical applications.

The different relaxation times result in frequency beyond which the

respective mechanisms no longer exist, because the corresponding dipole

movement does not occur. This is why the dielectric constant is getting
decreased. The occurrence of polarization losses, as well as the increase of
losses due to ionic conduction are recognized from the curve tan = f (v).
1.2.5

Mechanical Properties
The mechanical requirements are a consequence of the fact that

most of the insulating materials are used as construction material with loadbearing properties. The following are some of the mechanical parameters to
be considered for the selection of insulating materials:

Tensile strength
Bending strength
The pressure strength
Bursting-pressure withstand strength
Modulus of elasticity

1.2.4

Hardness
Impact resistance

Thermal Properties
In equipment and installations for the supply of electricity, heat is

generated by ohmic losses in conductors, through dielectric losses in

insulating materials and through magnetization and eddy-current losses in the
iron. Since, by comparison with metals, insulating materials have only a very
low thermal stability and the permissible temperature rise of the insulating
material often restricts the use of the equipment. Knowledge of the thermal
properties of the insulating material is, therefore, important for the
construction and design of equipment and set-ups.
Specific heat
Due to the inertia of thermal transport, an insulating material must
be in a position to absorb short-duration thermal pulses; caused by rapid load
variations, via its thermal capacitance by an increase in temperature.

DT =

W
c.m

where
c is the specific heat of insulating material,
m is the mass and
W is the supplied energy.

(1.1)

Heat transport
During continuous stressing under static operating conditions, the
heat generated as a result of loss must be dissipated through the surroundings.
Transport mechanisms are thermal conduction, convection and radiation. In
thermal conduction, the thermal current flowing between flat plates is
expressed by
P = A. (T1- T2)/s

(1.2)

where
A is the area of the plate,
s is the plate thickness and
(T1- T2) is the temperature difference.
The proportionality factor is the thermal conductivity which can
be assumed as constant in the technically interesting temperature range.
For rapid removal of heat loss from electrical equipment good
thermal conductivity is desirable. This requirement is satisfied best, by
crystalline insulating materials because the regular arrangement of atomic
movement. In contrast, amorphous materials have distinctly poor thermal
conduction.
Linear thermal expansion
Insulating materials are construction materials which are frequently
employed in contact with metals. On account of the larger thermal expansion
of organic insulating materials, the danger of mechanical overstressing exists
and this could result in the development of cracks or electrode arrangement.

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For inorganic insulating materials, the linear thermal expansion is lower than
for metals; so an improvement is effected by filling organic materials with
inorganic substances. Partly crystalline materials very often have a greater
thermal expansion than amorphous materials.
Thermal stability
An important property of insulating materials is the shape retention
on heating. There are two methods to determine this. The warm shape
retention according to Martens is determined for a standard testing rod of 10 x
15 mm2 cross-section and 120 mm length, which is stressed uniformly over
the entire length with a bending stress of 500 N/cm2. At the same time , the
temperature of the surrounding air is increased at the rate of 50o C/hr. The
temperature at which the rod reaches a specific bending denotes the warm
shape retention according to Martens. For thermoplastic materials, the Vicat
method is also applied. The Vicat temperature is that temperature at which a
blunt needle of 1 mm2 cross-section under a force of 10 N or 50 N penetrates
to a depth of 1 0.1 mm into the insulating material. A high value for shape
retention under heat is a decisive advantage of inorganic insulating materials
over the inorganic kind.
1.2.2

Chemical Properties
Inorganic materials such as glass and densely fired ceramic

materials are practically impermeable. In synthetic organic materials diffusion

can take place within the molecular framework of the polymer. The diffusion
velocity depends upon the material structure and the affinity of the base
material.

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For example, all organic insulating materials absorb moisture by

diffusion. The dielectric and electrical properties deteriorate as a result.
Dissolved salts produced by hydrolysis or from impurities increase the
conductivity and cause a poor dissipation factor and break-down field
strength. The high dielectric constant of water modifies the dielectric constant
of the material and causes a change in the voltage distribution during
alternating voltage stressing. In addition, the absorbed water can lead to
changes in dimension and corrosion of the electrodes.
Insulating materials for outdoor application should have poorly
wettable surfaces inorder to eliminate the closed water paths. Most of the
inorganic materials offer high resistance to alkalis and acids. Organic
materials are attacked by strongly oxidizing acids, by alkalis as well as by
hydrocarbons specific to the materials. In outdoor application of insulating
materials, wet pollution layers can be decomposed by the electric stress and
generated heat (Guoqin Zhang et al 2005). In addition to this light, oxygen,
ozone, atmospheric heat and UV radiation have also influence in the
formation of aggressive chemicals.
1.3

SIGNIFICANCE OF NANO FILLERS

Nanofillers refer to those fillers of sub-100 nm size in at least one

dimension. The primary driver for the usage of nanoparticle instead of

micron-scale traditional fillers is the effect of particle size on their properties.
Nanoparticles are also less likely to create large stress concentrations and
thereby can avoid the compromise of the material ductility while improve
other mechanical properties.

