SPECIAL SECTION Power, June 1989 G ioe roreans ie ean foreete power productos From tnt ie ts 19000 itreaped Wirt War Ts cop ely 2 Bd stam temperatures sed pressures The 1970s othe pest sw an age of tenement for steam tubies inch fetoey and relay ook precedent turbine component has been studied ex haustively to determine how design re finements can improve overall machine performance. Literally, no bolt has been Teft unturned. All that has been learned in the areas of life extension, repair technol gies, performance monitoring and diag nosties, and machine protection has been applied to new design and construction. The turbine island—including con: nsers, cooling systems, and cool intrumentation and control systems; condensate/feediater and makeup treat nsand valve zed applications steam turbines, notably for geoth ‘and nuclear powerplants, got ua the 1960s. And the rebi the 1980s has scribed as.a se ogy. That is feat are now being employed in the Smaller ones, Ofcourse, the attention paid ncy over the past two des has left its mark,on stea technology as well. ‘Advanced steam cycles tried in the US. in th 95 ind later abandoned are re- ceiving increased interest. Other countries continued to pursue the supercritical steam cycle. Thus, the technology and es pecially the applications know-how is slobally based. These advanced turbine cycles will be necessary ifthe conventional boiler/steam-turbine-based Rankine cycle i to compete with combined cycles. | Either way, the steam-turbine island is as- ofits place asa critical component. This report is divided into two major ions. ‘The firstSreyiewsuthesbasiesrof how thermal ererpy:ist€onvertedstormer the steam turbine has been tailored for large fossil, nuclear, combined-cycle, geo- nd smal-power facilites and mechanical-drive service. Thesecondde- ‘ails turbine-sland auxiliaries Companion PoweR special reports also of interest to you include Upgrading im and gas turbines, Plant life exten- tive examination, and Water treatnient,that, as presure increases, the amount of heat required to bring water to the boiling point goes up, while the amount of heat necessary to vaporize it decreases. Even- tually ata pressure of 3208.2 psia (and 70S.A7F) water turas to steam without boiling, and all the beat isusedin bringing the wate upto this condition—called the critical point. Turbine eycles that operate | at temperatures above the critical point | arecalled supereritial. Converting heat to work ‘To convert the steams energy into work. it must go trough a thermodynam- ie uid eyele that combines expansion, compression, heat inp, and beat rejec: | tion. The most eficient thermodynamic Py cycle for an ideal uid is the Carnot cycl (Fig .1).Iteonsiss of an isothermal heat input, isentropic expansion, isothermal heat rejection, and aa isentropic compres- sion, Regardless of the combination, the : efficiency ofthe eycle, assuming constant roprasp how a steam turbine works, there is only one saturation temperature mass flow, is based on the difference in must understand three things: (1) and vice versa. So during the boiling pro- enthalpy between the beginning and end Eitveworking Nuid-inshiscasesteam. cess, temperature remains constant, even of the eyele. | temperatures and.pres. though heatisbeing added. The heats, of Steam can be used as the working fluid nfislenergy: 2) Hoy course, being used to change the water in the Carnot cycle. But its properties ad- Sitemialenersyaltheworking Guides from liquid to vapor state. versely impact its usefulness. Ia this case, ‘nioumeshanical-workshsough The problem with saturated steam, as the steam expansion process takes place ricanodleand impseuandfor Taras turbines ore concerned, isthatitaill completely in the moisture region. This, swith atblaife; and (3) be lets which cause fric- requires compression ofa vapor moisture aayaxeisofsblades tion losses, her problems. mixture to retura to the cycle's starting ‘Ahaft, producesmotational, To dry saturated steam, more heat must point. Moisture in an expansion process 7 Also important: How rotatiotal be added to raise its temperature, Called imposes large mechanical-efficiency iy is converted into electricity when superkeatig, this process must ake pace lostes. Also, vapor compression is ine steamisnotincontact cient and consumes relatively large yond the scope The enthelpy—potential en- amounts of power. ibis report yy—of the steam increases by the To avoid a two-pha vapor-compres- unt of heat added, sion process, turbines are based on the roperties of steam and water are Rankine cycle (Fig 1.2). [tis similar to the ‘Waterisconverted tosteam by applica- definitively fixed by nature, they can be Carnot cycle, except that the initial pres- Toa of heat. Re water at ed and tabulated. These data, sureof the steamis raised and the conden- ay given pressure ev ie tables, sation process that accompanies heat re- by producing steam. The ssandengincering handbooks. ject inves until the liquid eat required to bring water larly by powerplant engi- saturation point is re + base point for all water and nSocietyof Me- the cycle, then, condensate is simply ties) to the boiling point is chanicel Engincers (ASME) steam ta- pumped back to the boiler to begin the 7 of the liquid, measured in bles. Steam data is also organized cycle again, The role ofthe steam turbine, Buu/lb. In simple terms, enthalpy is a graphically in what’s known as the Mol- considering it as a black box, is to expand sure of potenti the steam from high temperature and i boils, both itand steamare turbine specialists because itis easier to pressure to lower temperature and pres rature—the saturation trace cycles and processes graphically, sure, Several things can be done tothe steam be B Basic thormodynami compressive (11,2 Work: and heat-ranstor processes are assigned to separate machines inthe fow device, left. Simple Rankine cycie (above) is sila to Camot, excep! quid pump replaces two-phase compressor sched. At the end of | |Raise inital steam conditions and reduce theamountof moisture near the end ofthe expansion stage. The first is accomplished by superheating the steam before it does involves reheat any work. The second inve partially expanded by: the heat source, then completing the ex- pansion (Fig 1.3). ‘A third option is called regenerative feedwater heating—that is steam is ex tracted from the steam turbine after par- tial expansion to preheat boiler feedwater, thereby raising intial cycle conditions. Using the steam In converting the thermal energy of steam into mechanical work, turbines take advantage ofthis fact: Asit expands, ‘or drops in pressure, through a small opea ing or nozzle, it accelerates and forms a high-speed jet. Hatnessing this mome tum ina rotating blade provides mechani- cal work. * ‘Turbines are fundamentally classifed fas impulse or reaction type by how the steam expands through a nozzle and im- pacts a blade. Impulse stages are often compared toa waterwheel, reaction stages toa rotary lawn sprinkler >>> 00} ‘Temperature (4e9R) 1] ° 05 19 45 20 Entropy (Btutb-degh) 1.3 Reheat Rankine cycle further reduces the laststage moisture content of the steam dmpalsenomes organize the steam soit flows in well-formed high-speed jets (Fig 1.4). Moving blades, also called buckets, absorb the jt'skineticenergy and convert itto shaft rotation. When the blade i sta- tionary, the jet enters and leaves with equal speed, developing the maximum, force but no mechanical work. But as the blade speeds up, the jet slows down rela- tively and force shrinks. Under ideal con- ditions, the steam jet does the mest work when the blade speed is half the steam speed. Steam pressure and speed vary through the true impulse stage. steam enters the fixed-blade passages and leaves asa steam jetthat ills the entire rotor periphery (Fig, 1,5). Steam flows between moving blades, that, in tura, form moving nozzles. There it drops in pressure, and its speed rises to that ofthe blades. This creates ive pressure that does work. Despite the rising relative speed, the overall effect reduces the absolute steam speed through fone stage. When the enthalpy drop is about equal in moving and stationary blades, itis called a $0% reaction stage. In practice, steam turbines combine im- pulse and reaction stages, although the machines are usually labeled one or the other and competitors distinguish the ad- vantages and disadvantages of each ap- proach. Many of today’s impulse turbines Use five to 10% reaction in their design Steam flowing through nozzles can be pressure-compounded or velocity-com- PIPPIIIIIVE CC CCCC EEC \DIIIIPIIPIIP CARQARRL — 3 — i ao) THPULSE STAGE energy to the blades HELOCTY- COMPO INDED STAGE AND REACTION STAGE 4.4,5,6 Steam flows through impulse (shown at let), reaction (center) and compounded turbine stages, which in tum release its Kinetic s+ ove 189,pounded (Fig 1.6). In the former, for a0 impulse design, exhaust steam from one stage flows through similar impulse stages. In the latter, steam energy is ab- sorbed in a series of constant-pressure steps. The velocity energy in the steam ‘emerging from the nozzles is applied to ‘two ot more sets of moving blades, Veloci ty compounding uses a set of statiooary blades between sets of rotating blades to reverse the flow of steam, Tn the reaction design, a velocity-com- pounded control stage is followed by two reaction stages. The high-speed steam jet gives up only part of its kinetic energy in the first row of moving blades. Then come reversing blades that redirect the slowed steam into the second row of moving blades where most of its remaining kineti= ‘energy is absorbed. Steam then enters the series of reaction stages. Blading hardware General function of the rotating blades is to transmit the working force of the steam as moving torque to the wheels and discs on which the blades are mounted. In practice, many blades are attached at each stage. The larger the turbine. the Blade vane with towire ortvork = Tot rental 4.7 Finite element analysis of computer. generated blade and Foot models reveals, potential stress-relat- ‘ed problems reaper the number of stages. As the steam expands, its volume increases. To ‘accommodate this, blade height and stage diameter increase in succeeding stages. Blades for each stage take many forms (Fig 1.7). Their apparent simplicity belies the complex design and manufacturing that goes into them. ‘When blade height becomes a signifi ‘cant part of the total stage diameter, the ratio of steam speed to blade speed changes over its length. To counteract this, warped blades are used (Fig 1.8). An ‘exploded view shows a nozzle, diaphragm, steam vortex flow, a bladed wheel, and the exhaust steam (Fig 1.9). Ideally, steam centers the nozzles in an axial direction and leaves in a circumferential direction. It forms @ vortex flow or eddy that is con- tained by the turbine casing before steam enters the moving blades. To avoid cross-currents in the vortex flow, the product of linear velocity of steam and the radius of the circleit travels, in must be