Nbs Technologic Paper T 216

PROPERTIES OF ELECTRICAL INSULATING MATERIALS OF THE LAMINATED PHENOL-METHYLENE
TYPE
By
J.
H. Dellinger and
J.
L. Preston
ABSTRACT
The manufacture
of phenolic synthetic resins as applied to the fabrication of
elec-
has only become commercially important within the last

20 years. Some of the older materials were not suited for particular purposes or were
too expensive, and the phenolic type was developed to meet a real commercial need.
The materials of this type may be broadly classified as laminated materials or molded
trical insulating material
materials.
This paper is concerned exclusively with materials of the laminated, phenclmethylene type, which are made by building up sheets of paper, fiber, or fabric
which had been previously impregnated or coated with phenolic (synthetic) varnish
to some desired thickness and then subjecting the stack to comparatively great presThis laminated type has been the subject of a comsure in a heated hydraulic press.
prehensive investigation at this Bureau. The varnishes used in the manufacture
of the laminated materials whose properties have been investigated are Bakelite,
Condensite, and Redmanol, manufactured, respectively, by the General Bakelite
Co., Condensite Co. of America, and the Redmanol Chemical Products Co.
The companies who fabricate these laminated materials from the phenolic binder
(varnish) and filler (paper, fiber, or fabric), with the grades on which data are given
in this paper, are: Diamond State Fibre Co.
Condensite Celoron: Grade ro, fiber
base; grade 15, fiber base; grade 20, fabric base.

The Continental Fibre Co. Bakelite Dilecto: Grade XX, paper base; grade X, paper base; grade CB, fabric base.
The Formica
Insulation Co.
Formica:
Grade M, paper base; grade M-2, paper base;
grade P, paper base; grade R, fabric base. Westinghouse Electric
Bakelite
&
Manufacturing
Micarta: Grade 32-X, paper base; grade 21-X, paper base; grade 323,
paper base; grade 213, paper base; grade 21-D, fabric base.
Co.
which have been determined for this type of

Experimental data or other information are given relative
to each of these properties.
These tests cover radio-frequency phase difference
or power loss, dielectric constant, and flash -over voltage, direct-current surface
resistivity and volume resistivity, tensile strength, modulus of elasticity (tensile),
proportional limit, modulus of rupture, modulus of elasticity (transverse), Brinell
hardness, scleroscope hardness, impact strength, permanent distortion, density,
moisture absorption, machining qualities, thermal expansivity, and the effects of
The various
properties or effects
material are listed below.
and alkali.
The data on these properties have been arranged
heat, acid,
in such a manner as to be conby a person desiring detailed information

general way in the more important properties.
veniently available for reference, either
by a person interested only in a

The methods of performing the various
or
tests are also
very fully described in a Bureau
publication referred to in the text.

501
Technologic Papers of the Bureau of Standards
502
[Voi.io
CONTENTS
Page
Introduction
1. History of samples
2. The demand for the phenolic insulating materials
3. Need for this research
4. Scope of the work
5. Cooperation in this research
II. Description of laminated phenolic insulating materials
1. Description of the commercial grades
2 Description of material and method of manufacture
III. Properties measured
I.
1.
2.
503
503
503
503
;
505
507
508
508
509
511
Reasons for choice of properties

(a) Choice of electrcal properties
(6) Choice of mechanical properties
(c) Choice of thermal and chemical properties
511
511
513
515
516
Definitions of electrical properties
mechanical properties
and chemical properties
519
IV. Tabulation of results

1. Principal electrical and mechanical properties
2. Phase difference and dielectric constant
3 Flash-over voltage at radio frequencies
4. Surface resistivity
5. Tensile and transverse strength
522
3. Definitions of
4.
Definitions of thermal
522
522
534
549
550
562
6.
7.
8.
9.
Impact strength
Permanent distortion
Machining qualities
Thermal expansivity
10. Effects of
11.
574
575
578
580
chemicals
Summaries
584
586
of properties
V. Discussion of results
1. Uniformity of properties
2. Phase difference.
3. Voltage effects at radio frequencies
4.
Volume
593
593
594
596
resistivity
597
598
Surface resistivity
6. Moisture absorption
7. Tensile strength
8. Transverse strength
5.
9.
10.
11.
12
13.
14.
599
600
601
Hardness
Impact strength
603
604
605
605
607
607
609
610
611
Permanent distortion
Machining qualities
Thermal properties
Effects of acid and alkali
17.
season of year
baking or drying
Effects of frequency
18.
Effects of thickness
15. Effects of
16. Effects of
19. Effects of color or
613
dye
615
615
616
20. Effects of surface finish
21. Effects of ultra-violet light

22.
23.
VI.
Effects of ratio of varnish to paper

Comparison of properties of hard rubber, vulcanized
nated and molded phenolic insulating materials
Summary
617
fiber,
lami-
619
626
Electrical Insulating Material
jSiT]
I.
1.
503
INTRODUCTION
HISTORY OF SAMPLES
All of the data which the authors of this paper present were
obtained on samples of laminated, phenolic insulating materials
received by the Bureau between December 20, 191 7, and August
Some observations made on a limited number of later
24, 1 91 9.
samples have indicated that the various phenolic insulating
materials have been more or

mechanical properties.
2.
less
improved in
their electrical
and
THE DEMAND FOR THE PHENOLIC INSULATING MATERIALS
Phenolic insulating materials have been introduced during the

past few years for a wide variety of uses. In electrical work they
are used for the
same purposes
which hard rubber (sometimes

been used, namely, for the insu-
for
called ebonite or vulcanite) has
and apparatus. The everraw rubber in other industries has increased
lating parts of electrical instruments
increasing
demand
for
the tendency to load hard rubber with

rubber.
fillers
or to use reclaimed
Incorporation of reclaimed rubber and
necessarily cheapen the
compound
or lower
fillers
does not
its qualities.
They
While hard
rubber has a number of the properties desirable in an electrical
insulating material, such as 'high electrical resistivity, very small
power loss, and ease of machining, it has, on the other hand, certain undesirable qualities, such as low tensile strength, brittleness,
high thermal expansivity, deterioration in sunlight, and because of a
tendency to soften at moderate temperatures it shrinks and warps.
Composition materials using shellac, pitch, or similar compounds
as a binding medium are used, but for most radio uses the more
are used to improve the material for certain uses.
expensive materials using phenol condensation products as the

binder have proved more satisfactory. The phenolic materials
are described later in section II.
3.
When
NEED FOR THIS RESEARCH
the United States entered the war against Germany, the
various Government departments and private manufacturers were
making demands on a few manufacturers of laminated materials

of the phenol-methylene type beyond the capacity of their manufacturing equipment. It was the practice in ordering insulating
material for radio and other electrical apparatus to specify, mere
or less arbitrarily, the use of insulating material of a certain trade
504
name
[Voi.x6
instead of specifying the qualities or properties required for

This condition led the War and Navy
the particular use in view.
Departments and some of the manufacturers of phenolic insulating materials to seek data on the various properties of the
materials. Some of the manufacturers began to inquire into the
faults of their material with a view to correcting their processes,
if
possible, or choosing their basic naterials so that their
wou^
product
Government approval.
In October, 191 7, the Formica Insulation Co. requested the
Bureau of Standards to make measurements on the properties of
Formica. Other companies whose products were included in the
measurements that followed are given on page 501. The manufacturers had little idea concerning the nature of the tests necessary, but were willing to supply samples, information, and sugPhenolic insulating material was being used by the
gestions.
Government in very large quantities for radio apparatus, and so the
immediate aim was to obtain such data as would determine the
The work soon broadsuitability of the material for radio uses.
ened into a general research on the properties of these materials.
Prior to the time the Bureau of Standards started the tests on
Formica there had been practically no measurements made of the
properties of insulating materials at radio frequencies
This meant
receive
that the composition of the insulating materials using phenol

varnish had to be studied, tests had to be devised, and apparatus
designed and constructed for the measurement of various properties.
While much valuable information had been previously collected

on these and other types of insulating material by manufacturers
and testing laboratories, their work was confined largely to mechanical properties, 60-cycle puncture voltage, volume and surface
The data thus available from
resistivity, and dielectric constant.
various sources are not related that is, the electrical and
mechanical data were seldom obtained from tests on the same
sample. A reliable comparison of the several materials can not
be made unless the properties are all measured on the same sample
because of the very considerable variations from sample to sample.
The work described herein has, consequently, been done with
samples of such size that specimens for all tests on a particular
grade of material could be cut from the same sheet.
The results of this work may therefore be of value to the manu-
facturers of these materials, to various departments of the Govern-
pSJT]
505
ment who buy such material in large quantities, and to manufacand users of electrical apparatus. It is shown that the
properties of various samples of the same grade of material vary.
A study of the several properties as found for the different makes
and grades of material should lead to improved products as experience in the methods of manufacture increases and the needs of the
turers
consumer are better understood.
From
it seems
no one insulating material of this type that
could be cited to answer the broad question, "Which is the best
insulating material?" The peculiar demands put upon the
material when used in a particular place must be studied and a
the experience gained in this investigation
evident that there
is
material chosen that has the best combination of properties to
meet the need.
As a
rule, it
may be stated
that to obtain the best
electrical properties the mechanical properties
to a certain extent.
must be
sacrificed
Other general conclusions are presented in
section V, "Discussion of Results."

