WASTEWATER SECTION

Fall 2010

Instructor:
J.B. Jones, P.E., PhD.
jbjones@odu.edu

REFERENCE TEXTS
1. Six-Minute Solutions for Civil PE Exam - Environmental Problems, by
R.Wane Schneiter, Professional Publications, Inc., 2003
2. Six-Minute Solutions for Civil PE Exam Water Resources Problems, by
R.Wane Schneiter, Professional Publications, Inc., 2003
3. Water and Wastewater Calculations, by Shundar Lin, McGraw-Hill, 2001
4. Principles and Practice of Engineering: Civil and Environmental Sample
Questions and Solutions, prepared by National Council of Examiners for
Engineering and Surveying (NCEES), 2001
5. Practice Problems for the Environmental Engineering PE Exam, 6th
edition, by Michael Lindeburg, Professional Publications, 2003
6. Practice Problems for the Civil Engineering Reference Manual, by
Michael Lindeburg, Professional Publications, 1997
7. 101 Solved Civil Engineering Problems, 4th edition, by Michael
Lindeburg, Professional Publications, Inc., 2001
8. Civil Engineering Problems and Solutions, 14th edition, by Donald
Newman, Engineering Press, 1998
9. Wastewater Engineering: Treatment, Disposal, and Reuse, 3rd edition, by
Tchobanoglous & Burton, McGraw Hill, 1991
10. Introduction to Water Treatment, Volume 2, Principles and Practices of
Water Supply Operations, American Water Works Association, 1984

WEBSITES
http://ppi2pass.com
http://www.dpor.virginia.gov
http://www.deq.state.va.us/water/
Environmental Reference Books
Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and Wastewater, 21st ed. 2005.
American Public Health Association (APHA), American Water Works Association
(AWWA), and Water Pollution Control Federation (WPCF).
Wastewater Engineering: Treatment, Disposal, and Reuse, 4th ed. (Metcalf &
Eddy) George Tchobanoglous and Franklin L. Burton, 2002 (McGraw-Hill).

Water Resources
Handbook of Hydraulics: For the Solution of Hydraulic Engineering Questions,
7th ed. Brater, King, Lindell, and Wei. 1996 (McGraw-Hill).
Urban Hydrology for Small Watersheds (Technical Release TR- 55). 1986.
United States Department of Agriculture, Soil Conservation Service (now the Natural
Resources Conservation Service). Hydrocad.

What's the format of the Civil PE exam?

The civil PE exam is 8 hours long, divided into 2 equal sessions, morning and
afternoon. All questions are multiple-choice.
This exam is structured in a "breadth and depth" format. In the morning session, all
examinees work the same "breadth" exam, which consists of 40 questions drawn from
all five areas of civil engineering listed below. Examinees must answer all 40
questions. In the afternoon, examinees choose to work one of five "depth" exam
modules: Water Resources & Environmental, Geotechnical, Structural,
Transportation, or Construction. Each depth module consists of 40 questions that test
knowledge in the areas specified. Examinees must answer all 40 questions in the
module they select.

What type of the questions will there be?

The questions are all multiple-choice, with four answer choices each. Nearly all
questions are unique-that is, one problem statement followed by one question. There
may be a few multi-part questions, where one problem statement is followed by 2 or 3
questions, but in these cases the answers to the questions will be independent from
each other (i.e., the answers do not "cascade").

What units are used on the civil PE exam?

The civil PE exam uses US Customary (English) units for all problems except those
dealing with areas of practice that normally use metric units (such as problems
involving chemical concentrations).

What does the Environmental & Water Resources Section cover?

The exam topics are described by NCEES as follows:
http://www.ncees.org/exams/professional/pe_civil_exams.php
I.

Hydraulics Closed Conduit

15%

II.

Hydraulics Open Channel

15%

III.

Hydraulics Hydrology

15%

IV.

Groundwater & Well Fields

7.5%

Wastewater Treatment

15%

Water Quality

15%

Water Treatment

15%

V.
VI.
VII.

Everyone asks what is the PE Civil passage rate?

Virginia uses the NCEES test. Nationally, for Fall 2007:
First Time

64%

Repeat

29%

TABLE OF CONTENTS

WWTP Problems
Typical Activated Sludge Plant
#1 Wastewater Basin Sizing
#2 Wastewater BOD Planning
#3 Treatment Efficiency
#4 Grit Chamber Design
#5 Aeration Tank Detention Time
#6 Trickling Filter Design
#7 Trickling Filter Design #2
#8 Rotating Biological Contactor
#9 Anaerobic Lagoon
#10 Anaerobic Digester
#11 Anaerobic Digester #2
#12 Sludge Stabilization
#13-

Sludge Solids Reduction

#14 Wastewater Sludge Production Rate

#15 Sludge Volume Ratios
#16 Disinfection of Wastewater
#17 - Disinfection of Wastewater #2

River Mixing and BOD Calculation

#1 BOD Determination
#2 Wastewater Effluent Mixing with Receiving Stream
#3 Wastewater Effluent Mixing with Receiving Stream #2
#4 Dissolved Oxygen Sag in River System

Non Quantitative Short Answer

1 Viruses and Bacteria
2- Coliforms
3 - Odor Constituents
4 Wastewater Loading Factor
5 Lake Classification according to Trophic State
6 BOD Removal Rates
7 Sequential Batch Reactors
8 Sludge Thickening
9 Sewer Pipe Flow
10 Wastewater Peak Flow
11- Wastewater Generation
12- Potable water Usage and Wastewater Generation

CHAPTER TOPICS

Chapter 27: Basic Microbiology

Chapter 28: Wastewater Quantity and Quality
Section 20: BOD
Section 23: River Mixing
Chapter 29: Wastewater Treatment: Equipment and Processes
Stabilization Ponds
Facultative Ponds
Lagoons
Sedimentation
Trickling Filters
RBCs
Chapter 30: Activated Sludge & Sludge Processing
Activated Sludge Process
Recycle Rates
Sludge Thickening
Sludge Dewatering

WWTP Problems

Loading, #/day

Flow,
MGD

8.34
Dose, mg/l

Chemical Feed Rate

lb MG
lbs
mg

Flow, MGD Dose,

8.34
day
l
mg l

lbs
Chemical Feed Rate,

day
mg

Dose Rate

Flow, MGD 8.34 lb MG

mg l

Basics of Wastewater Strength Calculations

Discussion (Refer to Section 28-20, page 28-8)
The biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) is an empirical test in which laboratory
procedures are used to determine the relative oxygen requirements of
wastewaters and polluted waters. The BOD test is an empirical method, which
involves the use of microorganisms. It is widely used for:

Measuring waste strength

Evaluating organic removal efficiencies

Assessing stream assimilative capacity

The amount of oxygen consumed in the biological decomposition of waste is

BOD (Biochemical Oxygen Demand). The BOD test measures:

(1) Molecular oxygen consumed during a specific incubation period for the
biochemical degradation of organic matter (carbonaceous BOD)
(2) Oxygen used to oxidize inorganic matter such as sulfide and ferrous iron
(3) Reduced forms of nitrogen (nitrogenous BOD) with an inhibitor

BODU

BOD exerted

t, days

Figure 30.1 Typical Activated Sludge Plant (PE Manual)

INFLUENT

SLUDGE
THICKENER

WAS

GRIT
CHAMBER

SLUDGE
DIGESTOR

PRIMARY
SLUDGE

PRIMARY
SEDIMENTATION

RAS

AERATION
TANK

SLUDGE DRYING
BEDS

AIR

DRAINAGE

RAS

CHLORINATION
(DECHLORINATION)

EFFLUENT
TO
RECEIVING
STREAM

Cl2

DRY SLUDGE FOR DISPOSAL

OR LAND APPLICATION

FINAL
CLARIFIER

TYPICAL ACTIVATED SLUDGE PLANT

DRAINAGE

PRIMARY
SLUDGE &
WAS

BAR SCREEN

GRIT TO
LANDFILL
MIXED
LIQUOR

1 Wastewater Basin Sizing

What is the hydraulic residence hydraulic detention time for a rectangular tank
with dimensions 2.5 m by 15 m by 3.0 m deep receiving a flow of 900 m3/day?
The hydraulic efficiency of the tank is 83%

Stagnant
Zone

(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)

2.3 h
2.5 h
3.0 h
3.6 h

SOLUTION:
E
Q
t
tA
V

fractional efficiency
flow rate
theoretical hydraulic detention time
actual hydraulic detention time
volume

2.5 m 15 m 3.0 m 24 hr d
V

3.0 h
3
Q
900 m
d

t A t E 3.0 h 0.83 2.5 h

The answer is (b).

m3/d
d
d
m3

2 - Wastewater BOD Planning

Wastewater treatment guidelines for a planned community require that
wastewater treatment capacity be provided based on four population equivalents
(PE) per home. The community will eventually include 1750 homes. What is the
approximate biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) loading expected at the
wastewater plant from the community?
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)

88 lbm BOD/day
1400 lbm BOD/day
2200 lbm BOD/day
35,000 lbm BOD/day

SOLUTION:
Assume that the typical person generates 0.2 lbm BOD/day-person (Refer to
Page 28-3, PE Manual)

PE

BOD loading rate

per capita BOD generation rate

The BOD loading rate is

lbm BOD
PE
0.2
4
1750 hom es 1400 lbm BOD day
day person hom e

The answer is (b).

3 Treatment Efficiency
The BOD of a wastewater entering the primary clarifier is 210 mg/l. If the BOD
removal efficiency of the primary clarifier is 35% and the BOD removal efficiency
of a single stage trickling filter is 80%, what is the effluent BOD?
What is the overall efficiency?
SOLUTION:
Compute the BOD of the wastewater leaving the primary clarifier (and entering
the trickling filters).

mg
mg

Pr imary effluent BOD 210

1 0.35 136.5
l
l

Compute the BOD leaving the trickling filter.

mg
mg

Secondary effluent BOD 136.5

1 0.80 27
l
l

Compute overall efficiency.

Overall efficiency

210 27
87 %
210

4 - Grit Chamber Design

What is the required width of the rectangular horizontal flow grit chamber
where the following conditions apply?
Flow rate
Depth
Mean particle diameter
Grit specific gravity
Camp constant
Darcy friction factor
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)

3.5 x 106 gal/day

4 ft
0.22 mm
2.65
0.05
0.03

0.60 feet
1.9 feet
8.8 feet
14 feet

SOLUTION:
Refer to page 29-6, PE Manual
dP
f
g
K
SGP
V

mean particle diameter

Darcy friction factor
gravitational constant
Camp constant
grit specific gravity
horizontal velocity m/s

mm
9.82m2/s

8 k g d P SG P 1
f

1m
m2
0.22 mm
2.65 1
8 0.05 9.81
sec
1000 mm

0.22 m s
0.03

A
D
Q
W

channel cross-section
depth
flow rate
width

ft2
ft
gal/day
ft

Q = Area * v = w * d * v

gal
ft 3

3.5 x 10 6
0.134
day
gal
Q

1.9 ft
w
dv
m
ft
sec

4 ft 0.22 3.28 86,400

s
m
day

The answer is (b).

5 - Aeration Tank Detention Time

(a) A flow of 6 MGD enters (6) aeration tanks 150 ft x 15 ft x 15 ft. Determine
the detention time in hours.
(b) A sewage treatment plant ran blowers for 24 hours at 5000 cfm. A BOD
removal of 90% was obtained with a 5 MGD flow containing 12,000 lb
BOD per day. How many cubic feet of air was required for each pound of
BOD?
SOLUTION:
Part (a)
Tank Volume = 6 (150 ft) (15 ft) (15 ft) = 202,500 ft3

gal
day

802,139 ft 3 day
gal
7.48 3
ft
6 x 10 6

QIN

Detention Time

202,500 ft 3
hr
x 24
6.06 hr
3
d
ft
802,139
d

Part (b)
lbs of BOD removed = 0.90 (12,000) = 10,800 lb/d

ft 3 min hr
6
3
60
Air Used 5000
24 7.2 x 10 ft d
min
hr
d

Therefore,

7.2 x 10 6 ft 3
ft 3
ft 3

667
10,800 lb
lb BOD
lb BOD

6 - Trickling Filter Design

Domestic sewage of 1.0 MGD has been passed through a primary clarifier. When
it is applied to a trickling filter, the wastewater has a BOD concentration of 195
mg/L. Determine the acre-ft of filter required to effect 82% removal of BOD.
Assume that the wastewater is not be recirculated.
SOLUTION:
Using the NRC formula (Page 29-9 in PE Manual)
E

100

Eqn 29-14

W
1 0.0085
V F

where
E
W
V
F

= percentage of BOD removal at 20 0C

= BOD load applied, lbs/day
= volume of filter, acre-ft
= recirculation factor
1 R

1 0.1 R 2
= flow recirculate/raw wastewater flow

For this problem:

E = 82

mg

W 195
1.0 MGD
L

lb

lb
MG
8.34 mg 1626 day

V=?
F = 1.0
Then,
82

100
1 0.0085

1626
V 1.0

Volume = 2.438 acre-ft

7 Trickling Filter Design #2

A community of 15,000 has an average wastewater flow of 120 gpcd. The 5-day
BOD is 195 mg/l at 200C. The suspended solids content is 220 mg/l. The
effluent BOD concentration is designed for 30 mg/l. BOD removal is 30%
through the primary treatment stage. If dual trickling filters with recirculation
are employed for secondary treatment, what is the required filter volume (acreft)
SOLUTION:
Using the NRC formula (Page 29-9 in PE Manual)
E

100

Eqn 29-14

W
1 0.0085
V F

where
E
W
V
F

= percentage of BOD removal at 20 0C

= BOD load applied, lbs/day
= volume of filter, acre-ft
= recirculation factor
1 R

1 0.1 R 2
= flow recirculate/raw wastewater flow

Q 15,000 people 120 gpcd 1.8 x 10 6 gpd

mg
mg

BOD applied to filter 1 0.3 195

137
l
l

137 30
E1
78% , convert the filter load rate from mg/l to lbs/day
137
lb MG
mg
lb

1.8 MGD 2057

W1 137
8.34
l
mg l
day

F
E

1 R

1 0.1 R 2

1.653 when R 1

100
1 0.0085

W
V F

V 1.132 ac ft

where

78

100
1 0.0085

2057
V 1.653

8 - Rotating Biological Contactor (not in text)

What is most nearly the required media total surface area for a rotating biological
contactor (RBC) process selected to treat the following wastewater?
flow rate
influent total biochemical
oxygen demand (BOD)
effluent soluble BOD
Hydraulic loading rate
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)

250,000 gal/day
174 mg/L
30 mg/L
2 gal/ft2 day

130,000 ft2
150,000 ft2
125,000 ft2
360,000 ft2

SOLUTION:
Ah

media surface area based

on hydraulic loading
HLR hydraulic loading rate
Q
influent flow rate

ft2
gal/day-ft2
gal/day

gal
Q
day
Ah

125,000 ft 2 , The answer is (c).

gal
HLR
2.0 2
ft day
250,000

9 - Anaerobic Lagoon (not in text)

An anaerobic lagoon will pretreat a slaughterhouse wastewater that will be
discharged to an existing facultative lagoon. Influent flow is 2.6 x 105 gal/day
with a total biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) of 14,000 mg/L. The average
waste temperature is 210C, and the loading rate is 12 lbm BOD/103 ft3-day. Site
conditions limit the lagoon depth to 10 ft. What is the total required surface area
of the anaerobic lagoon?
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)

3.9 ac
4.6 ac
5.0 ac
5.8 ac

SOLUTION:
Step 1: Determine the mass flow rate
C
V
m

BOD concentration
volumetric flow rate
mass flow rate

mg/L
gal/day
lbm/day

mg BOD
lb MG
gal 1 MG
14,000

6
m V * C 2.6 x 10 5
x 8.34
day 10 gal
L
mg L

m 30,365 lbm BOD day

Step 2: Determine the required surface area.