constant. The steam pressure must be higher at the outer radius rather than the inner radius, Steam leaves nozzles at the inner radius swith higher linear speed than at the outer 1.9 Steam enters axial, leaving with vortex flow. It ro- turns to axial fow by warped blades blade ege0¢ ——— speed 1.8 Warped blades provide impulse flow at the root and reaction fow at the to radius, but the blade's linear speed in- ceases with radius. Therefore, a steadily ‘growing ratio of blade speed to steam speed occurs from the root tothe tip. The blade's entrance angle is fixed by the an- gle of approach of the steam’s relative speed, s0 steam slides smoothly over the blade, At the blade’s exit edge, the vector difference of relative steam and blade speeds shows that steam has a residual absolute speed in an axial direction Blade speed at the tip is about double the absolute steam speed. Steam must ap- proach the blade from a direction almost ‘opposite to its mation, The blade section rilst be twisted to receive the steam smoothly all the way up the Slade, But because entering-steam pressuie i higher at the tip than at the root, pressure drop along the blade. Thus a re- Action blade section must be used with the relative steam speed higher at the blade exit. A pure reaction force acts at the blade tip, a pure impulse force a the root Rotors, shafts, drums Blades are attached to discs mounted onto a shaft, spindle, rotor, or drum, For Smaller units, rotors with blade attach- rents may he machined from a sinele attached to dises which ar =e shrunk and keyed onto # f0722S sca ma hined shaft or welded onto the roter shaft. Large rotors may oF May not have a ceniral bore. In yeats past, bored rotors were necessary because of limitations on Steelmaking capability. Stresses (Fig 1.10) and imperfections tend (0 concen tate in the central bore region ofthe steel s6forging and the most practical way of dealing with them was to bore the rotor. Bores also provided other advantages, such as inspection capability. Teday, even very large rotors can be made from a siz- Ble forging. This otoriscalled the mooob- Tock. In addition, slid discs can be welded together to form a single large rotor. ‘Drum-type rotor, witha drum carried by the shaft, are common for turbines of largely reaction design. Diameter io- creases from the front tothe rear end of the unit ‘The shatt Is supported by bearings at cach end. Bearings range from pressure- Iubricated journal types for large turbines to ball bearings for small units. Larger bearings are almost universally designed with ol grooves in their top halves to cre- ate an oll wedge that presses down on the journal, Bearings must also be capable cf counterbalancing the net thrust along the shaft ereated by the steam pressure difer- ential across most turbine stages. ‘A thrust bearing controls theshaft'sax- ial position to maintain clearances be- tween stationary and moving elements of each stage. Couplings mounted on the Shaft ends transmit the mechanical rota- tional energy to the driven equipment— such asa generator, pump, or compressor. The casing carries the bearings forthe rotor and is configured internally to guide the steam flow through nozzles and element analysis are shown left, along with rotational and thermal stresses for ‘each after startup blades. Nozzles and reversing blades of stages must be supported by the casing. AS such, they are called diaphragms. Dia- phragm halves may be provided with holes, to drain away collected moisture. Dia- phragms also hold the seal strips which limit team leakage at all points where the shaft passes. ‘The four general types of diaphragms are conventional-cast, investment-cast, illlejand welded, and spoke. They seve in different temperature regimes. The conventional-cast diaphragm is used less and less today. Steam leakage cannot be avoided en- rely. Some steam leaks out ofthe turbine ‘casing where the shaft passes through. In ‘condensing turbines, ar tries to leak along the shaft into the low-pressure condensi space. Seals are installed to sto In packing-ring seals, carbon packing rides directly on the shaft (Fig 1.11) ‘Springs anchored at the top hold packing segments in place and against the sealing surfaces. Steam that does leak past the seals may be channeled to a lower-pres- sure stage, to heater, or vented to atmo- sphere. ‘Stepped labyrinth-gland seals also con- trol shaft leakage. Intermediate leakoffs direct the steam to lower turbine stages or heaters. The large intermediate chamber may connect to the suction of a blower that holds @ vacuum lower than the tur- 41.11 Carbon packing rings aid in preventing steam leakage around hat, ltt 41,12 Mesh construc- tion of outer easing utlized in finite-ol0- ‘ment and photoelastic analyses of stresses presentincasing right 1.10 Model geome. © aot tres utized in frite- ‘Rotor Almpuse, wheel and eaphvagm typ Rotor: Raacten, dam pe 10) Rotor C: Reaction, wolted type bine's last stage, This would draw in low- Pressure steam from one side and air from the blower side. The blower discharges the mixture toa condenser where the steam is recovered ‘Some turbines use labyrinth seals in se- riesand then add a set of carboa ring seals at the shaft ends, Casings must be designed to resist re- action forces on stationary nozzles and blades and contraction and expansion caused by wide temperature swings (Fig, 1.12). The front high-pressure end, in par- ‘cular, must be allowed to move axially to accommodate movement but must re axial alignment-to maintain clearances between stationary and moving parts. A small unit may have the casing split vertically or may have a casing that opens atone end sothat the rotor can be removed axially. The latter is commonly calied a barrel-type easing. But most large units split the casing horizontally at the shaft centerline. For high-pressure, high-tem- perature service, front elements have been built with two casings; steam flows in the annulus region, This design allows thinner shells, so expansion and contraction caused by large temperature differentials, can be better accommodated. Casings may be cast or built of welded plate, At the turbine’s inlet, steam enters though a stop valve and steam chest. In high-temperature units, these elementsa — TY Svaighefow 41.19 Basie condensing and noncondensing turbines cover many variations. are separate from the main turbine struc- ture. In smaller units, the steam chest usu~ ally mounts directly on the casing, either as an integral part or a separate casing. Governing valves in the steam chest admit steam to the nozzle chambers of the frst stage. ‘At the other end of the turbine, an ex: hhaust hood guides the flowing steam from the last stage to the condenser or otber point of disposition. Correct design of the exhaust hood minimizes pressure drop which impairs turbine efficiency. Rupture diapheagms in the exhaust hood prevent excessive pressure buildup if a coupled ‘condenser loses vacuum. Primary turbine types ‘Steam turbines come in an almost nite range of sizes. Capacities begin at ess than 0.75 KW (1 kp) and extend up to more than 1500 MW for generator drives in the largest central stations worldwide. ‘They can be divided into two basic catego- ries: condensing and non-condensing. Condensing turbines exhaust stea Jess than atmospheric pressure (Fig 1.1 ‘A vacuum is maintained in the condenser ejectors, Shaft-sealing steam is applied to the turbine glands to prevent air from en- tering the seals and destroying the vacu- um, This type of uait is found most oft in powerplants as generator drives, and usually are multistage units to handle latge quantities of flowing steam. In non-condensing units, the exhaust pressure is usually conteolled by a reduc- ing station with the outlet pressure set to maintain the desired level. If the exhaust et l-automatisoxraction fea prescure aS casing doubevow rehest y ; =] Ei Wah ar 4.14 Tandem-compound, two-casing, coublo-tow hat eh = i th Foareatg quacple tow heat 4.15 Cross-compound, quadruple-fow machine crives generators on two shafts system of process requires more steam than is flowing through the turbine, the reducing station makes up the difference. Backpressure units have their widest ap- plication in process plants and may be ei ther single- or multistage, built to meet a wide variety of output fequirements Flow pattern Both condensing and backpressure tur~ bines are further categorized by the man- Condensing units exhaust at less than atmospheric pressure Singlevreneat eves autem: ner in which stearn flows—straight flow, reheat, extraction, and induction. ‘Straight flow uses full throttle steam flow from inlet to exhaust, In rebeat units virtually all of which serve for electric power production, the main steam flow exhausts from the unit at one (single re- beat) or two (double rebeat) intermediate stages. Temperature of the steam is in- ‘creased in the steam generator before the steam is returned tothe turbine at the next lower stage for further expansion. Extrac- tion turbines employ takeoffs to direct steam to other parts of the process. Induction turbines work as extraction turbines in reverse. Thatis, steam at lower than throttle pressure is injected into the unit downstream of the throttle valve to produce a portion of the total output. In- ‘duction machines are also usually found process plants Compounding Simple, small multistage turbines are ‘generally built with all the stages on a single shaft housed in one casing. As size increases, this becomes impractical. To avoid long casing runs, the different casings on separate sbalts; as many as six casings may be preseat in one unit. If all the shafts are bolted together in line to drive the same generator, this is called a tandem-compound unit (Fig 1.14), When the sections are arranged with two shafts, or groups of shafts side by side driving two generators, it is called cross-compounding (Fig 1.15). The last ‘eross-compound unit in the US was con- id-1960s,ANSECA APPLICATIG Subtle details in steam turbine design are best illustrated by their primary real- 3s: large units for electric powerplants; medium-sized genera- tor drives for combined-cycle install tions; mechanical drives; and various sizes and types of generator drives for indepen- dent and non-utility powerplants, waste- to-energy and cogeneration facilities, and geothermal plants. ‘Although efforts are made here to dif- ferentiate those details that are specifieto the application, a great deal of overlap exists. A comprehensive review of the state-of-the-art therefore requires a re- view of all applications. LARGE FOSSIL “The post-World War II boom in wilty fossil-fired powerplant construction, which ended in the early 1970s, was, ia ‘ne sense, the heyday ofsteam-turbinede- sign. Economies of size prompted a rapid scaleup of the technology (Fig.1.16). Steam conditions moved from subcritical to supercritical, steam cycles from no re- heat to double rcheat with upto 12 stages of feedwater heating, and individual tu- bide sizes from 1000200 MW up to 1300 MW (Fig 