4.
SCOPE OF THE WORK
To obtain comparative data on the various kinds and grades of

laminated phenolic insulating materials, the following electrical,
mechanical, and other properties have been measured for each
grade and for several thicknesses of each grade where possible:
Volume
resistivity
and surface
resistivity, voltage effects at radio
frequencies, phase difference or
power factor and
dielectric con-
stant at radio frequencies, ultimate tensile strength, proportional
and modulus
(tensile), modulus of rupture

and modulus of elasticity (transverse), Brinell hardness, scleroscope hardness, impact strength,
permanent distortion under dead weight, density, moisture
absorption, machining qualities, thermal expansivity, heat effects,
and effects of acid and alkali. The various tests made in this
research are not necessarily the final word on the important
limit
of elasticity
(transverse), proportional limit
properties requiring consideration.
In
fact, there are
other tests
now
being considered for continued work on this same

type of material. See section III-i for the reasons why these
that are
properties were selected.
For every material the various properties were measured upon

specimens cut from the same sheet of insulating material.
For reasons already stated principal emphasis was placed on
measurements of radio properties.
test
506
[Voi.i6
Dielectric strength or puncture voltage at low frequencies has

not been studied for two reasons: First, the significance of such
measurements is somewhat doubtful and in particular is nil at
radio frequencies, and, second, because the various manufacturers
and some users of the materials have had many puncture voltage
Other tests which were
tests made at private testing laboratories.
intentionally omitted are crushing strength and shear strength
For the sake of comparison with
across and with the laminations.
the phenolic materials, in section V-23 is given a comprehensive
comparison of laminated and molded phenolic materials, hard
rubber, and vulcanized fiber. This paper deals primarily with the
laminated and not the molded phenolic materials.
Kind of Samples and Scheme op Numbering.
The test samples

measurement of the various properties were, in general, cut
from standard-sized sheets of insulating material such as are fur(They were slabs or
nished by the manufacturers to the trade.
sheets approximately 61 by 93 cm (24 by 36 inches) or 97 by 97
cm (38 by 38 inches) and in varying thicknesses, usually between
inch).
Specimens for the measurements
6 and 13 mm {% to
on all properties were cut from the same large sheet, so the results
on the various properties are comparable.
Each sheet was assigned an arbitrary number when received,
this number being the "B. S. Sample No." given in the tables of
section IV. A record was made of this number, maker of sample,
grade, color, thickness, size, nature of varnish and filler (base),
and date of receipt.
When preparing test specimens cut from these large sheets, each
for
of the several specimens cut for a particular test
were assigned
numbers having no relation to the "B. S. Sample No."

As an example, three tensile strength specimens
of the sheet.
might be cut from sample sheet No. 51 and be stamped A, 3C, and
X. When these samples were mixed with many others of the
same thickness, color, and finish, it would be difficult for the
person doing the testing to check his own results from a knowledge
of other results on similar materials.
Information not Included in Present Publication. The
description of the method of making the various tests is given in a
separate publication entitled V Methods of Measurement of Properties of Electrical Insulating Materials."
The bibliographies of
periodicals and patents, etc., are also prepared separately as laboratory reports under the titles, "List of Books and Periodicals
arbitrary
pieJtUT]
on
Laminated Phenolic and Other

Insulating Materials," and "List of the More Important
Tests, Properties,
Electrical
and Uses
507
of
United States Patents Covering Electrical Insulating Materials

and Methods of Manufacture." A limited number of copies of
these
two reports
are available at the radio laboratory of this
Bureau.
5.
COOPERATION IN THIS RESEARCH
The Bureau of Standards has had the hearty cooperation of the

manufacturers at all stages of this work. The four manufacturers
of laminated phenolic insulating materials mentioned above sent
large numbers of samples of their products at the Bureau's request.
The samples sent by these companies had a considerable money
The companies not only sent samples willingly but
value.
contributed advice, experience, and discussion at various phases
The following men representing these companies
of the work.
were particularly helpful to the Bureau in giving such assistance
and cooperation: John A. Holmes and James Mcintosh of the
Diamond State Fibre Co.; W. C. Anderson and C. L. Bonham
of the Continental Fibre Co.; D. J. O'Conor and W. W. Ryerson,
eastern representative, of the Formica Insulation Co.
and
C. E. Skinner of the
Westinghouse Electric
&
J.
G. Miles
Manufacturing
Co.
Besides the manufacturers of the laminated materials a
number
the companies manufacturing the phenolic varnishes and

molded phenolic materials took an interest in this work and
of
assisted in its progress.
The
three companies which manufacture
the phenolic varnishes were the Condensite Co. of America, the
General Bakelite Co., and the Redmanol Chemical Products Co.

The first two named also submitted samples of molded materials.
The results of tests on molded insulating materials, built-up mica,
and other materials are not included herein.
The measurements
of the various properties described herein
were made by the respective sections of the Bureau which specialize

For the reasons stated, the general
in those measurements.
research was originally undertaken by the radio laboratory, and
was at the initiative of the radio laboratory that the several

measurements were made. Besides measuring the radio-frequency
properties the radio laboratory cut and prepared the test specimens
for all measurements.
The work began in the latter half of 1 9 1 7 Work on the methods
of measurement was done by G. C. Southworth of the radio
it
5 o8
laboratory,
who
also
made many
\Voi.i6
of the radio-frequency measure-
ments and arranged for other tests. Credit for the results accomplished is due him. Measurements of phase difference were made
by Miss H. H. Smith and B. L. Hall. The collecting and tabulating of the data and opinions on hard rubber, vulcanized fiber,
and molded and laminated phenolic materials were done by
E. Iv. Hall. Prof. H. W. Harmon and E. S. Purington were
instrumental
in
developing
testing set designed
by G.
the
high-voltage
Southworth.
radio-frequency
Ould prepared
a bibliography of periodicals, etc., and an extensive patent list.
Other members of the radio laboratory who have assisted directly
in this work are F. E. Baldwin, H. B. Daniel, and N. Montgomery.
C.
R.
S.
The following members of the Bureau of Standards staff

cooperated by making the tests in which they had particularly
Volume and surface resistivity, H. L. Curtis, C. N.
Hickman, and C. M. Sparks; moisture absorption and density,
E. L. Peffer; thermal expansivity, W. H. Souder and Peter Hidnert; effects of elevated temperature, E. F. Mueller and L. I. Dana;
mechanical properties, H. L. Whittemore, H. A. Anderson, and
G. M. Deming.
specialized:
DESCRIPTION OF LAMINATED PHENOLIC INSULATING

MATERIALS
II.
1.
DESCRIPTION OF THE COMMERCIAL GRADES
Data on the various grades of laminated, phenolic materials

regularly manufactured by the various companies are given below.
Further information on the particular grades can be found in the
descriptive and advertising booklets furnished by the companies.
Besides these standard grades the manufacturers sometimes
make
special grades to suit the particular requirements of a purchaser.
TABLE
1.
Description of Grades of Condensite Celoron Manufactured by Diamond

State Fibre Co., Bridgeport, Pa.
Grade
15
10
25
20
35
30
Color
Black
Black
Natural
Black
Finish
Polished or dull. .
do
do
do
do
do
Base
Vulcanized fiber
do
do
do
Binder
(filler)
Conden3ite phenol varnish

Do.
Do.
Do.
Do.
Do.
Dellingerl
Preston J
TABLE
2.
509
Description
of Grades of Bakelite-Dilecto and Continental-Bakelite

Manufactured ty the Continental Fibre Co., Newark, Del.
BAKELITE-DILECTO
Grade a
Color
XX
XXX
X
X (extra hard)..
G
A
Black or natural...
do
Natural
do
Black or natural.
do
Black
Base
Finish
Polished or dull.
do
Bakelite phenol varnish
do
do
do
do
do
Binder
(filler)
do
do
do
.do. ...
Asbestos
Paper and hard

rubber
Do.
Do.
Do.
Do.
Do.
Do.
CONTINENTAL-3AKELITE
CB..
Black or natural... Polished or dull..
CBL.
a
....do
The
Do.
X grade can also be furnished with the outer surfaces black.
TABLE
3.
Description
of Grades of Formica Manufactured by the Formica Insulation Co., 4614 Spring Grove Avenue, Cincinnati, Ohio
Grade
M
M-2
P
Color
Finish
Black or natural...
do
Natural
do
Polished or dull...
do
Dull
do
TABLE 4. Description
Electric
Grade
Black..
Natural
Black..
Natural
21-D.
do..
Base
Binder
(filler)
Redmanol phenol varnish

Redmanol cresol varnish
Redmanol phenol varnish
Paper
do
do
Do.
of grades of Bakelite Micarta Manufactured by

Manufacturing Co., East Pittsburgh, Pa.
Westinghouse
&
Finish
Color
323. .
213...
32-X.
21-X.
2.
Canvas
Light canvas
Polished or dull...
do
do
do
do
Base
Paper
do
do
do
Canvas
Binder
(filler)
Do.
Do.
Do.
Do.
DESCRIPTION OF MATERIAL AND METHOD OF MANUFACTURE
It
is
not within the scope of this paper to give a detailed descrip-
tion of the process of manufacture of this type of material.
How-
may be of value to those not acquainted