A
surface area
D
liquid depth
OLR organic loading rate

ac
ft
lbm/103 ft3 -day

lbm BOD 1 ac

30,365

2
day
43
,
560
ft
m

5.8 ac
A

OLR D

lbm BOD
12 3 3
10 ft
10 ft day

The answer is (d).

10 Anaerobic Digester
A completely mixed anaerobic digester treats sludge containing primary and
waste activated sludge. The sludge flow rate is 1870 cubic feet/day and the
sludge contains 5400 lb of volatile solids. Using a design loading rate of 0.16 lbVSS/day/ft3, determine the digestion period.
SOLUTION
Calculate the minimum volume based on volatile solids loading:

lb VSS
day
Min Volume
33,750 ft 3
lb VSS
0.16 3
ft * day
5400

Calculate the digestion period

Digestion Period

33,750 ft 3
18 days
ft 3
1870
day

11 Anaerobic Digester #2 (Not covered in Class)

Estimate the sludge production rate for an anaerobic digester with the following
characteristics:
Total solids in digester influent
Influent BODU
Effluent BODU
Y
kD
mean cell residence time

=
=
=
=
=
=

7200 mg/l
6600 lb/day
2300 lb/day
0.5 lb cells/lb BOD
0.03 day -1
20 days

SOLUTION:
Refer to Page 30-8 (PE Manual)
PX

YMAX
Q S 0 S E
1 k D SRT

PX
YMAX
KD
SRT
Q
S0
SE
PX

= sludge production (dry mass/time)

= max yield = 0.5 lb VSS/lb BOD5
= endogenous decay coefficient = 0.03 d-1
= sludge age = 20 d
= wastewater flow rate
= BOD5 influent to activated sludge
= BOD5 in the plant effluent

YMAX
Q S 0 S E
1 k D SRT

Remember that Loading (#/day) = Q * S

lb VSS
lb BOD5
lb
lb

2300 1350 lb day

PX
6600
1
d
d
1 0.03 d 20 d
0.5

12 - Sludge Stabilization
A waste biological sludge is dewatered to 23% solids and then stabilized by
raising the pH to 12.5 using lime dosed at 315 g Ca (OH)2/kg dry solids. The
plant wastes 18,000 gallons of sludge daily at 9% solids. The locally available
lime contains 22% inerts. What is most nearly the monthly mass of lime required
to stabilize the sludge?
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)

45,000 kg/month
58,000 kg/month
74,000 kg/month
190,000 kg/month

SOLUTION:
f
m
V

solids
dry solids mass flow rate
wet sludge flow rate
sludge density

%
kg/day
m3/d
kg/m3

Assume that for sludge at 9% solids, the sludge density is equal to that of water
(1000 kg/m3).

gal
kg
m3
6132 kg d
1000 3 0.09 x 0.003785
m V f 18,000
day
gal
m

The lime requirement is

Ca OH 2
kg
d

6132 30
315 g
d month
kg

74,292 kg month
1 0.22 1000 g
kg

The answer is (c).

This information is covered somewhat on Page 30-17.

13 - Sludge Solids Reduction

A wastewater treatment plant process wastes sludge at 50,000 gal/day. The
wasted sludge contains 1.2% solids. What volume reduction can be realized by
thickening & dewatering the sludge at 24% solids?
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)

2500 gal/day
2600 gal/day
39,000 gal/day
48,000 gal/day

SOLUTION:
Dry mass flow rate = (% solids) x (wet sludge density) x (volumetric flow rate)
m f V f V
1

f V
V2 1 1
f2

, drops out

At 1.2% solids, V1 = 50,000 gal/day

At 24 % solids,

V2

0.012 50,000

0.24

gal

day

2500 gal day

Volume Reduction = V1 V2 = 50,000 2500 = 47,500 gal/day

The answer is (d).

14 Wastewater Sludge Production Rate

At a wastewater plant, the design flow is 6.0 MGD with an influent suspended
solids concentration of 285 mg/l. At the primary clarifier, 60% of suspended
solids are removed. Sludge production is 5% solids by weight and has a specific
gravity of 1.02.
Determine the sludge production rate in gallons/day.
SOLUTION
lb MG
mg
lb

8557
Sludge removed 6.0 MGD 0.60 285
8.34
l
mg l
day

Volume

Weight
Density

8557

lb
day

0.05 solids 1.02 S G 8.34

lb

gal

20,100

gal
day

15 - Sludge Volume Ratios

What is most nearly the sludge volume index for a mixed liquor suspended
solids (MLSS) suspension at an initial concentration of 2400 mg/L that settles to
the 356 mL mark in a 1 L graduated cylinder after 30 minutes?
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)

150 mL/g
270 mL/g
3700 mL/g
6700 mL/g

SOLUTION:
Refer to Page 30-6, PE Manual.
The sludge volume index (SVI) is a measure of the sludges settleability. SVI is a
parameter for operation considerations to ensure that the sludge settles during
clarification and does not carry over into a final treatment process.
Mixed liquor suspended solids (MLSS) is the bacteria and other suspended
material in the mixed liquor, which is measured as mg/L.

Parameters
MLSS mixed liquor suspended solids
SV
Sludge volume
SVI Sludge volume

mg/L
mL/L
mL/g

mL
mg

356
1000
L
g
SV

SVI

148 mL g , say 150 mL g

mg
MLSS
2400
L
The answer is (a).

16 - Disinfection of Wastewater (Not covered in class)

Disinfection of a wastewater using aqueous chlorine at a pH of 8.5 and a
temperature of 210C requires 23 minutes to effect the desired percentage kill.
How much time is required if the wastewater temperature is 170C?
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)

6.4 min
20 min
27 min
32 min

SOLUTION:
Refer to Metcalf & Eddy, page 330.
The effect of temperature on the rate of kill can be represented by a form of the
vant Hoff-Arrhenius relationship. Increasing the temperature results in a more
rapid kill. In terms of the time, t required to effect a given percentage kill, the
relationship is:
ln

t1
E T2 T1

where
t2
R T1 T2

t1, t2 = time for given percentage kill at temperatures T1 and T2, 0K

respectively
E
= activation energy, J/mol (cal/mol)
R
= gas constant, 8.314 J/mol*0K (1.99 cal/0K*mol)

Source: Wastewater Engineering, 3rd edition, McGraw-Hill

Because decreasing temperature results in a longer reaction time, take 210C as the
reference temperature (T1) and 170C as the temperature of interest (T2).

T1 210 C 2730 294 K

T2 17 0 C 2730 290 K
cal

6400
290 K 294 K
t1
E T2 T1
mol

ln

0.15
cal
t2
R T1 T2

1.99
294 K 290 K
mol * K

t
t
t
ln 1 0.15 1 e 0.15 t 2 01.15 27 min
t2
e
t2

The answer is (c).

17 - Disinfection of a Wastestream #2 (Not covered in class)

Disinfection is to be added to a sewage treatment plant with an average daily
flow of 13 MGD, and an hourly peak factor of 2.5. The average coliform count,
N0 = 10,000 org/100 mL must be reduced to 200 org/100mL.
Codes require a 15-minute contact time for peak hourly flow and 30-minute
contact time for average daily flow, and a maximum chlorine dose rate of 15
mg/L.
NT
1 0.23 CT t
N0
& Eddy, page 338)

The equation

3 describes the chlorination process.

(Metcalf

NT = number of coliforms organisms at time t

N0 = number of coliform organisms at time t 0
Ct = total chlorine residual at time, t, mg/L
T = residence time, minutes
(a) Determine the total chlorine residual (mg/L) after 15 minutes contact time
under peak conditions.
(b) Determine the chlorine dosage rate in lb/day.

Influent

Effluent

Cl2 feed

SOLUTION:
Part (a)
NT
1 0.23 CT t
N0

NT

N0

CT

, rearranges to

NT

N0

1 3

0.23 CT t

200 1 3

1
10,000

0.23 15

, rearranges to

CT

1 3

1 0.23 CT t

N 1 3
T
1
N 0

0.23 t

0.78 mg L

Part (b)
If Q= 13 MGD and Cl2 dose is 15 mg/L (as a code requirement in the problem
statement)
lb

day

lb MG
15 mg L 1626 lb
Q * c 13 mgd 8.34
day
mg
L

River Mixing & BOD

Calculations

Basics of Wastewater Strength Calculations

Description of BOD Test Section 28-20)
The method consists of placing a sample in a full, airtight bottle and incubating
the bottle under specified conditions for a specific time. Dissolved oxygen (DO)
is measured initially and after incubation. The BOD is computed from the
difference between initial and final DO.

Most wastewaters contain more oxygen demanding materials than the amount of
DO available in air-saturated water. Therefore, it is necessary to dilute the
sample before incubation to bring the oxygen demand and supply into
appropriate balance.

When dilution water is not seeded:

BOD5

DOI DOF
VSAMPLE
VSAMPLE VDILUTION

Eqn 28.28

Industrial wastewater may lack sufficient microorganisms to oxidize the wastes.

For such wastes, the dilution water is seeded with a population of
microorganisms.

BOD5

Where

DOI DOF DOI* DOF*

VSAMPLE
VSAMPLE VDILUTION

Eqn 28.32

x = volume of seed in diluted sample/volume of seed in seed

control

1 - BOD Determination Example (only BOD question covered in class)

For a BOD test, 75 ml of river water sample is used in the 300 mL of BOD bottles
without seeding with three duplications. The initial DO in three BOD bottles
read 8.86, 8.88, and 8.83 mg/L respectively. The DO levels after 5 days at 200C
incubation are 5.49, 5.65, and 5.53 mg/L, respectively. Find the 5-day BOD
(BOD5) for the river water.
SOLUTION:
Determine average DO uptake and plug it into the BOD equation
D1 D2
3
=[(8.86 5.49) + (8.88 5.65) + (8.83 5.53)]/3 = 3.30 mg/L
x

BOD5

DOI DOF
VSAMPLE
VSAMPLE VDILUTION

3.30 mg L
13.2 mg L
75
300

BOD Calculations as Related to Time and Temperature

First Stage BOD is usually defined by:

BODT BODU 1 exp K D t

Eqn 28.29

Where
BODt = BOD in mg/L exerted after t days
BODu = Ultimate first stage BOD
KD = coefficient of deoxygenation (reaction rate coefficient)
t = time of days

BODU

BOD exerted

t, days
KD may be determined experimentally and usually varies between 0.10 and 0.20.
KD also varies with temperature as follows:
KDT = 1.047 T-20 KD20

Eqn 28.26

Where
KDT = Value at desired T (0C)
T = Temperature (0C)
KD20 = Value at T = 200C

NOTE: It has been my experience that most problems are solved using base
e instead of base 10. This is about the only variation I find with the
Lindeburg test.

River Mixing
When wastewater is discharged to a receiving stream, the concentrations of
various parameters of the mixture may be determined from the following:

C S QS CW QW
QS QW

Eqn 28.33

QS = rate of flow in stream

QW = rate of flow of wastewater
CS = concentration of parameter in stream above discharge point
CW = concentration of parameter in waste flow before discharge
This equation applies to oxygen content, solids, etc.
The Streeter Phelps equation is generally used to define the oxygen deficit over
time as follows:
DT

K D BODU e K DT e K R t
KR KD

Eqn 28.34

DT = dissolved oxygen deficit (mg/L) at time t (days)

BODU = ultimate first-stage BOD
KD = deoxygenation coefficient (K1)
KR = reoxygenation coefficient (K2)
D0 = initial oxygen deficit (mg/L)
Based on the above equation, the critical oxygen deficit is:

DC

KD
BODU exp K DT M
KR

Eqn 28.37

And TM is the time at which the minimum dissolved oxygen of the mixture
occurs, and is found as follows:

TM

K
1
ln R
KR KD KD

D0 K R K D
1

K D BODU

Eqn 28.36

Caution: I may use different variations of these equations in the handouts.

2 - Wastewater Effluent Mixing with Receiving Stream

A wastewater treatment plant (WWTP) discharges raw sewage during periods of
high rainfall. Typical discharge flows are 15 x 106 gal/day with dissolved
oxygen concentrations of 1.20 mg/L. During these periods, the river flows at
2000 ft3/sec with a dissolved oxygen concentration of 8.10 mg/L. What is most
nearly the DO concentration in the river once complete mixing at the WWTP
effluent has occurred?
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)

4.65 mg/L
8.02 mg/L
8.05 mg/L
8.18 mg/L

SOLUTION:
When wastewater is discharged to a receiving stream, the concentrations of
various parameters of the mixture may be determined from the following:

C S QS CW QW
QS QW

QS = rate of flow in stream

QW = rate of flow of wastewater
CS = concentration of parameter in stream above discharge point
CW = concentration of parameter in waste flow before discharge
Step 1: Convert WWTP flow to compatible units

gal ft 3
day
ft 3

23
15 x 10 6

day 7.48 gal 86,400 sec
sec

Step 2: Calculate the DO concentration

mg
ft 3
mg ft 3

1.20

8.10
2000
23
L
L sec
sec
C S QS CW QW
mg

C
8.02
3
3
QS QW
L
ft
ft
2000
23
sec
sec
The answer is (b).

3- Wastewater Effluent Mixing with Receiving Stream #2

A secondary treated effluent from a 4.0 MGD wastewater treatment plant is
discharged into a receiving stream.
The wastewater has a BOD5 = 20 mg/L. The receiving stream upstream from the
point of wastewater discharge has a flow of 18 cfs and a BOD5 = 4.0 mg/L. The
BOD reaction rate constant is estimated at 0.23 d-1 (base e at 20 0C).
Determine the ultimate BODU downstream of the receiving stream.

QSTREAM = 18 cfs
BOD5 = 4 mg/L

Q = 4.0 MGD, BOD5 = 20 mg/L

SOLUTION:
1 cfs = 449 gpm = 646,560 gpd
18 cfs = 11.6 MGD
Step 1: Determine BOD5 after mixing
From earlier notes, C

BOD5

C S QS CW QW
can be rewritten:
QS QW

BODWW QWW BODSTREAM QSTREAM

20 mg l 4 MGD 4 mg l 11.6 MGD

QWW QSTREAM
15.6 MGD

BOD5 8.1 mg L
Step 2:
BODT BODU 1 exp K D t yields
BOD5
8 .1
BODU

11.9 mg L 12 mg L
K 5
1 exp
1 exp 0.23 5
The answer is 12 mg/L.

4 Dissolved Oxygen Sag in a River System (Not covered in class)

Assume the following characteristics of the wastewater/river mixture at the
point of discharge:
Dissolved oxygen concentration
Ultimate BODU
Temperature
Reaeration rate constant (base e)
Deoxygenation rate constant (base e)

6 mg/L
10 mg/L
20 0C
0.40 day-1
0.23 day-1

Assume that no other wastewater sources are discharged into the river.
Determine the time (days) of the critical dissolved oxygen concentration from the
point of wastewater discharge.