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The small size of the fillers leads to an exceptionally large

interfacial area in the nanocomposites. Since nanoparticles have a much
higher surface area per unit volume than larger particles, they possess a much
greater interface with their surroundings. The interface controls the degree of
interaction between the nanofiller and the polymer matrix, and thus controls
the properties of the nanocomposites.
The method of synthesis often influences the size and properties of
the nanoparticles. The nanoparticle size is dependent on the kinetics of
nucleation and growth from a supersaturated solution as well as processes
such as coarsening, oriented attachment, and aggregation, which tend to occur
at longer times. Due to the reduced lattice constants, the large surface energy
and thermodynamic instability resulted from the large ratio of the surface to
interior atoms (Jiongxin Lu 2008); it is of the great challenges to stabilize
nanoparticles. One method to prevent the nanoparticles from growth in size is
to reduce the surface energy by insertion, i.e. adsorption and bonding, of
surface active components into the particle surface. In addition, synthesis of
nanoparticles in confined geometries and structured reaction media can yield
anisotropic and size-controlled nanoparticles.
It is of great significance to understand and optimize properties by
controlling the size, shape, volume fraction, interface, degree of dispersion or
aggregation of nanoparticles to guide further development. Processing is one
of the key limitations in the commercialization of nanocomposites. A major
difficulty is proper dispersion of the nanofillers in the polymer matrix.
Because, in the case of nanoparticles, aggregation or agglomeration occurs
very easily due to the interparticle surface forces such as Van der Waals
forces, Capillary forces and Electrostatic forces, and often leads to
undesirable materials properties.

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The processing of polymer nanocomposites affects the state of the

arrangement of nano filler in the nanocomposites, which can be understood
from the distribution and dispersion of nano fillers. Distribution of nano filler
describes the homogeneity throughout the sample, and dispersion of nano
filler describes the level of agglomeration. Figure 1.1 schematically illustrates
the dispersion and distribution states of nano fillers as (a) good distribution
but poor dispersion, (b) poor distribution and poor dispersion, (c) poor
distribution but good dispersion and (d) good distribution and good
dispersion. Without proper dispersion and distribution of the nanofillers, the
high surface area which gives rise to unique properties of the nanofillers is
compromised, and also the aggregates and agglomerations can act as defects
and deteriorate the properties.

(a)

(c)

(b)

(d)

Figure 1.1 Schematic illustration of the dispersion and distribution

states of nanofillers
The quality of nanofiller dispersion in the polymer matrix was
directly correlated with its effectiveness for improving mechanical, electrical,

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thermal, impermeability and other properties. The properties of a composite

are also intimately linked to the aspect ratio and surface-to-volume ratio of the
filler. Direct mixing of the nanoparticle and the polymer can be carried out
either as discrete phases or in solution phase. Well established polymer
processing techniques Melt-mixing or Elastomeric mixing through roll mill,
Twin-screw extruder, Brabender high-shear mixer, or Thermal spraying can
be used for direct mixing of nano fillers and the polymer as discrete phases.
Solution-phase mixing refers to dissolving or dispersing of the polymer and
the nanoparticles in solution. The nanoparticle/polymer solution can be cast
into a film or can be isolated from solution by solvent evaporation or
precipitation. This allows modification of the particle surface without drying,
which reduces particle agglomeration and thereby overcome some of the
limitations

of

direct

mixing.

For

instance,

electrically

conductive

graphene/polymer nanocomposites was prepared by solution-phase mixing of

the exfoliated phenyl isocyanate-treated graphite oxide sheets with
polystyrene, followed by their chemical reduction. These composites feature
individual graphene sheets well dispersed throughout the polymer matrix.
1.4

OBJECTIVE OF THE PRESENT WORK

Nanocomposites are one of the fastest growing fields in

nanotechnology. The scope of the present work is enumerated as follows,

To investigate the dielectric and thermal properties of the

Polyimide enamel.

To investigate the dielectric properties of the Zirconia nano

filler added Polyimide enamel.

To investigate the thermal stability of the Zirconia nano filler

added Polyimide enamel.

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To investigate the dielectric properties of the Alumina nano

filler added Polyimide enamel.

To investigate the thermal stability of the Alumina nano filler

added Polyimide enamel.

To analyze the electric field stress on the nanocomposite

coated copper conductor using FEM.

Methodology

The nano fillers are synthesized from commercially available

micro sized particles using Ball-milling technique.

The Zirconia and Alumina nano fillers are synthesized and

their sizes are ensured using scanning electron microscope
seperately.

The liquid state polymer nanocomposite are converted into

solid state through radical curing process.

For prepared nanocomposite samples the dielectric properties

such as breakdown level and partial discharge level are
determined as per IEC 60243 and IEC 60270 respectively.

The parallel capacitance, admittance, loss tangent and quality

factor of the prepared nanocomposite sample are measured
with the help of Dielectric Spectroscopy (LCR HiTester
3532-50).

The thermal degradation of nanocomposite is investigated

using Thermo Gravimetric Analyzer (Diamond TG/DTA
6000).

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1.5

ORGANISATION OF THESIS
Chapter 1 explains the general overview and essential properties of

insulating materials. Further, objective of the present work with relevant

methodology is detailed.
Chapter 2 deals with brief literature survey of the new nano
composites based on various wt % concentrations of Zirconia and Alumina.
The prediction of electric field for dielectric materials using FEA has been
discussed.
Chapter 3 explains the selection of the nano fillers, synthesis
technique, the sample preparation based on the curing method. The
measurement of break down strength, partial discharge inception, extinction
voltage, permittivity and dielectric loss. The percentage weight loss has been
discussed.
Chapter 4 presents the comparison of experimental results obtained
for polyimide enamel sample and 1wt%, 3wt%, 5wt% nano filler Zirconia
added enamel in respect of various frequencies and temperatures. The
concentration of fillers effectiveness has been analyzed in detail.
Chapter 5 describes the evaluation of the dielectric parameters such
as permittivity, dielectric loss, break down strength and partial discharge level
of enamel and 1wt%, 3 wt% and 5 wt% Alumina nano particle added enamel.
The thermal behavior based on weight loss has been discussed. The addition
of optimum wt% of nano Alumina and its improvement in the dielectric
property of polyimide enamel has also been discussed.
Chapter 6 delivers the finite element analysis of electric field stress
on the dielectric material in comparison with addition of nano fillers.
Chapter 7 presents the conclusion as an outcome of this present
investigation and scope for future work.