What is Social Psychology?

Social Psychology is the scientific study of how people's thoughts, feelings, and behaviors are influenced by the actual,
imagined, or implied presence of others.[1] In this definition, scientific refers to the empirical method of investigation. The
terms thoughts, feelings, and behaviors include all psychological variables that are measurable in a human being. The
statement that others' presence may be imagined or implied suggests that we are prone to social influence even when no
other people are present, such as when watching television, or following internalized cultural norms. Social psychologists
typically explain human behavior as a result of the interaction of mental states and immediate social situations.
Interpersonal phenomena
A major area in the study of peoples relations to each other is interpersonal attraction. This refers to all of
the forces that lead people to like each other, establish relationships, and in some cases, fall in love. One
theory of attraction have been discovered by social psychologists. It focuses on an influences outside of
the person. They called it Attribution theory.
ATTRIBUTION THEORY deals with how the social perceiver uses information to arrive at causal
explanations for events. It examines what information is gathered and how it is combined to form a causal
judgment"
There were two main ideas that he put forward that became influential.
1. Internal Attribution (DISPOSITIONAL CAUSE): "Attribution theory deals with how the social perceiver
uses information to arrive at causal explanations for events. It examines what information is gathered and
how it is combined to form a causal judgment"
2. External Attribution (SITUATIONAL CAUSE): Situational attribution is the assumption that a person's
behavior is influenced by an external influence from the environment or culture.
~ Your classmate submits an assignment late.
Dispositional Attribution: You are quick to say that he is lazy and irresponsible and never finishes his work
on time.
Situational Attribution: You assume that there must have been some genuine issue because of which he
could not submit it on time, like some family problem.
~You are standing in a line to buy tickets for a movie, when someone pushes you and goes ahead.
Dispositional Attribution: He is thoughtless, rude and uncivilized.
Situational Attribution: He was pushed by someone else, he did not intend to cut the line.
In psychology, an attribution bias is a cognitive bias that refers to the systematic errors made when
people evaluate or try to find reasons for their own and others' behaviors. People constantly
make attributions regarding the cause of their own and others' behaviors; however, attributions do not
always accurately mirror reality. Rather than operating as objective perceivers, people are prone to
perceptual errors that lead to biased interpretations of their social world.
A cognitive bias refers to a systematic pattern of accepted standard from norm or rationality in
judgment, whereby inferences about other people and situations may be drawn in an illogical fashion.
Individuals create their own "subjective social reality" from their perception of the input.
Systematic errors are errors that are not determined by chance but are introduced by an inaccuracy (as
of observation or measurement) inherent in the system. Systematic error may also refer to an
error having a nonzero mean, so that its effect is not reduced when observations are averaged.
In social psychology, attribution is the process by which individuals explain the causes of behavior and
events.
The Halo Effect
The halo effect can influence how teachers treat students, but it can also impact how students perceive
teachers. In one study, researchers found that when an instructor was viewed as warm and friendly,
students also rated him as more attractive, appealing, and likeable.
Marketers take advantage of the halo effect to sell products and services. When a celebrity spokesperson
endorses a particular item, our positive evaluations of that individual can spread to our perceptions of the
product itself.
Job applicants are also likely to feel the impact of the halo effect. If a prospective employer views the
applicant as attractive or likeable, they are more likely to also rate the individual as intelligent, competent,
and qualified.
Being aware of the halo effect, however, does not make it easy to avoid its influence on our perceptions
and decisions.
Assumed Similarity Bias a mental shortcut that leads us to the unconscious assumption that
others share the same or similar values, thoughts and beliefs. We automatically assume that
others are just like we are, especially when it comes to the fundamental aspects of our characters that
are so basic we never even give them a second thought such as having a conscience.
In other words, you never for a moment stop to consider that some people in fact have
a drastically different way of being, one that is so foreign to you that you cant even begin to
grasp it.
Self-serving Bias Examples:
1. Believing that you are more intelligent than you actually are.
2. Believing that a positive outcome (e.g., writing a best-selling book) is completely due to your talents
when it may be partly explained by chance factors or the efforts of others.
3. Blaming a negative outcome in your life on other people or bad luck when it may be partly due to
making bad decisions.
4. Believing that you can become a famous singer when most people have doubted your singing ability.
Fundamental attribution error
As a simple example, consider a situation where Alice, a driver, is about to pass through an intersection.
Her light turns green and she begins to accelerate, but another car drives through the red light and crosses
in front of her. The fundamental attribution error may lead her to think that the driver of the other car was
an unskilled or reckless driver. This will be an error if the other driver had a good reason for running the
light, such as rushing a patient to the hospital. If this is the case and Alice had been driving the other car,
she would have understood that the situation called for speed at the cost of safety, but when seeing it
from the outside she was inclined to believe that the behavior of the other driver reflected their
fundamental nature (having poor driving skills or a reckless attitude).