WWTP
X*
X=0

Distance for DO Sag

SOLUTION:
Step 1: Determine the initial DO Deficit
DO0 = DOS DO = 9.08 (Table) 6 (given) = 3.08 mg/L
Refer to Appendix 22.D, Page A-51 (slightly different value than mine)
Step 2: Determine time, TMAX for DO sag using Streeter Phelps Equation

TM

K D K K D
1
where
ln R 1 0 R
KR KD KD
K D BODU

K R reaeration cons tan t , 0.40 d 1

K D deoxygenation cons tan t , 0.23 d 1

TM

0.40 3.08 0.40 0.23

1
1
1.74 days
ln
0.23 10
0.40 0.23 0.23

Non Quantitative
Problems

1 Viruses and Bacteria

What following statements are true regarding microbiology?
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)

Bacteria can be pathogenic

Viruses are parasitic
Rotifiers are chemoheterotrophs
All are true

SOLUTION:
Refer to Chapter 27
The answer is (d).
2 - Coliforms

Refer to Chapter 27-4 in PE Manual

Wastewater Engineering: Treatment, Disposal, and Reuse, 3rd edition, by Tchobanoglous &
Burton, McGraw Hill, 1991

The coliform group are considered good indicator organisms because:

(a)

they apply to all types of water

(b)

they are always present when pathogens are present, and normally
absent otherwise

(c)

they are easily detected by routine analytical methods

(d)

all of the above

SOLUTION:
Section 27-11, Page 27-4

The answer is (d).

3 Odor Constituents

Wastewater Engineering: Treatment, Disposal, and Reuse, 3rd edition, by Tchobanoglous &
Burton, McGraw Hill, 1991

What elements found in chemical compounds usually contribute to wastewater

odor?
(a) chlorine and iron
(b) nitrogen and sulfur
(c) nitrogen and iron
(d) chlorine and sulfur
SOLUTION:
Most compounds which contribute to odor contain nitrogen (amines) and sulfur
(mercaptan and sulfides). It is referred to indirectly in Table 27.2 on page 27-5.
The answer is (b).
4 Wastewater Loading Factor
Page 28-3

What is the typical organic loading for domestic wastewater in the U.S.?
(a) 0.060 kg BOD/d per person
(b) 0.2 kg BOD/d per person
(c) 0.09 kg/BOD/d per person
(d) 0.4 kg/BOD per person
SOLUTION:
Refer to the top of page 28-3. The answer is (c).

5 - Lake Classification according to Trophic State

Wastewater Engineering: Treatment, Disposal, and Reuse, 3rd edition, by Tchobanoglous &
Burton, McGraw Hill, 1991

How would a facultative wastewater stabilization pond be defined?

(a) eutrophic
(b) oligotrophic
(c) hypereutrophic
(d) mesotrophic
SOLUTION:
Websters Dictionary Oligotrophic:
Lacking in plant nutrients and having a large amount of dissolved oxygen
throughout. Used of a pond or lake.
From Metcalf & Eddy:
Eutrophication is a natural aging process in which water becomes organically
enriched, leading to increasing domination by aquatic weeds, transformation to
marsh land. Eutrophication can be accelerated by human input of nutrients.
Ranking from lowest to highest productivity, the classifications are:
Ultraoligotrophic
Oligotrophic
Mesotrpohic
Eutrophic
Hypereutrophic
Phosphorus and nitrogen loadings would be extreme in a wastewater pond as
compared to a lake (hopefully).
The answer is (c).

6 BOD Removal Rates

What is the typical biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) reduction realized by
primary clarification?
(a) 5-15%
(b) 15-25%
(c) 25-35%
(d) 40-60%

SOLUTION:
Refer to the Table 29.10, page 29-7. See also Page 29-3, Section 5. The answer is
(c).

7 Sequential Batch Reactors

Page 30-3

What are the typical operation steps of sequential batch reactors?

(a) fill, aerate, settle, decant
(b) fill, aerate, settle, recirculate, decant
(c) fill, settle, aerate, decant
(d) fill, decant, aerate, recirculate
SOLUTION:
Refer to the page 30-3. The answer is (a).

8 Sludge Thickening
What are typical percent solids ranges for waste activated sludge and thickened
sludge respectively?
(a) WAS 0.5 - 1%, Thickened 4 -5%
(b) WAS 0.5-1%, Thickened 5-10%
(c) WAS 1-3%, Thickened 10-12%
(d) WAS, 1-2%, Thickened 20-25%
SOLUTION:
Refer to the page 30-13, Section 30-15.
The answer is (a).
9 Sewer Pipe Flow
Combined sewers are pipe systems that are designed to
(a) convey domestic and industrial wastewater
(b) convey wastewater and storm water
(c) convey domestic wastewater, industrial wastewater, and storm water
(d) convey only storm water
SOLUTION:
Refer to the page 28-2. The answer is (b).

10 Wastewater Peak Flow

Over what period of time would you expect the wastewater to experience the
highest average flow?
(a) annually
(b) seasonally
(c) weekly
(d) daily
SOLUTION:
Refer to the page 28-2, Table 28.1. The answer is (d).

11 Wastewater Generation
What is the typical design flow for new sewer systems?
(a) 80 gal/day/person
(b) 100 gal/day/person
(c) 120 gal/day/person
(d) 150 gal/day/person
SOLUTION:
Refer to the page 28-2. The answer is (b).

12 Potable Water Usage & Wastewater Generation

What is a typical percentage of domestic drinking water that contributes to
wastewater?
(a) 40-50%
(b) 35-55%
(c) 80-90%%
(d) 70-80%
SOLUTION:
Refer to the page 28-2. The answer is (d).

POTABLE WATER SECTION

Fall 2010

Instructor:
J.B. Jones, P.E., PhD.
jbjones@odu.edu

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Typical Water Treatment Plant

#1 Water Hardness Calculation #1
#2 Water Hardness Calculation #2
#3 Chlorine Disinfection Dosage #1
#4 Chlorine Disinfection Dosage #2
#5 Motor Sizing for Flash Mixer
#6 Jar Testing
#7 Paddle Wheel Mixer for Flocculation Tank
#8 Particle Settling Velocity
#9 Clarifier Problem
#10 Sedimentation Basin #1
#11 Clarifier Basin
#12 Sand Filter Problem #1
#13 Sand Filter Problem #2
#14- Ion Exchange Calculation for Reactor Vessels
#15 Zeolite Softening Problem #1
#16 Zeolite Softening Problem #2
#17 Reverse Osmosis

Non Qualitative Problems

#1 Algae
#2 Hardness Calculations
#3 Settling Basin Zones
#4 Settling Basin Zones
#5 Filter Bed Parameters

#6 Filter Bed Stratification

#7 Granular Media Sequence
#8 Treatment Plant Sequence
#9 Jar Tests
#10 Free Chlorine Disinfection
#11 Mixing Physics
#12 Mixing Physics (2)

LOW SERVICE
PUMP

WASTE
SLUDGE

BACKWASH
RECOVERY
BASIN
BACKWASH
RECYCLE

WATER
SOURCE

FILTER

SCREEN

HIGH SERVICE
PUMP

FLOCCULATION

DISTRIBUTION
SYSTEM

WASTE
SLUDGE

SEDIMENTATION

FILTER
AID

TYPICAL WATER TREATMENT PLANT

BACKWASH
PUMP

CLEARWELL

RAPID MIX

pH ADJUSTMENT,
PRIMARY OXIDANT,
COAGULANT

1 - Water Hardness Calculation #1

PE Refresher Manual Page 25-1 and Appdx 22.C
The results of a well water analysis are given below:
Ca+2
51 mg/L
12 mg/L
Mg+2
Na+
25 mg/L
-2
SO4
65 mg/L
Cl25 mg/L
F0.40 mg/L
14 mg/L
NO3
pH
7.8
H2S
3.4 mg/L as S
Alkalinity
84 mg/L as CaCO3
Total Coliforms
MPN
2.2 org/100 mL
Turbidity
6.2 NTU
Chlorine Demand 9.1 mg/L
TDS
332 mg/L
Temperature
250C
Calculate the total hardness.
SOLUTION:
Hardness is the measure of soluble divalent metal cations (i.e. positive ions
having a valence of 2). The two main cations that cause hardness are calcium
(Ca) and magnesium (Mg). Water hardness is generally expressed as mg/L of
CaCO3. (This will be discussed in work sample problems)
Hardness can be categorized by either of two methods:
o Calcium and magnesium hardness
o Carbonate and noncarbonated hardness

Quick Refresher: Hardness is expressed as CaCO3

Equivalent Weight EW

40 12 3 16 50

EW CaCO3

Multiplier

MW
Ch arg e

EW CaCO3
EW subs tan ce

given in Appendix 22.C

For this specific problem,

Add calcium and magnesium concentrations in CaCO3 equivalents
mg
Calcium 51
l

or

50

127 mg as CaCO3
l
40
2

Use Appendix 22.C

Calcium 51

mg
l

Magnesium 12

mg
l

2.5

4.1 factor

Total Hardness 177 mg

factor 127 mg

as CaCO3

49 mg

as CaCO3

as CaCO3

2 Water Hardness Calculation # 2

A towns water supply has the following ionic concentrations:
Al3+
Ca2+
ClCO2
CO32Fe2+
FlHCO3Mg2+
Na+
NO3SO42-

0.5 mg/L
80.2 mg/L
85.9 mg/L
19 mg/L
0
1.0 mg/L
0
185 mg/L
24.3 mg/L
46.0 mg/L
0
125 mg/L

What is the total hardness?

(a) 160 mg/L as CaCO3
(b) 200 mg/L as CaCO3
(c) 260 mg/L as CaCO3
(d) 300 mg/L as CaCO3
SOLUTION: (Refer to Page 25-1, PE Manual)
Part (1)
Constituent
Ca2+
Mg2+
Fe2+

mg/L as
substance
80.2
24.3
1

The answer is (d).

x
x
x

Factor from
Appendix 22.c
2.5
4.1
1.79
Hardness

=
=
=
=

Hardness expressed as
mg/L of CaCO3
200.5
99.63
1.79
302 mg/l

3 - Chlorine Disinfection Dosage #1 (not in PE Manual)

A water is tested and found to have a chlorine demand of 6 mg/L. The desired
chorine residual is 0.2 mg/L. How many pounds will be required daily to
chlorinate a flow of 8 MGD?
Cl2 dosage

lbs
day

= Cl2 demand + Cl2 residual

= 6 mg/l + 0.2 mg/l = 6.2 mg/l

lb

mg MG

MG
lb
6.2
8.34
8
414 day
mg
l
d

4 - Chlorine Disinfection Dosage for Potable Water #2

The flow rate in a water treatment process is 1.2 MGD. If the chlorine dosage is
2 mg/l, how much calcium hypochlorite containing 70% available chlorine is
required for disinfection?
SOLUTION

lb

MG
mg
MG
lb
Available chlorine reqd 2
8.34
1.2
20 day
mg
l
d

20 lb
day
Total chlorine reqd
29 lb
day
0.70

5 - Motor Sizing for Flash Mixer

What standard motor size is required for a tank impeller flash mixer sized to
treat 5 MGD at a temperature of 60 0F. The design velocity gradient and
residence time are 700 sec-1 and 2 minutes respectively. The motor efficiency is
80%.
SOLUTION:
(a) Determine the required volume
Page 26-8, PE Manual
day

gal
ft 3
2 min
931 ft 3
0.134
Volume Q * t 5 x 10 6
day
gal
1440
min

(b) Determine the power requirement

Page 26-9, PE Manual

P G 2 VTANK
P

= mixing power, ft-lbf/sec

= absolute viscosity, 2.359 x 10-5 lbf-sec/ft2 (Appendix 14 A)
= velocity gradient = 700 sec-1

1
lbf sec
3
700
2.359 x 10 5
931 ft 10,762 lbf ft sec
2
sec
ft

P G VTANK
2

( c) Determine HP requirement
Power Input to motor = Pump Power/Efficiency

10,762
Pa P

HP

lbf ft sec
lbf
ft
550
sec

24.5 HP 25 HP
0.80

6 - Jar Testing (1.5 Problems and not very practical))

The results of jar tests and preliminary design of flash mixing for a new
proposed water treatment plant are given in the following table.

Parameter
GT
Temperature
Total Design Flow
Number of units
Dimension of units

Criterion
4000
100C
6 m3/s
2
1.5 m square x 2 m
deep
Unbaffled

Configuration

The power required for each flash mixer is most nearly:

(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)

33 kW
42 kW
56 kW
61 kW

SOLUTION:
In 1943, T.R. Camp and P.C. Stein developed the relationship between the
velocity gradient and power imparted to the water as

P
P

G
VTANK

G 2 VTANK

Equation 26.21, PE Manual

= mixing power, N*m/s, or W

= absolute viscosity, 1.3077 x 10-3 Pa * sec (Appendix 14 B)
= velocity gradient, sec-1
= basin volume, m3

Calculate the basin volume

VTANK 1.5 m 1.5 m 2 m 4.5 m 3

m3
3
s 3m
Flow per tan k Q
s
2 tan ks
6

Calculate the detention tank per tank

4 .5 m 3
V
T

1 .5 s
Q
m3
3
s
Calculate G
m
4000
m 2667 m
G
1.5 s
sm

1
N s

3 W s
2667
P G 2 VTANK 1.3077 x 10 3
42 kW
4.5 m
2
sec
m
N m

The answer is (b).

7 - Paddle Wheel Mixer for Flocculation Tank

A flocculator tank with a volume of 200,000 ft3 uses a paddle wheel to mix the
coagulant in 600F water. The operating characteristics are as follows:
Mean velocity gradient
Paddle drag coefficient
Paddle tip velocity
Relative water/paddle velocity

45 sec-1
1.75
2 ft/sec
1.5 ft/sec

(1)

What is the theoretical power required to drive the paddle?

(a) 12 hp
(b) 17 hp
(c) 60 hp
(d) 120 hp

(2)

What is the drag force on the paddle?

(a) 450 lbf
(b) 910 lbf
(c) 5500 lbf
(d) 6400 lbf

(3)

What is the required paddle area?

(a) 900 ft2
(b) 1200 ft2
(c) 1500 ft2
(d) 1700 ft2

SOLUTION:
(a) Determine the power requirement
Page 26-9, PE Manual

P G 2 VTANK
P

= mixing power, ft-lbf/sec

= absolute viscosity, 2.359 x 10-5 lbf-sec/ft2 (Appendix 14 A)
= velocity gradient = 45 sec-1

1
lbf sec
45
P G 2 VTANK 2.359 x 10 5

2
ft

sec

200,000 ft
3

9,554 lbf ft sec

Water HP

lbf ft
sec
17.4hp
lbf ft
550
hp sec

9,554

The answer is (b).

(b) Since work = force x distance, then power = force x velocity

FD

vel

lbf ft
sec
6369 lbf
ft
1 .5
sec

9,554

The answer is (d).

( c) Using equation 26.15 (rearrange terms) , page 26-8:

2 g FD
CD v 2

The answer is (d).

2 32.2

ft
6369 lbf
sec 2

1669 ft 2
2

1.75 62.4 lbf3 1.5 ft

sec
ft

8 - Particle Settling Velocity

A spherical sand particle has a specific gravity of 2.6 and a diameter of 1-mm.
What is the settling velocity?
(a) 0.2 ft/sec
(b) 0.7 ft/sec
(c) 1.1 ft/sec
(d) 1.6 ft/sec

SOLUTION:

From P.E. Manual, page 26-5, the settling velocity is 0.7 ft/sec.
The answer is (b).

9 - Clarifier Problem
A mechanically cleaned circular clarifier is to be designed with the following
characteristics.
Flow rate
Detention period
Surface loading
(1)

2.8 MGD
2 hours
700 gal/ft2-day

What is the approximate diameter?

(a) 45 ft
(b) 60 ft
(c) 70 ft
(d) 90 ft

(2)

What is the approximate depth?

(a) 6 ft
(b) 8 ft
(c) 12 ft
(d) 15 ft

(3)

If the initial flow rate is reduced to 1.1 MGD, what is the surface loading?
(a) 190 gal/day-ft2
(b) 230 gal/day-ft2
(c) 250 gal/day-ft2
(d) 280 gal/day-ft2

(4)
If the initial flow rate is reduced to 1.1 MGD, what is the average
detention period?
(a) 4 hr
(b) 5 hr
(c) 6 hr
(d) 8 hr

SOLUTION:
Part (1):
The surface area is

gal
Flow
day

gal
Loading Rate
700 2
ft day
2.8 x 10 6

ASURFACE

4000 ft 2

Since A D 2
4
Dia

4 4000

ft 2

71.4 ft

The answer is ( c).