For those desiring a more complete understanding of the various processes the list of patent numbers and
titles mentioned on page 507 will furnish a source of detailed information. The pamphlets listed in the bibliography mentioned on
the same page will furnish some information also.
The two essential parts of this material are the base or filler and
ever, a general description
with the process.
The base consists of sheets of paper, fabric, or fiber,

and the binder is a phenol (carbolic acid) condensation product.
the binder.
5io
\vd.i6
and Bakelite Micarta have

as a binder a phenol varnish (condensation product) manufactured
by the General Bakelite Co., Perth Amboy, N. J. The makers of
Condensite Celoron use a phenol varnish manufactured by the
Condensite Co. of America, Bloomfield, N. J., and the makers of
Formica a phenol varnish manufactured by the Redmanol Chemical Products Co., 615 West Twenty-second Street, Chicago, 111.
The same type of phenol varnishes are used by many companies
in making what are called molded materials, in which the base or
filler consists usually of a powdered material instead of sheets, as
Bakelite-Dilecto, Continental-Bakelite,
in the laminated materials.
Varnish. The varnish referred to in this report as varnish or

phenol condensation product used in the above insulating materials as a binder is, as the term designates, a varnish composed
chiefly of phenol.
In general, the varnish is the result of the
chemical reaction of any suitable hydroxyl aromatic compound,
such as phenol or its homologues and hexamethylenetetramine or
a suitable equivalent active methylene body. The reaction, carried on in the presence of heat, may be stopped at any convenient
point, so that the resulting resin may have any characteristic
between a fusible, soluble resin and an almost infusible, insoluble
For use in this type of insulating material the reaction
resin.
must be stopped while the resin is both fusible and soluble. The
resin in this condition is then dissolved in a suitable solvent, such
as alcohol or acetone, and is then ready for use as the varnish
binder in the laminated insulating materials.
The foregoing description of the process of manufacture of
phenol varnish is not meant to be an analysis for any one kind of
phenol varnish. It is a general process. Further details may
be found by reading the patents covering this class of materials
(see p. 507).
Neither does this description give a true idea of the
complexity of the processes nor the probability of a nonuniform
product.
Laminating. Paper, fabric, or fiber may be more or less easily

impregnated or coated with a phenol varnish. If sheets of paper
have been so treated and dried at a low temperature, they are
ready, then, to be built into a sheet of insulating material of any
After a certain number of the impregnated
practical thickness.
sheets have been stacked together the stack is put in a hydraulic
This heating tends to
press and subjected to pressure and heat.
complete the chemical reaction in the varnish, which was stopped
pfJZO!?]
in the
making
of the resin to permit dissolving.
511
The
press heating
tends to ''turn-over" or convert the varnish to an insoluble,

of impregnated sheets has now become
dense
sheet of insulating material.
a mechanically strong,
Grain. Since paper has a grain that is, a unidirectional
fibrous structure and a resulting greater strength with the grain
it is evident that if each sheet of paper is built into the stack in
infusible state.
The stack
the same direction with reference to the grain, one should expect
the resulting compressed insulating material to have a grain.
This point will be raised again in the analysis of data on mechanical
properties in section V, "Discussion of results."
Finish.
The condition of the surface of the finished sheet of
dependent on the condition of the face plates

which are called platens. If these are polished, the sheet will have a polished surface; whereas if the platen
faces were unpolished, the sheet will have a dull surface.
A dull
surface may be polished by buffing with oil and rouge, but such a
insulating material
is
of the hydraulic press,
method may
affect the electrical properties of the surface of the
insulating material.
Color.
At some stage in the manufacture or use of the phenol
varnish a dye
may
be added, usually black. It is quite easy to

recognize the various grades of laminated materials if natural
colored samples only are considered, but to know each material
and grade when all samples are black requires a thorough understanding of many details. The average user of the material would
have much difficulty in checking his stock if the materials or
grades were mixed by him or the jobber. Furthermore, some of
the retailers of these laminated phenol-methylene insulating materials fail to appreciate or
know any
particular kind of material, so the
difference in grades of a
consumer
may
misjudge the
by not receiving the grade best suited to his needs. The

manufacturers could assist by stamping the grade designation on
each sheet, but the user must always take precautions to inform
himself as to what grade of material he really has.
material
III.
1.
PROPERTIES MEASURED
REASONS FOR CHOICE OF PROPERTIES

(A)
CHOICE OF ELECTRICAL PROPERTIES
Phase Difference or Power Factor.
The principal aim of
the research being to determine the suitability of the materials

for electrical
uses,
most attention was given to the
electrical
512
properties.
The
\voi. 16
limitations of an insulating material used in
by the magnitude of
This is a phenomenon which causes the material to heat when a varying current
flows in it. The amount of this property is given by a -quantity
alternating-current apparatus are measured
the power loss caused
by dielectric
absorption.
which is explained just below in section

measured at radio frequencies, (a)
more accurately measurable at radio frequencies than
called the phase difference,
III-2.
This
property
is
because it is
at low frequencies,
(b) because this research has particularly in

view the radio uses of insulating materials, (c) because the value
of phase difference at radio frequencies largely determines the
radio-frequency voltages the material will stand without injury,
and (d) power loss in insulating parts introduces resistance into
the circuit of radio apparatus and diminishes selectivity. A
knowledge of phase difference or power factor sheds light on the
basic theory of action of electrical insulating media.
Dielectric Constant. The dielectric constant is an important

property in an insulating material to be used in making up a conIt determines the amount of alternating current which
denser.
when an
alternating voltage is impressed on the condenser.

an important part in determining how much the
condenser heats and the high-frequency voltage at which the
insulating material is injured. This property is easily measured
simultaneously with the measurement of phase difference. Both
these properties are measured at radio frequencies. The dielectric
constant is not greatly different at low frequencies and at radio
flows
It thus plays
frequencies.
Voltage Effects at Radio Frequencies.

of
No measurements
the dielectric strength or puncture voltage at commercial
frequencies were made, since, as already stated, the materials are
seldom used where voltages are so high as to be destructive.

Measurements of the effects of high voltage at radio frequencies
have been included, however, because these materials are used as
supporting the parts of generators of radio-frequency
current in which fairly high voltages are present. The voltages
required for destruction of the material at high frequencies used
panels
in radio are very
much
smaller than for low frequencies.
effects of voltage are discussed further in section
V,
'
'
The
Discussion
of results."
Insulation Resistance.
Generally
speaking,
the
phenolic
materials are used for insulating purposes at voltages which are
pJST]
513
not so high as to threaten destruction of the material. For lowvoltage work it is important to know how well the materials
Hence, measurements were made to determine insulainsulate.
Electricity leaks along the surface of an insulator
tion resistance.
well
through
its volume, and so it is necessary to determine
as
as
both the surface resistivity and volume
resistivity.
These and
the other properties are carefully denned later in section III.

(B)
CHOICE OF MECHANICAL PROPERTIES
A material for any purpose must satisfy certain mechanical

requirements or the most splendid electrical properties will be
For instance, it must be able to bear the weight it
of no avail.
has to carry without breaking. Certain grades of the material
are sold, primarily, for mechanical purposes.
usually very good for insulating purposes also,
Such grades are

where only low-
frequency currents are considered and the chief requirements are

Whether the chief requirements are electrical or
mechanical.
mechanical, the mechanical properties must be known.
Such
data are necessary in the designing of electrical apparatus and for
comparative information on the various kinds and grades of
insulating material.
Density
and Moisture Absorption.
The
absorption
of
The
moisture has an important effect on many
reasons for measuring density and moisture absorption are analyzed
elsewhere in this paper (sec. V-6). The percentage of moisture
absorbed by a sample when immersed in water for a stated time
is a measure of how thoroughly the phenol varnish has protected
the cellulose fiber against moisture. Composite material, such as
of the properties.
the laminated phenol-methylene type of insulation,

therefore, of absorbing varying
atmosphere.
amounts
is
of moisture
capable,
from the
Hard rubber also absorbs moisture but to a much

The effect of this naturally absorbed moisture
smaller extent.
is
shown by the data on the effect of season on phase

and on surface resistivity (p. 610) in
(pp. 609 to 610)
difference
section V,
"Discussion of results."
Tensile Strength.
Tensile strength data furnish
specific
and
comparative information to those designing electrical insulator

parts, which are under mechanical stress.
The modulus of elasticity (tensile) shows a peculiarity of this type of material.
Its
modulus is very small in comparison with metals. The various
makes of insulating materials differ somewhat in this respect, but
514
[Voi.16
is between grades of the same kind of

This difference is probably owing to the different percentages of varnish in the different grades. The proportional
limit of the materials gives information as to the stress which can
not be exceeded without gradual yielding taking place in the
the greatest difference

material.
material.
Transverse Strength.
Transverse
data are equally important.
The
or cross-bend strength
greater portion of the materials
When such
laminated materials are subjected to a bending stress, there is a
tendency for the laminations to shear owing to the different strain
on the extreme (outer) layers. Tensile and transverse strength
data give comparative knowledge of the strength of the different
laminated materials and also furnish material for comparison
with like data on hard rubber and other materials. In transverse
strength tests modulus of rupture and modulus of elasticity have
been considered. Modulus of elasticity values are missing for
some materials listed in the tabulated data shown on pages 524
"to 533.
Some samples were tested without using a deflectometer,
so there were not sufficient data to compute modulus of elasticity.
A few measurements of proportional limit (transverse) were
made. Some of these data are given on page 574 in connection
discussed in this report are of a laminated structure.
with data on proportional limit (tensile)

Hardness. Hardness of the various insulating materials has
been measured for several reasons. The laminated phenolic
materials are being substituted for hard rubber, the hardness of
which varies considerably with temperature. Therefore, it has
seemed fitting to measure the relative hardness of the various
materials at different temperatures. Also, the hardness of the
phenolic materials varies with the length of time the sheets have
been cured. Hardness data are being accumulated with the hope
that it will throw some light on other mechanical and electrical
data.
Impact Strength.
a material or
Such
tests
Impact
its ability
show
chiefly in grades.
tests determine the brittleness of
to withstand a suddenly applied force.
differences in the various kinds of material,
Percentage of varnish, kind of
filler,
but
and length
impact strength values.