1.17) anced commercial plant supercritical 5000. ‘/0SOF cycle, al- psig/1200F/1050F, though steam cycle conditions were later reduced because of @ host of operating problems. In Germany, many units ra between seven and 125 MW were in- stalled with either steam pressures over ‘4000 psig and/or main-steam tempera tures between 980F and 1180F. [a Russia, a few 100-MW units employing a 4200 psig/1200F /1200F steam cycle were built. Designs based on 2 5000-psig/ Steam few io tu turbin bp tur = / A | (Real iSF Single reheat trtines Davbie reheat tbines jin steam pug 4500 psig BEE asco ps “Turbine eating: 1000F/1000F" 12005771007 S00. ecorrre0orzoor il ° ‘Steam condensation region 4.17 Single- and double reheat steam turbines combine with 1.18 Condensation inthe last Lp stages is an aggravating root higher temperature and pressures to boost net heat rate, above cause of corosion and erosion of blades, above Hotow biage wit ‘0 biacol moisture as it condenses around the Wison fre. 1200F/1200F steam eycle have been available ince the 1950s, although no m: chines of this type were ordered, However, these advanced eycles did not become commercial standards. Designers backed down to more modest pressures (under 3000 psig) and temperatures (un- der 1050F) for several reasons: (1) Ques- tions, deserved or not, arose concerning the reliability of these advanced steam plants, (2) materials of construction re- quired by high pressures and tempera tures are very expensive, (3) the cost of fossil fuels escalated dramatically in the 1970s, and nuclear powerplants began to replace fossil units for baseload capacity By the early 1980s, large fossi-fired powerplants weren't being built at all. But stops it merely shifted froma optimization mode. Generic problem areas Most turbine design details peculiar to the large fosslsfied steam plant originate from: (1) the increased amount of eycliig dluty required of these machines today, 2) the desire of owners to operate these chines well beyond their intended design lie, and (3) the need for higher efficiency eup to blade win curved frsre8 root 41.19 Drain slots in holow bp stationary blades help to remove ght ancing and/or additional output from existing units. Solid particle erosion (SPE) of high- pressure (h-p) and intermediate-pressure (i-p) turbine internals, particularly blades ‘and nozzles, isan example of how cycling hhashad detrimental effects on fossil steam turbines. What happens is oxide scale ex- foliating from the boiler tubes and/or steam leads becomes entrained in the steam flow to the turbine, eroding compo- nents in the steam path. ‘The severity of SPE correlates directly to the amount of cycling duty the unit sees, the type of boiler upsteeam, the pres- ence ofa steam-bypass system, use of full or partial-are admission, the type of tur- bine blading, and other factors. Impacts ‘of damaged components to crack initia- tion and propagation, with the possibility of catastrophic loss. Today, a variety of turbine-side solu- tions exist tomitigate SPE. Most common ‘ate diffusion and overlay coatings forcrit- ical components. But design changesenter here as well. Increasidg axial clearances between rotating and stationary parts as well as nozzle scale factors for all stages ite other approaches. Monitors have been With stee laces AU Number casings 4 Number ef stages | Number otblades 6534 4.20 Use of titanium can potently reduce the size, weight, and ‘umber of components required forlarge turbines Pihauzt 1970 Today Steel biases Thanium bases 2 2 o @ 2 2220 1920 developed to quantify the particle load- ings from the boiler. Atthe other end of the turbine, cycling aggravates the interaction betweea wet steam and the hardware of the last few low-pressure (I-p) stages. Where the h-p turbine is primarily affected by erosion- induced problems, the Lp turbine design rust handle corrosion-related problems. Stress-corrosion cracking (SCC) and cor- tosion fatigue are the two most common failure mechanisms. Corrodents concen- trate and build up as a result of cycling, especially in areas where flowing steam, cannot provide a washing effect. Erosion/ corrosion damage affects older fossil stearn turbines employing lower steam condi- tions. Extent ofthe problem depends great ing and blading attachment design details, Most susceptible are the L-I and last stages (Fig 1.18), The transition between ry and wet steam, also known asthe Wil- son line, occurs here, the exact stage de- pending on whether a single- or double- cheat cycles employed. Cycling between full and partial load moves the Wilson line up and downstream, Corrsioa-resistant coatings have been developed and fully qualified for this ser- Forex ne 189SSPECIAL'SECTION’ vice. Moisture-removal devices (Fig 1.19) employed at the design stage help to mini- mize much damage as wel. Advanced blades Inrecent years, computers and state-of- the-art analytical and modeling methods, backed by laboratory and fcld testing, hhave allowed designers to minimize blad- ing losses through more precise aerody. namic calculations. This modern capabil ty is most evident in L-p blades. New blade designs have been devel- ‘oped, not only to protect against the hars® environment, but to improve efficiency and output as well. General trend is 10 minimize surface area where corrodents build up, lengthen the blades to extract, more of the steam's energy, and reduce blade weight, Free-standing blades io the last stages are common. Design using ad- vanced aerodynamic analyses improves efficiency and reliability. Use oftitanium blading gets much at- tention today for laststage duty. Better resistance to corrosion is one plus. Lighter weight also permits longer blades and larger exit-annulus areas than the more ‘common 12% chromium (12 Cr) stainless steel blades. Blades as long as 50 in. are used commercially in large 1200-MW turbines operating at 3000 rpm. Longer blades made of titanium are now being tested, ‘Note that as blades get longer, many other factors become critical—such as ‘water droplet erasion, root design, flutter ‘and aeroelastic excitation, aerodynamic and mechanical damping, manufacturing capability, and cost relative to the more common 12-Cr material Rotors ‘Along with blading, turbine rotors are From hpiip tring Lptutine Exhaust op stages among the most critical and highly stressed components in a powerplant. As fossil steam turbines age, the rotors b ‘come more prone to cracking from a va ety of mechanisms. Again, itis the lp tur bine that gets the most attention because ofits size. Well-publicized SCC problem: have been observed on rotors ofthe popu Jar shrunk-on dise design, although sever: ity depends on the particular design. Here, rotors are built up by heat-expand ing dises that hold the entire set of rotat main forging. Today's alternatives for new machines ‘and replacements for existing ones are the welded rotor or the monoblock rotor. Steelmakers worldwide now have the ca- pability to produce large rotors from one forging. New feeritic 12-Cr steels are also increased strength available today and without the thermal stress and expan sion problems of traditional rotors made of austenitic materials. These new steel are thought to be most important for fos. sil-plant eycling steam turbines undergo- ing severe thermal stresses. ‘Welded rotors are composed of seg ‘ments, 30 limit have replaced shrunk-o rotors has been extended by overboring o bottle-boring to remove crack indications and flaws, Other components Rotors and blades are the heart of the steam turbine and most critical to maxi ‘Steam itet Ip blading ig blades so they shrink and ft onto the tions on forging capacity cdo got apply. Some designers question the intégrity of the rotor in the vicinity of the weld, but the in-service record for welded rotors has been excellent, This approach hhas'jbeen more popular outside North America, although several US utilities ise rotors with ‘welded ones, Note that life of many bored mizing efficiency and reliability. Space does not permit a review of recent ad- ‘vances in other turbine components, Suf- fice it to say that virwally every steam- turbine component, especially those in the steam path, has been scrutinized for per- formance improvement over the last two - decades, This includes stationary nozzles, diaphragms, couplings, bearicgs, seals, packing, casings, and exhaust annulus. New configurations Requirements for the next generation of fossil-fired powerplants bave already been factored into steam-turbine design. ‘Common characteristics include: (1) modular design where possible, (2) a re- | duction in the number of turbine casings or sections (Figs 1.20 and 1.21) to simpli- fy overall design and installation and re- duce mechanical losses, steam leakage, - ete, (3) incorporation of reheat and super- critical steam cyclesinto smaller units, (4) Is provisions for in-line inspectioa and on- line diagnostic devices, (5) ease of assem- bly and overhaul, (6) specially designed exhaust hoods that minimize velocity losses, and (7) axial exhaust configura- tions (Fig 1.22) that, to the extent possi- ble, help to simplify design and installa- tion of the condenser and minimize kinetic energy loss of the steam. ‘Where a traditional single-rebeat 600- MW unit might comprise one h-p, one. and two double-low I-p modules, an alter- native design combines the b-p and i-p into one casing and makes use of only one + doublesiow I-p module. Advantages of such a compact arrangement include few- erbearings, smaller foundation, and bigh- er efficiency To obtain these advantages, the design must employ state-of-the-art compo- i; nents—such as latest 12-Cr stesls for o- Hp biding ‘steam turbine, above, Traveling | 4 pa Ba { for 150-270 MW appl: HER ise e2bing WEP eae Pinto ene module 4.22 Axial exhaustcco: Bi Strectral cnaracters ‘cations combines hp ‘guration, et, sipiies Bp gl sre. overall ‘site. anc coolrg 4.23 intemal passages for steam provide ‘cooling for rotor and-easingi Crossover ping Vang turbine 4.24-700-MW steam turbine features a combined very-tigh-pressureih-p module, double-iow Fp section, and four-fow Lp section tors, titanium laststage blades, and inte- _gralor welded L-p rotors. In addition, some ‘of the -p expansion actually takes place in the l-p module Modular construction extends up to 1000-MW units. For example, one manu- facturer mixes and matches between five standard b-p and ip turbine valves, b-p and -p modules, and four -p turbine tod- ules to arrive ata cost effective configura- tion, Note that only outer casings aad fixed bearing spans are standardized: the internal steam paths are customized for cach application. ‘As temperatures and pressures go hi er for steam turbines, rotor cooling ( 1.23) may come into play, depending on the choice of materials used in the bigh- temperature sections. However it is oon- figured, attention must be paid to «ini- mizing the impact on heat rate. ‘An extensive international R&D pro- ‘gram presently being carried out seeks to arrive at a fossil steam turbine compatible ‘with a 