Part (2)

gal
2.8 x 10 6
2 hr
day

Volume Flow Time Q t

2.333 x 10 5 gal
hr
24
day
The depth is
2.333 x 10 5 gal
Volume

7.8 ft
depth
ASURFACE
gal
2
4000 ft 7.48 3
ft

The answer is (b).

Part (3)

Loading Rate
The answer is (d).

Flow

Area

gal
day
4000 ft 2

1.1 x 10 6

275 gal day ft 2

Part (4) Eqn 26-6

tD

Volume
Q

The answer is (b).

hr

gal 24
day 5.09 hr
gal
1.1 x 10 6
day

2.333 x 10

10- Sedimentation Basin #1

A flow of 2.5 MGD from a coagulation/flocculation basin is settled in four
rectangular sedimentation basins. The dimensions of each basin are 75 ft x 15 ft
x 12 ft deep.
Calculate the detention time, and horizontal flow velocity.
SOLUTION:
Calculate flow to each basin:

Flow per Ba sin

gal
d 6.25 x 10 5 gpd
4 ba sin s

2.5 x 10 6

Now, calculate the individual terms:

DetentionTime

Volume

Flow

75 ft 15 ft 12 ft 7.48 gal3

ft

4 hr

5 gal 1 d

6.25 x 10

d 24 hr

gal
Flow
ft
d
Horizontal Vel
0.32

min
Cross Section Area

15 ft 12 ft 7.48 gal3 1440 min

d
ft

6.25 x 10 5

11 Clarifier Basin
Two equally sized circular sedimentation basins handle a total design flow of
2.5 MGD. Each unit has an overflow rate of 700 gpd/ft2 and a detention time of
four hours.
(a)
(b)

Calculate the tank diameter.

Calculate the weir loading if the influent is introduced through a
vertical riser pipe in the center of the basin and flows radially
outward.

SOLUTION:
Part (a)

Flow to one ba sin

gal
d 1.25 x 10 6 gal
2 units
d

2.5 x 10 6

Flow
Surface Area

Overflow Rate

Diameter

4A

gal
d 1.786 x 10 3 ft 2
gal
700
d ft 2

1.25 x 10 6

4 1.786 x 10 3 ft 2

48 ft

Part (b)
Weir length diameter 48 ft 150 ft

Weir loading

gal
d 8300 gpd
150 ft
ft

1.25 x 10 6

12 Sand Filter Problem #1

A water treatment plant has four square rapid sand filters. The flow rate is 4
gal/min-ft2. Each filter has treatment capacity of 600,000 gal/day. Each filter is
backwashed once a day for 8 min. The rate of rise during washing is 24 in/min.

(1)

What are the inside dimensions of each filter?

(a) 6 ft x 6 ft
(b) 8 ft x 8 ft
(c) 10 ft x 10 ft
(d) 12 ft x 12 ft

(2)

What percentage of the filtered water is used for backwashing?

(a) 2%
(b) 4%
(c) 8%
(d) 10%
SOLUTION:
Part a:
The area is

AREQ

Flow

Loading Rate

gal
day
104.2 ft 2
gal
hr min
24
60

2
hr
min ft day
600,000

Use 10 ft x 10 ft area. The answer is ( c).

Part b:
The volume of water used during backwashing is

min
ft

3
100 ft 2 2
Volume 8
1600 ft day
min
day

ft 3
gal
gal
7.48 3 11,970
1600
day
day
ft

The percentage of backwash water then would be

Eqn 26.32

gal
day
gal
600,000
day
11,970

0.02 (2%)

The answer is (a).

13 - Rapid Sand Filter Problem #2

A water treatment plant has four rapid sand filters. Each filter is designed for a
capacity of 1 MGD. Backwashing is accomplished for 9 minutes at a rate of 15
gpm/ft2 once every 24 hours. The terminal head loss prior to backwashing is
averages 4 -10 feet.
(a) If a loading rate of 3.5 gpm/ft2 is used, what are the filter dimensions if
the tank is square?
(b) How much water is required for backwashing and what percentage of
the filtered water does this represent?
SOLUTION:
Part (a)
gal
1 x 10 6
Flow
d

Filter Area
198 ft 2
Loading Rate
gal
min
3.5
1440

2
d
min ft

Length 198 ft 2 14 ft

Part (b)
gal
gal
min
2
2.646 x 10 4
Backwash Volume 9
198 ft 15
2
d
d
min ft

Percentage

2.646 x 10 4
2.6%
1 x 10 6

14- Simple Ion Exchange Blending

A municipal plant processes water with a total initial hardness of 100 mg/L.
The desired discharge hardness is 25 mg/L. If an ion exchange process is used,
what is the bypass factor?

0 mg/L
Resin Bed
50 mg/L
Bypass, 200 mg/L
SOLUTION:
Page 26-15

x bypass fraction
1 x re sin bed fraction
Desired hardness 25 mg

Solve for " x"

x

25
25 %
100

1 x 0 mg x 100 mg
l
l

15 - Zeolite Softening Problem # 1

A towns water supply has the following ionic concentrations:
Ca(HCO3)2
MgSO4
CO2

137 mg/L as Ca CO3

72 mg/L as Ca CO3
0

The water is to be softened using a zeolite process (ion exchange) with the
following characteristics. The softener has an exchange capacity of 10,000
grains/ft3 and a salt requirement of 0.5 lbm per 1000 grains hardness removed.
How much salt is required to soften the water to 100 mg/L.
(a) 700 lbm/MG
(b) 1800 lbm/MG
(c) 2500 lbm/MG
(d) 3200 lbm/MG

SOLUTION:
There are 7000 grains in a pound. The hardness removed is

137

mg
mg
mg
mg
72
100
109
L
L
L
L

If we are working with the units of million gallons (MG),

lb

mg

MG
Hardness removed 109
hardness 8.34
910 lbm hardness / MG
mg
L

Convert lbm of hardness to lbm of salt required

0.5 lbm Salt
lbm hardness
gr
910
7000
Salt required
3200 lbm Salt / MG
MG water
lbm
1000 gr Hardness

The answer is (d).

16 - Zeolite Softening Problem # 2

The hardness of water from an underground aquifer is to be reduced from 245
mg/L to 80 mg/L using a zeolite process. The volumetric flow rate is 20,000
gal/day. The zeolite process has a resin exchange capacity of 20,000 grains/ft3
and a zeolite volume of 2 ft3.
(1)

What fraction of the water is bypassed around the process?

(a) 0.15
(b) 0.33
(c) 0.67
(d) 0.85

(2)

What is the time between regenerations of the softener?

(a) 5 hr
(b) 16 hr
(c) 24 hr
(d) 30 hr

SOLUTION:

(1)

A bypass product is required.

mg
80
L
fraction bypassed
mg
245
L

fraction processed

0.326

1 0.326 0.674
Zeolite (0.674)

Bypass(0.326)
The answer is (b).
(2)

The maximum hardness reduction is

2 ft 20,000
3

Hardness reduction Re sin Volume * Exchange Capacity

gr
7000
lbm

gr

ft 3

5.71 lbm

The hardness removal rate is

lb

MG
mg
MG
0.6740.02
245
8.34

mg
day
L

Q * c * conversion factors
hr
24
day

Run time

5.71 lbm
Hardness removed

lbm
Hardness removal rate
1.15
hr

The answer is (a).

4.97 hr

1.15 lbm hr

17- Reverse Osmosis (Look this over outside of class)

A reverse osmosis (RO) system is required to treat a drinking water source that
is subject to saltwater intrusion. The water and RO have the following
characteristics:
Desired Fresh Water Flow
Permeate Recovery
Membrane Flux Rate
Membrane Packing Density

30,000 m3/d
77%
0.93 m3/m2-d
800 m2/m3

Determine the membrane volume required to treat this water.

SOLUTION:
Step (1): Determine the required water flow with a permeate recovery fraction,
fp, equal to 77%.

QO

fP

m3
m3
day
38,961
day
0.77

30,000

Step (2): Determine the required surface area for membrane:

AM required membrane area

G membrane flux rate, 0.93

m3
m 2 day

m3
Q
day

41,894 m 2
3
G
m
0.93 2
m day
38,961

AM

Step (3): Determine the membrane volume based on PM (membrane packing

density):
VM membrane volume

AM
41,894 m 2

52.4 m 3
PM
m2
800 3
m

Non Quantitative
Problems

1 Algae
What is the primary threat from algae to water supplies?
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)

color
taste and odor
parasites
toxicity

SOLUTION:
Refer to Page 26-3, Section 26-6. The answer is (b).

2 Hardness Calculations
What are the common units of hardness?
(e)

meg L

(f)
(g)
(h)

mg L as Ca 2
mg L as CaCO3
ppm

SOLUTION:
The answer is (c).

3 Settling Basin Zones (not in text)

What are the four functional zones that define a sedimentation basin?
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)

flocculent, quiescent, overflow, sludge

inlet, outlet, settling, sludge
inlet, outlet, settling, overflow
turbulent, quiescent, overflow, underdrain

SOLUTION:
The answer is (b).

4 Settling Basin Zones

What is a typical overflow rate for sedimentation basins?
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)

2 10 m 3 m 2 d
10 25 m 3 m 2 d
25 50 m 3 m 2 d
50 80 m 3 m 2 d

SOLUTION:
Refer to the first sentence on the top of Page 26-6.
The answer is (c).

5 Filter Bed Parameters

The loading rate for granular media filters is determined by the flow rate
divided by what other parameter?
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)

filter bed volume

filter bed surface area
filter bed volume times media porosity
filter bed surface area times media porosity

SOLUTION:
See Page 26-11, Section 23.
The answer is (b).

6 Filter Bed Stratification

In a multimedia filter, how does filter media remain stratified following
backwash?
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)

The different media are separated by baffles to prevent mixing

Mixing occurs and the media is eventually replaced after many
backwash cycles
The media have different specific gravities and settle at different
rates
The media remain stratified because they mix only at the interface
layers

SOLUTION:
Refer to the AWWA Operator Manuals
The answer is (c).

7 Granular Media Sequence

What most completely describes the operating modes, in sequence, for
conventional granular media filtration?
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)

filtration and backwash

filtration, backwash, and conditioning
filtration, draining, backwash, and wasting
filtration, draining, backwash, wasting, and conditioning

SOLUTION:
Refer to the AWWA Operator Manuals
The filtration process occurs in (3) phases that are repeated continuously:
Filtration water flows downward through the filter media and
particles are retained
Backwash flow is reversed to expand the bed
Conditioning term used as the first flush of water is cycled through
the bed. This water is wasted or returned to the front of the plant.
The answer is (b).
8 Treatment Plant Sequence
What is the usual sequence of water treatment unit processes?
(a) flash mix, flocculation, sedimentation, filtration, chlorination
(b) filtration, flash mix, flocculation, sedimentation, chlorination
(c) chlorination, filtration, flash mix, flocculation, sedimentation
(d) sedimentation, flocculation, filtration, chlorination, flash mix
SOLUTION:
Refer to Class Handouts
The answer is (a).

9 Jar Tests
What is the basic design parameter for flocculation basins?
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)

velocity-time gradient
mixing power
solids flux
hydraulic loading rate

SOLUTION:
The velocity time gradient is Gt.
The answer is (a).

10 Free Chlorine Disinfection

Which compound does not provide a free chlorine residual?
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)

CaOCl2
NH2Cl
NaOCl
HOCl

SOLUTION:
See Page 26-16 and 28-13. Free chlorine exists in the form of HOCl and OCl.
The answer is (b).

11 Mixing Physics
The velocity gradient, G, is expressed usually in units of sec-1. It relates power,
tank volume, and velocity. This equation is typically applied to what treatment
sequence?
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)

filtration
flash mixer
disinfection
filtration

SOLUTION:
See Page 26-9. The answer is (b).

12 Mixing Physics (2)

Typical values for the velocity gradient, G, are usually in the range of
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)

500-1000 sec-1
1500-2000 sec-1
2000-3000 sec-1
100-200 sec-1

SOLUTION:
See Page 26-9. The answer is (a).

CLOSED PIPE HYDRAULICS

Fall 2010

Instructor:
J.B. Jones, P.E., PhD.
jbjones@odu.edu

TABLE OF CONTENTS
#1 Continuity Equation
#2 Tank Discharge via Orifice
#3 Venturi Meter
#4 Water Hammer
#5 Darcy Weisbach Head Loss
#6 - Hazen Williams Head Loss
#7 Equivalent Length Method
#8 Pump Affinity Laws
#9

Pump Affinity Laws #2

#10-

Multiple Stage Pumps

#11 Pump and System Curves

Non-Quantitative Problems
#1 Bernoullis Equation
#2 Velocity Head
#3 Pipe Schedule
#4 Determining Friction Loss
#5 Moody Diagram
#6 Relative Roughness
#7 Pump Curves
#8 Water Network
#9 Water Network #2
#10 Hazen Williams Question
#11 Water Hammer
#12 Basic Flow
#13 Pump Speed Change
#14 Cavitation

CHAPTER TOPICS
Chapter 14: Fluid Properties
Chapter 15: Fluid Statics
Section 4: Fluid Height equivalent to Pressure
Section 13: Hydrostatic Forces on a Dam
Chapter 16: Fluid Flow Parameters
Fluid Energy Units
Bernoulli Equation
Pitot Tube
Laminar vs. Turbulent Flow
Energy Grade Line
Chapter 17: Fluid Dynamics
Conservation of Mass
Darcy Friction Minor Losses
Energy & Hydraulic Grade line with Friction
Discharge from Tanks
Series Pipe Systems
Venturi Meter
Orifice Meter
Water Hammer
Chapter 18: Hydraulic Machines
Centrifugal Pumps
Terminology
Pump Power
Cavitation
System Curves
Performance Curves
Affinity Laws

1 Continuity Equation
Water flows at 4 ft/sec in a 4-in diameter pipe that is connected through a
reducer to a 3-inch diameter pipe. What is the flow velocity in the 3-inch
diameter pipe?
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)

5 ft/sec
6 ft/sec
7 ft/sec
9 ft/sec

SOLUTION:
Because the specific information regarding the type of pipe is not given, assume
pipe diameters given are actual inside diameters.
A1, A2

cross-sectional area of upstream

and downstream pipe
inside diameter of upstream
and downstream pipe

d1,d2

A1

d12

4 in 2

in2
in

12.56 in 2

4
4
2
d 2 3 in 2
A2

7.07 in 2
4
4

V1
V2

velocity in upstream pipe

velocity in downstream pipe

ft
12.56 in 4 sec

ft/sec
ft/sec

AV
V2 1 1
A2

The answer is (c).

7.07 in 2

7.1 ft / sec

Eqn. 17.2

2 Tank Discharge via Orifice (Not very typical)

A full cylindrical tank 40 feet (12 m) high has a constant diameter of 20 feet. The
tank has a 4 in (100 mm) diameter hole in the bottom. The coefficient of
discharge for the hole is 0.98. How long will it take for the water level to drop
from 40 feet to 20 feet (12 m to 6 m)?
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)

950 sec
1200 sec
1450 sec
1700 sec

SOLUTION:
2

4 in

2
12 in ft
d 0

A0

0.08727 ft 2
4
4
At

d t2
4

20 ft 2
4

314.16 ft 2

40 ft

20 ft
The time to drop from 40 feet to 20 feet is given by Equation 17.84.
Insert terms and original equation
t

2 At

z1 z 2

C d AO 2 g

2 315 ft 2 40 ft 20 ft
1700 sec
0.98 0.088 ft 2 2 32.2 ft sec 2

The answer is (d).