Permanent Distortion. Under the heading of distortion
tests come measurements of permanent distortion (or warp under
stress) and natural warp.
The measurements of permanent dis-
of curing influence the
PresZT]
515
were made to compare one phenolic

such with hard rubber, since one of
the chief difficulties with hard rubber is that it warps under stress.
The warping of hard rubber increases when either stress is increased
or heat is applied, but this paper will contain no data of comparative warp under stress and heat.
Machining Qualities. Since this investigation was started to
show how one laminated phenolic insulating material compared
with another and how all such materials compared with hard
tortion or
warp under
stress
material with another and
all
make it necessary to compare

Hard rubber can be sawed, drilled, tapped,
rubber, practical considerations
machining
qualities.
turned, threaded, and milled with comparative ease.
Of course,
in the
this
provided
but
can
be
against
hard rubber
designing and machining of parts. The laminated insulating
materials of the phenol-methylene type are comparatively tough,
hard to machine, and dull the machine tools rapidly. The different kinds and grades of such material may differ in this respect.
The extensive arbitrary test scheme outlined in a separate Bureau
publication mentioned on page 506 was intended to approximate
general simple machining operations, such as might be performed
in the average shop using the various phenolic insulating materials,
and to obtain statements from the Bureau of Standards machinists
is brittle,
concerning their preferences of the various kinds and grades of insulating material for different operations, based on their own work.
(C)
CHOICE OF THERMAL AND CHEMICAL PROPERTIES
Thermal, Expansivity. The use of insulating materials of the

phenol-methylene type on delicate instruments of varied types has
made it necessary to know the thermal expansivity of the various
kinds of material. If the delicate instruments whose construction
includes such material are to be used where there are appreciable
temperature changes, it is important to know whether any set of
changes with temperature will be the same during a similar subsequent temperature cycle.
Heat Effects. An attempt was made to analyze the effect of
relatively high temperatures on the various laminated insulating
materials. This test was used to determine, if possible, which
materials were best adapted to the higher temperatures.
Chemical Effects. Because of the multitude of uses to which
the phenolic insulating materials are put it seemed necessary to
determine some effects of acid and alkali on them. We have had
numerous requests for such information. It is probable that such
9642222
516
tests are
more important on the molded types
[voi.16
of phenol-meth-
ylene materials because of the tendency to replace the more or less

brittle hard-rubber containers for acids with the molded phenolic
materials.
DEFINITIONS OF ELECTRICAL PROPERTIES
2.
Phase Difference.
The property called phase difference
is
quantity which gives a measure of the power loss accompanying

production of heat in the material when an alternating current
In most materials this power loss or heating is caused by
flows.
phenomenon of dielectric absorption. This phenomenon is

somewhat like viscosity in a liquid and is sometimes called "dieThe power loss can be caused by a very low
lectric viscosity."
volume resistivity, but materials of
j
the
such very low resistivity are hardly

suitable for use as insulators.
The phase difference has a very simple relation to a more widely used
quantity, the power factor.
fact,
equal to
it
most
in
It
cases.
is,
in
When
alternating current flows in a condenser
having a solid insulating material between the plates, the current is not
The phase difference (^)is magnified.
exactly 90 degrees out of phase with
the impressed voltage, because of the existence of the heating or
power loss. Instead of being exactly 90 degrees, the phase angle
is some slightly smaller value and the cosine of this phase angle is
called the power factor.
The small difference between the phase
angle and 90 degrees is called the phase difference. The power
Fig.
Diagram of phase
and E
1.
rela-
tion of I
loss in
the material
is
P = EI
cos6,
where E is the voltage across the condenser, / the current, and 6

the phase angle (see Fig. 1)
The factor cos 6 is the power factor.
Letting \p = the phase difference or 90 degrees 0,
.
P = EI
sirup.
It follows that
sin
That
is,
sin
\p
is
factor
cos
6.
equal to the power

except extremely poor condensers \p is small,
all
practically equal to
it
the sine of the phase difference
In
factor.
\p
\p,
follows that usually
and
since sin
is
\p
is
(in radians) is
equal to the power

equal to the power
ptl %r]
Phase difference
factor.
517
usually expressed in degrees, and
is
power factor in per cent. Power factor in per cent

by multiplying phase difference in degrees by 1.75.
Since the phase difference in radians
is
is
obtained
usually equal to power
factor, therefore
*-r
In words, phase difference
is
the ratio of power dissipated as heat
power flowing (EI)
(P) to total
\p
R ohms X
-^^
m degrees = 0.1079
X meters
.
(ia)J
Cixuf
^-L
one wishes to express this property of an insulating material

terms of watt loss (P)
If
in
P = EI^
=2 t
CE
constant
where
E is
/
is
\p
is
/ is
is
5 is
f($K)
SE
the voltage across the condenser,
the current,
the phase difference in degrees,

the frequency in cycles per second,
the dielectric constant,

the area of one of the condenser plates in square centimeters,
T is the
P == RP
thickness of the dielectric in centimeters.
where R is the equivalent resistance in ohms.

Dielectric Constant. The dielectric constant of an insulating
material is the property which characterizes the material in determining the capacity of a condenser employing it. It is the quanAlso
tity
K in
00
r
C = 0.0885
C is
farads, S is
where
stant of
(2)
the capacity of a flat-plate condenser in micromicrothe area of one of the condenser plates in square centi-
meters, and
meters.
KS
-y-
is
the thickness of the insulating sheet in centi-
The dielectric constant of air is 1 and the dielectric conmost substances is between 1 and 10, except water, which
has a dielectric constant of 8 1
518
Flash-over Voltage.
Flash -over
voltage
is
\Voi.i6
here defined as
the effective radio-frequency voltage necessary to arc over the

surface of an insulating material between skirted brass studs
(diameter = 2.0 cm) placed with a distance of two centimeters

between their nearest points.
^~
530AZ
1.6(10)" Z
"
fC
(3)
'
frequency of the alternating current, X is wave length in

the capacity in micromicrofarads, E is volts, and I is
amperes. The definition of flash-over voltage is not complete
without further specification of time and other factors. (See
paper mentioned on p. 506 and sec. V-3 of this paper.)
Electrical Resistivities. The current which flows between
two conductors insulated from each other by a solid material is
made up of two parts that which flows through the insulator
proper and that which flows through a film of moisture or other
semiconducting material on the surface of the insulator. The
relative importance of these depends on the resistance of the two
paths.
Since water, even if very pure, conducts much better
than the ordinary solid insulators, a very thin film of water may
have much less resistance than the insulator.
where
/ is
meters,
is
Volume
Resistivity.
The volume
resistivity p of a material is
defined as the resistance between two opposite faces of a centi-
For any specimen of cross section S and length
meter cube.
resistance
the
is
pl
am
RS
(4)
By
analogy the surface resistivity is debetween two opposite edges of a square

the film is uniform over a surface,
Surface Resistivity,
fined as the resistance
surface film.
If
R'b
-:
where a
is
the surface resistivity and R' the resistance of a rec-
tangle of the film of length
the film
is
t,
a = p f \t.
and breadth
b.
If the thickness of
the volume resistivity of the film will be
p'
or,
(5)
j = <rt.
Prist!!!?]
Since
a,
519
the surface resistivity, depends upon the thickness of
not a property solely of the material of the film, and

the term "resistivity," which is generally used to express the
property of a material, can not strictly be applied. However,
the film,
since
it is
both the thickness
face film depend, under
and the volume resistivity p' of the surany given conditions, upon the material
it is deposited, surface resistivity may be considered as

a property of the material on which the film is deposited. Thus,
we speak of the surface resistivity of glass, hard rubber, etc.,
though these materials only serve for condensing the moisture
and do not carry any of the current.
For a more complete explanation of volume and surface resis-
on which
B. S. Sci. Papers, No. 234, by H. L. Curtis, entitled

"Insulating Properties of Solid Dielectrics."
tivity, see
3.
DEFINITIONS OF MECHANICAL PROPERTIES
Density. The density of a substance is its mass per unit

volume. In the cgs system density values are expressed numeri-
by the number
cally either
cubic centimeter.
Since
it is
grams per milliliter or grams per

customary among engineers to speak
of
terms of grams per cubic centimeter, all the tables

giving Bureau of Standards density data are headed "grams per
cubic centimeter." This is slightly in error, but values expressed
in g/ml and g/cc differ by only 27 parts in 1 000 000.
Moisture Absorption. Moisture absorption is here given the
arbitrary definition The percentage by weight of water absorbed
by a sample (cut 5 by 10 cm by the natural thickness of the
material) when immersed in water at room temperature for 24
Results obtained on samples of any other size or shape are
hours.
not comparable with moisture absorption as here defined.
Ultimate Strength. Ultimate strength (tensile) of a material
is the pulling force, in pounds, necessary to break a given sample,
divided by the area of the cross section in square inches.
Modulus oe Elasticity. Modulus of elasticity (tensile) is the
of density in
ratio of the
magnitude of the
stress to that of the
accompanying
unit elongation produced.
Modulus
where
of elasticity (tensile) =t-j-v>
P = load
marks,
reduced
'
in pounds, L = distance in inches between gage

= elongation in inches, 6 = width of sample in inches at
section, d = thickness of sample in inches.
520
Where
sile)
cylindrical samples are used,
PL
=
modulus
of elasticity (ten-
where a = area of reduced section in inches, bd
j-
[Voii6
is
equiva-
P
The formula
lent to a.
j may be written ~
and
being the stress per unit area or the measure of

is
the strain per unit length or the measure of strain.
The formula
panying
stress,
PL
or PL
rj-7
a
bd
is
then a ratio of stress to the accom-
strain, this ratio
being constant within the limits of elas-
ticity.
Proportional Limit.
is
Proportional limit (abbreviated P-limit)
the stress at which deformations cease to be proportional to the
determined by plotting a stress-strain or loaddeformation curve. This definition holds both for tensile and
transverse strength measurements.
Modulus of Rupture. Modulus of rupture is the maximum
stress in the extreme fiber
that is, outer surface of a specimen
tested to rupture by a transverse force, as computed by the
empirical application of the flexure formula to stresses above the
load.
This point
is
transverse proportional limit.
Modulus
of rupture (sometimes called

3
maximum
P L
letters refer to the
Modulus of Elasticity.
U\
(7)
TT*
where the
fiber stress)
same terms as below.
Modulus
of elasticity (transverse) is
the ratio of unit stress within the proportional limit to the corresponding unit strain.
L 5
= -r-rr
2
Modulus
of elasticity (transverse)
PU
~4.bd 3 f'
where
P = load in
pounds (concentrated at
= width of sample in inches,

d = thickness of sample in inches,
/ = deflection at center in inches,
S = unit stress,
L = length of span in inches.
b
center),
(8)
pfJfZT]
Brinell
Hardness
(abbreviated B. h. n.)
is
Numeral.
Brinell
521
numeral
hardness
the ratio of the pressure on a sphere used
be tested to the area of the spherical

diamindentation produced. The standard sphere used is a 10
The pressures as chosen for tests on
eter hardened steel ball.
these materials are 500 kg for the harder materials and 250 kg for
softer materials, and the time of application of pressure is 30
Five hundred (500) kilogram pressure was used in all
seconds.
to indent the material to
mm
regular tests recorded in this paper.
B. h. n.
= P-7r tD = P + [wD (D/2-^D l4-d

2
P = pressure
l4)]
(9)
in kilograms,
= depth of indentation,
D = diameter of ball,
d = diameter of indentation,
t
dimensions being expressed in millimeters.

