PowerSystemFundamentals

RelayApplications

PJMState&MemberTrainingDept.

Objectives

AttheendofthispresentationtheStudentwillbeableto:
Describethepurposeofprotectiverelays
Identifyrelayprotectionschemecharacteristicsandcomponents
Describetheimpactofthelossofcomponentson
systemprotection
Identifythetypesoftransmissionlineprotectionand
theircharacteristics
Identifythetypesoftransformerprotectionandtheircharacteristics
Identifythetypesofbusprotectionandtheircharacteristics
Identifythetypesofgeneratorprotectionandtheircharacteristics

PJM2014

1/13/14

BasicConcepts
in
Protection

PJM2014

1/13/14

PurposeofProtectiveRelaying

Todetectandisolatefaultedormalfunctioning
equipmentinorderto:
1) limittheextentofthesystemdisturbanceand
2) maintainsystemreliability

PJM2014

1/13/14

TheSource
Utility Distribution System

200 A

Protected
Receptacles

15 A

15 A

MainServiceEntrancePanel

15 A

Individuallyprotected
BranchCircuits

72 Plasma TV
IndividualDeviceFuse
PJM2014

1/13/14

BasicConcepts

RelaysaretheintelligenceinaProtectiveScheme
Theymonitorsysteminputsandoperatewhenthemonitored
quantityexceedsapredefinedlimit
Relayresponsewillinitiateadesirablesystemeventthatwillaidin
maintainingsystemreliability(i.e.tripacircuitbreaker,throttlebacka
unit,etc)

PJM2014

1/13/14

BasicConcepts

OtherdeviceswhichareusedinconjunctionwithProtective
Relaysare:

PJM2014

CurrentTransformer(CTs)
PotentialTransformers(PTs)
OtherSensingDevices(e.g.Temperature,OilLevel,Pressure,etc.)
LogicCircuits(AnalogorMicroprocessor)
ThreePoleInterruptingDevices(CBs,CircuitSwitchers,Motor
OperatedDisc)

1/13/14

BasicConcepts

MostRelayschemesworktocontrolaDCsystem
DCSystemusuallyhasrackofBatteriesandabatterycharger
GenerallycontrolsthetrippingofCBs
ThiswhyNERCcomplianceincludesDCControlCircuitryandBatteries
aspartoftheRelayStandards

PJM2014

1/13/14

RelayScheme
Components

PJM2014

1/13/14

DCControlSystems

Thepowersourceusedforcontrollingpowersystemequipmentmustbe
highlyreliableand notsubjecttointerruptionbypowersystemtransients
oroutages

AC

Protectionandcontrolcircuitsareindividuallyfusedtoguardagainst
disruptingtheentireDCsystemforproblemsonaparticularbranchcircuit

Amberlights oftenmonitortheDCsupplytoindividualbranchcircuits,
givingavisualindicationthatthecircuitisenergized
PJM2014

10

1/13/14

DCControlSystems

Withfewspecialexceptions,DCsystemsoperateungrounded
Powerplantsandmostsubstationshavesomebatteryground
detection,veryoftenincludinggroundindicatinglamps thatvisually
alertpersonneltoinadvertentDCsystemgrounds
IllustrationOf
BatteryGroundDetectionLamps

Full DC
Voltage

DC
Voltage

PJM2014

Forthenormal,ungroundedcondition
shown,thetwolampseachhaveequal
voltagedroppedacrossthemandglow
withequalbrilliance

DC
Voltage

Intentional ground
reference connection
11

1/13/14

DCControlSystems
IllustrationOfActualBatteryGroundIndicatingLamps

NormalBatteryGroundLamps
ApproximatelyEqualBrilliance

BatteryGroundLampsIndicateASolidGround
OnThePositiveSideOfTheDCSystem

ThissameprincipalofDCgrounddetectionisusedinmoresophisticated
devicesthatprovideanalarmcontactinsteadofjustavisualindication
AsingleinadvertentgroundonanungroundedDCsystemisnot
catastrophicthedangeristhatasecondinadvertentgroundcouldoccur
ontheoppositesideoftheDCsupply andshortoutthebattery!

PJM2014

12

1/13/14

DCControlSystems

COMMONCAUSESOFBATTERYGROUNDS

PJM2014

13

1/13/14

OverviewofPower
SystemProtection

PJM2014

1/13/14

OverviewofPowerSystemProtection

Keyelementtoremember
ProtectiveSchemesaredesignedtohave:

OVERLAPPINGZONES
OFPROTECTION!

PJM2014

15

1/13/14

OverlappingZonesofProtection

PJM2014

16

1/13/14

OverviewofPowerSystemProtection

Criticalelementsofthepowersystemareprotectedby
PrimaryandBackuprelaysystems
PrimarySchemesaregenerallyhighspeedschemes
(operatespeed=1cycle)
BackupSchemescanalsobehighspeedbutdonthavetobe.
Systemconditionsdictateifthisschemehastobeasfastasthe
primaryscheme

PJM2014

17

1/13/14

InstrumentTransformers

InstrumentTransformerschangeprimary voltagesand
currentsintosecondary quantitieshavingproportional
magnitudesandidenticalphaseanglerelationships
PrimarycurrentistransformedbyCTs(CurrentTransformers)andLCs
(LinearCouplers)
PrimaryvoltageistransformedbyPTs(PotentialTransformers)and
CCVTs(CouplingCapacitorVoltageTransformers)

PJM2014

18

1/13/14

CurrentTransformers(CTs)

CTstransformhighmagnitudeprimaryampstosecondary
ampquantitieswithinthecurrentratingsofrelaysandmeters
CTratiosaretypicallyexpressedasPrimaryAmps/5
Forexample,ageneratorCTratioexpressedas25000/5 meansthat
5000ampsflowingintheprimarycircuitresultsin1ampflowingin
thesecondarycircuits
CTsthatfitaroundbreaker,generator,ortransformerbushingsare
calledbushingCTs;thesearethemostcommontypeofCTs

PJM2014

19

1/13/14

CurrentTransformers(CTs)

ACTisanearlyidealcurrentsourcewithinthelimitsofits
construction,aCTproducesasmuchvoltageasnecessarytopush
secondarycurrentproportionaltotheprimarycurrentthrougha
connectedload,nomatterhowlargetheloadimpedance
OhmsLaw,V=ZxI,describeshowmuchvoltage,V,aCTmustproduceto
driveitscurrent,I,throughconnectedloadimpedance,Zas Z getsbigger,
Vmustalsoincreasetosatisfytheequation!

IfthesecondarycircuitofaloadcarryingCTis
opencircuited,theCTcanproducehighenough
voltagetoinjureorkillpersonnel

PJM2014

20

1/13/14

SlipoverCTs

SlipoverCTs

IllustrationsOfExternallyAppliedCurrentTransformers
ABOVELEFT

SlipoverCTsinstalledona69kVcircuitbreaker
ABOVERIGHT

SlipoverCTsinstalledona500kVcircuitbreaker
BELOW

SimilartothebushingCTspicturedabove,thewindowCTsbelowhaveasingleturnprimary
windingcomprisedoftheprimarycurrentconductorpassingthroughthecenteroftheCT
PrimaryConductors

PJM2014

21

1/13/14

LinearCouplers(LCs)

LCstransformhighmagnitudeprimaryampstosecondary
voltageswithinthevoltageratingsofrelaysandmeters
LinearCouplerscanbethoughtof ashavinganaircore
insteadofiron,likeaCT.Thisconceptualizationisnt
technically correct,butunlessyouplantoactuallybuilda
linearcoupleritsgoodenoughtodistinguishbetweenCTand
LCconstruction

PJM2014

22

1/13/14

PotentialTransformer(PTs)

PTstransformprimaryvoltagestothe115VACor69VACsecondary
voltagesusedinrelayandmeteringcircuits
LargegeneratorsusuallyhavetwosetsofPTs,sometimesreferredtoas
the meteringPTs andtheregulatorPTs. Thesedesignationsdont
necessarilyidentifyfunction,sincebothsetsofPTsprovidevoltageto
variousprotectiverelaysandmeters
AlthoughonesetofPTs(theregulator PTs)isthepreferredsourceof
voltagetothegeneratorvoltageregulator,eithersetisusuallycapableof
servingthisfunction
Withafewexceptions,PTsarentusedattransmissionvoltage
levelsmosthighervoltageapplicationsuseaderivativeofthePT,the
CapacitancePotentialDevice

PJM2014

23

1/13/14

CapacitancePotentialDevices

KnownasCCPDs (Coupling Capacitor Potential Devices) or

CCVTs(Coupling Capacitor Voltage Transformers)
Thesedevicesusevoltagedivision toreduceprimary
voltagestothe115or69VACneededbyrelaysand
meteringequipment:

Primaryvoltagedividesacrossporcelaincapacitancestacks,thehigher
thevoltagethemoreunitsinthestack.AtransformerintheCCVT
basedoesthefinaltransformationfromseveralthousandvoltsto
115/69VAC

Duetovoltagedivision,afailureinonestackcanactasarow
ofdominoesresultinginmorefailures

PJM2014

24

1/13/14

DiagramOfCCVTConstruction

PrimaryvoltagedividesacrosscapacitancestacksC1,C2,andC3
VoltageacrossC3equalsapproximately20kV
Highvoltagelineorbus

C1
C2

GroundingSwitch

PJM2014

C3

Relays

25

1/13/14

IllustrationOf230kVCCVT

Noticethatthe230kVCCVT
has2capacitorstacks,while
the500kVCCVTneeds3
stackstodividethehigher
primaryvoltage