3 Venturi Meter (not covered in class)

A venturi meter with an 8-inch diameter throat is installed in a 12-inch diameter
water line. The venturi is perfectly smooth, so that the discharge coefficient is
1.00. An attached mercury manometer registers a 4-inch differential. What is the
volumetric flow rate?
(a) 1.7 ft3/sec
(b) 5.2 ft3/sec
(c) 6.4 ft3/sec
(d) 3 ft3/sec
SOLUTION:
FVA

1
D
1 2
D1

8 in

1
12 in

1.116

Eqn. 17.150

8 in
0.3491 ft 2
A2
4 12 in ft
p1 = density of mercury
p2 = density of water

1 ft
lb
lb
262 lbf ft 2
p1 p 2 848 3 62.4 3 4 in
12
in
ft
ft

Q FVA C d A2

6.4

2 g p1 p 2

ft 3
(cfs)
sec

The answer is (c).

1.1161 0.3491 ft 2

ft
lbf
2 32.2
262 2

2

sec
ft

lbf
62.4 3
ft

Eqn 17.148 (b)

4 Water Hammer (not common)

A cast iron water pipe has an inside diameter of 24 inches and a wall thickness of
0.75 in (20 mm). The pipes modulus of elasticity is 20 x 106 psi. The pipeline is
500 feet long and water is flowing at 6 ft/sec.
If a valve is closed instantaneously, what will be the pressure increase
experienced in the pipe?
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)

48 psi
140 psi
320 psi
470 psi

SOLUTION:
Eqn 17.205 gives the composite modulus of elasticity of the pipe & water:
For water at 700F, EWATER = 320 x 103 lbf/in2, Appendix 14
For cast iron pipe, EPIPE = 20 x 106 lbf/in2, not in book precisely

EWATER t PIPE E PIPE

t PIPE E PIPE d PIPE EWATER

3 lbf
0.75 in 20 x 10 6 lbf2
320 x 10
2
in
in

0.75 in 20 x 10 6 lbf2 24 in 320 x 10 3 lbf2

in
in

2.12 x 10 5 lbf in 2
The speed of sound in the pipe is:
144 in 2
lbm ft

32.2

2
2
1
ft
lbf

sec
E gC

3972 ft sec
lbm

62.4 3
ft
The maximum pressure is given by Equation 17.204:
lbf
2.12 x 10
in 2
5

lbm
ft ft
62.4 3 3972
6

sec sec
ft
a v
p

gC

lbm ft
32.2

2
lbf

sec

The answer is (c).

1 ft 2
lbf
320 2
x
2
in
144 in

5 Darcy-Weisbach Head Loss (too long but very practical)

Water at 600F flows in a 1.5 in diameter cast iron pipe (surface roughness, , is
0.0085) at a flow rate of 27 gallons per minute. Using the Darcy-Weisbach
relation, the head loss in a 350 feet section of pipe will most nearly be:
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)

35 ft
37 ft
39 ft
41 ft

SOLUTION:
The D-W equation gives a frictional head loss for fluid flow based on a friction
factor. Friction factor is a function of the Reynolds number and the relative
roughness of the pipe.
Step 1: Compute velocity, Re, and relative roughness
D 1.5 inches 1 ft 12 inches 0.125 ft

Q 27 gpm 0.13368 ft 3 gal 1 min 60 sec

4.9 ft sec
A
0.125 ft 2

Referring to Appendix 14.A on page A-13, use a kinematic viscosity of water of

1.217 x 10-5 ft2/sec.

Re

D vel

0.125 ft 4.9
1.217 x 10

ft sec
5.0 x 10 4
ft 2 sec

Eqn. 16.23

Use a surface roughness = 0.0085 ft. The relative roughness is the ratio of this
surface roughness to the overall dimension of the pipe.

0.0085 ft 0.0068
0.125 ft

Step 2: Calculate friction factor and head loss

friction factor

Eqn. 17.20

0.25


log

5.74

D
3.7 Re 0.9

0.25

5.74
log 0.0068
3.7 5.0 x 10 4

0.9

(Alternative is to use tables in A-17)

Eqn. 17.28

hf

f L V 2
2Dg

The answer is (b).

0.035 350 ft 4.9 ft

sec

ft

2 0.125 ft 32.2

sec 2

36.5 ft

0.035

6 Hazen Williams Head Loss

Water at 600F flows in a 1.5 in diameter PVC pipe (Hazen-Williams coefficient, C,
is 150) at a flow rate of 27 gallons per minute. Using the Darcy-Weisbach
relation, the head loss in a 350 feet section of pipe will most nearly be:
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)

14 ft
18 ft
22 ft
26 ft

SOLUTION:
The H-W equation gives a frictional head loss for turbulent flow independent of
the Reynolds number. It gives good results for liquids with a viscosity similar to
that of water at 600F.

Step 1: Compute velocity

D 1.5 inches 1 ft 12 inches 0.125 ft

Q 27 gpm 0.13368 ft 3 gal 1 min 60 sec

4.9 ft sec
A
0.125 ft 2

Step 2: Compute head loss

Pay attention to units.
3.022 v 1.85 L 3.022 4.9 350
h f 1.85 1.17
21.5 ft
C
D
1501.85 0.1251.17
1.85

The answer is (c).

Eqn 17.30

7 - Equivalent Length Method

Water is pumped from an elevation of 3457 feet to an elevation of 3503 feet
through 500 feet of 2-inch Schedule-80 PVC pipe at a velocity of 5 ft/sec. The
pipe includes 15 couplings, 8 900 regular elbows, 4 450 regular elbows, 6 tees
(straight flow), and 2 globe valves. Assume the equivalent length for the fittings
will be the same as screwed steel pipe (Appdx A-31). The water temperature is
600F. What is the total head loss in the system from all sources?

(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)

70 ft
81 ft
86 ft
270 ft

SOLUTION: (Right now, I will state that this is not the most practical problem,
but it does demonstrate some friction loss calculations. It is too long in my
opinion to be considered a fair question.)
hZ

head loss from elevation

ft

hZ z 2 z1 3503 ft 3457 ft 46 ft

For an equivalent length of threaded 2-inch schedule 80 PVC fittings, the

following characteristics apply:
Refer to Page A-31, Appendix 17.D,

Fitting

Quantity

coupling
900 ell
450 ell
Straight tee
Globe valve

15
8
4
6
2

Unit
Equivalent
Length (ft)
0.45
8.5
2.7
7.7
54

Total
Equivalent
Length (ft)
6.75
68
10.8
46.2
108
240

For friction head loss in the pipe (including equivalent length of fittings),
D

inside diameter for 2-in Sch 80 Pipe

roughness coefficient for PVC pipe

D = 1.939 in
= 0.000005 ft

Appendix 16.D
Table 17.2, page 17-4

0.000005 ft 12 in

1.939 in

Re
V

ft

0.000031

Reynolds number
flow velocity
kinematic viscosity

ft/sec
ft2/sec

= 1.217 x 10-5 ft/sec at 600F

1.939 in 12 in 5

ft

ft sec

6.6 x 10 4 (Page 16-7)

2
ft
1.217 x 10 5
sec

Re

DV

friction factor
f

Eqn. 17.20

0.25

5.74

log D

3.7 Re 0.9

0.25

5.74
log 0.000031

3.7 6.6 x 10 4

0.9

0.0197

(Alternative is to look at tables in A-17.)

Note that the friction factor could also be determined using a Moody diagram
with the same input values for using Reynolds number and relative roughness.
Refer to the Moody diagram on Page 17-6.

Eqn. 17.28

hf

f L Le V 2
2Dg

ft
ft 240 ft 5

sec
1 ft
ft
32.2
2 1.939 in

sec 2
12 in

0.0197 500

35 ft

For total head loss,

h hZ h f

46 ft 35 ft 81 ft

The answer is (b).

Eqn 18.37

8 Pump Affinity Laws

A pump intended to run at 1750 rpm when driven by a 0.5 hp motor. What is the
required power rating of a motor that will turn the pump at 2000 rpm?
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)

0.25 hp
0.45 hp
0.65 hp
0.75 hp

SOLUTION:

3 D5
P2 P1 2 23 25 P1
1 1 D1

The answer is (d).

2
2000 rpm
0.5 hp

1750 rpm
1

0.75 hp

Eqn 18.52

9 Pump Affinity Laws #2

A centrifugal pump operates at a speed of 1750 rpm and is rated at 850 gal/min
for 78% efficiency and 180 ft of head. For constant efficiency and head, what is
most nearly the flow rate if the pump is operated at 2200 rpm?

(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)

530 gal/min
680 gal/min
830 gal/min
1100 gal/min

SOLUTION:

Refer to the affinity laws stated in Section 18.26, page 18-18

Q2 n 2

Q1 n1

Q2

Q1 n2
n1

Eqn. 18.41

gal

2200 rpm
850
gal
min

1069

1750 rpm
min

The answer is (d).

10 - Multiple Stage Pumps (Not very typical)

A submersible pump operated at 1750 rpm is needed to deliver 800 gal/min
from a 350 ft deep well. At 93% efficiency, the average specific speed of the
pump is 2300. How many stages are required for the pump?

(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)

1 stage
3 stages
6 stages
4 stages

SOLUTION:
This will be a variation of Eqn 18.28. This is not covered in the PE manual.
h
n
NS
Q
w

elevation head
number of stages
specific speed
pump discharge
rotating speed

NS

h

n

w Q
h

n

0.75

NS

nh
w Q

0.75

ft

gpm
rpm

Modification of Eqn. 18.28

w Q
NS

2300
350 ft

gal

1750 rpm 800 min

The answer is (c).

5.8 stages, say 6

11 Pump & System Curves (read on your own)

PART A:
A pumping station is lifting water from a smaller reservoir to another tank.
Water travels through 3000 feet of 4-inch pipe. If the pipe is changed from
Schedule 40 to Schedule 80, the friction loss will
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)

not change, and the flow rate will remain the same
increase, and the flow rate will decrease
increase, and the flow rate will increase
decrease, and the flow rate will decrease

SOLUTION:
Refer to page 18-17, Section 18.23:

Pump Curve
Schedule 80

TDH, ft

Schedule 40

Discharge, gpm

Schedule 80 has the same outside diameter as Schedule 40, but the inside
diameter is smaller. Therefore, the friction loss will be greater in the Schedule 80
pipe. Although the same pump curve applies, the system curve is different. The
zero flow head is the same, but the curve is shifted upwards. This will shift the
operating point upward and to the left. The head added by the pump will
increase; the flow rate will decrease.
The answer is (b).

PART B:
Referring to the previous problem, the pump is designed to pump 225 gal/min
at 51.5 feet of head. What approximate hydraulic power does the pump
develop?

(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)

1 hp
2 hp
3 hp
5 hp

SOLUTION:
Refer to Table 18.5, page 18-8:

WHP

h A Q SG

gal ft
3956
hp min

gal
1.0
min

2.93 hp
gal ft
3956
hp min

51.5 ft 225

The answer is (c).

PART C:
What is the brake horsepower if the pump efficiency is 70%?

BHP

WHP 2.93 hp

4.2 hp
0.70
nP

PART D: (Not typical)

The pump is driven by a 4-pole, 60 Hz induction motor. What is the
approximate specific speed of the pump?

n SYNCHRONOUS

120 f 120 60 Hz

1800 rpm
4 poles
p

The specific speed is approximately

nS

n Q
h

0.75

1800 rpm 225 gpm

1400 rpm
52 ft 0.75

Eqn. 18.19

Non Quantitative
Problems

#1 Bernoullis Equation
What three parameters are included in the Bernoulli equation for an ideal fluid
flowing in a closed conduit?
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)

Elevation, pressure, viscosity

Elevation, pressure, velocity
Elevation, velocity, viscosity
Friction, pressure, velocity

SOLUTION:
Refer to Eqn. 16.11 on Page 16-3.
The answer is (b).

#2 Velocity Head
For laminar flow in pipes, how does the kinetic energy change when the flow is
halved?
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)

It decreases by a factor of 2
It decreases by a factor of 4
There is no change since kinetic energy is a function of pressure, not
velocity
There is no change since kinetic energy is a function of elevation, not
velocity

SOLUTION:
Refer to Eqn. 16.11 on Page 16-3. Remember velocity = Q/A
The answer is (b).

#3 Pipe Schedule
As the schedule increases for common pipe, how do pipe diameters change?
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)

The wall thickness does not change as the outside and inside diameters
get larger
The inside diameter does not change as the outside diameter gets
larger
The inside and outside diameters change depending on the pipe
material
The outside diameter remains constant requiring the inside diameter
to decrease

SOLUTION:
Refer to Appendix 16 a, b, and c.
The answer is (d).
#4 Determining Friction Loss
Which equation is not useful for determining friction head loss in a pressurized
pipe?
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)

Hazen Williams
Darcy Weisbach
Vant Hoff-Arrhenius
Chezy Manning

SOLUTION:
The vant Arrhenius is used to make temperature corrections to kinetic reaction
rate coefficients.
The answer is (c).

#5 Moody Diagram
If the Reynolds number and relative roughness are known, what information is
available from a Moody diagram?
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)

Pipe friction head loss

pressure
Hazen Williams coefficient
Friction factor

SOLUTION:
Refer to Figure 17.4 on page 17-6.
The answer is (d).

#6 Relative Roughness
What parameters define relative roughness for a pipe?
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)

Absolute roughness and Hazen Williams coefficient

Absolute roughness and pipe diameter
Friction factor and Hazen Williams coefficient
Friction factor and pipe diameter

SOLUTION:
Look at Moody Diagram on page 17-6.

Re lative roughness
The answer is (b).

#7 Pump Curves
What parameters are determined at the intersection of a pump curve and a
system curve?
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)

Head and horsepower

Head and efficiency
Efficiency and flow rate
Head and flow rate

SOLUTION:
The intersection of the pump curve and system curve defines the head and flow
rate operating conditions.
The answer is (d).

#8 Water Network
Two pipes of equal length branch from a common pipe and terminate at a
common pipe. The pipe diameters are 6-inches and 12 inches respectively.
Which statement is most correct?

(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)

The head loss in the smaller pipe is twice that of the larger pipe
The head loss in the smaller pipe is four times that of the larger pipe
The head loss in the smaller pipe is half that of the large pipe
The head loss in the smaller pipe is the same as that of the larger pipe

SOLUTION:
Refer to Section 17-31 on page 17-23.
The answer is (d).

#9 Water Network #2
In a pipe network, water can flow though multiple routes between nodes. Which
statement is most correct?

(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)

The inflow and outflow at a node does not have to be equal

The pressure drop between any two nodes, regardless of the flow path,
are equal
The pipe velocities between any two nodes, regardless of the flow
path, are equal
The pipe flow rates between any two nodes, regardless of the flow
path, are equal

SOLUTION:
Refer to Section 17-29 on page 17-20.
The answer is (b).

#10 Hazen Williams Question

A best estimate for the Hazen-Williams resistance coefficient for a new 10-inch
diameter PVC pipe is most nearly:
(a) 110
(b) 140
(c) 100
(d) 80
Refer to fine print in Appendix A-17 on Page A-25.
The answer is (b).

#11 Water Hammer

What is not an effective strategy for reducing water hammer?
(a) unanchored pipe joints
(b) surge tanks
(c) slowly closing valves
(d) air chambers
Refer to Page 17-36, first paragraph under Figure 17.41. The answer is (a).

#12 Basic Flow

Water flows in a horizontal pipe between points A and B. The pipe is a constant
diameter. Which statement is not true?
(a) A = B
(b) pA = pB
(c) vA = vB
(d) zA = zB
Density, velocity and elelvation do not change per the problem statement.
The answer is (b). There will be energy lost due to the surface roughness of the
pipe.