Shore scleroscope hardness is
the height of rebound of a diamond-pointed hammer falling by its
own weight on the object to be tested for hardness. The value is
measured on an empirical scale on which the average hardness
On very soft materials
of martensitic high-carbon steel equals 100.
a " magnifier" hammer is used in place of the commonly used
"universal" hammer, and values may be converted to the corresponding "universal" value by multiplying the reading by 4/7.
The scleroscope hardness when accurately determined is an index
all
Shore Scleroscope Hardness.
of the tensile elastic limit of the material tested.
Impact Strength.
ical
Impact strength
is
defined as the
mechan-
energy absorbed by a standard test piece during fracture by
a blow from a pendulum hammer.
Permanent Distortion.
permanent
Permanent
distortion
is
here de-
due to a certain dead

weight centrally suspended from a sample of known dimensions
supported by V blocks with a definite separation. The natural
distortion or warp of a few sheets of insulating material has been
considered under this head.
Machining Qualities. Machining qualities are not capable of
rigorous definition.
In this work they are considered to be given
by the ease of machining, surface finish of machined samples,
effect on machine tools for specimens sawed, turned, machine and
fined as the
set or distortion
522
die threaded, tapped, drilled,
\voi.i6
and shaped, according to the
ar-
bitrary tests outlined in the Bureau publication mentioned on
page 506.
The
results of such tests are largely
determined by the
personal judgment of the machinist.

4.
DEFINITIONS OF THERMAL AND CHEMICAL PROPERTIES
Thermal Expansivity.
rial is
rise in
Thermal expansivity of a
solid
mate-
the increase in length per unit length per degree centigrade
temperature.
Heat Effects.
The heat
determined here were merely

the effects of the application of heat over a range of 100 to 500 C.
The approximate temperature at which blistering, cracking, and
charring begin was recorded.
Effects of Chemicals. The chemical effects determined in
this work were the effects on 5 by 10 by 1.27 cm samples of laminated phenolic insulating materials when immersed in a 22 per
cent (by weight) solution of sulphuric acid or a 17 per cent (by
weight) solution of sodium hydroxide (caustic soda) for 48 hours.
The following effects were considered: Visible effects (swelling,
splitting, etc.), increase or decrease in weight, and change in
effects
hardness.
IV.
PRINCIPAL ELECTRICAL AND MECHANICAL PROPERTIES
1.
The
TABULATION OF RESULTS
four ensuing data sheets give in a condensed form the re-
many
The methods of securing the data

"Methods of Measurement of Properties of Electrical Insulating Materials " and the
final results are analyzed below.
The arrangement and abbreviaThe notes collected below,
tions have been explained in part.
however, make the four data tables independently complete.
Column 1 specifies material, grade, color, and surface finish.
Column 2 gives the identification number assigned the sample
when received.
Column 5 gives the dates on which the phase difference (^) and
sults of
determinations.
are given in a separate publication entitled
were made.
phase difference and
dielectric constant at the lower and maximum wave lengths used
on that day. Usually such determinations were made at five or
more different wave lengths. The temperature and relative
humidity of the air near the sample was measured. The values
are on record in the radio laboratory and have not been given here.
dielectric constant (K) determinations
Columns 6-1 1,
inclusive, give values of
fSST]
The statement,
523
sample baked (date)," appears several times in

these columns. The average time of baking was 96 hours and
the temperature about 80 C.
Columns 13 and 14 are somewhat irregular, in that some measurements of surface resistivity were made at 34 per cent relative
humidity instead of 25 per cent and some at 42 per cent instead
"
of 50 per cent.
These values were determined on samples 5 by 10

in columns 3 and 4 (see pp. 524 to 533).
Columns 18 and 20. Where x and y appear with values of
ultimate strength or modulus of rupture, it means that one value
was obtained on a sample cut out the way of the grain and the
other in a direction 90 degrees from the first. It is to be pointed
out that where more than two values of tensile strength are given
for test pieces cut from one sample one test piece marked x of any
pair may not have been cut in the same direction as a test piece
marked x in another pair. The test specimens marked x in the
tensile strength column are not necessarily cut in the same direction as a modulus of rupture test specimen marked x.
Columns 22 and 23. The letters B and S refer to Brinell method
and Shore scleroscope method, respectively. A and B refers to
side of sample tested.
Values of the A side only are given unless
the A and B values differ appreciably. Thus, B-42-A means
Brinell hardness numeral of 42 on side A.
The results condensed into these four large tables are given
more fully in the graphs and tables of data on particular properties
Column
17.
cm by the thickness stated
that follow.
524
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m
*
O
rH
B-$
CO
cm
CM
Mar.
Tf
eg
8^ ^
t-4
,-1
H
CM
eg
i-l
o
o
5,1919
&
sssuspiq; sjBtn{xorddy
jsqranu ajdraes *s *a
Sept.Nov.
vd
27,
4,
2 8
CO
**
1919
1918
cm
Mar.
X
vo
^ ^
inmeg
lOi-lt^.
CM
'
r-l
cs
is
s
1
CO
o
p
X
c\i
300x
OOOy
500y
9 11 10 10
a>
.2
JU30
24 12 24 11
bO
juao jad 8
700x
OOOx
OOOx
13 13 14 14
700x
900x
300 400 700 700
i-ICO
-sb]8 jo
400x
200y
15
Dellingerl
Preston J
B-35-A B-34-B S-64-A
A B
B-40-A B-38-B
S-70.5-
ooo
o oo
com cm
=>
g"gg*
o o o 00
ooo
OWN
CO VO
OOWOOOO
.81
1.38
1.37
.95
CO
1.39
X
1.27
^f
S-65-B
S-70.5-
533
534
2.
Woi.
z6
PHASE DIFFERENCE AND DIELECTRIC CONSTANT
results of the measurements of phase difference and dielecconstant

on representative samples are shown graphically in
tric
the following Figs. Nos. 2 to 27.
The
,00
/
O/ffeênce n Degrees
>
2er
Ajk
*<*
Ao
CaP a-
-1
<=>
tea
^2
H^L/
^/
M^tiO
o'
/j
A//to
1
S-/O BaKet /t&-n t&etc

,
Grade XX
.4
1500
1
FlG.
2.
Change of phase
a 35 cm ThicK
"
BlacK -
21 70
7 00
33 00
eteng rh in Meft ?rs.
difference, capacity,
39 OO
and equivalent
or frequency, of Bakelite-Dilecto, grade
XX,
resistance with
0.35
cm
thick
wave length
Dellingerl
Preston J
535
9/so
/
/
/
i.
^2 ic?
}7
Des
o/
ifll__
== o^ ^
//
/
pa'A-
uf
o-
t6C
OP
.s-
7/ citKtsffi e>-Di/t ?rto
Grade XX 3/acH
Q63crr< Th/cK
Y)
/T QL
3.
Change of phase
pmn
y/ on
.?.? 7f?
Wavetengrh in Meters
\
Fig.
ill
and equivalent
XX,
resistance -with
0.6J
cm
thick
wave length
536
>
r*,,,.
Woi.16
^
ot^Z. ^20?es__
*.
Capaci ty
Go
wf
^/
300
\^
kf
9?
J*6
.s-/
Grade XX B/acH.
0.96cm ThicK
/4o
so6
70 o
onn
1
1
"<-.,.
Wovei&ngrh in Meters
1
Fig. 4.
Change of phase
difference, capacity, and equivalent resistance with

o.g6 cm thick
XX,
Fig.
5.
Change of phase
difference, capacity, and equivalent resistance with

or frequency of Bakelite-Dilecto, grade
1.27 cm thick
XX,
wave length
wave length
Dellingerl
Preston
rapacity
537
mm?
'3-60 BaKe/ife-Di/ecro
Grade X Nat.
0.60cm ThicK
600
MOO
1200
3000
'
3600
Wave/engTft in Meters
Fig.
6.
Change of phase
and equivalent
or frequency, of Bakelite-Dilecto
grade
X,
resistance with
o.6o
cm
thick
wave length
538
\Voi.x6
Ca pocinuML
3I0_
iS
S-/65 3 ah eO'te-Oj/ec ro
X Nat
G96cm ThicK
Grade
f
600
'JUL.
1400
\
j?1G
ym
Change of phase
200
1600
Wave/engrh in M&rers
and equivalent
or frequency, of Bakelite-Dilecto
Fig.
8.
Change of phase
grade
X,
X,
resistance with
0.96
and equivalent
cm
resistance with
1.28
cm
wave length
thick
thick
wave length
Dellmgerl
Preston
Fig.
9.
Change of phase
and equivalent
or frequency, of Bakelite Micarta, grade
539
resistance with
32-X, 0.32 cm
wave length
thick
y
yOZt
/
~&2_
0-
nee n
1
fJe-c
fy
frees
,,r.
g* MMf
.
-Jfo'
0'
y&
S-25 3 BaK elite
m 'car fcr
Grad e
I.
27cm
32- X
Thicf
/
1
10 10
Change of phase
/6 00
Mete rs
1
Fig. 10.
14 00
121 70
wave le
and equivalent
resistance with
or frequency, of Bakelite Micarta, grade 32-X, 1.27
cm
thick
wave length
54-o
A6*P^*
Woi.16
^J
^*v>
jjgjS
Os*
-z^y
yo
&2_Jn Deorees
Capacity
-o
/*/af
..
.&o
^MO
&%
/&00
-?&
y.
6oo
Fig. ii.
Change of phase
/too
1000
i/w
1400
Wa*
-149 Bah. elite icartc