IllustrationOf500kVCCVT

Capacitor
Stacks

Transformer
Enclosure

Grounding
Switch

PJM2014

26

1/13/14

OverviewofPowerSystemProtection

Aswithmostthings,thereisabalancebetweenpreserving
systemreliabilityandeconomics
Mustreviewthecostoftheprotectiveschemeagainstthe
probabilityofaparticulareventoccurring

PJM2014

27

1/13/14

RelaySchemeDesignConsiderations

Sensitivity canschemedetectalleventsthatitis
supposedto?
Selectivity willitremoveonlythefaultedpiece
ofequipment?
Speed cantheschemeclearthefaultfastenoughtomaintain
orinsuresystemintegrity?
Reliability willtheschemebesecureanddependable?
Security nomisoperations
Dependability operatewhenitshould

Economy Providethedesiredlevelofprotectionforthe
leastcost
Simplicity Attempttokeepdesignsstraightforward
PJM2014

28

1/13/14

RelayDevices

PJM2014

1/13/14

Definition

Arelayisadevicethatwillchangeitsoutputcontactstatus
duetotheexcursionofamonitoredsysteminputbeyonda
presetvalue
Examples:
Currentexceedspresetvalue
Oillevelbelowrequiredspec
Temperatureaboverequiredspec

PJM2014

30

1/13/14

GeneralFunctions:

Protective
removeasystemdisturbancefromthepowersystem

Regulating
insuressystemisoperatedwithinproperguidelines

Auxiliary
Otherlesscriticalfunctions(i.e.alarms,reclosing.etc.)

PJM2014

31

1/13/14

Electromechanical
SolidState
PJM2014

Microprocessor
32

1/13/14

UniversalNumberingSystemforProtectiveRelays
IEEE Device
#

Relay Function

IEEE
#

Device

RelayFunction

21

Distance
Relay

Requiresacombinationofhigh currentand
lowvoltagetooperate.Thevariouszonesof
thedistancescheme(Z1,Z2,etc.)assistwith
determiningthelocationofthefault

63

Pressure
Relay

Operatesonloworhighpressureofa
liquidorgas(oilorSF6)oronarate
ofchangeofpressure(sudden
pressure)

25

Synchronizing
Relay

Checksvoltagemagnitude,phaseangle, and
frequencytoverifysynchronismacrossaCB
beforeallowingaclose

67

Directional
Overcurrent

Operatesifcurrentisabovea
setvalueandflowinginthe
designateddirection

27

Undervoltage
Relay

Operates whenvoltagefallsbelowa
setvalue

78

OutofStep

Detectslossofsynchronism.

49

Thermal Relay

Operateswhen thetemperature(usuallya
winding)risesaboveasetlevel

79

Reclosing
Relay

Initiatesanautomaticclosingof
acircuitbreakerfollowinga
tripcondition

50

Instantaneous
Overcurrent

Operateswithnotimedelaywhencurrent
risesaboveasetlevel

81

Frequency
Relay

Operatesiffrequencygoesaboveor
belowasetlimit

51

Time
Overcurrent

Operatesonatimedelayedbasis
dependingontheamountofcurrent
aboveasetlevel

86

Lockout
Relay

Anauxiliaryrelaythatcanperform
manyfunctions(includingtripping
ofbreakers)
andpreventsclosingofcircuit
breakersuntilitisreseteitherby
handorelectrically

52

Circuit
Breaker

CircuitBreaker

87

Differential
Relay

Sensesadifferenceincurrents
enteringandleavingpower
systemequipment

Operatewhenvoltageexceedsasetlimit

94

Tripping
Relay

Auxiliaryrelaywhichisactivatedbya
protectiverelayandwhichinitiates
1/13/14
trippingofappropriatebreakers

59

Overvoltage
Relay
PJM2014

33

TypicalPerformanceParameters:

Overcurrent

PJM2014

Requiredinput:CurrentfromCTs
Instantaneous Nointentionaltimedelay
Timedelayed Inversetime/currentcurve
CanprotectforbothPhaseandGroundfaults.Thephysicalconnection
determineswhatcurrent(phaseorground)therelaywillrespondto

34

1/13/14

T
I
M
E

1X

10X

100X

Current
Inverse Curve Characteristic
PJM2014

35

1/13/14

TypicalPerformanceParameters:

Over/UnderVoltage:

PJM2014

Requiredinput:VoltagefromPTs
Instantaneous Nointentionaltimedelay
Timedelayed Generallyafixeddelay
Generallyusedforautomaticsectionalizingcontrol(i.e.autotransfer
schemes,etc.)

36

1/13/14

TypicalPerformanceParameters:

DirectionalCapability
RequiredInputs:CurrentandVoltage
Canbeastandalonerelayorassociatedwithanotherrelayelement
Directionalitymakesthelifeofaprotectionengineermucheasier
fromarelaycoordinationpointofview

PJM2014

37

1/13/14

TypicalPerformanceParameters

SteppedDistanceRelaying
RequiresCurrentandVoltageinputs
OperatesontheV/I=Z(impedance)principle
Constantreachregardlessofsystem
Lesssusceptibletomisoperating onloadcurrent(whencomparedto
simplephaseovercurrentrelays)
UsuallyprovidesthreeZonesofProtection:
Zone1 InstantaneousOperation
Setforapproximately90%ofline
Zone2 FixedTimeDelayOperation
Settoseeentireline+margin
Zone3 FixedTimeDelayOperation
SetgreaterthanZone2
PJM2014

38

1/13/14

Stepped Zone Distance Protection

Sub A

Sub C

Sub B

Zone3 2 Element (Time Delayed)

Zone

Reactance

Sub C

Sub B
Zone 2 Element (Time Delayed)

Zone 1 Element (Instantaneous Operation)

Sub A
Resistance

PJM2014

39

1/13/14

BackupTransmissionLineProtection

NotethatZone1canonlybesettosee,atmost,90%ofthe
protectedline
Cannotbesettosee100%oftheline
Relaywouldnotbeabletodistinguishbetweenaninternalorexternal
fault
Settingrelaytosee100%oflinetoobtaininstantaneousclearing
wouldmostlikelyresultinanovertrip

ThisisonemajordisadvantageofaSteppedDistancescheme

PJM2014

40

1/13/14

TransientLoadLimits

Loadcarryingcapabilityisanotherconcernwith
distancerelays
Transientlimitrepresentsthemaximumsecureload
carryingcapabilityoftheprotectiverelaysduringactual
operatingconditions
AsloadingincreasestheZviewedbytherelaymaycrossintotheZ
tripareaoftherelaysetting
Operatorsmustbeawareofanylinesthatarerestrictednotdueto
theirthermalcapability,butbytherelaysthemselves.

PJM2014

41

1/13/14

TypicalPerformanceParameters:

Differential
Requiredinput:CurrentfromCTs
Relaygenerallyoperatesveryfast(1cycle)
NormalprotectionforGenerators,Transformersand
Bussections
CTssupplyingtherelayshouldbematchedsothatcurrents
intothezoneofprotectionareequaltothosecurrents
thatleave
Thedifference/mismatchincurrentisobservedintherelays
operatecoil

PJM2014

42

1/13/14

DifferentialRelay

PJM2014

43

1/13/14

DifferentialOperation

PJM2014

44

1/13/14

TypicalPerformanceParameters:

OtherTypes(notallinclusive):
Frequency Typicallyusesvoltage
Reclosing SingleorMultishot
Thermal TransformerProtection
Auxiliary MasterTrip,52X,etc

PJM2014

45

1/13/14

LockoutRelays

PJM2014

LockoutRelays
Specialdevicesoperatedbydozensoffunctionsthatprotect
generators,transformers,bussesandvariousotherpiecesof
switchyardequipment
Relayitselfdoesntprotect anything;instead,ithasmultiplecontacts
thatcausemultipledevices,likecircuitbreakers,tooperateinorderto
deenergizeorisolatefailedequipment
Serveanimportantfunction:iftheyfailedtotripforafault,for
example,theswitchyardGCBwouldstayclosedandtheequipment
wouldremainenergized
Becauseitssoimportant,theelectricalcoilthattripsthelockoutrelay
ismonitoredcontinuouslybyanamberlamplocatedimmediately
abovetherelay

46

1/13/14

GeneratorLockouts

PJM2014

Theamberlampisnormallylittoindicatethreeimportantthingsaboutthe
LockoutRelay:
1) ThereisDCcontrolpoweravailabletothelockoutrelay
2) Thelockoutrelayoperatingcoiliselectricallyintact
3) Thelockoutrelayisresetandreadytotrip
Ifthelampisnt lit,itmeanstheresnoDCpoweravailable orthatthelockoutcoil
hasburnedopenineithercasethelockoutwouldntbeabletotrip,makingthisa
veryserioussituationthathastoberesolvedimmediately
TheLockoutRelay targetisanorangesemaphore directlyabovetherelay
handle.Whenthelockoutoperates,theamberlightgoesoutandthiscolored
targetappears
TheLockoutrelayhandlebeingatanangleinsteadofbeingperpendiculartothe
floorisanotherindicatoroflockoutoperation

47

1/13/14

IllustrationsOfALockoutRelay
CAUTION
NEVERHOLDTHESERELAYSINTHE
RESETPOSITION
thiscanburnuptheoperatecoiland
maketherelayuseless!