4500-psig/1100F/1100F/1100F supercritical unit in the 300-900-MW. range. Japan already operates many large single-reheat steam turbines with a 3500- psig/1000F/1050F steam cycle. Representing the thinking that goes ino steam turbines for this advanced ser- vice is a 700-MW unit (Fig 1.24) designed by Japanese engineers and extensively tested for commercial application. Steam conditions are 4500 psig/ 1050 /1050F/ 1OSOF. The unit is tandem-compound swith a very-high-pressure (y-h-p) turbine and an b-p module in one easing, 2 more conventional double-flow ep section, and Many ofthe stationary parts ofthe v-h~ p/bep turbine are constructed of 12-Cr steel in large castings. Forged 12-Cr ma- terial is used for rotating parts of thei section, Firtree-type construction is used to attach blades to the rotor forall stages Dut the first of the veh-p modules and al those ofthe hp, Doubl-shel casing con- struction reduces the pressure and ther tol stress There ae four mats tear inlets and four firstereheat steam inlets ‘The first-stage nozzles are welded togeth- ct into two 180-deg nozzle boxes Operating modes Full-are team admission for turbines is commonly paired with variable-pressure boilers to improve minimum-load ope tion and efctency. In general, itis possi- ble to change unit output by varying the boilers main-steam pressure, instead of opening and closing turbine control valves. Under variable o sliding pressure operation, valves are left wide open, mini- sizing throttling losses. ‘When fossil units were designed pri- ratily for baseload operation, partal- are admission was used. In these ma- chines fst-stage nozzles are divided into separate nozzle arcs, each connected inde- pendently to a control valve. Load is ad- justed by opening and closing the valves. ‘A fullare admission arrangement con- trols load by throttling all admission valves equally, All control valves connect toa common chamber header aheadof the first-stage nozales, While full-are admis- sion resultsinsupetior thermodynamic et- ficiency at full load, there is no throttle reserve or quick oad increases. Also, part. load efficiency may sufer even when slid- ing pressure is used Choice between the twocan havesigaif- icant impact on the balance of turbine de- sign and on heat rate atthe various load points. A hybrid pressure, patial-are ad- Inisson scheme may provide the best com- promise—a slight heat-rate degradation is traded off for superior part-load per- formance and theabity to respond quick- Aftermarket services ‘A changing business environment has caused powerplant owners to redefine the ‘boundaries for steam-turbine repair and maintenance, Original-equipment manu- facturers, who once Ipft a good portion of the aftermarket business to non-OEM specialty companies, now compete vigor- ously with new capabilities. More and more, components are repaired rather than replaced, and more repair techniques are being accepted by users—and their equipment insurers. And, vendors have n0 qualms about working on machines de- signed and installed by their competitors. ‘Welding is casein point. Low-temper- ature and stationary-componeat welding techniques bave been available for years. ‘And weldiog bas been sed extensively for new steam-turbine fabrication by major European turbine firms. Today's develop- rent efforts focus on high-temperature and rotating oF stresed.components— those subject to creep deformation. Ad- vanees in fracture mecbanics and fnite- clement analysis, as well as improvements in chemical/metallurgical analysis, are supporting the extension of welding tech- niques. in one sense, the idea today is for the Vendor to bea full artaer with the ma- shine owaer, not just supplicr, giving true meaning to the phrase aftermarket service, Full range of service can include record-keeping, remote of obsite ma- chine-health monitoring, service con- tracts, reminders to service eritical com- ponents, and extensive vendor patticipation in pre-outage planning OEMs in particular aze developing exten- sive databases of their customers’ equip- rent and needs Often, repair means more than replicat- ing and replacing a component. Value can be added by redesigning components for improved performance once in the ma- chine, Parasitic power loses can be stemmed bby 40 to S04 by evacuating bearing eavi ings. ‘Steam-turbine packing rings are anoth- er potential source of eycle-eficiency im- provements, particularly for large ma- chines, In many units. packing rings wear ‘with time primarily Because of vibration during startups and shutdowns, allowing steam to escape before being expanded fully through the blades. Cycling of fossil- fired plants originally designed for base- load operation aggravates the problem, owes ae 1950‘The largest steam turbines worldwide serve in nuclear powerplants. Many are located in France, where the nuclear op- tion was pursued with vigor following the energy erises of the 1970s, Several 1350- MW units are operating, and a couple of 1500-MW units are being installed. US powerplants generally do not go much above 1300 MW asa result of federal lim- itations on reactor thermal output. And since the nuclear-power program got ua- erway in the 1960s, when the economy- cof-scale philosophy reigned, steam tur- ines for this application are rarely smaller than 500 MW. Nuclear stations have by and large taken over base-load power-production duties from fossil-Sired plants in the mixed power system because of their lower fuel costs. Nuclear” applications involve more moderate steam conditions than fossil plants, Pressures are nominally 1000 psig, temperatures saturated or slightly supe heated. Thus, the fundamental design constraint on nuclear steam turbines larger volumes of wet steam, despite the use of moisture separator/reheaters. Nu- clear turbines also rotate at 1800 rpm in 60-Hz systems, unlike large fossil tur- bine/generators, which operate at 3600 rpm! ‘Among the most notable design cchanges in nuclear stearn turbines ia ccent years is lp rotor construction. The ‘once-popular shrunk-on dise construction ‘with a bore in the center has been largely abandoned in favor of either monoblock rotors cut from a single steel forging or a welded rotor. The problem: oxygen-in- duced stress-corrosion cracking at the DOVETAIL AREA keyways where the shrunk-on dises are at- specie design changes. They can make the tached to the shaft, Wet steam conditions more cost-eective than fepair directly bear on this problem. Corrodents build up as steam condenses in the staz- nant regions of the keyways ‘Some manufacturers have had bett success than others with the shrunk-on disc design—specifcally those that locate keyways on the downstream side of the dise to avoid condensation, use special manufacturing and heat-treating proce dureson the discs, carefully elect materi- als such as 3-Ni/1.5-Cr steel and proper- ly design the inner casing to avoid external i, Fork-root attachments Still the overall trend has been away iS Aecor from this approach. Often, plant outas Torsion mounting rcumferential groove Standard company's. is reduced by selecting a rotor with Torsion mounting A few wheels in biacing (1978), the discs integral with the shaft. Many spit tereioo boas te rotors have been replace = 1450mm with the welded or monoblock variety cries Been They are thought by some to provide other ot advantages—such as rigidity for better response to imbalance and smaller radial clearances—leading to higher turbine ef- ove Ae 1989,ficiency, Often, other design changes make feplacement more cost-effective than repair (Fig 1.25) Inaddition to rotors, blading has in gea- eral been substantially beefed up for the nuclear application, Longer blades on I-p rotors are free-standing, while shorter ‘ones tend to incorporate integral shrouds. Blade attachments seek to reduce the overall and peak stress profiles. General- ly, blade design, assisted by CAD/CAM. is better able to reconcile aerodynamic performance with mechanical reliability ‘Arguably the most advanced and larg. est (1500 MW) nuclear steam turbine combines the h-p and i-p sections into one module with a common rotor and opposed flow, Three double fed in parallel from the i-p exhaust. The h- poylinder takes the saturated steam down to moisture-separator /reheater pressure, after which tis directed to the i-p modi A specially designed diffuser handles the ‘exhaust from the h-p/i-p module. Turbine construction is simplified, overall weight is reduced, and an additional 14 MW are available compared to traditional designs. Some characteristics are listed in the ta- be. ‘Another feature of this design is an Lp module with an independent exhaust hood. The outer casing is not used to en: sure precise positioning of the stationary blading. Because it is independent, the ex- hhaust hood is treated as a natural exten: sion of the condenser and made integral it. This provides major structural and works advantages. The design requires longer laststage turbine blades, which means that the een- trifugal forces are larger, a is the diame. ter of the machine. On the other hand. only two I-p modules are required in th 1300-MW application. This helps to sim. plify the balance-oi-plant as well, leading towards lower cost and potentially higher ability. In Japan. designers are extend- ing this concept. Aa 1800-MW auclear unit is being designed to make use of a $2- in, Inst-stage blade inserted into a tan- dem-compound six-Bow type of unit. MECHANICAL DRIVES Steam turbines as generator drives seem to hog the technological spotlight. But an oft-neglected application for smaller steam turbines (Figs 1.26 and 1.27) isin driving critical process equip- ment—including pumps, compressors. fans, and paper machines, Even in these applications, the driven equipment com- ‘mands far more attention than the steam- turbine driver Consider the boiler feedpump. This pump service is considered one of the most arduous, especially for large powerplants. ‘and much technology has been developed for this. But how often do you hear about the turbine drive accompanying it? Or consider the steam turbine driving the ‘main compressor in an ammonia or ethyl ene plant. Much more is spoken about the compressor than the turbine. ‘Still, effcient mechanical drives are recognized as critical to an optimized steam system and plant energy balance. 