Grade 21-X
/.27cm ThicH
idoo
Meters
and equivalent
2200
1
resistance with
or frequency , of Bakelite Micarta, grade 2I-X, 1.2/
Fig. 12.
Change of phase
and equivalent
cm
resistance with
or frequency, of Bakelite Micarta, grade J2j, 1.25
cm
wave length
thick
thick
wave length
Dellingerl
Preston J
Fig. 13.
Change of phase
and equivalent
541
resistance with
or frequency, of Bakelite Micarta, grade 213, 0.64
cm
wave length
thick
/^>.h
'*/
jjsJl
&*
100
jggS
phi.
2^
i/gg
f^
JJt
a^2
""
S60
j/lsc
c* P.
'V
^<54t
tf
*y
i
of/
3-/34
1
/r50
elite Micar fa
jracfe e/-o
0.t 55
'
1500
1900
1
Fig. 14.
Change of phase
cm
2700
<?J00
Was, e/ength ir
,,
Thick
>
J/00
Mefers
.
and equivalent
resistance with
or frequency, of Bakelite Micarta, grade 21-D, 0.65
cm
thick
wave length
542
FlG. 15.
Change of phase
and equivalent
resistance with
or frequency, of Condensite Celoron, grade 15, 0.31
cm
thick
[Voi.ie
wave length
Dellingerl
Preston J
543
3-/42 Condensite Ca/oron