#13 Pump Speed Change

When a speed of a given pump is increased, what is the effect on the pump
curve?
(a) upward shift but no change in shape
(b) downward shift but no change in shape
(c) upward shift and change in shape
(d) downward shift and change in shape
Refer to Page 18-17, Figure 18.11. The answer is (c).

#14 Cavitation (Read in text)

During a pump cavitation event, what condition has likely occurred with respect
to the inlet and outlet pressures in the pump?
(a) absolute pressure at inlet is below the vapor pressure
(b) absolute pressure at the outlet is below the vapor pressure
(c) absolute pressure is equal on both sides
(d) absolute pressure at the inlet is less than the outlet
Refer to Page 18-15, Section 18. The answer is (a).

OPEN CHANNEL FLOW

Spring 2010

Instructor:
J.B. Jones, P.E., PhD.
jbjones@odu.edu

TABLE OF CONTENTS
#1 Rectangular Channel using Mannings Equation
#2 Rectangular Channel Depth of Flow by Trial & Error
#3 Head Loss in Trapezoidal Channel
#4 Circular Pipe General Calculations
#5 Trapezoidal Channel with Earthen Lining
#6 Cipoletti Weir
#7 Parshall Flume
#8 Hydraulic Jump Head Loss Calculation
#9 Hydraulic Jump Flow Calculation
#10 Hydraulic Jump over Spillway
#11 Culvert Flow Type Identification
#12-

Sluice Gate

Non Quantitative Problems

#1 Weirs
#2 Wetted Perimeter
#3 Sewer Pipe Slopes
#4 Hydraulic Jump
#5 Froude Number
#6 Hydraulic Radius
#7 Most Efficient Cross Section for a Rectangular Channel
#8 Most Efficient Cross Section for a Trapezoidal Channel
#9 Maximum Discharge in a Circular Pipe
#10 Hydraulic Radius Change
#11 Hydrostatic Forces

CHAPTER 19 TOPICS
Note: Chapter 17, Fluid Dynamics will not be covered explicitly.
Types of Flow Refer to Table 19.1
Flow Parameters
Manning equation - Normal Depths
Energy Relationships (Bernoullis Equation)
Weirs & Spillways
Parshall Flumes
Specific Energy Relationships
Alternate Depths & Critical Flow
Hydraulic Jumps
Culvert Flow Types (1 6)

1 Rectangular Channel using Mannings Equation

Water flows in an open rectangular channel that is 5 feet wide with a normal
water depth of 12 inches. The channel is concrete lined along its entire length
and has a constant slope of 0.2%. What is the flow rate of the water in the
channel?
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)

10
20
15
5

ft3/sec
ft3/sec
ft3/sec
ft3/sec

SOLUTION:
Refer to Appendix 19.A, page A-37: The Manning roughness coefficient for
concrete is 0.013.

Using Table 19.2, page 19-3,

bd
, where b = 5 ft and d = 1 ft
b 2d

bd
1.49
S

bd
n
b 2d

2
1.49
Q
AR 3
n

1.49 5
Q
5
0.013 7

The answer is (b).

0.002 20.5 ft 3 sec

Eqn. 19.13(b)

2 Rectangular Channel, Depth of Flow by Trial & Error

A wooden flume (n = 0.012) with a rectangular cross section is 2 ft wide. The
flume carries 3 ft3/sec of water down a 1% slope. What is the depth of flow?

(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)

0.3 ft
0.4 ft
0.5 ft
0.6 ft

SOLUTION:
Using Table 19.2, page 19-3,

2d
d

2 2d
1 d

2
1.49
Q
AR 3
n

Eqn 19.13

d
ft 3
1.49

3

2 d

sec
1
d
0.012

0.01

d 52 3

0.120805
d 1

d 52
, By trial and error d 0.314 ft
0.042
d 1

The answer is (a).

3 Head Loss in Trapezoidal Channel

What is the head loss per unit length in a smooth earthen trapezoidal channel
with a base width of 2 m, a water depth of 0.5 m, a flow velocity of 3.2 m/s and
1-to-1 side slopes?
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)

0.00065 m/m
0.0040 m/m
0.013 m/m
0.24 m/m

SOLUTION:
Page 19-3
For a unit length of smooth earthen channel, it is reasonable to assume that flow
is uniform and that all head loss is due to friction. With these assumptions, the
head loss is the product of the channel length and slope, with the slope
determined using the Manning equation.
b
d
RH

channel base width

water depth
hydraulic radius
angle from the horizontal
to the side wall

m
m
m
degree

For to 1-to-1 side slopes, the angle from the horizontal to the sidewall is 450.

bd sin d 2 cos 2 m 0.5 m sin 45 0 0.5 m cos 45 0

RH

0.366 m
b sin 2d
2 m sin 45 0 20.5 m

hf
L
n
V

friction head loss

channel length
Manning coefficient
water velocity

m/unit length
m
m/s

Use 1 m for the unit length of the channel. The Manning roughness coefficient
for a smooth earthen lining is 0.018. Refer to Appendix 19.A, page A-37.

1 m 0.018 3.2 m
2 2
Ln v
s

hf

0.013 m / m length of channel

4
4
0.366 m 3
RH 3
2

The answer is (c).

Eqn. 19.30a

4 Circular Pipe General Calculations

A 24 in diameter pipe (n = 0.013) was installed thirty years ago on a 0.001 slope.
Recent tests indicate that a full flow capacity of the pipe is 6.0 ft3/sec.
(a)

What is the original full flow capacity?

(A)
(B)
(C)
(D)

4.1 ft3/sec
6.3 ft3/sec
6.7 ft3/sec
7.2 ft3/sec

SOLUTION:
Using Eqn 19.13,
2
1.49
Q
AR 3
n

1.49 24 in
Q0

0.013 4 12 in

ft

The answer is (d).

Eqn. 19.13(b)

24 in

12 in 4

ft

0.001 7.17

ft 3
sec

(b)

What was the original full flow velocity?

(A)
(B)
(C)
(D)

1.8 ft/sec
2.3 ft/sec
2.7 ft/sec
3.7 ft/sec

SOLUTION:

v0

ft 3
7.17
Q
sec 2.28 ft
0
sec
A

2
2 ft
4

The answer is (b).

(c)

What is the current full flow velocity?

(A)
(B)
(C)
(D)

1.9 ft/sec
2.4 ft/sec
3.1 ft/sec
5.8 ft/sec

SOLUTION:

vCURRENT

6.00

ft 3
sec

QCURRENT
ft

1.91
sec
A

2
2 ft
4

The answer is (a).

(d)

What is the current Manning coefficient?

(A)
(B)
(C)
(D)

0.011
0.013
0.016
0.024

SOLUTION:
Since Q is inversely proportional to n,

Q0
nCURRENT
QCURRENT
The answer is (c).

n0

ft 3

7.17
sec
0.013 0.016

ft

6
sec

5 Trapezoidal Channel with Earthen Lining

Two reservoirs differ in elevation by 20 m and are connected by a 9 km long
earth lined channel with a constant slope. The channel bottom is 2 m wide with
a normal water depth of 1 m and the channel has a 3-to-1 horizontal to vertical
sides. What is the flow rate in the channel?
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)

4.2 m3/s
9.3 m3/s
37 m3/s
49 m3/s

SOLUTION:

side slope angle measured

from the horizontal

degrees

For 3-to-1 horizontal-to vertical slope,

1
3

tan 1 18.4 0

A
b
d

cross-sectional area of channel

base width
water depth

m2
m
m

Refer to Table 19.2, page 19-3

1m
d
1 m 5.0 m 2
d 2 m
A b
0
tan
tan 18.4

wetted perimeter

1m
d
8 .3 m
2 m 2
P b 2
0
sin
tan 18.4

S
L
z
S

n
Q

channel slope
change in distance
change in elevation

m/m
m
m

20 m
0.0022 m
m
m

9 km 1000
km

Manning roughness coefficient

flow rate

m3/s

For an earth-lined channel, the Manning roughness coefficient is 0.018.

(Appendix 19.A, page A-37)
1 53
A
n
Q 2
P 3

The answer is (b).

5
m
1
2

5 m 3 0.0022
m3
0.018
m

9
.
3
2
s
8.3 m 3

6 Cipoletti Weir
What is the flow rate through a 24-inch Cipoletti weir when the water height
above the notch is 8.6 inches?
(e)
(f)
(g)
(h)

3.8 ft3/sec
4.1 ft3/sec
5.4 ft3/sec
12 ft3/sec

SOLUTION:
Refer to Page 19-12.
b
h
Q

weir length
head above notch
flow rate

ft
ft
ft3/sec

The discharge equation giving flow rate in ft3/sec for a Cipoletti weir when b
and h are given in feet is:

Q 3.367 b H

1 ft
1 ft
8.6 in

3.367 24 in

12
12
in
in

The answer is (b).

3
4.1 ft

sec

Eqn. 19.57 (b)

7 Parshall Flume
A Parshall flume has a throat width of 6 ft. The upstream head measured from
the throat floor is 18 in.
(a)

What is the flow rate?

(A)
(B)
(C)
(D)

41 ft3/sec
46 ft3/sec
54 ft3/sec
63 ft3/sec

SOLUTION:
Refer to Section 19-19, page 19-14:

n 1.522 b 0.026 1.522 6 ft

0.026

Q K b H an

18 in

6 ft 4
in
12
ft

1.595

Eqn. 19.64

1.595

45.8

ft 3
sec

Eqn. 19.63

The answer is (b).

(b) What of the following is not normally considered to be a feature of Parshall
Flumes?
(A)
(B)
(C)
(D)

They are self-cleaning.

Unskilled personnel can operate them.
Head loss is small.
They can be placed in temporary installations.

The answer is (d).

The flume is self-cleansing, the head loss is small, and operation by unskilled
personnel is possible. Parshall flumes are usually permanent structures.

8 Hydraulic Jump Head Loss Calculation

A hydraulic jump with a stilling pool is selected to dissipate energy over a
spillway prior to the water entering a natural river channel. The spillway is 2.5
meters wide and the hydraulic jump occurs when the water depth at the toe of
the spillway is 0.15 m for a flow of 2.93 m3/sec. What is most nearly the head
dissipated?
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)

1.4 m
1.8 m
1.9 m
4.2 m

SOLUTION:
Refer to Page 19-22, Section 33
d1
Q
v1
w

upstream depth
water flow
upstream water velocity
channel width

m
m3/sec
m/s
m

m3
Q
sec
v1

7 .8 m s
0.15 m 2.5 m
d1 w
2.93

d2
g
v2

downstream water depth

gravitational constant
downstream water velocity

d 2 0.5 d1

2 v12 d1
0.25 d12
g

d 2 0.5 0.15 m

2 7.8 m
s

m
9.81 m/s2
m/s

Eqn 19.91

0.15 m

m
9.81 2
s

0.25 0.15 m

1.29 m

The specific energy lost in the jump can be solved using Eqn 19.94.

d 2 d1 3
4 d1 d 2

The answer is (c).

1.29 m 0.15 m 3
4 0.15 m 1.29 m

1.9 m

9 - Hydraulic Jump Flow Calculation

Water flowing in a rectangular channel 5 ft wide experiences a hydraulic jump.
The depth of flow upstream from the jump is 1 ft. The depth of flow
downstream of the jump is 2.4 ft. What quantity is flowing?
1)
2)
3)
4)

39 ft3/sec
45 ft3/sec
52 ft3/sec
57 ft3/sec

SOLUTION:
Refer to Page 19-22 for an illustration of conjugate depths.
g d2
d1 d 2
v12
2
d
1

32.2
v1

Eqn. 19.93 (rectangular channels)

ft
2.4 ft
sec 2
1 ft 2.4 ft 11.46 ft sec
2 1 ft

ft
ft 3

5
1
57
Q v A 11.46
ft
ft

sec
sec

The answer is (d).

10 Hydraulic Jump over Spillway

A hydraulic jump forms at the toe of the spillway. The water surface levels are
0.2 ft and 6 ft above the apron before and after the jump, respectively. The
velocity before the jump is 55 ft/sec. What is the energy loss in the jump?
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)

41 ft-lbf/lbm
58 ft-lbf/lbm
65 ft-lbf/lbm
92 ft-lbf/lbm

SOLUTION:

Refer to Page 19-23

d 2 d1

4 d1 d 2

The answer is (a).

6 ft 0.2 ft 3
4 0.2 ft 6 ft

41 ft ft lbf / lbm

11 Culvert Flow Types (long problem)

A 42 in diameter concrete culvert is 250 ft long and laid at a slope of 0.006. The
culvert entrance is flush and square edged. The tailwater level at the outlet is
just above the crown of the barrel, and the headwater is 5.0 ft above the crown of
the culverts inlet. What is the capacity?
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)

60 ft3/sec
85 ft3/sec
100 ft3/sec
115 ft3/sec

SOLUTION:
A little long, but it is a good example for Section 19-38.
From Appendix 19.A, choose n = 0.013 for concrete.

Pipe Diameter D

42 in
3.5 ft
in
12
ft

Hydraulic Radius R

3.5 ft
D

0.875 ft
4
4

Now refer to Table 17.5 on Page 17-17. The problem statement indicates a Type
D configuration so that Cd = 0.82.
h1 5 ft 3.5 ft 250 ft 0.006 10 ft

Determine the culvert flow type:

h1 z
10 ft 250 ft 0.006

2 .4
D
3.5 ft

The tailwater submerges the culvert outlet, so this is a type-4 flow.

h1 10 ft
h4 D 3.5 ft

Q C d A0

h1 h4

2g

2
2
1 29 C d n L
4

R 3

3.5 ft 2

Q 0.82

115

ft 3
sec

The answer is (d).

Eqn. 19.104

10 ft 3.5 ft
ft

2 32.2

2
2
sec 2
29 0.82 0.013 250 ft

0.8754 3

12 Sluice Gate
A radial gate is used to control flow into a waterway turnout and prevent erosion
of a section downstream channel. The gate is operated partially open. The
normal flow in the waterway channel is 80 ft3/sec with 4.3 feet of available head
at the gate. The gate discharge coefficient is 0.72. What is the required area of
the gate opening?
(e)
(f)
(g)
(h)

0.40 ft2
0.83 ft2
6.7 ft2
54 ft2

SOLUTION:
A0
Cd
g
h
Q

area of gate opening

gate discharge coefficient
gravitational acceleration
available head at the gate
discharge through the gate

ft2
-32.2 ft2/sec
ft
ft3/sec

Because a partially open gate has the characteristics of a submerged orifice, the
following equation applies.
v0 C d

2gh

Q0 A0 C d

Eqn.17-69 rearranges to,

2 g h , then solve for A0

ft 3
80
Q
sec
A0

6.7 ft 2
C d 2 gh
0.72 2 32.2 ft 2 4.3 ft
sec

The answer is (c).

Non Quantitative
Problems

#1 Weirs
What weir types are best suited for measuring very small flows?
(e)
(f)
(g)
(h)

Cipoletti
proportional
rectangular
V-notch

SOLUTION:
Note: I got this one wrong. I picked (d). I have looked on the web for a better
explanation. Anyway, I toss this one in with some hesitation.

The answer is (b).

#2 Wetted Perimeter
Water is flowing in a rectangular channel with a normal depth of 5 feet and a
base of 25 feet. What is most nearly the wetted perimeter of the channel?
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)

31 feet
35 feet
39 feet
43 feet

SOLUTION:
The wetted perimeter is the length of the channel cross section that has water
contact. For a rectangular channel,

PW b 2d 25 ft 2 5 ft 35 ft

The answer is (b).