The Slippery Path: A traveller carefully walks down a sloped path in the rain. The traveller slips and falls.
The traveller believes this is a slippery path. The traveller continues more carefully. At the bottom of the
slope, the traveller rests while waiting for the rain to stop. The traveller sees another person carefully
walking down the sloped path. The traveller sees that person slip on the path. The traveller believes that
person is clumsy.
Norms are unwritten rules that govern the behavior and attitudes of group members. They include rules,
shared beliefs about the correct way to behave and what to believe.
For example:
- The rules about how to behave at home, and school, and at an amusement park.
- The rules about what to say and how to communicate with brothers, sisters, parents, and friends.
Ideology a system of ideas and ideals, especially one that forms the basis of economic or political theory
and policy.
Members must share the same values. In some cases, people are drawn together because they discover
they have common wants.
For example:
- A circle of friends with a common ideas, goals, and attitude.
- Group of students have the same looking at themselves.
Commitment an engagement or obligation that restricts freedom of action is the requirement of personal
sacrifice.
If a person is willing to pay money, endure hardship, or undergo humiliation to join a group, he or she is
likely to continue with it.
For example:
- Some groups of high school require initiation rites in order to join the group.
- College student who undergo embarrassing initiation rites to sororities or fraternities.
Tend to develop a loyalty to the group that lasts well beyond their college years.
SOCIAL NORMS
What is Social Norm?
Social norms can be used to define what is abnormal.
A norm is an unwritten rule which is created by society to guide behavior in society.
The most common means of behavior in a society.
Norms will vary from society to society and depend on who you are with.
If you do not fit into a social norm, you are abnormal.
Variations of Social Norms
Age Based norms can depend on our age.
Example:
It is acceptable to perhaps throw a tantrum as a 2 year old, but not as a 30 year old.
Gender Based norms depend on gender.
Example:
It is a social norm for girls to wear skirts, but men dont.
Culture Based some cultures are more tolerant to behaviors than others.
Example:
In France it can be acceptable to drink a glass of wine at dinner as a child, but not in the UK.
Limitations of Social Norms
They change over time it is hard to judge a behavior as a social norm if it can change.
Example:
Homosexuality was seen as mental disease in the US a while ago but is not anymore.
Norms depend on context peoples behavior is dependent on a situation.
Example:
At a party it is normal to wear a bright party hat but it isnt to wear one at a funeral.
Social norms depend on who sets them the group that sets the norm will influence the
behavior.
Example:
Different cultures will have different norms.
Breaking social norms is not always bad you can break social norm and have a positive
impact.
Example:
The Civil Rights movement.
ABNORMAL PSYCHOLOGY
Abnormal Psychology
- A branch of psychology concerned with mental and emotional disorders (as neuroses,
psychoses, and mental retardation) and with certain incompletely understood normal
phenomena (as dreams and hypnosis).
- Is the study of mental disorders (also called mental illness, psychological disorders or
psychopathology) what they look like (symptoms), why they occur (etiology), how they are
maintained, and what effect they have on peoples lives.
Common Disorders
Alcohol Use Disorder
Anxiety Disorder
Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD)
Bipolar Disorder
Obsessive Compulsive Disorder (OCD)
Schizophrenia
Alcohol Use Disorder
- Alcohol is a chemical that can change the condition of the body and mind of the individual.
Two distinct disorders:
Alcohol Dependence (Alcoholism)

- is a disease that includes the following:

Craving: A strong need or compulsion to drink.
Loss of control: The inability to limit ones drinking on any given occasions.
Physical dependence: Withdrawal symptoms such as nausea, sweating, shakiness,
and anxiety, occur when alcohol use is stopped after a period of heavy drinking.
Tolerance: The need to drink greater amounts of alcohol in order to get high.
Alcohol Abuse
- defined as a pattern of drinking that result in one or more of the following:
Decreased involvement in
Preoccupation with drinking.
extracurricular activities.
Inability to control drinking.
Loss of interest in work or
Violent behaviour.
school.
Depression
Lack of interest in family or
friends.