Grade /5
Q63cm ThicK
/2Q0
I
dOOO
240O
/600
YYave/ength in Meters
2300
1
1?aA+e Ao
Fig.
i6.
Change of phase
and equivalent
resistance with
or frequency, of Condensite Celoron, grade 15, 0.63
Fig. 17.
Change of phase
and equivalent
6 6*f-B.
cm
resistance with
or frequency, of Condensite Celoron, grade 15, o.g6
cm
wave length
thick
thick
wave length
544
FlG. 18.
Change of phase
and equivalent
resistance with
or frequency, of Condensite Celoron, grade 15, i.ji
Phase L iff&r ence
in
Degree 5
Y-y
cm
\VoUi6
wave length
thick
^r
7*
^&S^
\ijJtf
-4J5.
930
/
vy
$-/
Grqde
Fnt
Blact c
0.6Scm Thicf\
(i
/
Fig. 19.
A
1300
/700
100
Waveler
Change of phase
2S0O
>rers
900
and equivalent
or frequency, of Formica, grade
M,
0.65
resistance with
cm
thick
wave length
DelUngerl
Preston J
Fig. 20.
Change of phase
and equivalent
Ph ase
M,
0.94
liffer ence in Dt ?<?ree
545
resistance with
cm
.-?
wave length
thick
/
3.C
/
Acq
<&
4V
J
//so
56
um?
w
C ipacj_ lie
~~~&40
_ri-
V)
s- 2.14
Formica
Gr acfe M BJacK
29 cm Th/cH
QSt
12 nn
M on
ponn
4<
\Wave length in Merers

1
1
Fig. 2i.
Change of phase
and equivalent
M,
1.29
resistance with
cm
thick
wave length
546
\voi.i6
-JZl
-<*-.
,0'
fig*
^laoo
io-*^
*4
I
7^
3-9
/^
/
'
/.63
60
Si)0
cm Thick
Change of phase
Meters
1
i400
1200
1000
WQve/engr/i in
Fig. 22.
ôrrn ica
Grade A
and equivalent
M,
1.63
resistance with
cm
wave length
thick
ji so
&
_P/ja_ sp
SB
Difference
"
CP^
^cr
in Dec prhe JnjA
^ /
/_
22.
1/
/440
4
^30
%/iso-
/C
S-//6
y^n 2_
Fig. 23.
Change of phase
0.65cm Thick.
/m
For mice
Grade M-2 Blaci
1200
/600
2400
2000
Wavetength in Meters
and equivalent
or frequency, of Formica, grade M-2, 0.65
resistance with
cm
thick
wave length
Dellingerl
Preston J
547
-
42 >
Pho
S<=
Dt
CaP.
e?0
Mt*
icity
^"^^
tl-^
,'aso
A Azo
v5
-113
F~o rr 77 /c a
Grade M-Z
t/.24cm
/
Fig.
24.Change of phase
//oO
(400
i8oo
Change of phase
and equivalent
resistance with
cm
and equivalent
or frequency, of Formica, grade P, o.g8
9642222
Z6 00
azoo
Wc ive/sngrh fn Meters
or frequency, of Formica, grade M-2, 1.24
Fig. 25.
ti facK
77?/
resistance with
cm
wave length
thick
thick
wave length
548
TTT
P-r/a-se-
in
Diff^rence
[Voi.16
SO
Degrees
.4*5
>
~*d
/
Capo c> Ho- ~sso
H
71 1
^/
cS/200
Jl
J?
Formica
S-171
Grade
0.64cm ThicK
Oeo
600
200
3000
Waveler igTh in Meter s\
1600
FiG. 26.
Change of phase
J400
and equivalent
or frequency, of Formica, grade R, 0.64
resistance with
cm
wave length
thick
T^-
Phase Diffe renc e
in
Degrees
o.sc
icT^SS
<h /&a
6/
V
city
V<50
<
^5^5-
Mj
1-6
f
1
370
'
-<
>^
Âo
S-4c? Hnr rJ
t*7
/?/j
0.50cm ThicK
/ 10
/soo
(
Fig. 27.
Change of phase
2400
/600
Wa veto not h
cm
thick,
4000
Me ret -5
and equivalent resistance with wave length

sample taken from stock, grade unknown
or frequency, of hard rubber, 0.50
jaoo
in
Dellingerl
Preston
FLASH-OVER VOLTAGE AT RADIO FREQUENCIES
3.
TABLE
9.
549
Suddenly Applied Radio-Frequency Voltage Necessary to Arc the Surface

Two 2-cm
Grades of Phenolic Electrical Insulation between

Brass Studs Placed 2 cm Apart
of the Several
Skirted
Flash-
Grade
Material
Color
Finish
B. S.
sample
Date
of test
number
over
voltage
suddenly
applied
(E f )
Bakelite-dilecto
Continental bakelite..
XX
XX
XX
XX
XX
XX
X
X
X
CB
CB
32-X
32-X
32-X
32-X
32-X
32-X
32-X
Bakelite micarta
323
323
323
Bakelite micarta (pur-
chased
in
market).
Condensite celoron...
do
do
Black
do
do
do
do
do
do
do
do
do
Probably 213.. Natural
10
15
15
do
do
do
do
Black...
do
10
20
do
M
M
M
M
M
M
M
Black
do
do
do
do
do
do
M-2
M-2
M-2
M-2
M-2
R
Hard rubber
Black
do
Natural
do
do
Polished
do
do
do
do
do
do
11
July
23,1918
17 700
11
Apr. 10,1919
July 26,1918
21400
Feb. 12,1919
Feb. 11,1919
20
22
20
17
20
do
do
56-0
56-0
57
162
60
60
164
do
do
166
166
do
do
do
do
do
Dull
Polished
do
Dull
do
146
146
147
25
150
151
151
Polished
15
19
19
19
17 300
000
200
200
900
600
1919
29,1918
18,1919
Feb. 17,1919
21000
18,1919
Feb. 11,1919
19 800
22 400
25,1918
18,1919
8, 1919
7,1919
4, 1919
11,1919
24,1918
8, 1919
8, 1919
7, 1919
17 600
19 900
20 300
19 900
20 700
21 800
17 100
Aug. 13,1918
18 600
19 300
20 800
22 100
Jan.
July
Jan.
8,
Jan.
July
Jan.
Apr.
Jan.
Feb.
Feb.
June
Feb.
Jan.
Feb.
21400
19 400
21800
open
do
do
21-D
Formica
Black
do
Natural
do
Not known
do
do
do
do
15
15
182
Tan.
Jan.
do
160
186
186
187
218
Feb. 17,1919
21500
Jan.
19
21
21
27
5
5
23,1918
18,1919
5, 1919
5, 1919
Aug. 28,1918
Jan. 14,1919
Feb. 5,1919
.do
do
do
do
do
Dull
do
Polished
do
do
17,1919
18,1919
Feb. 11,1919
7,
1919
Feb. 8, 1919
Feb. 11,1919
Feb. 14,1919
July
Jan.
100
100
600
800
16 300
215C0
212
168
101
101
101
Feb.
Feb.
do
do
do
Dull
50
50
50
116
140
July
Jan.
do
do
do
do
103
172
Aug. 13,1918
Feb. 11,1919
18 400
21 COO
Black
do
do
31,1918
7, 1919
20 600
19 800
do
do
do
do
Natural
do
27,1918
8, 1919
Apr. 8, 1919
Feb. 4, 1919
Feb. 8, 1919
July
Jan.
20 800
20 700
18 5C0
19 000
21000
17 200
21800
20 800
21000
22 300
55

4.
The
results of the
iv*i.r6
SURFACE RESISTIVITY
measurements of surface resistivity on represhown graphically in the following Figs.
sentative samples are
Nos. 28 to 39.
Fig. 28.
Change of surface
resistivity with
and
humidity, of Bakelite-Dilecto, grades
XX
pST]
Fig. 29.
Change of surface
resistivity
551
with humidity, of Bakelite-Dilecto, grades
and
XX
552
'
!=
p}=h
Mini-
s ==;===
=^
ggggssggga
~-
^j^W
j
|
gi=i
=========
=1=1=====
[vol.
^^^=|g
SBS
======
;:
mil
HIS
iiii
==g=fgig=
==========?==
=-
-?
tlltl
j
iiiilll
========1111
]~
====== =======

1
nmm
1
Fig. 30.
lad
Mr
laol
Change of surface
LLUol.l
resistivity
Istol
p^\~ng
J\
z^^ât^^
1.011.
Mp
vtb'M
111
ill!
s=^=f
iiii
iiii SsSlssSSs
mi
+z
labM
hb
fxi
Isltfkkl
Is
iiii
QT
"
with humidity, of Bakelite-Dilecto, grades
and
CB
XX
Dettmgerl
Preston J
-tQ
Fig.
'
i
7fl;
31.Change of
553
>KLS 7 T?r-augii>xrr-Kt-Psa^gK?i
BB
4-Q
|
.SO
:6-g1-l-T-r7ig
surface resistivity with humidity, of Bakelite Micarta, grades

213, 323, and 21-D
32-X,
554
pj
G 32
_ Change of surface
resistivity
\voi.16
with humidity, of Bakelite Micarta, grades 21-X,
213,
and 323
Dellrngerl
Preston J
Fig. 33.
Change of surface
resistivity
555
with humidity, of Condensite Celoron, grades
15 and 10
556
Fig. 34.
Change of surface
resistivity with
10, 15,
[Vol.
humidity, of Condensite Celoron, grades
and 20
Dellingerl
Preston
CHS
Fig. 35.
'1
EBB
BBS
\SL
lt>fl>
BBS
557
IftPifrl
BB1
CJiange of surface resistivity with humidity, of Formica, grade
Technologic Papers of the Bureau 0} Standards
558
fill!liiiiliiiiiliiiiiiiiiiiiiiiij
MilH~
tfh
Hj
limiiiiii
!l==5i^ = =i==y====i=i^îy=ii=
IJ||
e=h
iFff
-j-H-HsMd
T'l
1
II
hj
1'
llHlli
---llllllllllBl
1x1
rx
gg====g========
-
.
ll
jjfjlj
W-
II
'1
1
I
mm
II
It
1
uU
rm#H+Jftp V
1
LU L-U..LJ-U
Tl~-:|
".
II
I3tZ
11IKI1I
\
1\
pin
I^t
fP==s 5 _ =====ri?s55=55S=ZI ss==5555555E5ssssS5S5:S;^==s'* Z^

=
=== =
=1
= == =
jff
mm
J-
)Voi.i&
===========
:.;.:-.-.
======= I
ife^l 5=EV >l==j =====

T
Fig. 36.
Change of surface
resistivity
with humidity, of Formica, grades P, M-2, and
Dellinger~\
Preston
Fig. 37.
Change of surface
resistivity
with humidity, of Formica, grade
559
M-2
560
Fig. 38.
Change of surface
resistivity
with humidity, of Formica, grade
[Voi,i6
Dellrnnerl
Preston J
Fig. 39.
Change of surface
resistivity
561
with humidity, of hard rubber, sample taken from
stock, grade not
known
562

5.
The
\voi.16
TENSILE AND TRANSVERSE STRENGTH
results of the
measurements
and transverse
shown graphically in the
of tensile
strength on representative samples are

following Figs. Nos. 40 to 51.
FlG. 40.
Stress-strain curves,
tensile strength
tests
on Bakelite-Dilecto and Bakelite
Micarta, showing the tensile proportional limit
Dettingerl
Preston J
Fig. 41.
Stress-deflection curves, transverse strength tests
on Bakelite-Dilecto
Micarta, and Formica, showing the transverse brobortional limit
96422 22
563
BakeliU
564
Fig. 42.
Technologic Pabers of the Bureau of Standards
Load-deflection curves, transverse strength tests
Tested in apparatus described in paper mentioned on page

square inch of cross section, see pages 524 to 533.
506.
ivoi.16
on Condensite Celoron, grade 10

For results computed to pounds per
Dellingerl
Preston J
565
11
-si
..
8 g
566
ivi.i6
Dellingerl
Preston
Fig. 45.

site
567
on Bakelite Micarta, Conden-
Celoron, and Coniinental-Bakelite
Tested in apparatus described in paper mentioned on page

square inch of cross section, see pages 524 to 533.
506.
For
results
computed to pounds per
568
\Voi.i6
?
o
Dellinger']
Preston
Fig. 47.
on
Bakelite-Dilecto
569
and Con-
densite Celoron
All samples approximately 1 inch wide. Tested in apparatus described in paper mentioned on page 506.
For results computed to pounds per square inch of cross section, see pages 524 to 533.
57
[Voi.z6
tt
8
n
q %
"5
is
-4
I
b
a
a
.9
Tt
l
0>
a
Cr>
* +
t
00*
B 8
p i-
w
.3
S3
"3
to
<l>
Dellinger'
Preston
571
s"
,0
3
a
S
P
*2
t3
hi
W
a
ft
*>.
<o
<i>
&
.$
a
3
"3
-S
^
9
03
~S
<;>
T3
JO
s
fe,
42
1
o>
0
hi
4->
s!S
rt
a>
Sj
q>
to
i
0
1/5
2
J
to
S?
III
* 3
tf
=>
to
J?
o>
.2
3 O
K
h
^>
g-g
y s
^
1
Cn
a
w 3
&
<!
<t
572
\v6Li6
.2
I 1
"3
i
S
j3
ft
3 *
>.
54
S3
en
Dellingerl
Preston J
573
^ i
pq
Q
US
Q
a
.a
d
.-2
8
2
***
<u
CU
a
a>
<*>
a
<J
fl
42
>>
<U
aj
"
t3
cS
1^
O
ft
en
en
<u
*1
574
TABLE
10.
Showing the Relation between Transverse and Tensile Proportional
Limit Data Gathered from Tests on Bakelite Dilecto and Formica
B. S.
sample
Grade
Material
Thickness
number
Inch
XX..
Balrelite-Dilecto
X
X
56
61
62
0.23
.37
.50
47
48
49
50
52
54
55
.25
.24
.25
.25
.52
.50
.52
M
M
M
M-2...
Formica
M-2....
M-2
6.
TABLE
[Voi.16
11.
Insulation and
Average
P-limit
Lbs./in.a
7 200
15 000
6 500
Lbs./in.*
3 500
4 700
5 300
500
100
000
100
000
000
9 400
8
9
12
9
14
13
tensile
4
4
4
8
400
800
900
000
3 600
4 300
4 500
IMPACT STRENGTH
Average Resistance
trical
.-
Transverse
P-limit
to
Impact of the Several Grades of Phenolic Elec-
Hard Rubber, Using Standard Test Specimens

Average
B. S. sample
Grade
Material
number
impact
Base
strength
Ft. -lbs.
XX
X
Bakelite-Dilecto
59
62
175
do
CB
0.7
.9
Paper.
Do.
ol.5x
l.Oy
32-X
Bakelite Micarta
21
do
do
153
169.
144.
161.
219.
8-0
118
55
174.
x and y
213
21-D
15
...
10
20
do
Formica
do
do
do
Hard rubber
are used merely to indicate that specimen
M-2
R
Not known
is
.2
.8
2.1
Paper.
.4
.4
1.0
Fiber.
.3
.3
1.5
2.9
.1
Paper.
cut at right angles to specimen y.
Do.
Do.
Canvas.
Do.
Do.
Canvas,
Dellinger'X
Preston J
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Dellingerl
Preston J
577
Permanent Distortion of Panels. Two irregular permanent

made on panels of the phenolic insulating
materials. The test was made at room temperature of 23 C,
using an Emery dead- weight testing machine. The panel was
distortion tests were
V-blocks set 22 inches between centers and the

V -block mounted at the center of the span.
Progressive load increments of 50 pounds were used, and all load
was removed after the application of each 50 pounds increment in
order to note the permanent set that was developed during loading.