RESET

PJM2014

TRIPPED

48

1/13/14

RelayBasicsExercises/Review

PJM2014

1/13/14

Thepurposeofrelayprotectionistodetectandisolate
faultedequipmentto:
1)Limitextentofdisturbance
2) Preservecustomerservice
3)Maintainreliability
1. 1and2
2. 2and3
3. 1and3

PJM2014

50

1/13/14

Oneoftheprimaryfunctionsofprotectiverelaysisto
ensurecontinuityofservicetocustomers.
A. True
B. False

PJM2014

51

1/13/14

Whatparametersareusedasinputstorelays?
Rank

Responses

1
2
3
4
5
6

PJM2014

52

1/13/14

Relaysconvertsystemparametersintoelectricalsignals
andwhenthesesignalsreachasetpoint,therelay:
A. Initiatesatrip
B. Waitsforoperator
instructions
C. Triggersanalarm
D. Resetsitscounter

PJM2014

53

1/13/14

Whatisadesirablecharacteristic
ofrelaysystems?
Rank
1

Responses

2
3
4
5
6

PJM2014

54

1/13/14

Whichofthefollowingareinput
devicesforrelayschemes?
A.
B.
C.
D.

PJM2014

CTs
PTs
BLTs
Wavetraps

55

1/13/14

Inmostapplications,currenttransformersscale
downfullloadcurrentstoavalueof:
A.
B.
C.
D.

PJM2014

1ampere
2amperes
4amperes
5amperes

56

1/13/14

Inmostapplications,potentialtransformersreduce
primarysystemvoltagetoapproximately:
A.
B.
C.
D.

PJM2014

100volts
115volts
208volts
240volts

57

1/13/14

HowmanyturnswouldberequiredonaCTto
achievethe5amprelaycurrentifthefullload
currentwas400amps?

A. 40
B. 80
C. 100
D. 200

PJM2015

58

1/8/2015

Currentandvoltagequantitiescanbecombinedina
relaycircuittodeterminetheimpedanceofaline.
A. True
B. False

PJM2014

59

1/13/14

Whichofthefollowingaremajordesign
classificationsofrelays:
A.
B.
C.
D.

PJM2014

Electromechanical
SolidState
Virtual
Microprocessorbased

60

1/13/14

TransmissionLineProtection

PJM2014

1/13/14

TransmissionLineProtection

Atypicalpowersystemutilizesthreetypesoflinestodeliver
powertotheenduser.Theyare:
1) TransmissionLines
2) SubtransmissionLines
3) DistributionLines

WewillbefocusingontheTransmissionlineswhichare
definedaslinesoperatingat100kvandabove

PJM2014

62

1/13/14

TransmissionLineProtection

Becausetheselinescarrylargeamountsofenergyandare
extremelyimportanttotheoperationofapowersystem,itis
necessarytousethemostadvancedrelayingmethodsto
insuretheirintegrity
Beingthatimportant,itisdesirabletohaveinstantaneous
clearingforallfaultsonthetransmissionlineundernormal
operatingconditions

PJM2014

63

1/13/14

QuickReview

ATransmissionLinehasImpedance(Z)thatiscomposedof
resistance(R)andReactance(X)

Itcansymbolicallyberepresentedas:Z=R+jX
Consequently,onanRXimpedancediagram,anylinecanbe
graphicallyrepresented

Seeexample

PJM2014

64

1/13/14

Graphical Representation of a Line Impedance

Sub A

Inductive
Reactance

Shunt Capacitance
For Overhead Lines, this
can generally be ignored.

Sub B

Inductive
Reactance

Sub B

Line Angle
Sub A
Resistance
PJM2014

65

1/13/14

TransmissionLineProtection

Forreliability,transmissionlinesutilizePrimary andBackup
protectiveschemes
Thecriticalityofeachlineisevaluatedtodetermineifbackup
protectionshouldbeequivalenttoprimaryprotection.The
factorswhichinfluencethedecisionare:
SystemStabilityConcerns
RelayCoordinationConcerns

PJM2014

66

1/13/14

TransmissionLineProtection

SystemStability
Ifstabilitystudiesindicatethatdelayedclearingoffaultsona
transmissionlinecauseaGeneratortogounstable,it
indicatesthatboththeprimaryandbackupprotective
schemesmustclearallfaultsinstantaneously
Thesestudiesaredoneaspartoftheinitial
engineeringprocess

PJM2014

67

1/13/14

TransmissionLineProtection

RelayCoordination:
Ifprotectionstudiesdeterminethatcoordinationofbackup
relayschemescannotbeachieved,dualpilotprotection
schemesmustbeemployedonthelinetobeprotected
TypicallyhappensonLongLine/ShortLinesituations.
Seeexample

PJM2014

68

1/13/14

Relay Coordination: Long Line/Short Line

Short Line

Long Line (some R+jX)

(some R+jX)
Sub A

Sub B

Sub C

C
Sub B Required
Zone 1 relay.
B

Sub A Required
Zone 2 relay.

PJM2014

69

Miscoordination exists because

Zone 2 of Sub A overreaches
Zone 1 of Sub B.

1/13/14

PrimaryTransmissionLineProtection

Toobtaininstantaneousclearingforallfaults,Pilot
Relaying isutilized

Thetermpilotimpliesthatacommunicationchannel
existsbetweenallterminalsoftheprotectedline

PJM2014

PowerLineCarrier
Telephonepair
FiberOptic
Microwave

70

1/13/14

PrimaryTransmissionLineProtection

Severaltypesofpilotprotectionschemesexist.
Theoneswewillrevieware:
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
6)

PJM2014

DirectionalComparison
DirectUnderreachingTransferredTrip
Permissive(Over&Underreaching)
PhaseComparison
ACPilotWire
OpticalFiberDifferential

71

1/13/14

LogicGatesOverview

AND Gate

NOT Gate

Output

Output

OR Gate

Output

Needs1inputtogetanoutput

Output 0

Needs2inputstogetanoutput

A
B

Output

A
B

PJM2014

Outputistheinverseoftheinput

72

Output

1/13/14

DirectionalComparisonBlocking

Relayssettoseebeyondremoteterminals
Undernonfaultconditions,nosignalissentbetweenthe
terminalsoftheline
Toinitiateabreakertrip,twoconditionsmustbemet:

Operationofalocaltrippingrelay

AND

Absenceofablockingsignalfromremoteend

TestingofcommunicationpathisdonebyCarrier
Checkback Scheme
PJM2014

73

1/13/14

DirectionalComparisonBlockingScheme

ToInitiateTrip:
OverreachingRelaymustoperate
AbsenceofBlockingSignalfromremoteend

Indigitallogic:
OverreachingRelay

AND

Trip

BlockingSignal

Invert

PJM2014

AND: Needs two high inputs in order to

provide an output

74

1/13/14

DirectionalComparisonBlocking

PJM2014

75

1/13/14

WaveTrapandCCVT
IllustrationOf
500kVWaveTrap&CCVT
Wave
Trap

Thecarriersignalcouplestothetransmission
linethroughtheCCVT
Thesignalentersandexitsthebaseofthe
CCVT,thenconnectstoanearbyimpedance
matchingtuningboxandthentothe
transmitter/receiverequipmentlocatedinside
thesubstationcontrolhouse

CCVT

Thecarriersignaltrafficisbidirectional:
thelocalterminalbothtransmitsasignalto
theremoteterminalandreceivesasignal
fromit,allthroughthesamepathshownin
theillustration
Thewavetrapblocksthecarriersignalfrom
exitingthetransmissionlinethroughanypath
otherthanthroughtheCCVT

PJM2014

76

1/13/14

TypicalBlockingCarrierControls
CarrierTestSwitch

ReceivedSignalMeter

CarrierBlockingSwitch

Notetheredyellowgreen
segmentsonthe
ReceivedSignalMeters
thereceivedcarriersignalis
strongenough ifitappears
inthegreen region,
soso intheyellow region,
andbad enoughtowarrant
blockingthecarrierrelayingif
inthered region

PJM2014

77

1/13/14

DirectUnderreachingTransferTrip

Relayssettounderreachtheremoteterminal

Undernonfaultconditions,acontinuousGUARDsignalissent
bythelocaltransmitterandmonitoredbytheremotereceiver

Toinitiateabreakertrip,oneofthefollowingmustoccur:

Localunderreachingrelaymustoperate

OR

PJM2014

ReceptionofaTRIPsignalfromtheremoteendmust
ereceived

TestingofcommunicationpathiscontinuousviaGUARD
signal.Lossofguardwillgeneratealarm
78

1/13/14

DirectUnderreachingTransferTripScheme

ToInitiateTrip:
UnderreachingRelaymustoperate
OR

Receiveatripsignalfromtheremoteend
Indigitallogic:

UnderreachingRelay

OR

Trip

TripSignalfrom
RemoteEnd
OR: Needs one high input in order to
provide an output
PJM2014

79

1/13/14

DirectUnderreachingTransferTrip

PJM2014

80

1/13/14

PermissiveUnderreachingTransferTrip

Directtrippingrelayssettounderreachremoteend
Faultdetectorrelayssettooverreachremoteend
Undernonfaultconditions,continuousGUARDsignalissent
toremoteend
Toinitiateabreakertrip,oneofthefollowingmustoccur:

Theunderreachingrelaymustoperate
OR

TheoverreachingrelaymustrespondAND aTRIPsignal
mustbereceivedfromremoteend
CommunicationpathtestingiscontinuousviaGUARDsignal.
LossofGuardwillgenerateanalarm
PJM2014

81

1/13/14

PermissiveUnderreachingTransferTripScheme

ToInitiateTrip:
UnderreachingRelaymustoperate
OR

OverreachingrelaymustoperateAND receiveatripsignal
fromtheremoteend
Indigitallogic:

Overreaching
Relay
TripSignalfrom
RemoteEnd

AND
OR

Underreaching
Relay
PJM2014

82

Trip
1/13/14

PermissiveUnderreachingTransferTrip

PJM2014

83

1/13/14

PermissiveOverreachingTransferTrip

Relayssettoseebeyondremoteterminals
Undernonfaultconditions,acontinuousGUARDsignalissent
Toinitiateabreakertrip,twoconditionsmustbemet:

Operationoflocaltrippingrelay

AND

ReceiptofTRIPsignalfromremoteend

TestingofcommunicationpathiscontinuousviaGUARD
signal.LossofGuardgeneratesalarm

PJM2014

84

1/13/14

PermissiveOverreachingTransferTrip

ToInitiateTrip:
OverreachingRelaymustoperate
AND

Receiveatripsignalfromtheremoteend
Indigitallogic:

OverreachingRelay
TripSignalfrom
RemoteEnd

PJM2014

AND

85

Trip

1/13/14

PermissiveOverreachingTransferTrip

PJM2014

86

1/13/14

TRIP
Received
Lamp

GUARD
Received
Lamp

MAINTSWITCH
ToKeyTRIP
ForRadialLine
Operation

ExampleOfClearlyLabeled
IndicationsandControls
OnaPOTTControlPanel

IllustrationsOf
TypicalPOTTScheme
IndicationsandControls

PJM2014

87

1/13/14

PhaseComparison

Thisisadifferentialschemethatcomparesthephaseangle
differencebetweenthecurrentsattheterminalsofa
transmissionline
Ifcurrentsareinphase,nofaultispresenton
thislinesection
Ifcurrentsareoutofphasebyabout180degrees,an
internalfaultispresent
EquipmentusedissameasDirectionalComparisonscheme
Schemewastypicallyusedonthe500kVsystem

PJM2014

88

1/13/14

Phase Comparison Relaying

WAVE TRAP

CT's

WAVE TRAP

CT's
F3

F2

COUPLING
CAPACITOR

MIXING
NETWORK
AND
LEVEL
DETECTOR

TRANSMITTER

COMPARER

COMPARER

MIXING
NETWORK
AND
LEVEL
DETECTOR

RECEIVER

RF CHOKE

PJM2014

COUPLING
CAPACITOR

RF CHOKE

89

RECEIVER

TRANSMITTER

1/13/14

ACPilotWire

Formofdifferentiallineprotectionwherephasecurrentsare
comparedtodetermineifafaultisinternalorexternaltothe
protectedlinesegment(similartophasecomparison)
Requiresapairofwiresbetweenterminalstooperate.
Economicalforshortlines
Operationissimilartoabusortransformer
differentialscheme
Lossoftwowirepairwilldefeattrippingscheme.No
automatictestingofP.W.exists

PJM2014

90

1/13/14

Pilot Wire Relaying (Current Differential)

Sub A

Sub B
A

Restraint

Mixing
Network

V
A

Restraint

Insulating
Transformer

Mixing
Network

Insulating
Transformer

Operating

Operating

PJM2014

V
B

Pilot Wires

91

1/13/14

OpticalFiberDifferential

Relaysoperateonacurrentdifferentialbasis
Requirestheuseofopticalfibertotransitdigitalinformation
Thedigitalinformationcontainsthecurrentmagnitudesand
otherdiagnosticparametersandistransmittedcontinuously
betweenconnectedstations
Trippingisinitiatedwhendifferentialrelayexceedtherelays
restraintcharacteristic
Failureofthefibercommunicationpathwillautomatically
blocktheschemeandinitiateanalarm

PJM2014

92

1/13/14

BackupTransmissionLineProtection

Canbeexactlylikeprimaryprotection.Dependsuponstability
orcoordinationconcerns
Ifstabilityandcoordinationarenotaconcern,nonpilot
relayingcanbeappliedasabackupscheme

PJM2014

93

1/13/14

BackupTransmissionLineProtection

Innonpilotapplications,lineprotectiongenerallyconsistsof
thefollowing:
SteppedDistanceforPhaseProtection
DirectionalTimeandInstantaneousOvercurrentforGroundProtection

Duetotherecentintroductionofmicroprocessorbased
relays,additionalrelayfunctionsareavailableforuse.The
morecommonfunctionsinclude:
GroundSteppedDistanceelements
NegativeSequenceOvercurrentelements

PJM2014

94

1/13/14

BackupTransmissionLineProtection

DirectionalOvercurrentGroundRelay
EquippedwithTime&Instantaneouselements
TimeElementmustbecoordinatedwithothergroundrelaysin
thesystem
Instantaneousrelaysmustbesetshortofremoteterminal(justlike
Zone1phaserelays)
Nondirectionalrelayscanalsobeappliediftheycanbecoordinated.
However,withthenewmicroprocessorrelays,directionalityis
available somightaswelluseit
Aidsincoordination

PJM2014

95

1/13/14

BackupTransmissionLineProtection

Directionality howisitachieved?
Thedirectionalunitofarelayusesthecurrentfromthelinebeing
protected(i.e.phasecurrentforaphaserelayandresidualcurrentfor
agroundrelay)inconjunctionwithapolarizingquantityto
determinepowerflowdirection
Thepolarizingquantityistypicallyvoltage

PJM2014

96

1/13/14

OtherFunctionsPerformed:

Wheneitheraprimaryorbackuprelayresponds,therelay
schemewillinitiate:
1) TrippingofthelineterminalCB(s)
2) Stopsendingcarrierblocking,sendtripsignal,etc.Dependsupon
relayscheme
3) InitiateBreakerfailurerelayscheme/DTT
4) Automaticreclosing(ifapplicable)

PJM2014

97

1/13/14

BreakerFailureRelaying ShortDiscussion

Ifastuckbreakerconditionoccurs,abreakerfailurescheme
willbeinitiatedthatwilltripthenecessarylocalCBsneeded
toisolatethefailedCB
Inaddition,DirectTransferTripmaybeinitiatedtotripany
remoteCBsthatcouldsupplythefault.DTTwilltemporarily
blockautoreclosing
IfthefailedCBcanbeautomaticallyisolatedbytheopening
ofmotoroperateddisconnects,thiswilloccurandallow
reclosingofremoteCBs.IftherearenoMODs,reclosing
remainsblocked

PJM2014

98

1/13/14

BreakerFailureRelayingShortDiscussion

DirectTransferTrip
Canbeusedforthefollowingpurposes:
Insuretrippingofremoteterminalfortransformerfaults
Cleartheremoteterminalforstuckbreakerconditionatthe
localstation

Generally,highsecurityisachievedbyusingtwo
transmitter/receiverpairs
Toinitiateatrip,bothreceiversmustdetecttheiruniquetrip
signalfromtherespectivetransmitter

PJM2014

99

1/13/14

ReclosingPractices

Justasitisadvantageoustoclearafaultasfastaspossibleto
minimizetheshocktotheelectricalsystem,itisalso
advantageoustoreturnthetransmissionpathtoserviceas
soonaspossible
Sincemostfaultsontransmissionlinesaretransientinnature
(i.e.disappearwhencircuitisdeenergized),automatic
reclosingprovidesthemeansforreturningthepowersystem
toamorestablestate

PJM2014

100

1/13/14

ReclosingPractices

Onthe230kVsystem,multishotreclosingmaybeemployed.
However,thiscandifferamongPJMmembercompanies
Onthe500kVsystem,itisastandardpolicytoutilizesingle
shotreclosingforlines.Thereclosure attemptwilltakeplace
5secondsafterthelinetrips

PJM2014

101

1/13/14

ReclosingPractices

Whereisautomaticreclosingnotdesirable?
1) Ifprotectedlineisanundergroundcable
2) Iflinehasatappedtransformerthatcannotbeautomatically
disconnectedfromtheline
3) Iflineisjustbeingreturnedtoserviceandtrips

Allsituationsareusuallytakencareofbythecontrolscheme
duringdesignstage

PJM2014

102

1/13/14

ReclosingPractices

ManualReclosing

PJM2014

Thisincludessupervisory(SCADA)controlinadditiontocontrol
handleclosures
Usedwhenswitchingequipmentinoroutofservice.(SCADAis
typicallyusedinsteadofcontrolhandleinordertoconfirm
itsavailability
ShouldfaultoccurassoonasaCBenergizesapieceofequipment,
noautomaticreclosingwilltakeplace

103

1/13/14

ReclosingPractices

ManualReclosing
AlsousedforTryBack(testing)ofalineafterafault
Companypolicyshouldbefollowedwhenfaulttestingis
beingconsidered
Theoperatorshouldconsidertheeffectsthattestingmayhaveonthe
electricalsystem(shockingthesystemagain)
Ifpossible,itisalwaysbettertorequestapatroloflinebeforetrying
torestoreittoservice

PJM2014

104

1/13/14

ReclosingPractices

Ingeneral,reclosingoftransmissionlineCBsissupervisedby
Synchrocheckrelays
Insuresthatthetwosystemsbeingtiestogetherareinsynchronism
witheachother(orclosetoit)
Ifthesystemsaresynchronizedsuchthattheanglebetweenthetwo
arewithindefinedlimits,reclosingwilloccur.Iftheyareoutsidethe
predefinedlimits,therelaywillblockreclosing

PJM2014

105

1/13/14

ProtectiveRelayAlarmsViaSCADA

Dependingupondesign,receivingofanalarmcouldmean:
1) LowsignallevelsonPowerLineCarrierEquipment
2) LossofGuardononeormorePermissiveorDTTschemes