result in impairment in only

a very specific domain.
Four Stages of Alcoholic

Prealcoholic Stage
Social Phobia

Individual drinks socially

Social phobia tends to be
and on occasion heavily to relieve
more impairing because it
tension and forget about problems.
often results in significant
Prodromal Stage
social isolation. You might

Drinking becomes furtive

think that people with social
and may be accompanied by
phobia are afraid of people
blackouts, during which the
or of social situations but
person remains conscious and
this isnt the case. They are
relatively coherent but later cannot
actually afraid of negative
recall events.
evaluation and rejection by
Crucial Stage
others and will attempt to

All control is lost; once the

avoid it at all costs.
person starts drinking, he or she

Panic
Disorder
(agoraphobia)
continues until sick or stuporous.

Panic
disorder can also be
Chronic Stage
quite
debilitating,
especially

Drinking is continual; the

when
it
is
coupled
with
individual lives only to drink.
agoraphobia. Literally fear
Anxiety Disorder
of the marketplace,
- To describe feelings of unease, worry,
agoraphobia is often
and fear.
thought of as fear of leaving
- Fight or flight response, our normal
the house. More accurately,
biological reaction to feeling
it is fear of situations in
threatened.
which escape would be
Anxiety is a set of
difficult or there would be
symptoms:
no one to help should panic
Emotional (e.g. fear, worry)
occur.
Physical (e.g. shortness of breath, heart

- Agoraphobia fear
pounding, sweating, upset stomach)
of situations in which
Cognitive (e.g. fear of dying, losing
escape would be difficult or
control, going crazy)
help is not available should
Anxiety disorders have four
panic or anxiety occurs.
things in common:
Obsessive-compulsive Disorder
1. Each is defined by a
You wont be surprised to
specific target of fear (the
find that obsessive
thing the person is afraid
compulsive disorder (OCD)
of);
is characterized by
2. Anxiety or panic attacks
obsessions (unwanted,
are experienced in response
persistent, intrusive,
to the target of fear;
repetitive thoughts) and
3. The target of fear is
compulsions (ritualistic,
avoided by the sufferer; and
repetitive behaviours).
4. Anxiety disorders tend to

- Obsessions
be chronic they tend to
unwanted, persistent,
persist rather than come in
intrusive, repetitive
episodes.
thoughts.
Symptoms and course of

- Compulsions ritualistic,
anxiety disorders:
repetitive behaviours that a person
Specific Phobia
feels compelled to engage in.
The most common and
Post-Traumatic Disorder
straight forward of the
Experiencing a traumatic
anxiety disorders are
event can lead to postspecific phobias fear and
traumatic stress disorder
avoidance of a particular
(PTSD). It was first
object or situation (e.g.
documented among war
dogs, heights, flying). This
veterans who had been
anxiety may be very
exposed to wartime
circumscribed, occurring
atrocities, but we now know
only in response to the
that it can occur in response
target of fear, and may
to many types of event,
including natural disasters,

accidents, rape and physical

abuse. And it isnt just the
victim who is vulnerable to
the disorder. Someone who
observes severe physical
abuse, for example, is also
at risk. PTSD has a
paradoxical set of
symptoms.
Generalized Anxiety Disorder
In some ways, generalized
anxiety disorder is the
simplest, and in other ways
the most complex, anxiety
disorder. It is characterized
by an extended period
say, six months or more of
chronic, uncontrollable
worry about numerous
things. This sounds simple.
Sufferers spend their lives
worried and tense all the
time, they are easily
irritated, and they have
trouble sleeping and
concentrating.

ADHD-Attention-deficit
hyperactivity disorder

(ADHD) is a brain disorder

marked by an ongoing pattern
of inattention and/or
hyperactivity-impulsivity that
interferes with functioning or
development.
Two Types of ADHD
Inattentive Type
A person with this type must
have at least six of these nine
symptoms, and very few of the
symptoms of hyperactiveimpulsive type:
Not paying attention to detail
Making careless mistakes
Failing to pay attention and keep on

task
Not listening
Being unable to follow or understand
instructions
Avoiding tasks that involve effort
Being distracted
Being forgetful
Losing things that are needed to
complete tasks

times

Hyperactive-Impulsive Type
To have this type, a person has to have at least six of these nine symptoms, and very few of
the symptoms of inattentive type:
Fidgeting
Talking too much
Squirming
Talking out of turn or blurting out
Getting up often when seated
Interrupting
Running or climbing at inappropriate
Often on the go as if driven by a
motor
Having trouble playing quietly

Combined Type
This is the most common type of ADHD. People with it have symptoms of both inattentive and hyperactiveimpulsive types
BIPOLAR DISORDER-(also known as manic depression) causes serious shifts in mood, energy,
thinking, and behaviorfrom the highs of mania on one extreme, to the lows of depression on the other.