4.28 Back-pressufe mult Today's turbines for mechanical drives are characterized by high steam tures and pressures and speeds. Tempera- tures tap out at 1000F while pressures ex- tend to 2000 psig and beyond. Existing equipment has been modified tohandle changing operating parameters. In some cases, facilities operate st capaci ‘Steam cutot 4.27 One extraction is included wit this mut-stage backpressure | ties different from the original plant d sign; in others, the relative value of thee- mal energy to electric power has changed, Either way, steam-rbine drivers can be upgraded to reflect new conditions and operate at the most efficient point. This ccan take a variety f forms, limited less by | technological factors than by institutionalcuten sieeve = 4.28 single-stage steam turbine meets latest API specifeations, Irnpertant for many process duties ‘Steam adnisson valve Horizontal spit easing Stshies see noses A A Siglo wees! Soincarvon ing 27 ne =! Govemer | WE RS 41.29 Nine-stage condensing steam turbine series as peiary ‘compressor dive in lara process facity 1,30 This multi-stage backpressure steam turing includes two automatic extractions for added process fexbilly ‘ones—such as vendor and insurer accep- tance. Two examples are adding a stage to a turbine drive and adapting a unit 19 ac- cept very-low-pressure excess steam in- stead of wasting it ‘Not everything is directly transferable, however. For example, steam turbines for refinery and petrochemical service are governed by standards issued by the American Petroleum Institute (Fig 1.28), ‘These standards often exceed those for other services. Competing with motors tions, steam turbines go head to head with electric motors, Advantages commonly attributed to turbines include: Alexibility to use multiple inlet and exhaust pressur levels with straightforward alterations. in herent variable-speed operation without complicated auxiliaries, operation inde pendent of electric power supply, spark- proof conteols for hazardous-fluid duty, and inherent sef limitations on developed power The relative value of thermal-to-clec: tric energy has much to do with the mo- tor/turbine selection. To illustrate: Powerplants can increase net generation and lower heat rate by using steam t bines to drive fans. This application isam- plified by the need to push large volumes of flue gas through more and more down- stream pollution control equipment, each taking additional pressure drop. In indus: tries that are located where electric power costs are high, turbines dominate as the drive selection, Most mechanical-drive turbines in- clude one or several expansion stages (Fig 1.29). For single-stage units, the larger the wheel size, the more efficient the unit. Only the largest have several expansion stages similar to small generator drives Multistage units are algost always more efficient than single-stage nits for equiv alent capacity. The full range of extrac: tions, admissions, condensing, and backpressure options (Fig 1.30) are avail- able for mechanical ézives just like they are for generator drives. These smaller units tend to include ‘much more impulse-type blading than re- action, Rotors constructed from solid forgings are typical, except for low. perature, slow-speed waits. Single-casing designs also are typical and, unlike years ‘ago, can extend to units of close to 50,000 hp capaci This design eliminates multiple thrust- and journal-bearing lasses and crossover and ‘steam-leakage losses. Casings are generally split horizontally along the plane of the shaft centerline. Shafts on small units can be configured horizontally or vertically, but particular attention must be paid to how the turbine and driven equipment are matched. Sev- eral manufacturers construct their units by integrating modular componeats—in- cluding bearings and bearing housings, steam-path components, governors, and casing elements, Casing are available as single-fow and double- and triple-fow versions for larger rmachines."This compecent in particular has received emphasis s the drive ficiency in large-capacity unit flow velocities, and smooth exhaust paths are required, Alignment, support, and high-temperature Zolting become im= portant considerations For the most part, ermal cycling and ‘thermal stresses are nat nearly the prob- with mechanical crives that they are in laree generator drives. Ph Aenendine ment chemicals used, sion of turbine blades can be just as severe ‘Atleast one large petrochemical company has pioneered the use of on-line water ‘washing to remove desosits, Impulse tur- binesare more amenable to water washing than reaction units, but the practice can bbe dangerous if not carefully evaluated controlled particularly at fullturbine load. Leakage losses are better controlled today by using improved seals. Powe a 180| turbine produces steam in a hea | steam generator (HRSG). Usually one or COMBINED CYCLES Steam turbines are combined with gas turbines (Power special report, Gas tur- bines, March 1988) in what's kaown as 2 combined-cycle powerplant (Fig 1.31). High-temperature exhaust from the gas several gas turbines are combined with only one steam turbine because gas tur- bines are available commercially in sizes less than 200 MW. Both turbines can the generator on a. common shaft. bbut multi-shaft units provide more operst- ing flexibility. Typical steam conditions are 900-1200 psig/900-9508. The combined cycle is probably the most efficient commercial power system available. Most are fueled by natural gas. or fuel oil, but the advent of newly com- ‘mercial combustion and conversion tech- nologies—gasification, pressurized fuid- ized-bed combustion, and liquefaction ‘has made them compatible with coal fir- ing. Fuel-to-power efficiencies are nomi- nally 45% and state-of-the-art systems us- ing the latest gas turbines could top SO. ‘Modular construction is an inherent fea- ture, Environmental compatibility makes them easier to site. For these and several other reasons, many power industry soothsayers expect combined cycles to, if not dominate pox cerplant construction in the years a give the traditional boiler/steam-turbine Rankine cycle a serious run for its money Inthe GT’s shadow Discussions of combined-cycle technol ogy lately tend to focus on the gas turbi 1.31 Combined-cycle configuration Includes two gas turbines and 2 tripl pressure reheat steam turbine Indeed, the idea is to match the steam turbine tothe gas turbine(s), not the other way around. In fact, much of the steam: turbine-related activity in combined cy- cles involves developing units optimized foreach ofthe available gas-turbine pack= ages, In other words, the steam turbine, as partof the combined cycle, becomes pro- duction item just like the gas turbine. Contrast this to the steam turbine that is custom-designed to match the exact out- put of a field-erected boiler. At one end of the capacity spectrum, this means, for example, that modestly sized teheat units say less than 125 MW, snow make sense for use with the new 150. MW class of gas turbines that incorporate higher firing and exhaust temperatures. Some manufacturers’ designs are more easily adapted for reheat, Two-casing, single-shaft units, for example, may bet ter handle the differential thermal expan: sion characteristic of reheat units than single-casing designs. 1 reheat unit suitable for combined cycles meshes the h-p and i-p sections un- derone casing and couplesit toa standard 1.32 Axial exhaust configuration on steam turbine simplifies site I-pmodule. Another reat design has the gas and steam turbine sharing a common Shaft and generator. Although separate h- hp, and -pcasings ace used, the flexible coupling is eliminated, a single thrust beating serves both turbines, andthe gen- erator is driven from the front end only, allowing easy access for feld removal. In both designs the goal ofa more integrated steam-urbine module is apparent. Even- tually, the gas and steam turbines may share lubrication, hydraulic, and control systems. ‘Aoross the low-to mid-eapacity range, wherever possible, singlelow units arc employed with axial echausts (Fig 1.32), This eliminates the condenser floor and simplifies iastallation because the entire unit ean be at ground level. Exhaust sec- tions in general may be larger than for conventional powerplants because of the absence or reduction of bleeds for feed- water heating and additional flow from the low-pressure (I-p) steam header. | Other benef of single flow include lower sand improved efficiency be- at each stage are longer. layout for combined cycles as well‘Although not suitable in all eases, sin- ale-casing designs can provide a higher degree of modularization and lower cost. The concept of welding h-p and I-p rotor sections into a single rotor, then compen- sating the thermal imbalances between the hot and cold ends by mechanical means, has been applied in conventional powerplants. It may see application for combined-cycle steam turbines to extend the range of single-casing designs. Impulse-type designs are more suited to extending the range of singleslow confige trations. They also require fewer stages than a reaction-type steam path. Oa the other hand, a greater number of reaction stages in the steam turbine may help opti nize the combined cycle towards maxi- mum power output in a cogeneration mode, In one design, reaction stages are Used inthe hep and lp sections except for the fist stage of each section, which i of theimpulse type, The configuration issaid ta imprdve part-load efficiency and more efficiently direct condensing flow under loworzeto process-steam flo condition. Cycling duty Gas turbines are ideal for powerplant cycling duty. In order for the combined cycle to retain this flexibility, the steam turbine must be designed appropriately ‘Areas of particular concern include: prop- ex matching of steam and metal tempera- tures, gland-sealing steam temperatures, axial thrust, and control-system design. Many of the lessons learned in cycling fos- sil steams turbines apply to combined ¢y- cles as wel ‘With regard to matching steam end netal temperatures, horizontally spi. Eingle-casing designs may be more restric tive than two-casing units witha cizeum: ferential split. Other options include: (1) lowering steam pressure to reduce thick ness of the casing and any effects from temperature differentials, (2) using «wo halfeapacity steam turbines, (3) incorpo- rating steam-bypass lines to the condens- cer, and (4) employing an external means of heating critical pats suchas the steam chest and casing flange. ‘Analternative tothe last option ist to machine a groove in the face of casing flange and circulate steam through it Note that each of these options involves Uradeofs in capital costs, operating efi- the steam turbine, @ separate supply of superheated steam may be required ifthe combined eycle experiences many stats and stops. Reason: Superheated steam rom the HRSG cools quickly when the gas turbine comes off line; saturated steam from the auxiliary boiler is oly suitable for a cold turbine, Alternatives nclude an electric or fired superheater or an auxiliary boiler with superheat capa- bility Controls tor combined-cycle steam turbines need to account for cycling as well, It may be that mechanical hydrau- lic controls are simply not appropriate for this service, given the response time re- quired and the integration into the overall distributed control system that makes it easier to operate. Specifying turbine su- pervisory instrumentation for indicating SMALL POWER ‘The past decade has seen a resurgence of interest in developing efficient steam turbines for capacities from several hun- dred kilowatts to 100 to 200 MW in size (Figs 1.33 and 1.34). The energy crises of the 1970s