#3 Sewer Pipe Slopes (wording is confusing)

How is the recommended minimum slope influenced by sewer pipe diameter?
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)

Sewer slope is determined by minimum scour velocities and is not

influenced by sewer diameter
Shallower slopes are used for larger diameter sewers because they are
more accessible for cleaning
Shallower slopes will maintain minimum scour velocities as sewer
diameters increase
Slopes must increase to maintain minimum scour velocities as sewer
diameters increase

SOLUTION:
For a specified scour velocity:
As diameter increases, the required slope decreases.
Using Eqn 19.12,

1.49 2 3
V
R
n

Eqn. 19.12(b)

Remember R = D/4 for circular pipe at full and half flow

The answer is (c).

#4 Hydraulic Jump
In hydraulic jump analysis, why is the momentum equation used instead of the
energy equation?
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)

The energy equation can not be used because the energy loss in the
hydraulic jump is unknown initially
The energy equation can not be used because it does not include terms
for two different depths
The energy equation is difficult to use because it requires a unique
derivation for each circumstance
The energy equation ca not be used because the pressure terms are not
applicable to open channel flow

SOLUTION:
The energy equation requires knowing the energy loss between two points as
expressed in a head loss term. The head loss is initially unknown because the
upstream and downstream depths are unknown. Using the momentum
equation solves the problem of not knowing the energy loss.

The answer is (a).

#5 Froude Number
What is the relationship between Froude number and critical flow in a
rectangular channel?
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)

Fr = 0 at critical flow
Fr is positive at critical flow
Fr is negative for critical flow
Fr = 1 at critical flow

SOLUTION:
See Section 19-27, page 19-18. Also refer to Figure 19.13 on page 19-15.
The answer is (d).

#6 Hydraulic Radius
For a circular pipe, if the hydraulic radius flowing half full is 6 inches, what is the
hydraulic radius when the pipe flows full?
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)

12 inches
9 inches
3 inches
6 inches

SOLUTION:
The answer is (d).

#7 Most Efficient Cross Section for a Rectangular Channel

What proportion of depth to width gives the most hydraulically efficient section
for uniform flow in an open rectangular channel?
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)

d = 0.67 w
d = 0.33 w
d = 0.25 w
d = 0.50 w

SOLUTION:
Refer to Section 19-12, page 19-9.
The answer is (d).

#8 Most Efficient Cross Section for a Trapezoidal Channel

What proportion of depth to hydraulic radius gives the most hydraulically
efficient section for uniform flow in an open trapezoidal channel?
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)

d=2R
d=3R
d = 3.5 R
d = 2.5 R

SOLUTION:
Refer to Section 20-12, page 19-9.
The answer is (a).

#9 Maximum Discharge in a Circular Pipe

A closed circular pipe is flowing partially full. At what depth, in terms of the
height of the pipe d, will maximum discharge occur?
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)

0.94 d
1.0 d
1.02 d
0.90 d

SOLUTION:
Refer to Section 19-7, page 19-5.
The answer is (a).

#10 Hydraulic Radius Change

If the hydraulic radius increases, what is the effect on velocity?
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)

velocity increases
velocity decreases
velocity could increase or decrease
velocity remains the same

SOLUTION:
Refer to Section 6, page 19-4.
The answer is (a).

#11 Hydrostatic Forces

On a rectangular vertical plane surface, how is hydrostatic force distributed?
(a) increases linearly with depth
(b) decreases linearly with depth
(c) even distribution with depth
(d) non-uniform distribution with depth
SOLUTION:
Refer to Section 7, page 15-7.
The answer is (a).

HYDROLOGY
Spring 2010

Instructor:
J.B. Jones, P.E., PhD.
jbjones@odu.edu

TABLE OF CONTENTS
#1 Rainfall Data Averaging
#2 Normal Ratio Method
#3 Hydrology Short Answer
#4 Rainfall Intensity based on Return Period
#5 Calculation of Risk
#6 SCS Curve Number
#7 - Detention Basin
#8 Peak Runoff with Different Land Uses
#9 Vegetative Cover SCS Determination
#10 Time of Concentration with Steel Formula
#11 Peak Runoff using Steel Formula
#12 Short Calculations for Hydrographs
#13 - Unit Hydrograph Short Answer
Non-Qualitative Problems
#1 IDF Curves
#2 Detention Basin #1
#3 TC Short Answer
#4 Detention Basin #2
#5 Natural Depressions
#6 Detention Basin #3
#7 Soil Conditions

CHAPTER 20 TOPICS
Hydrologic Cycle
Precipitation Data & Estimation Methods
Time of Concentration
Rainfall Intensity
Flood Prediction
Hydrographs
Unit Hydrographs
Synthetic Unit Hydrographs
NRCS
Espey
Rational Method for Peak Flow
NRCS Curve Numbers
Reservoir Sizing

1 Rainfall Data Averaging

When would it be appropriate to estimate missing rainfall data using a simple
average surrounding stations?
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)

A simple average is never appropriate. The normal-ratio or

other similar weighted methods should be used.
It is always appropriate to estimate missing data using the
simple average.
It is only appropriate when precipitation measurements at the
surrounding stations are within 10% of each other.
It is only appropriate when the stations included in the average
are within a 25-mile radius of one another.

SOLUTION:
Refer to Section 20.4, Paragraph 1 & 2:
Normally, missing rainfall data can be estimated using a simple average when
the precipitation measurements at surrounding stations are within 10% of each
other. When the precipitation shows differences greater than 10%, the normalratio or a similar weighted method should be used.
The answer is (c).

2 Normal Ratio Method (Read on you own)

Rainfall records for four precipitation stations are summarized in the table.
Stations B, C, and D are those located in closest proximity to Station A. What is
the estimated precipitation at Station C for 1991?
Annual
Precipitation
(in)
39
31
42
37

Station
A
B
C
D

(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)

Annual precipitation for year indicated

(in)
1990
1991
1992
1993
44
34
36
40
37
28
30
30
43
39
40
37
32
35
36

31 inches
37 inches
40 inches
48 inches

SOLUTION:
Because the normal annual precipitation between Station C and the other three
stations varies by more than 10%, the normal ratio method should be used for
computing an estimate of the missing record.
N
P

normal annual precipitation

annual precipitation for year of interest

inches
inches

Subscripts A, B, C, and D refer to the stations. Refer to 1991 data points.

N
PC C
3

P
P 42 34 28 32
PA

37 inches
B D

N A N B N D 3 39 31 37

The answer is (b).

3 Hydrology Short Answer (Read on your own)

In general, converting an area from natural grassland to acre lot single family
housing will have what effect on time of concentration and amount of runoff?
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)

Decrease time of concentration and increase runoff

Decrease time of concentration and runoff
Increase time of concentration and decrease runoff
Increase time of concentration and runoff

Natural grassland in an undeveloped condition is less impervious than acre

lots. Therefore, runoff will increase. Due to the increase in impervious area, the
time of concentration will decrease.
The correct answer is (a).

4 Return Period Rainfall Intensity

The 25-year return period rainfall frequency- depth-duration curves for a coastal
region is shown in the illustration. For a mean annual precipitation (PMA) of 27
inches, what is the rainfall intensity for a 2.5-hour storm?

(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)

0.40 in/hr
0.60 in/hr
1.5 in/hr
1.2 in/hr

SOLUTION:
d
t

rainfall depth
storm duration

in
hr

From the illustration, for mean annual precipitation of 27 inches and a storm
duration of 2.5 hours, the rainfall depth is about 1.5 inches.
i

rainfall intensity

in/hr

1.5 in
d

0.60 in hr
t
2.5 hr

The answer is (b).

5 Acceptable Risk
A manufacturing facility is willing to accept only 1% risk of flooding during its
50 yr design life. What is the annual probability that flooding will occur during
the facility design life?
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)

0.01%
0.02%
0.20 %
1%

SOLUTION:
Refer to Page 20-6: Example 20-2 solves a similar problem for the probability of a
flood occurring within the useful life of a plant.
This example calculates the probability of a flood occurring during a years time
(i.e. annual probability).
n
PF
R

period of interest
annual probability of a flood event
acceptable risk of a flood event occurring

R 1% 0.01
PF 1 1 R n 1 1 0.01 50 0.00020
1

The answer is (b).

0.020%

yr

6- SCS Curve Number

Assume the SCS curve number for an area is 50 and that precipitation during a
24-hour storm was 5 inches. The average depth of water (inches) running off the
area is most nearly:
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)

0.7 inches
1.2 inches
2.5 inches
3.1 inches

SOLUTION: Refer to Section 20.16

Q
CN
S
P

=
=
=
=

runoff (inches)
curve number
potential maximum retention of water by soil (inches)
accumulated rainfall (inches)

For CN = 50

1000
10
CN

Eqn 20.43, page 20-19

Solving for S,

1000
10 10 inches
50

For S = 10 inches and P= 5.0 inches, the runoff depth is

2

P 0.2 S
Q
P 0.8 S

5.0 0.2 x 10

5.0 0.8 x 10

The correct answer is (a).

0.69 inches

Eqn 20.44

7 Detention Basin
A community requires developers to store the entire runoff of a 24 hour 10 yr
storm on site. The design rainfall at this location is 4 inches. A developer is
proposing a 100 acres subdivision on acre lots. What is most nearly the
required detention pond volume if the subdivision will be located on a parcel
with hydrologic soil group C?
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)

11 ac-ft
17 ac-ft
23 ac-ft
26 ac-ft

SOLUTION:
Using the NRCS method, a curve number, CN, is identified for each combination
of land use and soil type. The maximum water storage can be calculated using
the NRCS method

1000
10
CN

Eqn 20.42, page 20-19

Referring to Table 20.4, the curve number is 80.

1000
10 2.5 in
80

Eqn 20.44, page 20-19

Using the NRCS

P 0.2S 2
P 0.8S

4 0.22.52
4 0.82.5

2.0 inches

Over the entire area of the development, the total volume of water to be stored is:

1 ft
17 ac ft
Q A 2.0 inches 100 acres
12 inches

The answer is (b).

8 Peak Runoff with Different Land Uses (a little long)

A 131-acre drainage area has the following characteristics and 10-year storm
frequency-intensity-duration curve.
What is the peak runoff from the drainage area for the 30-minute duration, 10year storm?

Land Use
Apartments
Landscaped open space (park)
Light industrial

(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)

24 ac-ft/hr
26 ac-ft/hr
72 ac-ft/hr
310 ac-ft/hr

Area (%)
30
25
45

SOLUTION:

Refer to Appendix 20.A on Page A-45. I am assuming these values for the
illustration of this type of problem. You would be supplied more definitive
values for C.

Land Use
Apartments
open space (park)
Light industrial

C
0.50
0.10
0.50

Land area (ac)

39.3
32.75
58.95

land area for each use

(subscript j designates each land use)

C AVE

Area (%)
30
25
45

ac

runoff coefficient for each land use

C j Aj
Aj

0.50 39.3 ac 0.10 32.75 ac 0.50 58.95 ac

131 ac

i
storm intensity
in/hr
From the illustration, the storm intensity is 6 in/hr
Q

runoff

ac-ft/hr

Equation 20.36 on Page 20.13:

1 ft
in
26 ac ft hr
Q C AVE i A 0.40 6 131 ac
12
in
hr

The answer is (b).

0.40

9 Vegetative Cover SCS Determination

Assume all soils in a drainage basin are in the Soil Conservation Service (SCS)
hydrologic soil Group B. Also assume that the vegetative covers are in good
condition. The land use is parks and open space. The SCS Runoff Curve
Number (CN) for the entire area is most closely approximated by:

(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)

43
54
61
81

SOLUTION:
Determine the SCS Runoff Curve Number for the entire area. For Soil Group B,
with good vegetative cover in urban, fully developed open space (parks, lawns),
the appropriate SCS Curve Number can be found on Page 20-17.
CN = 61
The answer is (c).

10 Time of Concentration with Steel Formula

A rainfall-depth-duration curve for a watershed is shown in the following
illustration. The values for the Steel formula constants K and b are 180 inmin/hr and 25 minutes. What is the time of concentration for the 2-hr duration
50-year storm?

(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)

15 min
26 min
42 min
75 min

SOLUTION:
d
i
t

depth of rainfall
intensity
storm duration

cm
cm/hg
hr

From the illustration, for a 50-year recurrence interval and 2 h duration storm,
the rainfall depth is 9 cm.

9 cm
d

4.5 cm hr
t
2h

For the Steel formula, refer to Equation 20.13 on page 20-5. However, units must
be in units of in/hr.
cm 1 in

1.8 in hr
i 4 .5

hr 2.54 cm

b
K
TC

constant
constant
time of concentration

min
in-min/hr
min

The Steel formula is

tC

K
tC b

K
b
i

The answer is (d).

Eqn. 20-14
in min
hr
25 min 75 min
in
1 .8
hr

180

11 Peak Runoff using Steel Formula

A 0.5 mi2 drainage area has a suggested runoff coefficient of 0.6 and a time of
concentration of 60 minutes. The drainage area is in Steel region #3, and a 10 yr
storm is to be used for design purposes. What is the peak runoff?

310 ft3/sec
390 ft3/sec
460 ft3/sec
730 ft3/sec

(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
SOLUTION:

Use Table 20.2, page 20-5

K = 170
b = 23

K
tC b

170
2.05 in hr , pay attention to units
60 23

Eqn. 20.14

Using the Rational Equation

QCi A

Eqn 20.36

in
ft 3

Q P 0.6 2.05 320 acres 394

hr
sec

The answer is (b).

12 Short Calculations for Hydrographs (Refer to Page 20-1, We will not cover
in class)
A 2-hour storm over a 111-km2 area produces a total runoff volume of 4 x 106 m3
with a peak discharge of 260 m3/sec.
Question 11-1:
What is the total excess precipitation?
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)

1.4 cm
2.6 cm
3.6 cm
4.0 cm

SOLUTION:

V AD PAVE

PAVE

AD

Eqn 20.21

4 x 10 6 m 3

111 km 1000

km

0.036 m 3.6 cm

The answer is (c).

Question 11-2:
What is the unit hydrograph peak discharge?
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)

72 m3/s-cm
120 m3/s-cm
210 m3/s-cm
260 m3/s-cm

SOLUTION:
Refer to Page 20-8: A unit hydrograph discharge is the peak discharge divided
by the average precipitation.

m3
QP
m3
s
Q

72.2
3.6 cm
P
s cm
260

(Refer to Ex. 20-3)

The answer is (a).

Question 11-3:
If a 2-hour storm producing 6.5 cm of runoff is to be used to design a culvert,
what is the design flood hydrograph volume?
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)

4.0 x 106 m3
7.2 x 106 m3
2.6 x 106 m3
3.6 x 106 m3

SOLUTION:
The design flood hydrograph volume for a 6.5 cm storm is determined by
multiplying the unit hydrograph volume by 6.5. For the unit hydrograph,

V 4 x 10 6 m 3
m3

1.11 x 10 6
P
cm
3.6 cm
For the 6.5 cm storm,
V HYDROGRAPH

m3
6.5 cm 7.2 x 10 6 m 3
V 1.11 x 10 6
cm

The answer is (b).

Question 11-4:
What is the design discharge?
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)

89 m3/sec
130 m3/sec
260 m3/sec
470 m3/sec

SOLUTION:
The design discharge is determined by multiplying the unit hydrograph by 6.5
cm.

m3
m3
6.5 cm 469
Q P Q HYDROGRAPH 6.5 72.2
s cm
s

The answer is (d).

Question 11-5
The recurrence interval of the 6.5 cm storm is 50 years, and the culvert is to be
designed for a 30-year life. What is the probability that the capacity will be
exceeded during the design life?
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)

0%
33%
45%
92%

SOLUTION:
Using Eqn 20.20

p F event in n years 1 1
F

p 50 yr flood in 30 years 1 1
50

The answer is (c).