PJM2014

106

1/13/14

RisksInvolved

DirectionalorPhaseComparisonSchemes
Withlowsignallevels,thereisagoodchancethattheprotectedline
couldovertrip forafault

PermissiveTransferredTripSchemes
Withacontinuouslossofguard,theschemewillshutitselfdown.
Littleriskofovertripping exists
Withasporadiclossofguard,noiseisbeingintroduced
intocommunicationchannel.Fairchanceofincorrect
trippingexists
Momentarylossofguardandreturntonormalhaslittlerisk
ofovertripping

PJM2014

107

1/13/14

RisksInvolved

DirectTransferTrippingSchemes
Acontinuouslossofguardwillshutdownscheme.Littlerisk
ofovertripping exists
Sporadiclossofguardisindicationofnoisycommunication
channel.Thereisagoodchancethatanovertrip willoccur
Momentarylossofguardandreturntonormalisoflittle
concern.Lowriskofovertripping

PJM2014

108

1/13/14

RankingofRisks(MosttoLeaseCritical)

1)
2)
3)
4)
5)

SporadicLossofGuard DirectTransferredTripSchemes
LowSignalLevels DirectionalorPhaseComparison
SporadicLossofGuard PermissiveTransferredTripSchemes
ContinuousLossofGuard DirectTransferredTripSchemes
ContinuousLossofGuard PermissiveTransferred
TripSchemes
6) MomentaryLossofGuard DirectTransferredTripSchemes
7) MomentaryLossofGuard PermissiveTransferred
TripSchemes

PJM2014

109

1/13/14

SpecialRelaySchemes

LoadSheddingviaUnderfrequency
CloseInFaultProtection

PJM2014

110

1/13/14

UnderfrequencyLoadShed

Usedtomatchloadwithavailablegeneration
Inthisprogram,PJMMembercompaniesmustshed30%of
theirbaseload.Donein10%steps
UFloadsheddingiscoordinatedwithUFrelaysat
generatingstations

PJM2014

111

1/13/14

CloseinFaultProtection

Inserviceforashortperiodoftimeafteratransmissionline
hasbeenreenergized(i.e.oneterminalclosed)
Simpleinstantaneousovercurrentrelaysareutilizedtotrip
thelineifafault(i.e.grounds)existontheline.Therelaysare
removedfromserviceafterashorttimedelay

PJM2014

112

1/13/14

TransmissionLineProtection
Exercises/Review

PJM2014

1/13/14

Thetwocategoriesofrelayschemescommonly
usedfortransmissionlineprotectionare:
A. Steppeddistance&
Overcurrent
B. Pilotbasedand
Overcurrent
C. PilotbasedandStepped
Distance
D. Undervoltageand
Overcurrent

PJM2014

114

1/13/14

DistancerelayschemesemployOhmslawanddivide
whattwoquantitiestoobtainlineimpedance?
A.
B.
C.
D.

PJM2014

Voltage/Resistance
Voltage/Current
Current/Resistance
Current/Voltage

115

1/13/14

WhatistheprimarydisadvantageofStepped
timedistancerelayscheme?
A. Doesntcovertheentire
line
B. Delayedclearingfor
certainfaults
C. Nooverlappingzonesof
protection
D. Lackofcoordination

PJM2014

116

1/13/14

Identifyameansofcommunication
usedinpilotrelayschemes.
A. Microwave
B. Telephonepair
C. PowerLineCarrier
D. FiberOptic

PJM2015

117

1/8/2015

Oneoftheprimaryadvantagesofusinganimpedance
(distance)relayforbackuptransmissionlineprotection
ratherthanovercurrentrelayis:
A. Ithasaconstantreach
B. Thereisnotimedelay
C. Notsusceptibletoload
currenttrips
D. Nondirectional
protection

PJM2014

118

1/13/14

WhichofthefollowingarefeaturesofSteppedTimeDistancerelayschemes?
1.UsesImpedancerelays
2.Relaysaredirectional
3.Allrelayshaveasmalltimedelay
4.Relaysaretypicallygroupedinthreezones

A.
B.
C.
D.

PJM2015

1,2and3
1,2and4
1,3and4
2,3and4

119

1/8/2015

AZone1impedancerelayissetonbothendsof
thelineandallowsinstantaneoustrippingto
protectwhatpercentageoftheline?

A. 100%
B. 90%
C. 75%
D. 50%

PJM2015

120

1/8/2015

Pilotrelayschemesallowinstantaneoustripping
forwhatpercentageoftheprotectedline?
A. 100%
B. 90%
C. 75%
D. 50%

PJM2015

121

1/8/2015

DirectionalPhaseComparisonschemesprotectfora
faultonthelinebecausethefaultwillcausewhat?
A. Maxcurrentflowoutof
theline
B. Currentflowatbothends
intothefault
C. Highvoltagespikesinthe
faultarea
D. Voltageflowtowardsthe
fault

PJM2014

122

1/13/14

RelayTesting
ConsiderationsandConcerns

PJM2014

1/13/14

RelayTesting

RelaytestingisimportanttoinsureRelaysandRelaySchemes
arefunctioningasdesigned
Becausetestingisusuallydonewhenprimaryequipmentis
energized,thereisariskthatunwantedoperationofrelay
schemesmayoccur

PJM2014

124

1/13/14

Whycantrippingoccur?

PJM2014

Closeworkingconditions
Wiringerrors
ImproperBlockingorIsolatingofequipment
Inexperience(lackoftraining)
Accidental(bumppanelorrelay)

125

1/13/14

ConsiderationsandConcernsforS.O.s:

Whenarequestisreceivedfromapersondoingtesting,
thinkabout:
Whatcoulditdotothesystem?Isthesystembeingoperatedina
mannerthatthelossoftheequipmentprotectedbytherelayscheme
willcauseseriousproblems(stability,voltage,overloadsetc.)
Wouldtheremovalofrelayschemegobeyondthesettingcriteriafor
otherrelayschemes

PJM2014

126

1/13/14

ProtectionPractice:

ProtectionandCoordinationaretypicallybasedupon
theelectricalsystembeingnormal oralteredbyany
singlecontingency
Asinglecontingencyistheoutageofapieceofequipment
suchasaline,transformerorrelayscheme
Ifmorethanonepieceofequipmentisoutaged atastation,
protectionorcoordinationcanbecompromised
Therelayengineersshouldbecontactedtoinsureprotection
andcoordinationwillstillexist

PJM2014

127

1/13/14

GeneralConsiderationsforDispatchers
FollowingaRelayOperation

PJM2014

1/13/14

KnowyourcompaniespolicyregardingDispatcherresponseto
arelaytrip

PJM2014

Whodoyounotify?
Whotocalltoinitiaterepairs
Whotocalltoperformlinepatrols,substationinspections,etc.
Intercompanyresponse&notifications

129

1/13/14

 Datacollectionandfaultanalysis
Trytoobtainasmuchdataaspossibleforfuturedetailedanalysis(i.e.
relaytargets,Digitalfaultrecorderinformation,systemconditions)
Realtimeanalysiscomeswithexperience
Oftenknowingwhathastrippedmayleadtoadeterminationofthe
faultedpieceofequipmentorpotentialrelayproblem
(Seeexamples)

PJM2014

130

1/13/14

Faultanalysis

Breakers1
thru7trip
open.Where
isthelikely
faultlocation?

PJM2014

131

1/13/14

Faultanalysis

PJM2014

132

1/13/14

ExerciseprudencebeforeTryingBack

500kVlineshaveasingleshotreclosingattemptafter
5.0seconds
Testingafter5minutesispossiblewithconcurrencefromPJM
andothers
NoTryBackshouldoccuron:
1) GeneratorSUtransformers
2) UndergroundCable(BusWork)
3) Indoorequipment

PJM2014

133

1/13/14

TransformerProtection

PJM2014

1/13/14

Transformers:

AttheheartoftheTransmissionSystem
Theymakethetransportoflargeamountsofelectricalenergy
economicallypossible
BecauseoftheircriticalitytotheBulkPowerSystem,high
speedclearingforfaultsisdesirable

PJM2014

135

1/13/14

TransformerProtection

TypicalProblemsthatcanoccur:
InsidetheTank
1)
2)
3)
4)

WindingFaultstoGround
WindingTurntoTurnShorts
ExcessiveWindingand/orOilTemperature
Overloads(i.e.winding/oiltemperature

ExternaltoTank
1)
2)
3)
4)

PJM2014

BushingLeadFailure
BushingFlashover
LightningArresterFailure
ThroughFaults

136

1/13/14

TransformerProtection

TransformerProtectionistypicallyprovidedby
differentialrelaying
Transformersprovideuniqueproblemsfordifferentialrelaying
thatmustbeaccountedfor:
1) Differentvoltagelevels(i.e.differentcurrentmagnitudes)
2) AutomaticTapChangers(LTCsorTCULs)associatedwith
transformerscausefurthermismatchbetweenhighsideandlow
sidecurrents
3) Energizingatransformercausesmagnetizinginrushcurrentwhich
appearsasaninternalfaulttothedifferentialrelay
4) BecauseofDeltaWyeconnections,thetransformerintroducesa30
degreephaseangleshiftthatmustbeaccountedfor