initiated this development. Les- islation promoting cogeneration and the burning of so-called opportunity fuels: including biomass, municipal solid waste, tefinery byproducts, coal-mining wastes, and hospital wastes—contributed to it. One immediate consequence ofthis devel opment is that turbine-inlet steam tem- peratures and pressures rose to maximize the power production capability of small machines. ‘To give an idea of steam conditions for this application, municipal waste-to-ener- y plants involve pressures of 600 to 850 psig and temperatures from 750 to 800F. ‘Two ot three extraction points are com= moa, Non-utility and large generatin plants may operate at temperatures close to 1000F and at pressures from 1800 to 2400 psig, with five to seven extractions Today, environmental considerations bear, indirectly at least, on steam-turbine design, Mare efficent units mean low ‘environmental impact per unit of power produced, Thus, reheat is being applied in Units as small as 10 MW, and some signers expect that future US machines i the $0-200-MW rage may operate ats al steam conditions. In Europe, the 100-500 MW range—and sometimes smaller—are ap- thermal stress in the control package, may also be wise. Other steam-turbine design nuances itagortant for cycling include: small shaft dameters in the first-stage area, symmet- real casing and steam-inlet design, large filets between wheels and rotor long cou- ping spans, and ample clearances be- tween the rotor and casings ly for cogeneration and dis fuiet heating. Bottom line: Utilty-type features of large steam turbines are rapid- ly being incorporated into smaller and smaller units. Much technology for improving the ef- ficiency of steam turbines in smaller sizes ‘was rst applied in Europe and Japan Cause fuel costs there traditionally have ‘been higher than in the US. Computer- fturbines, especially steam- | path components, allows greater accuracy ‘and less reliance on traditional design margins. State-of-the-art electronic con- uals, often coupled to microprocessors and/or programmable logic controllers, have also contributed major gains in tar- | bine eff Commonality se staging ia the high-press section, (2) solid-rotor construction, (3) ‘exhaust casing that minimizes fow turbue Tence and reduces pressure drop for con- that minimize lea method of admitting steam t2 > tage nozzles and blades, and (3) a namically designed blades mar: their respective nozzles. ‘Other features that may improve effic cieney and operability of the unit include hhand valves for changing steam flow, solid shaft/dise assembly to avoid problems ft- ting diss to rotors, blades machined on the dise instead of being attached, and Pewee ae 880 sat\ 1S.stage bladed ‘steam path | exaust enue to Osten A admission $= oh 4.99 15-stage steam turbine has horizontal spit casing, Note hand Valves avalabe for varying steam admission Integy ze Nias win 1.34 Condensing steam turbine employs intograly shrouded biadesin the high-pressure S0uded bvades re end, near-fee-standing blades in the low-pressure end (above, right) Horzontar-sit easing 14stage baded stam path labyrinth seals with inter-stage bleed and new steam-path internals so that it oper- put is destined for a district-heating sys- vent, One design claims advantages for ates with maximum eficieney at new fem, anindustrial process. ora thiréparty mploying a supersonic expansion nozzle steam flows. Adding or removing extrac-_ thermal host, maintaining the balance be Stock tions may help balance thermal and elee- tween the thermal and eleericpowerre- ‘An important aces fo today's machine te power. Airements is paramount. In other words, is maintaining effcieney of the turbine Steam extraction and admission must be Under parc-load conditions Insomecases, Balance of power Controlled toa higher degre in these ape a ear ir reaeniie Say Sep lit of hela hava om panne eto Td espa eater Auty for a iility powerplant. Thus, the automatic extraction/ condensing unit (Fig 1.35) is popular for third-party co- generation systems because it hancles variations in steam-user requirements by controlling header pressures but while flso maintaining power production capa til Close contra ofthe extraction doesnot necessarily mean an extraction-ype ture bine, however, Depending on the amount of steam tobe entracted and expected pro- ess uctvations. it may be more eoseet- Festive to specify externally located pres surescontol vaives. To illustrate: ‘This Approach may be effective for wasteto- nergy facilities when extracted steam is notantcipate tovaryby more than 10%0 Peng to cSndonsae 158% Backpressure turbines are wsed in e9- 1.38 Tha double automatic extraction condensing steam turing is among the most popular generation applications bu with ss ex tor cogeneration appteatons bility than condensing units Inherent in the design ise constant rato between clee- trie power and thermal energy. Thus, the two cannot be independently controled; electric power becomes a byproduct of Thermal production, an unwanted stua- / Configurations Responding to the competitive de- mands of the small end of the market, tur- bine suppliers improved their capability modularize designs and package units to minimize field installation costs. Selec tions are made from a standard line of ‘components to customize the unit to spe- 1.38 Unit with barrel-type casings features geared generator box between theh-pturbine cific user requirements, Standardized [ andthe p urine wih axial exnaust components include inlet and extractionInput “Planet — pan from (me, whale Ring gear ‘generator 1.37 Gears in general are used more frequenty today to obtain higher efficiency valves, h-p and L-p casings, exhaust cas- ings, blades, rotors, diaphragms, cou- plings, and bearing assemblies. Generally, the steam-path components are more highly customized than the balance of the turbine, ‘Among the most interesting results from today's emphasis on small units is the popiilarity of geared turbines (Figs 1.36 and 1.37). Gears between the turbine and the generator used to be frowned ‘upon, especially in the US, because the additional component was viewed as in- herent unreliability. Whether a valid judgment or not, it has largely been ‘dashed by the need for the higher efficien- cy provided by geared units. Reasoa: The steam turbine can operate at its optimum speed, then be geared down to the speed of the generator, instead of directly driving the generator. Geared units are generally available for nominal capacities of be- GEU IVIL Generating power from geothermal wells dates back to the early 1900s, a though the frst commercial powerplant arrived at the Geysers in California in 1960. Other countries with significant geothermal experience include Japan and Italy. High-temperature hydrothermal- type sources—to date the only ones ex- ploited commercially for power produc- Induction generator ‘Singi-stag steam ‘esting No? Steam exhaust 41.38 Two single-stage. tween 10 and 50 MW. ‘The manner in which turbines are built up is also a consideration in the small- power arena. The direct-drive machine With hep and lp sections and continuous steam flow between them is a traditio approach. Both sections, located on 1 same side of the generator, operate at one speed. Single- or double-shell casings are used in a horizontally split arrangement. Packaged units up to 60 MW are available from at least one vendor. ‘Another approach employing a reduc- tion gear features two separate turbine calings on opposite sides ofthe generator. ‘The h-p and l-p modules operate at their own individual speeds. A barrel-type sin- sle-piece casing is used here, with the en- tirerotor, blade, and diaphragm assembly inserted as a unit. Each module is optimized forits respec: tive duty—the h-p module for high tem- Gangratee § ir nerator Condensate amps tion—are categorized as either vapor 1.39), Low-temperature hydrothermal systems have been exploited for heating: dry hot rock, magma, and geopressurized systems are being investigated for power- xroduction potential, Geothermal is among the most de- manding services for steam turbines, al- though steam tefiperatures and pres- sures—ranging from 200 psig and $00 to 600F to near saturated conditions—are modest compared to nuclear applications yam turbines connect to the generator to handle mute steam oops in a given facity for cogeneration fexity 1.39 Two-stage flash-steam geothermal system serves aqui dominated resource perature and pressure but low steam vol- ume, the -p module for lower-quality steam but high volume, Flexibility is pro- vided for handling higher steam condi- tions without sacrificing standardization ‘Also, the hep exhaust can be subjected to reheat and subsequently admitted to the p module ‘This modular concept is evident even ia very small units. To illustrate: For less than I-MW capacity, one single-stage backpressure turbine module and one sin- ‘le- or multistage condensing turbine are ‘connected on either side by a common shaft toan induction generator (Fig 138). Dual steam paths allow optimization of two low-pressure steam loops. Finally, also worth mentioning is the radial steam turbioe, which has been ap- plied in several cogeneration applications. Italsois high-speed machine employing a gear. From i be ‘Steam LWeen ee eS and hardly rate compared to the large fos- tively small as well, the largest being less than 150 MW with the average closer 10 50 MW Impurities inthe steam and the steam's, wetness combine to make the geothermal application an arduoys one. Noncondens- ible gases (NCG) are one impurity, made up primarily of carbon dioxide but also hydrogen sulfide, a pollutant requiring control, and other minor constituents— including hydrogen, methane, and ammo- Povey rn 180 saFiogerroot bade ‘pacnmen! nia. The primary gases can be corrosive, especially Hydrogen sulfide. Geothermal team also has many dissolved compo- nents and solids such as silica oxides, eal- cium earbonat, iron compounds, sodium and potassium chloride, and s0 on. “The quality of geothermal steam is get- ting worse. Cleaner (but by no means clean compared to boiler-generated steam), vapor-dominated systems world- wide were largely exploited in the early years of the industry. The push over the {ast decade or so, and particulary during the energy erises, has been to use more- contaminated liguid-dominated systems. Thus, the fol impact of impurity levels hhas only recently become the significant factorit should bein steam-turbine-sland design, operation, and maintenance as field experience i transfrced tothe shop floor. It has also led to wholly new turbine designs that may see commercial duty ia the years ahead. Like an -p section In general, geothermal turbine design and construction are similar tothe Ip sec- tion of a conventional fossil or nuclear 4.41 Blading contiol stage is armored for protection against erosion and corrosion ‘Svaccie-mount tangential erty : 1.40 Double-flow steam turbine from Japanese manufacturer includes design details spectfealy to handle arduous conditions