Episodes of Bipolar Disorder

Mania- a manic episode is characterized by a distinct and abnormal state of elevated, expansive, or
irritable mood occurring for at least one week.
Common signs and symptoms of mania include:

long period of feeling high an

Restlessness
overly elated, happy, and outgoing mood

sleeping very little

feeling extremely irritable

not feeling tired

being easily distracted

unrealistically believing you can do

having racing thoughts

something

talking very fast

hallucination

jumping from one thought to another

when talking

Depression- A depressive episode isnt just about feeling sad. Being upset by a breakup or grieving a
difficult loss are natural, healthy responses. For people with bipolar disorder, a depressive episode can make
going about daily life a struggle. They often feel unmotivated and easily irritated.

Signs and Symptoms of Depression include:

feeling sad, tearful, hopeless, or
restlessness or slowed behaviors
empty
suicidal thoughts, planning, or
no pleasure or interest in day to day
attempts
activities
feelings of guilt and worthlessness
weight fluctuations including
psychosis being detached from
significant weight loss or weight gain
reality; delusions or hallucinations
insomnia
anxiety
Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder (OCD) is a common, chronic and long-lasting disorder in which a
person has uncontrollable, reoccurring thoughts (obsessions) and behaviors (compulsions) that he or she feels
the urge to repeat over and over.
Obsessions are repeated thoughts, urges, or mental images that cause anxiety. Common symptoms
include:
Fear of germs or contamination
Unwanted forbidden or taboo thoughts involving sex, religion, and harm
Aggressive thoughts towards others or self
Having things symmetrical or in a perfect order
Compulsions are repetitive behaviors that a person with OCD feels the urge to do in response to an
obsessive thought. Common compulsions include:
Excessive cleaning and/or handwashing
Ordering and arranging things in a particular, precise way
Repeatedly checking on things, such as repeatedly checking to see if the door is locked or that the oven is of
Compulsive counting
Not all rituals or habits are compulsions. Everyone double checks things sometimes. But a person with
OCD generally:
Can't control his or her thoughts or behaviors, even when those thoughts or behaviors are recognized as
excessive
Spends at least 1 hour a day on these thoughts or behaviors
Doesnt get pleasure when performing the behaviors or rituals, but may feel brief relief from the anxiety the
thoughts cause
Experiences significant problems in their daily life due to these thoughts or behaviors

 Some individuals with OCD also have a tic disorder. Motor tics are sudden, brief, repetitive movements,
such as eye blinking and other eye movements, facial grimacing, shoulder shrugging, and head or shoulder
jerking. Common vocal tics include repetitive throat-clearing, sniffing, or grunting sounds.
Schizophrenia is a challenging disorder that makes it difficult to distinguish between what is
real and unreal, think clearly, manage emotions, relate to others, and function normally. But that
doesn't mean there isn't hope. Schizophrenia can be successfully managed. The first step is to
identify the signs and symptoms. The second step is to seek help without delay. With the right
treatment and support, a person with schizophrenia can lead a happy, fulfilling life.

What is schizophrenia?

Schizophrenia is a brain disorder that affects the way a person behaves, thinks, and sees the world. People with
schizophrenia often have an altered perception of reality. They may see or hear things that dont exist, speak in strange or
confusing ways, believe that others are trying to harm them, or feel like theyre being constantly watched. This can make it
difficult to negotiate the activities of daily life, and people with schizophrenia may withdraw from the outside world or act
out in confusion and fear.
Although schizophrenia is a chronic disorder, there is help available. With support, medication, and therapy, many
people with schizophrenia are able to function independently and live fulfilling lives.

Early warning signs of schizophrenia

In some people, schizophrenia appears suddenly and without warning. But for most, it comes on slowly, with subtle
warning signs and a gradual decline in functioning long before the first severe episode. Many friends and family members of
people with schizophrenia report knowing early on that something was wrong with their loved one, they just didnt know
what.
In this early phase, people with schizophrenia often seem eccentric, unmotivated, emotionless, and reclusive. They
isolate themselves, start neglecting their appearance, say peculiar things, and show a general indifference to life. They may
abandon hobbies and activities, and their performance at work or school deteriorates.