PJM2014

137

1/13/14

CTConnectionsforTappedTransformer

PJM2014

138

1/13/14

CTConnectionsforBusConnectedTransformer

PJM2014

139

1/13/14

TransformerProtection

ItwasrecognizedearlythataperfectmatchofCTratios,
necessaryforthedifferentialrelay,waspracticallyimpossible
MismatchofCTsecondarycurrentscanbeovercomewitha
PercentageDifferentialCharacteristicrelay
Thistypeofrelayhasoperate andrestraint coilswhichare
connectedinamannerthatallowsforacertainamountof
CTmismatch

PJM2014

140

1/13/14

TransformerProtection

Theinrushcurrentthatexistswhenatransformerisenergized
ishighinharmonics,particularlythesecondharmonic
TheuseofaHarmonicRestraintelementcandesensitizethe
differentialrelaytotheseharmonicsandprovidethe
necessarysecurityrequired

PJM2014

141

1/13/14

Inrush Current
Applied Voltage

Typical Magnetizing Inrush Current Wave

Typical Offset Fault Current Wave

PJM2014

142

1/13/14

TransformerProtection

The30degreephaseshiftthatisintroducedwhenprotecting
wyedeltatransformerbankscanbeovercomewiththe
properconnectionoftheCTssupplyingthedifferentialrelay
Thegeneralruleofthumb:
CTsonwyesideoftransformershouldbeconnectedindelta,whileCTs
onthedeltasideshouldbeconnectedinwye

PJM2014

143

1/13/14

TransformerProtection

BottomLine:
Thedifferentialrelayistheidealdevicefortransformerprotectionin
thatittakesadvantageofthezonetypeofprotectiontoprovide
sensitivehighspeedclearingoftransformerfaults

PJM2014

144

1/13/14

TransformerProtection

SincehighvoltagetransformersarecriticaltotheBulkPower
System,generallyprimaryandbackupdifferentialrelaysare
usedforprotection
Beyondusingtwodiscretedifferentialrelays,additional
devicesareusedtoprotectthetransformer

PJM2014

145

1/13/14

TransformerProtection

SuddenPressureRelays:
Ifanarcingfaultoccursinsidethetransformertank,gasesare
generatedwhichcanbedetectedbyapressurerelay
Operationofthisrelaywillinitiatetrippingofthetransformer
Thisprotectionprovidesbackuptothedifferentialrelays

PJM2014

146

1/13/14

TransformerProtection

GasAnalyzers(CombustibleGasRelay):
Lowmagnitudefaultsproducegasesastheybreakdowntheoiland
insulationinthetransformertank
Thegasanalyzerrelayconstantlymonitorsthegasspaceabovethe
transformeroilandwillactuateanalarmifgaslevelsexceeda
predeterminedlevel
AnAlarmprovideswarningofapossibleinternalfaultwhichcould
becatastrophic

PJM2014

147

1/13/14

TransformerProtection

WindingTemperatureRelays:
WindingTemperature(referredtoasHotSpotprotection)insidethe
transformerissimulatedbyusingaCTtodriveaheatingelement
underoil
Asthetransformerbecomesloaded,theheatingelementproduces
moreheat
Astheheatincreasesandpredeterminedtemperaturelevelsare
reached,atemperaturesensingdevicewill:
1) Startadditionalcoolinggroups(ifpossible)
2) Alarmiftemperaturecontinuestoincrease
3) Tripthetransformer

PJM2014

148

1/13/14

TransformerProtection

OilTemperatureRelays:
OiltemperatureismonitoredbyaTopOildeviceinsidethetank.
SimilartotheHotSpotprotection,whenpredetermined
temperaturelevelsarereached,atemperaturesensingdevicewill:
1) Startadditionalcoolinggroups(ifpossible)
2) Alarm
3) Tripthetransformer

PJM2014

149

1/13/14

IllustrationsOfAnalogGaugeStyleWindingTemperatureandLiquid
TemperatureThermalDevices
PJM2014

150

1/13/14

IllustrationOf
MicroprocessorBased
ThermalDevice
LiquidTemperature
istheupperunit
WindingTemperature
isthelowerunit

PJM2014

151

1/13/14

TransformerProtection

TransformerNeutralOvercurrentRelay:
RelayisconnectedtoaCTlocatedontheneutralconnectionofaWYE
Groundedtransformer
UsedasBackUpprotectionforThroughFaults
Mustbecoordinatedwithothersystemgroundrelays
Operationofthisrelaywilltripthetransformer

PJM2014

152

1/13/14

TransformerProtection

BlindSpotOvercurrentRelay:
Onoccasion,tappedtransformersareenergizedfromthelowside
only(i.e.highsideMOABisopen).Thisistypicallydonetomaintain
stationservice
LineRelayingmaynotrespondtoafaultthatcouldoccurbetweenthe
TransformerDiff.CTsandtheMOAB
ABlindSpotrelayisusedtodetectthiscondition
ItisinserviceonlywhenthehighsideMOABisopen
Willtripthelowsidecircuitbreakerstoisolatethefault

PJM2014

153

1/13/14

CTConnectionsforTappedTransformer

Fault

PJM2014

154

1/13/14

TransformerProtection

OtherProtectiveDevices:
LossofCoolingRelay Ifallfansand/oroilpumpsarelostforany
reason,thetransformerwillbetrippediftemperatureisabovea
predeterminedlevel
LowOilLevel Lackofproperoillevelcompromisestransformer
cooling.Thisdevicewillalarmandeventuallytripthetransformerifoil
leveldropsbelowacertainthreshold

PJM2014

155

1/13/14

TransformerProtection

Operationofanyoftheaboverelayschemeswillinitiateother
protectivefunctions
Thephysicaldesignoftheelectricalsystemwilldefinewhat
additionalactionsaretaken
Someactionsinclude:
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)

PJM2014

InitiateDirectTransferredTriptoremoteterminals
Initiatebreakerfailurerelaying
BlockreclosingofCBsthataretripped(untiltransformerisisolated)
Closethehighspeedgroundswitch
Initiatepermissivetrip/stopsendingblockingsignal,etc

156

1/13/14

TransformerProtection

TurntoTurnshorts(nonfaultcondition)
Havenotdiscussedthisabnormalconditionmuch
Ingeneral,thisconditionisverydifficulttodetect initially
Asmoreandmoreinsulationdeteriorates,thisconditionmaycause
thegasanalyzerrelaytorespond
Otherwise,couldgoundetecteduntilwindingflashesovertoground.
Atthatpoint,normaltransformerprotectionwillrespondtoclear
thefault

PJM2014

157

1/13/14

TransformerProtection

BecauseaBulkPowerTransformerisahighcostpieceof
equipment,automatictestingofthetransformerisgenerally
notincludedinthecontrolschemedesign
Ifthedifferentialrelayresponds,amastertripauxiliaryrelay
willtripandblockclosingofdeviceswhichcouldreenergize
thetransformer
Toreclosethelockedoutdevices,thismastertriprelaymust
behandreset

PJM2014

158

1/13/14

OperatorsroleifTransformerProtectionOperates

Knowyourcompanypolicy!
Alertallthatneedtobeinformedoftheoperation
Beawareofstepsrequiredtoalleviatepossiblesystemoverloads,low
voltageconcerns,etc.

Ingeneral,donottest(tryback)thetransformeruntilitis
inspectedbyqualifiedindividuals

PJM2014

159

1/13/14

BusProtection

PJM2014

1/13/14

TypicalBusDesigns

SingleBus SingleBreaker
Leastflexibleofsubdesigns,butlowcost

RingBus
ImprovedFlexibility,maybedifficulttorelay.

BreakerandaHalf
Offersmostflexibility,butmoreexpensive

DoubleBusDoubleBreaker
SimilartoBreakerandaHalf

PJM2014

161

1/13/14

SingleBus SingleBreakerArrangement

PJM2014

162

1/13/14

RingBusArrangement

PJM2014

163

1/13/14

BreakerandaHalfBusArrangement

PJM2014

164

1/13/14

DoubleBreaker DoubleBusArrangement

PJM2014

165

1/13/14

BusProtection

OntheBulkPowerSystem,themostcommonprotection
practicetoinsurehighspeedclearingoffaultsonbusworkis
touseDifferentialRelays
Older,lesscriticalstationsmayemployTimeand
InstantaneousOvercurrentrelaysconnectedinadifferential
scheme.Theseschemescanbelesssensitive,slowerorboth

PJM2014

166

1/13/14

BusProtection

Generally,theCTsusedforBusProtectionarelocatedonthe
lineorequipmentsideofthecircuitbreaker.Consequently,
theCBiswithintheprotectionzoneofthebusdifferential
andthelineorpieceofequipment(overlappingzones
ofprotection)
CTsthatareconnectedinthedifferentialschemeshouldbeof
anaccuracyclassthatcanwithstandmaximumexpectedfault
currents(i.e.CTsshouldnotsaturate).Failureofapplication
engineerstoinsurethiscouldleadtoamisoperation

PJM2014

167

1/13/14

BusProtection

Ifabusdifferentialrelayoperates,therelaywilltypicallydo
thefollowing:
1)
2)
3)
4)

EnergizeaMasterTripAuxiliaryRelay
Tripallsourcestothatbussection(viatheMasterTrip)
SetuptheResetoftheMasterTripRelayifbustestingistooccur
BlockreclosingofallCBsexceptthatoftheautomatictestingsource
(ifsoequipped)
5) InitiateBreakerFailure
6) InitiateanAlarm

PJM2014

168

1/13/14

BusProtection

Onthe500kvSystem,automaticbustestingdoesnotoccur
Ingeneral,onvoltagelevelsbelow500kv,asingle
automatictestofthebusmightoccur.Thiscanvary
acrossthePJMterritory

PJM2014

169

1/13/14

BusProtection

Iftheparticularstationisequippedwithbustestinganda
successfultestoccurs,allremainingCBsthatweretrippedwill
automaticallyreclose
Ifthebustestwasunsuccessful,allCBs,includingthetesting
CB,willbelockedout
Althoughautomaticreclosingisblocked,theoperatormay
havetheabilitytocloseaCBviasupervisorycontrol(SCADA)

PJM2014

170

1/13/14

OperatorRoleisBusProtectionOperatestodeenergizeaBus

Knowyourcompanypolicy!
Alertallthatneedtobeinformedofoperation
Beawareofstepsrequiredtoalleviatepossiblesystemoverloads,low
voltageconcerns,etc.(soundfamiliar?)