30

0.45 45%

13 Unit Hydrograph Short Answer (Read on your own)

The unit hydrograph represents water flowing into a stream from
I.
base flow
II.
evapotranspiration
III.
overland flow
IV.
surface flow
V.
interflow
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)

I only
I and III
II, III, IV
III, IV, and V

SOLUTION:
Refer to Section 20.1, Hydrologic Cycle and Section 20.9, Hydrograph Separation
The unit hydrograph represents all discharge into a stream except for
groundwater or base flow, which are separated out. Evapotranspiration refers to
water that is returned to the atmosphere and, therefore, is not measured in the
stream discharge. The unit hydrograph includes overland flow, surface flow,
and interflow.
Interflow is subsurface flow, i.e., flow that takes place in the unsaturated soil
layers beneath the ground surface. Interflow consists of the lateral movement of
water and moisture towards lower elevations, and it includes some of the
precipitation abstracted by infiltration. It is characteristically a slow process, but
eventually interflow volumes flow into streams and rivers.
The answer is (d).

Non Quantitative
Problems

1 IDF Curves (Read on your own)

How are rainfall intensity and duration and storm frequency related?
(a) Intensity decreases as frequency decreases for a constant duration
(b) Intensity increases as duration increases for constant frequency
(c) Less frequent storms have higher intensity for a constant duration
(d) More frequent storms have longer duration for a constant intensity
SOLUTION:
Rainfall and intensity are inversely related.
Less frequent storms have a longer return period and are characterized by higher
intensity and longer durations, but not usually both.
Therefore, less frequent storms have higher intensities for a constant duration.
The answer is (c).

2 Detention Basin #1
What method of sizing a storm water detention basin would be appropriate for a
small water shed of 20 acres and limited hydrologic data?

(a) Modified rational method

(b) Non-sequential drought method
(c) Routing method
(d) Stochastic simulation method
SOLUTION:
See Page 20-20, Section 20-18, 4th paragraph.
The answer is (a).

3 TC Short Answer
A water shed has fairly complex flow path with varying slopes and channel
characteristics. What is the most reliable way of estimating the time of
concentration, TC?

(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)

Use the average slope for the watershed to estimate TC

Estimate TC from a hydrograph on a nearby stream
Use a regression equation that relates peak flow and drainage area,
thereby completely bypassing the need to calculate TC
Determine reaches with relatively uniform slope and channel
characteristics, calculate the travel time through each reach, and
sum the for the total watershed TC

SOLUTION:
See Page 20-3, Section 20-5, Time of Concentration
In estimating TC, using an average slope method can introduce significant errors
because steep reaches with very short travel times are neglected.
The regression equation assumes average characteristics that may be different
from the actual watershed.
The TC values from a nearby stream may also be considerably different from the
stream in question.
Option D would provide the most accurate result.

The answer is (d).

4 Detention Basin #2
Which of the following must be considered when designing a stormwater
detention basin?
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)

Design stormrecurrence interval

Peak outflow from the basin
Storage volume of the basin
All of the above

SOLUTION:
See Page 20-20
The design storm is chosen by assumption of risk, economics, and regulations.
Peak outflow depends on current and future downstream uses and channel
capacity.
Storage volume is the largest factor in terms of cost and liability.
The answer is (d).

5 Natural Depressions
Natural depressions tend to have which of the following impacts on stream
flow?
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)

Decrease the flood peak

Decrease the amount of runoff volume
Increase the base flow
All of the above

SOLUTION:
Depressions would allow greater groundwater recharge which would increase
base flow. Depressions also reduce surface runoff, which decreases volume and
peak.
The answer is (d).

6 Detention Basin #3
Which of the following, besides storage volume and outlet structure, should be
considered in the design of a stormwater detention pond?
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)

Downstream impacts
Impact of extreme flood events on the structure
An effective sediment and erosion control plan
All of the above

SOLUTION:
The answer is (d).
7 Soil Conditions (I still do not understand this one)
What set of circumstances will probably produce the largest flood response for a
given watershed from an intense 3-hour rain followed by freezing temperatures?
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)

Late winter, bare frozen ground

Late winter, deep snow pack
Late summer growing season
Late fall after growing season

SOLUTION:
In general, flooding increases as the grounds ability to absorb rainfall decreases.
Late summer: The infiltration rate is high, and vegetation would intercept the
rainfall. The elevated temperature would also increase evaporation rates.
Late fall: The vegetation is decreased which decreases the infiltration rates.
Lower temperatures also reduce evaporation rates.
Late winter: Temperatures are the coldest and evaporation will be negligible. A
snow cover would initially absorb some of the rainfall. Depending on the rate of
melting, it could significantly increase the run off volume which increases the
flood peak. It is unlikely that the snow pack would absorb much of the rainfall
and hold it with the return of sub-freezing temperatures.
A bare frozen ground would offer very little infiltration, most of the runoff
would lead to direct runoff and a higher peak flow. The answer is (a).

Groundwater
Spring 2010

Instructor:
J.B. Jones, P.E., PhD.
jbjones@odu.edu

CHAPTER TOPICS

Chapter 21: Groundwater

Aquifers
Confined
Unconfined
Darcys Law
Transmissivity
Specific Yield
Well Drawdown

TABLE OF CONTENTS
#1 Confined Aquifer Multiple Parts
#2 - Unconfined Aquifer Multiple Parts
#3 Groundwater Drawdown
#4 Solute Velocity
#5 Aquifer Storage
#6 Groundwater Well Clogging
#7 Groundwater Specific Yield
#8 Solute Velocity

1 Unconfined Aquifer Multiple Parts

Problem Statement
An aquifer consists of a homogeneous material 300 feet thick. The surface of
the water table in this aquifer is 100 feet below ground surface. An 18-inch
diameter well extends through the top 100 feet and then 200 feet below the
water table, for a total depth of 300 feet. The aquifer transmissivity is 10,000
gal/day-ft. The wells radius of influence is 900 feet with a 20-foot drawdown
at the well.
(a) The geologic formation in which the well is installed is called:
(A)
(B)
(C)
(D)

aquifuge
artesian well
connate aquifer
unconfined aquifer

Answer (d): The geologic formation is an unconfined aquifer. If

the aquifer were overlain by an impermeable layer, it would be a
confined, or artesian aquifer.
An aquifuge is a geologic formation that has no interconnected
openings and hence cannot receive or transmit water.
Connate aquifer contains water that has been out of contact with air
for a very long time.

Ground Level

100 ft
Initial Water Level
20 ft

200 ft
900 ft

(b) What is the hydraulic conductivity of the aquifer?

(a) 50 gal/day-ft2
(b) 500 gal/day-ft2
(c) 1300 gal/day-ft2
(d) 800 mgal/day-ft2

From Equation 21.13

gal
10,000
T
day ft
K
50 gal day ft 2
Y
200 feet
The answer is (a).
(c) What steady discharge is possible?
(a) 0.26 ft3/sec
(b) 0.52 ft3/sec
(c) 1.2 ft3/sec
(d) 5.2 ft3/sec
From Equation 21.25

gal
ft 3

200 2 180 2 ft 2

50
0
.
13368
2

2
2
gal
day ft
K y1 y 2
Q

r
900 ft
sec
ln 1
86,400

ln
r2
0
.
75
ft
day

The answer is (a).

(d): What is the drawdown 100 feet from the well?
(a) 1 ft
(b) 6 ft
(c) 13 ft
(d) 18 ft

y1= 200 ft at r1
r1 = 900 ft
r2 = 100 ft
Q = 0.26 ft3/sec

0.26 ft 3 sec

Rearranging Equation 21.25:

y 22 y12

r
Q ln 1
r2 200 ft 2

ft 3 900 ft
sec
0.26
ln
86,400

ft
day
sec
100

gal
ft

0.13368
50
2
gal
day
ft

y 2 194 ft

The drawdown is 200 ft 194 feet = 6 ft

The answer is (b).
(e): Assuming a pump efficiency of 65%, what horsepower motor should be
selected to achieve the steady discharge?
(a) 3.6 hp
(b) 5.5 hp
(c) 7.5 hp
(d) 12.2 hp
From Table 18.5, the hydraulic horsepower can be calculated:

h A V SG

8.814

ft 3
1
ft 20 ft 0.26
sec

5.4 hp

sec
8.814 4
0.65
ft hp

100

The answer is (b).

2 Confined Aquifer Multiple Parts

Original Problem Statement
An aquifer is overlain by a material of low permeability that is 200 feet thick.
The piezometric surface is 100 feet below the ground. An 18-inch diameter well
extends through the top 200 feet and then an additional 100 feet into the water
table, for a total depth of 300 feet. The aquifer transmissivity is 10,000 gal/dayft. The wells radius of influence is 900 feet with a 20-foot drawdown at the
well.
(a): The geologic formation is which the well is installed is called
(a) aquifuge
(b) confined aquifer
(c) spring
(d) vadose well
The geologic formation is a confined aquifer. The well is an artesian well. The
answer is (b).

Ground Level

Rock

100 ft
Initial Water Level

Rock

100 ft

20 ft
900 ft
100 ft

(b): The 18-inch diameter well extends 300 feet below the ground surface to the
bottom of the aquifer. The aquifer transmissivity is 10,000 gal/day-ft. What is
the hydraulic conductivity of the aquifer?
(a) 50 gal/day-ft2
(b) 100 gal/day-ft2
(c) 500 gal/day-ft2
(d) 800 mgal/day-ft2

The aquifer depth, Y, is 100 feet. Y is the thickness of the aquifer, not the
height of the water table or piezometric surface. See Page 21-3, Section 5.
From Equation 21.13

gal
day ft
100 gal day ft 2
100 feet

10,000

The answer is (b).

(c): What is steady discharge in the well if the radius of influence is 900 feet
with a 20 foot drawdown at the well?
(a) 0.27 ft3/sec
(b) 0.62 ft3/sec
(c) 1.2 ft3/sec
(d) 3.5 ft3/sec

y1= 200 ft at r1
r1 = 900 ft
The well casing radius is

18 in
r2 2 0.75 ft
in
12
ft

From Equation 21.27:

gal
100 ft 80 ft 100 ft
2 100
day ft 2
2 K y1 y 2 Y

r1
900 ft

ln
ln
0.75 ft
r2

ft 3 min
0.002228

gal sec

0.27 ft 3 sec
24 hr min

60

hr
day

1.772 x 10 5

gal
day

The answer is (a).

(d): At what distance from the well is the drawdown equal to 10 ft?
(A)
(B)
(C)
(D)

3 ft
26 ft
130 feet
450 feet

Rearrange Equation 21.27 to find the drawdown distance, r 2.

Y 2 = 100 ft 10 ft = 90 ft
r
Y
ln 1 2 K y1 y 2
Q
r2

gal
100 ft 90 ft 100 ft
2 100
day ft 2
r1

3.545
ln
5 gal
r2
1.772 x 10
day

r2

1
3.545

900 ft
26 feet
e 3.545

The answer is (b).

(e): After pumping is stopped, groundwater flows in one direction through the
aquifer. If the aquifer is only 100 feet wide and the porosity is 0.4, what is the
area in clear flow?
(A)
(B)
(C)
(D)

2000 ft2
4000 ft2
8000 ft2
20,000 ft2

Darcys law assumes the total cross-sectional area. To obtain the cross sectional
area of the pores (voids), multiply by the porosity.
ACLEAR

FLOW

n A n b Y 0.4 100 ft 100 ft 4000 ft 2

The answer is (b).

3 - Groundwater Drawdown
An unconfined aquifer with a pumped well and an observation well is shown
below.

30 feet

The pumped well diameter is 4 in., and the aquifer thickness is 18 feet with a
hydraulic conductivity of 7.2 ft/day. The observation well is located 30 feet
from the pumped well, and after 10 hr of pumping at 20 gal/min shows a
steady-state drawdown of 14 inches. What is the radius of influence of the
pumped well?
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)

2.3 feet
31 feet
38 feet
53 feet

SOLUTION:
y1
y2

aquifer thickness
observation well drawdown
1 ft
16.83 ft
y 2 18 ft 14in
12 in

For an unconfined aquifer:

ft
ft

K
Q

r2
r1

hydraulic conductivity
pumping rate
distance from pumped well
to observation well
radius of influence

Q K

y12 y 2
r
ln 1
r2

ft/day
gpm
30 ft
ft

(Eqn 21.25, PE Manual)

min
ft 3
ft 3
gal
1440
3859
Q 20
0.134
gal
day
day
min

7.2

ft
18 ft 2 16.83 ft 2
day
r
ln 1
30 ft

r1 38 ft

The answer is (c).

4 Solute Velocity
What is the approximate solute actual velocity for the site depicted in the
illustration if the hydraulic conductivity is 0.83 ft/day, the soil porosity is 0.37,
and the retardation factor is 1.94?

(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)

0.00056 ft/day
0.0015 ft/day
0.0021 ft/day
0.0029 ft/day

SOLUTION:
Note: Retardation is when a pollutant travels at a slower rate than the
groundwater (due to absorption). The surface solids of the porous media have
an imbalanced electrical charge, which is satisfied by the adsorption of a
charged ion.

i
groundwater gradient
L dis tan ce between groundwater contour lines of int erest
h elevation change over dis tan ce L
i

h
3210 3207 ft

0.0013
L
2300 ft

K hydraulic conductivity
ne effective porosity
rf

retardation factor

vS

solute velocity

vS

Ki
ne r f

(Eqn 21.6, PE Manual)

ft / day

ft / day

ft
0.83
0.0013
day

0.0015 ft day
0.37 1.94

This equation is slightly modified from Eqn 21.18, PE Manual.

The answer is (b).

ft
ft

5 Aquifer Storage (not in text)

The extraction rate from an unconfined aquifer serving a large metropolitan
area exceeds the recharge rate as demonstrated by the static water tables
decline of 4.4 m over a 48-month monitoring period. The aquifer characteristics
follow. Approximately how much water is lost from aquifer storage during the
monitoring period?
Aquifer horizontal surface area
Aquifer thickness
Average porosity
Hydraulic conductivity
Storativity

512 km2
38 m
0.43
0.38 cm/sec
0.21

(a) 2.1 x 106 m3

(b) 4.7 x 108 m3
(c) 9.7 x 108 m3
(d) 3.6 x 109 m3
SOLUTION:
The volume of water lost to storage is the product of the drained aquifer
volume and the aquifer storativity.
Aa
S
Vd
h

horizontal surface area of the aquifer

storativity
water volume lost from storage
change in water table elevation

m2

m3
m

1000 m
8
3
Vd h S Aa 4.4 m 0.21 512 km
4.7 x 10 m
km

The answer is (b).

6 Groundwater Well Clogging (not in text)

What constituents would commonly lead to well clogging?

(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)

Hardness and sulfur

Hardness and nitrogen
Hardness, nitrogen, and sulfur
Hardness and iron-fixing bacteria

SOLUTION:
Carbonate hardness can precipitate out on the screen, and iron-fixing bacteria
can form slime at the well screen.
The answer is (d).
7 Groundwater Specific Yield
What effect does permeability have on specific yield?

(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)

Increase permeability, increase yield

Increase permeability, decrease yield
No relation
Decreasing permeability may or may not increase yield

SOLUTION:
Section 21-6 on page 21-3:
Specific yield is the water yielded when water-bearing material drains by
gravity. Higher permeability soils allow water to drain more freely, so the
specific yield will increase.
The answer is (a).

8 Solute Velocity
How does sorption influence solute movement through a soil?

(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)

The soil captures solute which slows the solute velocity

The soil causes the solute to mix with the groundwater
No relation
It has a dilution effect

SOLUTION:
Sorption means that the solute is attracted and trapped on the surface of the soil
particle. In groundwater systems, this is called retardation and will slow the
solute velocity.
The answer is (a).