found in geothermal powerplants unit, but with even more corrosion and erosion protection. Also, exhaust-low volume is much greater because of the lower pressures. Single casings are common, separated into an upper and lower half to facilitate inspection and shrink maintenance inter- vals. Sngle-,double-, or four-flow casings are ded depending on capacity (Fig 1.40). Blades tend to be wider than eon- ventional steam turbines to minimize bending stresses and longer to optimize conversion of steam’s energy ito rotative power. Rotor and blade materials of con- struction are selected with greater resis tance to erosion and corrosion. Moving target Not only is the NCG content of geo- thermal steam on the increase, but itis dificult to predict and to account for in design and day-to-day operation, At the wellhead, NCG content can vary from less Water extraction hotes 4.42 Tangential-on. try blade attachment Is used bp reaction / stages. Note water extraction holes, above than 0.5% to greater than 25% (mass frac- tion). When NCG content is low, typical strategy is to allow it pass through the turbine, then remove it from the condens- cx using steam-jet ejectors, centrifugal compressors, liquid-ring vacuum pumps, or some combination thereof. High-NCG levels typically dictatea se- ries of flashing steps: the first results in a highly contaminated fuid stream, while subsequent ones produce a cleaner stream. Both clean and contaminated streams can be expanded in separate tur- bines optimized for the respective service. ‘When NCG levels exceed the capabilities of the removal system. the surplus can ‘blanket tubes in some sections of the con- denser, causing uneven heat transfer, re- stricting condensation and increasing pressure drop. Design of the turbine and condenser ‘must compensate for NCG levels. Overall heat-transfer coefficients and log-mean temperature differences will begin to de- part from the steam-only case. In the case of the turbine, increasing NCG load re- ‘duces moisture losses. Because the dry- ness fraction of the steam is improved, the turbine’ efficiency will increase Stubbom deposits ‘Many geothermal powerplants experi- ence severe scaling and deposition, lead- ing to drastically impaired efficiency, un- safe turbine operation, and substantial downtime. This occurs despite vigorous efforts to remove suspended and dissolved species upstream. Contributing tothe problem is the con- centration effect. Solubility of major con- taminants in dry saturated steam de- creases with decreasing steam temperature. As the steam expands and crosses into the wet zoze, salts plate out Wet/dry cycling near the turbine's Wil- son line, associated with turbine stops and starts, provides a concentrating mecha- nism. When combined with corrosive gas- 5, the deposits can contribute to the fa- miliar stress-corrosion cracking and corrosion fatigue, Deposits that aren't themselves corrosive, such as silica. retain 1.43 Oil injection helps to remove deposits from the blade path on-inecorroding agents like organic and inor- ganic acids and chlorides. ‘Turbine design accounts for deposition by considering a wide-pitch nozale ar- rangement. at susceptible stages (Fig, 1.41), providing enough axial space be- tween the nozzles and blades, employing high-efficiency drains (Fig 1.42) at each turbine stage, blade/stage designs where appropriate. Regarding the latter, recall that impulse stages take the heat drop primarily in the stationary blades. Thus, deposition can be sd on the more highly stressed ro- tating blades. ‘Washing systems should also be consid- ered, Full-load water washing with deaer- ated pure water is one option as long as, proper attention is paid to rotor vibration, thermal shock, and erosion. Injecting cot densate from the hotwell into the main steam line upstream of the separator bas also been found helpful for removing de- posits which plug first- and second-stage turbine blades. Oil injection for removal of deposits (Fig 1.43) isa design feature of team turbines available from atleast one stalian manufacturer. ‘Adding more condensate pots in the steam-gathering network is another idea that has helped reduce contaminant lev- els. They are best located, according to at Jeast one source, in long straight runs of piping, New turbine concepts More fully utilizing geothermal re- sources—while avoiding limitations with conventional technology—has led to the design and testing of two-phase turbi | hlical-screw expanders (HSE), and the binary cycle. Idea behind the two-phase turbine is to more fully convert the energy of the pres: surized liquid/gas stream into power in stead of separating out the liquid, Conven- tional turbines suffer erosion and cavitation damage when subjected to two- ‘hase flow. In the so-called Bi-phase tur- sine, a rotary separator removes liquid | from vapor and the liquid’s kinetic energy | isalso converted into shaft power, increas- | ing efficiency compared to single- and ‘two-stage flash systems. A 1.6-MW pro- totype has been built and operated and | several commercial designs have been | contemplated in the 10-MW range. | Finally, to avoid the problems with con the organic-Rankine eycle (ORC), for ex- ‘ample, heat from the geothermal source vaporizes an organic working fd of low boiling point which is then expanded in 2 modified turbine. The approach is thought to be more efficient for exploiting moderate temperature reserves. Several small modules using this technology are available commercially. 8-0 ~ PUMPS, VALVES, AND PIPING 2.1 Throttleytrp valve com funeton of fow contol ane fast shutdown Flows of steam and water iato and out of the turbine call for piping, valves, and all other adjuncts of fiuid-bandling sys- tems. Valves isolate the turbine and con- trol steam flow both approaching the tur- bine and inside the turbine itself. Steam supply to the power-generating turbine ccan be either primary flow at maximum throttle conditions of a flow of reheat Industrial and process turbines often have substan- tial fractions of main flow extracted or supplied to the turbine itself Inside the turbine, especially the small- cer ones with wide load swings, valves con- ‘Smaller valves of more conventional de- sign control drains, lubricating-oil flow, and other auxiliary flow functions, The emphasis h pecialized valves, turbine (Fig 2.1) This val trip valve, secving the twin function of steam throttling and closing off of steam supply upon loss of turbine driven load for any reason. Overspeed of the turbine ‘causes the valve to trip and close in asmall is a throttle fraction of a second, Ieaving oaly the steam in the turbine steam chest and noz- les available to accelerate the machine. ‘The valve in the figure has a motor op- erator, but simpler ones may be manually Freee 169Feacback tokage Intercept valve * r }) Actuating |} CY alll Bypass vave || Hoe linkage Bate i= | ° wuss Guide ‘Stop valve niet” slave L Ati otcr ae song cence oe 2.3 Reheat inlet vaives for large fossil uit combine two 1 zi functons in one casing. The two plugs ores havea commen seat eatot 3 i ae | EVEL steamehosteovar Linkage arms. ove vave a poe cy ‘ ey ise } Peston Retum sg | as s Stoam crest ] ‘Actuate eyinder ae conneston t or 2.2 Separation of shutoff or stop ‘eson rm fat of contot ame occurs large fess} fel uns, a above. Attention to detail makes heamtienel improvements apparent 2.4 Goverer.valve array inside turtine controls steamin partioad ‘operation, right ting bar actuated. Whatever the actuation, the valve always has the vital attribute of auick and automatic closure at a prese- lected overspeed. Certain characteristics ofthis valve common to many other turbine-inlet valves. For example, the dise or plug is fuided to assure correct approach to the Seatand prevent excessive sideways moye- ment under steamflow buffeting. The spindle is slender, to reduce packing-fric- tion load, and therefore the bottom sup- port is beneficial Closure on trip is much faster for a valve which has steam flow past the plug and through the seat, but the path call for balanced-plug design and pilot operation tokeeplift forces reasonable. This type of turbines, at pressures to about 900 psig and temperatures up to nearly 1000F Slamming shut is a severe load for a valve. Design and operation in ordinary control and check valves usvally zoek to avoid this kind of elosure, In steam-tur- bine throtle/trip valves, however, the ac- tion is necessary. Design measures and rarity of tripping help to give satisfactory lite, igh reliability and reasonable main. tenance cost ‘The valve often has a throttling func- tion, ia contrast to on/off service. A globe valve hasa sinuous path for steam, bowey- ex, and throttling with it entails substan- tial loss. Internal valves, described later, are another method for handling part loads. A power actuator is necessary for automatic control and remote operation, although many small machines get along with only a handwheel for actuation, The Fig 2.1 valve has flanged ends, an actuality for some small-turbine installa- tions. In other small turbines, the valve body can be partof the turbine casing. For large turbines, the valves for stop and con- trol are generally distinct from the turbine casing but are usually welded into the line and to the steam-chest connections. The ‘Trace the flow of steam through the valve-chest assembly, as itis called. The stop valve at left has a trip closing action in addition to simple on/off action. Dur- ing startup, the hydraulic eylinder be- neath the stop valve first opens a small pilot valve in the centerjof the main dise. ‘The piloting action has two functions, One is to relieve over-dise pressure and allow easier valve opening. Another reason in- volves turbine design and metallurgy. ‘Thick cross sections of casing and rotating elements need slow warmup and cooling to prevent thermal fatigue and early ‘cracking in cycling service. ‘Therefore, passages to and from the pi- lot valve, whichis called a “bypass valve,” are adequate for warmup flow to the tur- bine first stage. The pilot valve can back- seat when opea, to preveat loss of closure pressure on top of the main dise. Once warmup is complete, done at a rate that will not cause excessive thermal stress in ‘the turbine casing, the main stop valve can, ‘open and deliver steam to the control valve, at right in the figure. Control valves for large turbines have many design refinements for high-pres- sure, high-flow-rate work, Stem enidance ddise and through seat, but low-flow throt- tling is infrequent, so the How direction is satisfactory. What resembles a cage ia the stop valve is a baffle to prevent excessive buffeting and steam impact against the valve dise. Leakofflines take away steam/ water mixtures that get past the packing and close clearances of the valve stem. Although the Fig 2.2 valves appear to be self-contained, often the valve “body” is extended and holds as many as four sz Powe re 109| valve seats and mechanisms. Itis then a valve chest. ‘The newer clectrohydraulic control sys- tems