Ifthebustripsandlocksout,notestingviaSCADAshould
occuruntilthestationisinspectedbyauthorizedpersonnel

PJM2014

171

1/13/14

DirectTransferredTrip(DTT)
Relaying

Clearing Sequence For A Fault

On Brunner Island Transformer 20

WEST HEMPFIELD
230/69 kV SUB
230 kV CB

BRUNNER ISLAND
230 kV PLANT and SWITCHYARD
West Hempfield
East 230 kV GCB

T20 MOD

T20 HSGS

West Hempfield
West 230 kV GCB
69kV CB

230/13.8/4 kV
Transformer 20

To
13.8 kV and 4 kV
Lowside CBs
inside Plant

1) A fault occurs inside Transformer 20 at Brunner Island

WEST HEMPFIELD
230/69 kV SUB
230 kV CB

BRUNNER ISLAND
230 kV PLANT and SWITCHYARD
West Hempfield
East 230 kV GCB

T20 MOD

T20 HSGS

West Hempfield
West 230 kV GCB
69kV CB

230/13.8/4 kV
Transformer 20

To
13.8 kV and 4 kV
Lowside CBs
inside Plant

2)

At Brunner Island, Transformer 20 protection operates to immediately trip the West

Hempfield East and West 230kV circuit breakers and the 13.8kV and 4kV Transformer 20
lowside circuit breakers. Simultaneously, a DTT TRIP signal is initiated to West Hempfield
Sub, the T20 HSGS closes and the T20 MOD starts to open

3) At West Hempfield, the 230kV line and 69kV transformer lowside breakers open
immediately upon receipt of the DTT TRIP signalall circuit breakers at West Hempfield
are open before the HSGS at Brunner Island closes fully into the transmission line
WEST HEMPFIELD
230/69 kV SUB
230 kV CB

BRUNNER ISLAND
230 kV PLANT and SWITCHYARD
West Hempfield
East 230 kV GCB

T20 MOD

T20 HSGS

West Hempfield
West 230 kV GCB
69kV CB

230/13.8/4 kV
Transformer 20

To
13.8 kV and 4 kV
Lowside CBs
inside Plant

4) At Brunner Island, the T20 MOD opens fully to physically isolate the fault and stops
the DTT TRIP signal to West Hempfieldall circuit breakers at West Hempfield reclose
automatically. The transmission line breakers at Brunner Island also reclose
automatically after the failed transformer is isolated, but the T20 lowside breakers are
designed to stay open.

WEST HEMPFIELD
230/69 kV SUB
230 kV CB

BRUNNER ISLAND
230 kV PLANT and SWITCHYARD
West Hempfield
East 230 kV GCB

T20 MOD

T20 HSGS

West Hempfield
West 230 kV GCB
69kV CB

230/13.8/4 kV
Transformer 20

To
13.8 kV and 4 kV
Lowside CBs
inside Plant

Bus Protection

Illustration Of Automatic Bus Testing

In a Transmission Switchyard

Following a bus differential operation,

a preselected circuit breaker
automatically recloses to test the bus

Illustration Of Automatic Bus Testing

In a Transmission Switchyard

Following a bus differential operation,

a preselected circuit breaker
automatically recloses to test the bus

Illustration Of Automatic Bus Testing

In a Transmission Switchyard

If the bus test is unsuccessful,

all circuit breakers lock out
and must be closed manually or by SCADA

Illustration Of Automatic Bus Testing

In a Transmission Switchyard

On the other hand, if the bus test is successful, all

the other circuit breaker automatically reclose
after a time delay to ensure the bus is stable.

Bus Testing At Generating Stations

Automatic bus testing following a bus differential operation at a
generating station is given special consideration because of the
severe mechanical stresses placed on turbine-generator couplings
by a close-in bus fault
normally the impedance between the generator terminals and a
fault on a power line cushions the mechanical impact on the
turbine-generator
a bus fault, however, is essentially right at the terminals of the
GSU transformer, so we want to limit exposure of the generator to
such close-in faults as much as possible
for this reason, a tripped bus at a generating station should be
tested only with a transmission line energized from a remote
substation
this technique puts the testing source as far away as possible so
that the impedance of the transmission line limits the current
available to a persistent bus fault and thus minimizes added stress
on the local generators

Illustration Of Automatic Bus Testing

At a Generating Station

G
G
1

Following a bus differential operation,

a preselected circuit breaker
must
be closed to test the bus
which one is preferred here and why?

TransformerandBusProtection
Exercises/Review

PJM2014

1/13/14

Themostcommonlyusedrelayscheme
fortransformerandbusprotectionis:
A. Overcurrent
B. Undervoltage
C. Differential
D. Distance

PJM2015

185

1/8/2015

Differentialrelayschemescomparethetotal
currentflowingintoadeviceto__________.
A. Areferencecurrent
B. Totalcurrentleavingthe
device
C. Totalvoltagedropacross
thedevice
D. Voltageflowthroughthe
device

PJM2014

186

1/13/14

Adifferentialrelayschemeacrossatransformer
mustcompensatefor_____________________.
A. Voltageratioacross
thetransformer
B. Impedanceratioof
thetransformer
C. Currentratioacross
thetransformer
D. Resistanceratioof
thetransformer

PJM2014

187

1/13/14

Automaticreclosure availabilityonsomerelay
schemesservestoimproveoverallreliabilityby
restoringcircuitsafterafaulthasbeencleared.
A. True
B. False

PJM2014

188

1/13/14

GeneratorProtection

PJM2014

1/13/14

D. C. Excitation
System

Prime
Mover

Generator
Synchronizing
CB
Generator
Step Up
Transformer

System

Aux.
Load

High Voltage
Bus

Emergency Diesel
Generator

Start Up
Transformer

Typical Generating Plant Arrangement

PJM2014

190

1/13/14

StationArrangement

AGeneratorisusuallyconnectedtothepowersystem
throughawyedeltatransformer(wyeonthehighvoltage
side,deltaonthegeneratorside)
Generatoritselfisconnectedwyewithitsneutralgrounded
throughahighimpedance
Purposeofthisgeneratorconnectionistolimitthehigh
magnitudecurrentswhichcouldflowforagroundfault

PJM2014

191

1/13/14

StationArrangement

GeneratorInService
StartupTransformerisoutofservice
Plantauxiliaryloadsaresuppliedfromthestationservicetransformer

GeneratorOutofService
SinceGeneratorisoffline,thestationservicetransformerisout
ofservice
PlantauxiliaryloadsaresuppliedfromtheStartupTransformer

PJM2014

192

1/13/14

StationArrangement

StationBlackout
Generatorhasjusttrippedorwasalreadyoffline
Thestartuptransformercanprovidenohelpbecausethisportionof
thehighvoltagesystemisinterrupted
Emergencygenerators(diesel)areusedtosupplytheplantauxiliary
loaduntilthesystemisrestored

PJM2014

193

1/13/14

GeneratorUnitTripping

PJM2014

1/13/14

GeneratorUnitTripping:

ThefrequencyoffailuresinRotatingMachinesislow,howeverfailures
cananddooccur
Beyondactualfailures,certainabnormalconditionscancause
generatorfailureifnotcorrectedquickly
Someoftheseharmfulconditionsare:

PJM2014

WindingFaults
Overheating
LossofField
SinglePhasing
Overloading
Overspeed
Motoring(turbine)
Overexcitation

195

1/13/14

GeneratorUnitTripping:

Notalloftheproblemsmentionednecessarilyhavetocausea
unittrip.Ifdetectedquickly,measurescanbetakentomitigate
theproblem
Consequently,somerelayschemeswillfirstproduceanalarmtoalert
operatorsoftheproblem.Iftheproblemworsensbeforecorrective
actioncanbetaken,theschemewillinitiateaunittrip

PJM2014

196

1/13/14

GeneratorUnitTripping:

Ifprotectivedevicesdocauseaunittrip,thefollowingactions
willoccur:
1)
2)
3)
4)

PJM2014

GeneratorSynchronizingCBistrippedandlockedout
NormalStationServicesupplyCBistripped
GeneratorDCfieldCBistripped
PrimeMoveristripped

197

1/13/14

GeneratorUnitTripping:

Whenaunittrips,thefunctionoftheplantoperatoristo
stabilizetheprimemoverandauxiliarysystemstoinsurea
controlledshutdown
Thegenerationdispatcherspurposeisdependentupon
individualcompanyprocedures.Thiscouldinvolve
negotiationforadditionalgenerationornotifyingthat
companysenergymarketingfunction

PJM2014

198

1/13/14

Overall
UnitProtection

PJM2014

1/13/14

Areastobeprotectedandconcerns:

1) Generator WindingFault,Overloading,Overheating,
Overspeed,Underfrequency,LossofExcitation,Motoring,
PhaseUnbalance,OutofStep
2) Turbine Overspeed,Underspeed,Vibration,Temperature
3) Auxiliaries CableFaults,GroundsonSystem
4) StationService TransformerFaults,Leadfaults,etc