The most common early warning signs of schizophrenia include:

Social withdrawal

Depression

Hostility or suspiciousness

Oversleeping or insomnia

Deterioration of personal hygiene

Odd or irrational statements

Flat, expressionless gaze

Forgetful; unable to concentrate

Inability to cry or express joy

Extreme reaction to criticism

Inappropriate laughter or crying

Strange use of words or way of speaking

While these warning signs can result from a number of problemsnot just schizophreniathey are cause for concern. When
out-of-the-ordinary behavior is causing problems in your life or the life of a loved one, seek medical advice. If schizophrenia
or another mental problem is the cause, treatment will help.

Signs and symptoms of schizophrenia

There are five types of symptoms characteristic of schizophrenia: delusions, hallucinations, disorganized speech,
disorganized behavior, and the so-called negative symptoms. However, the signs and symptoms of schizophrenia vary
dramatically from person to person, both in pattern and severity. Not every person with schizophrenia will have all
symptoms, and the symptoms of schizophrenia may also change over time.

Delusions

A delusion is a firmly-held idea that a person has despite clear and obvious evidence that it isnt true. Delusions are extremely
common in schizophrenia, occurring in more than 90% of those who have the disorder. Often, these delusions involve
illogical or bizarre ideas or fantasies. Common schizophrenic delusions include:

Delusions of persecution Belief that others, often a vague they, are out to get him or her.
These persecutory delusions often involve bizarre ideas and plots (e.g. Martians are trying to
poison me with radioactive particles delivered through my tap water).

Delusions of reference A neutral environmental event is believed to have a special and

personal meaning. For example, a person with schizophrenia might believe a billboard or a person
on TV is sending a message meant specifically for them.

Delusions of grandeur Belief that one is a famous or important figure, such as Jesus Christ or
Napolean. Alternately, delusions of grandeur may involve the belief that one has unusual powers
that no one else has (e.g. the ability to fly).

Delusions of control Belief that ones thoughts or actions are being controlled by outside, alien
forces. Common delusions of control include thought broadcasting (My private thoughts are being
transmitted to others), thought insertion (Someone is planting thoughts in my head), and
thought withdrawal (The CIA is robbing me of my thoughts).

Hallucinations

Hallucinations are sounds or other sensations experienced as real when they exist only in the person's mind. While
hallucinations can involve any of the five senses, auditory hallucinations (e.g. hearing voices or some other sound) are most
common in schizophrenia. Visual hallucinations are also relatively common. Research suggests that auditory hallucinations
occur when people misinterpret their own inner self-talk as coming from an outside source.

Schizophrenic hallucinations are usually meaningful to the person experiencing them. Many times, the voices are those of
someone they know. Most commonly, the voices are critical, vulgar, or abusive. Hallucinations also tend to be worse when
the person is alone.

Disorganized speech

Fragmented thinking is characteristic of schizophrenia. Externally, it can be observed in the way a person speaks. People with
schizophrenia tend to have trouble concentrating and maintaining a train of thought. They may respond to queries with an
unrelated answer, start sentences with one topic and end somewhere completely different, speak incoherently, or say illogical
things.

Common signs of disorganized speech in schizophrenia include:

Loose associations Rapidly shifting from topic to topic, with no connection between one thought
and the next.

Neologisms Made-up words or phrases that only have meaning to the patient.

Perseveration Repetition of words and statements; saying the same thing over and over.

Clang Meaningless use of rhyming words (I said the bread and read the shed and fed Ned at the
head").

Disorganized behavior

Schizophrenia disrupts goal-directed activity, causing impairments in a persons ability to take care of him or herself, work,
and interact with others. Disorganized behavior appears as:

A decline in overall daily functioning

Unpredictable or inappropriate emotional responses

Behaviors that appear bizarre and have no purpose

Lack of inhibition and impulse control

Negative symptoms (absence of normal behaviors)

The so-called negative symptoms of schizophrenia refer to the absence of normal behaviors found in healthy individuals.
Common negative symptoms of schizophrenia include:

Lack of emotional expression Inexpressive face, including a flat voice, lack of eye contact, and
blank or restricted facial expressions.

Lack of interest or enthusiasm Problems with motivation; lack of self-care.

Seeming lack of interest in the world Apparent unawareness of the environment; social
withdrawal.

Speech difficulties and abnormalities Inability to carry a conversation; short and sometimes
disconnected replies to questions; speaking in monotone.