that have replaced the mechanical hydraulic have smaller actuators, al- though the closure springs and feedback linkage are still bulky. Improvement of flow path and reduc~ tion of steam volume between the valve and the nozzles have been goals of steam- turbine valve design. Changes come slow- ly and require long research, experiment. and trial, because of the size and the eco- nomic implications of unplanned outages. ‘One flow-path betterment in recent years has resulted from an angle-body’ stop valve, delivering steam downward in 3 slanting direction to the control valve and enarina come fiir lace “The Row them be ‘an easier path into the control-vaive seat. ‘Yolume downstream of the valves is critical, Even if the valves were to trip in- stantly instead of in the present-day 0.1- sec time, a large downstream volume of high-pressure steam, expanding natural- 1y, would continue to accelerate the com- paratively low-inertia rotors, already overspeeding by some allowable percent. On the other hand, geometry of the large turbine casing prevents a very close give an indication of the problem. Steam exhausted from the high-pres- sure unit is reheated in the reheat unit of the steam generator and flows tothe inter- fhrough reheat ‘often combine stop and can- trol (called “intercept") functions in one body, and in fact with a single valve seat. ‘The large bodies for these valves, which ‘must handle steam at lower pressure than the h-p casing, cannot be brought in tight- 2.5 Grid valve provides large pont area for copious low-pressure extraction Hows, left 2.8 Electrohydraulle actuator incoxporates entire oil system with actuator Accurulators Z Pesiton transducer ly against the casing, and so the location is ‘compromise. In the Fig 2.3 valve, the stop valve is a simple solid-dise angie valve with well- guided stem. The intercept valve is a bal- anced model, with guided disc skirt. These can be large valves—up to 34 in. seat di- ameter. Actuation is by oil eylinder, imi- larto Fig 2.2, including feedback linkage, behind the valve body in the figure. Interior valving is needed, too. As ex- plained elsewhere in the report, a common ‘method for reducing turbine power with- ‘out unnecessary loss of efficiency is reduc- tign of the number of nozzles in operation. Two ways of doing this are: Individual nozzle valves, and division of steam-sup- ply space into quadrants or similar subdi- each multiple-nozzle sector. In small turbines, the individual nozzle valves resemble conventional steam valves, with the stems emerging from the casing and equipped with handwheels for ‘manual control. This is adequate for star- tup and for anticipated load change, but rapid load change and aufomation call for more advanced hardware, Manual shutof® valves can be on some larger turbines, but do not play a part during operation. [STEAM TURBINES | Automatic-control valves inside the steam chest and controlling flow to nozzle groups can take the form of the Fig 2.4 bar-operated governor-valve arrange- ment. The valve nozzles are arrayed in a wall between a steam chest and the pas- sages tonozzle groups. The sequential lift- ing of the valve stems results because of different lengths ofthe stems, allof which ass through the commoa lifting ber. ‘Again, the steam flow is downward past the disc and through the seat, so that the valve set is solely for on/off service, with ‘each valve tending to be drawn shut by differential steam pressure and flow ef- fect. The freedom of motion ofthe stem in the lifting bar is therefore only illusory. Linkage to actuate the lifting bar in- cludes sliding stems that pass through the top ofthe steam chest, sith bushings and steam leakoffs to prevent escape of high- pressure steam. Valve seats and discs may be Stelite-faced. Other design elements, plus long experience, have resulted in Proven valves for the service. Square valve stems are one improve- ment. It prevents spinning of discs and is a change that many scarred veterans of powerplant general valve maintenance will understand. Nitriding of sliding sur- faces is also helpful in reducing wear. The valve seats are easily accessible for inspec tion and repair, after removal of the steam-chest cover, ‘Another type of control for sectionaliz- ing Now to nozzle groups bases on asingle- stem penetration of the casing wall, hori- zontally. Inside the steam chest is an alignment of closed-top cylinders, each with two oppositely placed valve seats and supports for the valve discs. Dise paits, eachona common stem, form double-seat globe valves which open and close sequen- tially as the stem moves. Springs assist the ‘natural closing tendeney. Each eylinder is opea at bottom to de- liver steam into the passage to its nozzle ‘group. The design requires a more compli- cated steam chest and the valves are per- haps more dificult to work on, but the design has only a single wall penetration, Low-pressure sections of turbines with large flows of inlet or extraction steam require larger valve area, although the pressure drop and seat tightness are aot as demanding. The grid-valve arrangement of Fig 2.5isone solution. The “valves” are pports cut in a stationary Rat diaphragm sponding ports in an adjacent rotatable plate allow sequential fo of steam to the nozzle groupsas the rotatable plate moves under control-system command, delivered through a single siding penetration of the turbine-casing wall, The design is a versa tile one, meeting needs of many process and industrial steam plants Actuators for steam-turbine valves vary from manual handwheels to highly developed components of electronic-con- 534 Power 568 SRRtrol systems. The newer electrohydraulic control (EHC) systems like th older me- chanical hydraulic control systems, base fsctuation on a flow of pressurized oil to cylinders, but the EHC cylinders are smaller, and oil flow is more quickly and easily controlled. As Figs 2.2 and 23 indi- cate, spring return is the postive aid to steam flow for closing valves. ‘Size reduction has long been a major Desupemeating 2.7 Bypass valves, can desuperheat steam before dumping it into cold-eheat line ‘Suporhoator outlet reader Toamosphere { Warmep header fe\Fa ‘rain Beader 2.8 Condensate pumpis low-cost reiable ‘olution to turbine related NPSH problem concern in actuator design. A large, heavy, cantilevered component on a valve or steam chest isa potential cause of trou- ble. On the other hand, an excessively compact unit can be an inspection and maintenance problem. The trend has been to more compactness, but the practical limit may not be far off. ‘The compact actuator of Fig 2.6 is an EHC component, but its oil-pressurizing elements are much smaller than usual end ‘mount on the actuator itself. The dual tanks and pumps for oil are comparatively small, 0 that accumulators are necessary to provide the rapid long-stroke actuation that is needed at intervals. Oil pressure i slightly above 2000 psig. Trip closure is by Belleville spring set, rather than by the Iheical coil springs of other actuators Electric cables are the only connection tothis compact actuator. The shortness of ‘connecting lines helps dynamic perform- ance and response time. Absence of exter- nal piping for oil also can mean less time and effort devoted to flushing and clean: ing of oil ines. ‘Actuators are necessary for not only the hep sections of large central-station tur- bines butalsoforthei-psections, Inthei-p sections; the pressures are lower, but the volumestand areasare large,sothat actua- tor size is not far diferent, Bypass valves, although not strictly speaking a part of the turbine itself, con- fgen, 2.9 Draining water from steam lines near turbine is vital to block water induction nectso closely withthe turbine, physically and in function, that they deserve consid- eration here. The bypass concept involves cither complete fow of bp steam through a line bypassing the turbine and into the cold-reheat line (hp bypass) hot-reheat steam through ane bypassing the i-p section and delivering the steam to the condenser. The coacept allows tur- bines to continue running, ready for resto- ration of power, after a tip, instead of coastdown, with dificuties in restar oF return to full load, Feedwater is saved, too, because steam isnot vente. Valves for bypass service must handle high fw rates and high pressure drop. In audition, desuperheating may occur inthe valve itself because the combination of pressure reduction and water injection is. attractive. Fig 27 gives some idea of a large hep bypass vale which also desupes heats, The valve is simple, with straight flow passages, a large, well-guided stem for rigidity inthe high-velocity buffeting flow, and water injection in the narrow annular passage atthe seat Good mixing of waterin the steam flow is essential for effective desuperheating, and the mixing must prevail over a wide flow range of both water and steam, The external contol system can govern the amount and proportioning of the water, but itis the valve itself and the adjacent piping which determine whether the mix- Jag is effective ‘Water droplets impacting at high speed against cooler metal can be destructive, and this again is a key consideration in bypass valve and piping design. Choice of materials although important, probably is secondary tothe layout of the water nozzles and downstream fow path. “The Fig 2.7 valveis type that has been fainly common in Europe, where it has a safety function in addition to bypass and esuperheating. Steam flow is upward through the seat and then past the dsc, so boiler pressure seeks to open the valve, ‘The actuator must therefore be compara tively nrg. Bypass ofthe -p turbine sections is also possible, through a large dump valve Which delivers steam into a line leading to the condenser rather than wasting it to atmosphere. The necessary desuperheat- ingcan be dowasteeam, separate from the dump valve, or ia the dump valve itself Heater-drain valves, removing water From henters rndar dieectinn nf the nas wot system, ace in a severe service, ex- posed to flashing water, cavitation, and erosion. Advanced designs of control valves are in constant trial on this service, Which calls for flows from highly throttled to wide open. Pumps, although not strictly a part of steam-turbine technology, can have an in- direct effect on performance in regard to efficiency and reliability. The two princi pal pump classes here are condensate $8 sors remem RN Pov Se 1989 —pumps and condenser circulating-water pumps. Lube-oil pumps, although critical for service, are small and highly devel- ‘oped, not a substantial cause of concern. ‘Trend now is away from shaftriven and to separately powered oil pumps. The condensate pump removes water from heaters and drains, thereby prevent- ing water backup into the steam passages of the turbine. The can type vertical pump (Fig 2.8) is common in the service. Because condensate from steam tur- tines and connected feedwater heaters is at temperatures close to boiling, the con-

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