PJM2014

200

1/13/14

Ground Relay

Generator CB

To Excitation
System

Unit Differential
Relay

D.C. Field

GEN

Distribution
Transformer

Main Power
Transformer

Generator Differential
Relay
Xfmer Diff. Relay

Station Bus
Protection

Station
Service
Load

Station Service
Transformer

Start Up
Transformer

Station Service
Bus

Xfmer Diff. Relay

Station Service Bus

Differential Relay

PJM2014

Start Up CB

201

1/13/14

ProtectiveRelaySchemesfortheGenerator:

GeneratorDifferential
WrapsonlytheStatorWindingsoftheGenerator
Sensitivetophaseandsomegroundfaults
Operationofthisrelaywillinitiateaunittrip

PJM2014

202

1/13/14

Generator Differential

C
B

Rotor
(DC Field)

A
Armature and
Stator Windings
High
Impedance
Neutral
87

PJM2014

203

Differential Relay
(B & C Phases are similar)

1/13/14

ProtectiveRelaySchemesfortheGenerator:

OverallDifferential
WrapstheGenerator,Gen.StepupTransformer&Station
ServiceTransformer
Sensitivetophase&somegroundfaults
BacksuptheGen.Diff,GSUDiff.,StationServiceDiff,etc
LesssensitivethantheGen.Diff
Operationofthisrelaywillinitiateaunittrip

PJM2014

204

1/13/14

UNIT DIFFERENTIAL PROTECTION

TO
GRID SYSTEM

TO
EXCITATION
SYSTEM
D.C.
FIELD
GENERATOR
C.B.

GEN.
GENERATOR
NEUTRAL
TO GROUND

87

STATION
LOADS
STATION
SERVICE
BUS
(LOW VOLTAGE)

PJM2014

STATION
BUS
(HIGH VOLTAGE)
MAIN POWER
TRANSFORMER

TO
GRID SYSTEM

STATION
SERVICE
TRANSFORMER

205

1/13/14

ProtectiveRelaySchemesfortheGenerator:

OvercurrentProtection
ProvideBackupProtectionforGen.DiffScheme
Protectsthegeneratorfromsystemfaultsthatarenotclearedwithina
predeterminedtimeinterval
CoordinatedwithSystemOvercurrentschemes
Usuallytimedelayedtominimizetrippingfortransientsurges
orsynchronizing
Willinitiateaunittrip

PJM2014

206

1/13/14

Generator

Other Generator Protection Relays

To GSU
Transformer

CT

51G

PT
51 46

51 - Backup Overcurrent
46 - Negative Sequence
40 - Loss of Field
81 - Underfrequency

PJM2014

32

40

59

81

32 - Reverse Power (Anti-motoring)

51G - Generator Ground Overcurrent
59 - Overexcitation

207

1/13/14

ProtectiveRelaySchemesfortheGenerator:

AntimotoringorReversePowerProtection:
ActuallyusedtoprotecttheTurbineinsteadofthegenerator
WhenGeneratortakesinpower,itisessentiallyasynchronousmotor
(nonharmfultogenerator)
Thismodeofoperation,ifsustainedcouldleadtoturbinebladefailure

Thisisonestandardmethodfortakingunitoffline
Maycausealarm,butwillinitiateaunittrip

PJM2014

208

1/13/14

ProtectiveRelaySchemesfortheGenerator

NegativeSequenceProtection
Duringunbalancedfaults,NegativeSequencecurrentswillflow
Physically,120cyclerotorcurrentsareinducedinthesolidrotorforgings,
nonmagneticrotorwedgesandretainingrings.
TheI2Rlossquicklyraisestemperatureoftherotorandwouldeventually
causeseriousrotordamage

Willinitiateanalarmandtripunit

PJM2014

209

1/13/14

ProtectiveRelaySchemesfortheGenerator:

GeneratorGroundFaultProtection
MethodofGeneratorGroundingaffectstheprotectionprovidedby
thedifferentialrelays
Thehigherthegroundingimpedance,thelowerthegroundfault
currentmagnitude

Todetecttheselowmagnitudefaults,NeutralOvercurrentoran
Overvoltagerelayschemeisemployed
Operationofthisrelayschemewillinitiateaunittrip

PJM2014

210

1/13/14

Types of Generator Grounding Used

Generator

Generator

Transformer

51G

59
High Resistance
Neutral

Resistored Neutral with

an Overcurrent Relay

PJM2014

High Impedance Neutral

with Overvoltage Relay

211

1/13/14

ProtectiveRelaySchemesfortheGenerator:

LossofFieldProtection
Whenlossoffieldoccursinasynchronousmachine,reactivepower
flowsfromthesystemintothemachine
Thereactiveflowcanbe2to3timesthegeneratorsratedload(i.e.
thermaldamage)
Relaysmonitorreversevar floworlowvoltage
Operationofthisrelaywillalarmandinitiateaunittrip

PJM2014

212

1/13/14

ProtectiveRelaySchemesfortheGenerator:

LossofFieldProtection
LossofFieldindicatesthattroubleexistsin:
1) MainExciter
2) FieldWinding
3) OperatingErrorwhenmachineisinManualmode

PJM2014

213

1/13/14

ProtectiveRelaySchemesfortheGenerator:

Overexcitation Protection
ConcernisfortheGeneratorFieldandmainGSUtransformersince
overexcitation cancausedamagingoverheatingduetocoresaturation
inaveryshorttime
ForGSUtransformerprotection,aVolts/Hertzrelayisapplied
Operationofrelaywilltripunit

ForFieldOverexcitation,VoltageorCurrentrelaysareemployed
Relaywillalarmorautomaticallyreducefieldtoallowablelimits

PJM2014

214

1/13/14

ProtectiveRelaySchemesfortheGenerator:

Underfrequency Protection
IfSystemLoadexceedsthecapabilityofthemachine,thefrequency
willdecay
InPJM,machinesaretypicallysetfor57.5hz witha5.0second
timedelay
Systemloadsheddingschemesareusedtodumploadasrequired
Ifnotenoughloadisdisconnectedandfrequencydrops,relaywillinitiate
aunittrip

Ifunittrippingoccurs,pulloutyourBlackStartRestorationguide
becauseitwillbeneeded!

PJM2014

215

1/13/14

GeneratorProtectionExercises/Review

PJM2014

1/13/14

Listtheassociatedactionsthattypicallyoccurwhena
generatortrips:

PJM2014

217

1/13/14

Whichrelayschemeprotectsthegenerator
fromstatorwindingfaults?
1.
2.
3.
4.

PJM2014

Lossoffield
GeneratorDifferential
Overspeed
Neutralovercurrent

218

1/13/14

Whattypeofrelayisusedtoprotectthegenerator
fromalossofsynchronizationresultingfromexcessive
VARabsorption?

A. Overexcitation
B. LossofField
C. NegativeSequence
D. Differential

PJM2015

219

1/8/2015

Whatmajorcomponentofageneratoris
protectedbyageneratorfieldoverexcitation
relay?
A. Turbine
B. GSU
C. Fieldwindings
D. Isophasebus

PJM2015

220

1/8/2015

Whatisthenameofthismajorcomponent
ofageneratingunit?

PJM2014

221

1/13/14

Whatisthenameofthismajorcomponent
ofageneratingunit?

PJM2014

222

1/13/14

Whatisthenameofthismajorcomponent
ofageneratingunit?

PJM2014

223

1/13/14

Whatisthenameofthismajorcomponent
ofageneratingunit?

PJM2014

224

1/13/14

Whatisthenameofthismajorcomponent
ofageneratingunit?

PJM2014

225

1/13/14

Whatisthenameofthismajorcomponent
ofageneratingunit?

PJM2014

226

1/13/14

Whatisthenameofthismajorcomponent
ofageneratingunit?

PJM2014

227

1/13/14

Summary

Describethepurposeofprotectiverelays
Identifyrelayprotectionschemecharacteristics
andcomponents
Describetheimpactofthelossofcomponentson
systemprotection
Identifythetypesoftransmissionlineprotectionand
theircharacteristics
Identifythetypesoftransformerprotectionand
theircharacteristics
Identifythetypesofbusprotectionandtheircharacteristics
Identifythetypesofgeneratorprotectionand
theircharacteristics
PJM2014

228

1/13/14

Questions?

PJM2014

1/13/14

Disclaimer:
PJMhasmadealleffortspossibletoaccuratelydocumentall
informationinthispresentation.Theinformationseenhere
doesnotsupersedethePJMOperatingAgreementorthe
PJMTariffbothofwhichcanbefoundbyaccessing:
http://www.pjm.com/documents/agreements/pjm
agreements.aspx
Foradditionaldetailedinformationonanyofthetopics
discussed,pleaserefertotheappropriatePJMmanual
whichcanbefoundbyaccessing:
http://www.pjm.com/documents/manuals.aspx

PJM2014

230

1/13/14

ResourcesandReferences
PJM.(2013).PJMManual3:TransmissionOperations(rev43).Retrieved
fromhttp://www.pjm.com/~/media/documents/manuals/m03.ashx
PJM.(2011).PJMManual7:PJMProtectionStandards(rev0).Retrieved
fromhttp://www.pjm.com/~/media/documents/manuals/m07.ashx
Miller,R.&Malinowski,J.(1994).PowerSystemOperation.(3rd ed.).
Boston,MA.McGrawHill.

PJM2014

231

1/13/14