supported by
load applied through a
At intervals during loading the load was allowed to stand for 24

hours and then was removed so as to determine whether any inOne sample panel meascrease in permanent set had occurred.
inch
thick.
inches
by
ured 18 by 24
Up to a load of
597.5 pounds this panel seemed perfectly elastic.

This load caused a deflection of 0.5 inch and was allowed to remain
on for 24 hours, after which time the load was removed and it
was found that a permanent set of 0.0938 inch had developed.
The load was then reapplied to a total of 797.5 pounds, at which load
the deflection was 0.8 inch. This load was also allowed to remain
on the panel for a 24-hour period. On removal of the load it was
found that the permanent set had increased to 0.1563 inch.
The second sample measured 18 by 24 inches by V% inch thick.
The above method was followed in this test except in regard to
time of loading and the number of Ames dials used. Deflections
are measured by means of two Ames dials set at either end of the
center V -block. Up to a load of 397 pounds the panel seemed
This load was allowed to remain on the panel
perfectly elastic.
for a 44-hour period, and upon removal of the load it was found
that a permanent set of 0.25 inch had developed. The results of
this test are given below in tabulated form.
TABLE
13.
Temporary and Permanent Distortion Data Taken on One Sheet of
Phenolic Electrical Insulating Material, 18 by 24 by Y% inch. The Method is
Described Above
Load (pounds)
Increasing loads
Pano
Pan+50
Pan+100
Pan+150
Pan+200
Pan+250
Pan+300
Weight
Dial No.
Dial No.
Inch
Inch
0.
00380
00459
00531
.00604
00685
00800
00871
0.
of
pan approximately
00387
00484
.00562
. 00703
.00799
. 00869
.00935
97 pounds.
Load (pounds)
Dial No.
Dial No. 2
Decreasing loads after 44-hour
Inch
applied load:
Pan+300
Pan+250.
Pan+200
Pan+150
Pan+100
Pan+50
Pan
00909
00901
00850
00778
.00696
.00612
00528
0.
00950
.00950
00907
.00832
00730
.00635
00540
0.
578
\voi.i6
Natural Distortion or Warp. Some difficulty has been exby the various apparatus manufacturers using the lami-
perienced
nated phenolic materials with sheets of the insulating material

having a large natural warp. This property of the various materials has not been systematically considered in this investigation.
Judging from the samples we have received, all the laminated
amount of natural
Whether this warping increases with time we are not able
to state, for no measurements have been made.
One sample which seemed to be warped the worst was selected
from each kind of material and the maximum sag measured. The
sag was measured by placing a rigid meter bar diagonally across
the sheet and observing the distance the sheet sagged from the
phenolic materials are liable to have a certain
warp.
center of the straight bar
TABLE
14.
meter long.
Observations on the Natural Warp of Four Standard Sheets of Phenolic

Grade
Material
CB
Continental-Bakelite
Bakelite Micarta
Condensite Celoron
32-X
15
Formica
8.
Average
thickness
sag
cm
Inch
X
H
%
H
0.6 4
.95
.64
.95
cm
1.1
2.1
.4
.7
MACHINING QUALITIES
description of the
qualities of
Approximate
method
of determining the
the laminated phenolic materials
is
machining
given in the
Bureau publication mentioned on page 506. A discussion of the

Both of these
results follows this discussion on pages 605 to 607.
references are needed for an understanding of the following tabulated results
Dellingerl
Preston J
TABLE 15.Results
of
579
Sawing Tests (Test No.
1)
[Used 12-inch hollow-ground circular saw; no set; speed, 1830 revolutions per minute; cutting teeth per
second, 6780; speed of travel, 5750 feet per minute]
Saws
Grade
Material
Fairly
easily
Bakelite-Dilecto
XX
X
CB
32-X
X
X
323
method
Strong
X
X
x
x
X
20
X
X
M-2
Notes on tests Nos.
Faint
15
Formica
Easily
21-D
refer to the
Phenol odor
2 to 9, inclusive,
as outlined in the
Table
16.
Test numbers
Bureau publication men-
tioned on page 506; b-i, b-2, and b-3 refer to the questions
stated in the same paper.
L and refer to the machinists mak-
ing the tests, Messrs.
Lund and Rheinbold.
Column 5 is given because in some cases it was very hard to

choose one material which was best in respect to questions b-i
As an example, operator L decided that in test No. 2

323, 15, and M-2 worked very similarly to 32-X, X,
and P, but dulled the lathe tool a little more rapidly.
Grades. Only the grade numbers of material are put in the
data table. This is done for compactness. The meaning of XX,
X, CB, etc., are given on pages 508 and 509. The names of the
and b-2.
Grades
XX,
companies manufacturing these grades are given on pages 508 and

509-
Meaning and Order of Entries in Table.
The grades given
below are those which showed noticeable superiority

in the particular quality and kind of test indicated.
Thus, under
column 2 and test No.. 2, the grades 32-X and R appear. This
means that 32-X and R exhibited superior ease of machining in
The entries in column 4 are the grades which had
test No. 2.
In all cases where more than one
least effect on the machine tool.
grade appears in the same group the order of arrangement is the
arbitrary alphabetical arrangement used elsewhere in this paper
and indicates no preference. That is, the order is X, P, for instance, because those letters represent Bakelite-Dilecto, grade X,
and Formica, grade P.
in the table
9642222
580
TABLE
16.
Materials Which Showed
Ease of
machining
Test
Quantity
of
machined
surface b-2
b-1
number and
Machining Tests
Superiority in the Various
Effect on
Similarity in
general
machine
tool
ivoi.16
working
b-3
to the
better
description
Notes
materials
under
L
2,
lathe turning, to determine

quality of machined surface
32-X.. CB....
CB.... 32-X..
M....
32-X..
b-1 and
b-2
XX
CB.... 323
32X
323....
15
M-2
21-D..
M
P
R
3,
lathe turning, to determine

effect
on
32-X
21-D..
tool
32-X
take a die-cut
thread, \ inch, 20-thread
ability
to
XX.... XX....
XX
R
4,
CB.... 323
21-D..
CB....
21-D.
M-2
M-2... XX.... XX.... XX.... 32-X
M-2
..
....
take a machine
thread, \ inch, 20-thread
samples
difficult
15
die thread
M
5, ability to
All
323
to
CB.... XX....
32-X
CB....
323
32-X..
M
6, drilling,
effect
on
nature
of
hole
and
drill
XX....
32-X .
R
(?)
XX.... XX.... 20
32-X..
M-2... 15
CB
32-X..
21-D....
20
M-2...
7,
screw thread tapping,
XX....
(*)
(*)
inch, 20-thread
8, splitting, drilling
and
tap-
ping parallel to laminations
c*5
X, P, and 15
split
20
planing, to determine de-
gree
()
323
9,
XX.... 323
M-2...
CB....
20
of splitting
CB....
CB....
21-D..
20
(&)
00
R
a Others
about equal.
9.
All about equal.
THERMAL EXPANSIVITY
An extended study was made of these materials with a view to

determining their applicability for use in instruments of high
precision which may be subjected to temperature variations.
The accompanying representative curves (Figs. 52 and 53) are
self-explanatory and in general show the tendency of contraction
at constant temperature (above 60 C) of any of the materials
dealt with in this paper.
Similar curves are given for many other
samples of laminated phenolic materials in Bureau of Standards
Scientific Paper No. 352, "Thermal Expansion of Insulating
In most
Materials,' by Wilmer H. Souder and Peter Hidnert.
'
Dellingerl
Preston J
24O0
S459
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/8/v.
90hr.
Vi **
^
V/S/S r
-<
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>'"
{~5hr.
in
'%>".
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581
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'
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- -4QOO
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n -96oo
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Obe. on Heating
6hr
"
Obe, en Cooling
>^
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-M400
/O0
S0
200
/SO
TEMPERATURE
IM
Expansion of Bakelite-Dilecto, grade
Fig. 52.
2SO
CEHTIOUDE
DEGREES
XX
1000
Ssoe
*<
<
/At*
V*H
'Ahr.
PV
/'A
-Mb-.
to
/8
/6
/
.'7
6000
~y
%
on Keating
Ots.
on Cooling
so
TEMPERATURE
Fig. 53.
Obe.
IN
too
DEGREES
CENTIGRADE
Expansion of hard rubber
52
[Voi.16
room temperature, these materials show a

The numbers near the circles repthe observations. The time elapsing between
cases, after cooling to
marked diminution
resent the order of
in length.
consecutive observations
one hour (except at
TABLE
17.
is
indicated.
critical
When
temperatures)
the time
it is
is less than
not indicated.
Summary of the Coefficients of Expansion Obtained on Various Samples

of Phenolic Electrical Insulating Material
B. S.
S446
S447
Bakelite-Dilecto (black,
.
Sample heated
Material
number
XX grade)
do
Average
Air furnace
Oil bath
22
36
XX grade)
Bakelite-Dilecto (natural,
S439
S440
S441
Bakelite-Dilecto (XX grade)

Bakelite Micarta (32 -X grade)
Bakelite Micarta (323 grade)
do
Air furnace
Oil bath
26
Air furnace
21
28
S451
S450
S432
S433
S434
S435
S508
(CB
Oil bath
do
do.&
do.&
,...do.&
Expansion very irregular.

b Nos. S432 and S433 were cut perpendicular to Nos. S434
Air furnace
Oil bath
Air furnace
do
and
33
29
between 25 and 50 C
between 25 and 50 C
between 25 and 50 C
31
between 25 and 60
33 between 20 and 60
C
C
C
C
C
do
grade)
do
between 25 and 60 C
between 30 and
100
do
do
between 20 and 60 C
between 30 and
100
S448
S449
coefficients
X10
in
()
S43S-
Most of these materials when kept at some constant temperature above 60 C shrink in length and lose weight (give off vapors)
When the temperature of the material increases, it expands; but
when kept at a constant temperature above 60 C it contracts.
The following table gives the maximum temperatures to which
the specimens were heated and the changes in weight and in
length after the test. The plus ( + ) sign indicates a gain in
weight or length and the minus ( - ) sign a diminution in weight
or length.
Dellingerl
Preston J
TABLE

18.
583
Showing the Percentage of Change in Weight and Length of 14 Samples
When Surrounded with Heated Air or Oil

Maxi-
Change
in
in
tem-
weight
length
perature
after
test
after
test
Per cent
Per cent
-6.3
-0.1
-2.8
-0.3
-20.4
-0.4
0.2
-0.2
0.2
246
-2.7
-27.6
-0.4
4.0
170
160
-2.0
+0.1
-0.1
0.2
do
60
Air furnace
Oil bath
Air furnace
79
61
+0.2
-0.6
+0.2
-0.3
-0.1
-0.01
0.14
mum
B. S.
Sample heated in-
Material
number
XX grade)
Bakelite-Dilecto (natural, XX grade)
S446
S447
S448
S449
S439
Bakelite-Dilecto (black,
S440
S441
Bakelite Micarta (32-X grade)

Bakelite Micarta (323 grade)
S451
S450
S432
S433
S434
S435
S508
Formica (grade
do
do
do
Hard rubber
do
do
Bakelite-Dilecto
(XX
grade) a
(CB
grade)
do
o After test, specimen
From
Air
Oil
Air
Oil
Air
furnace...
bath
furnace
bath
furnace
do
do
was found warped, cracked on
do
do
sides,
and
253
195
Oil bath
M)
172
147
191
175
blistered
66
100
en upper and lower
Change
1.5
0.00
-0.03
0.8
surfaces.
a study of the work on these materials it is evident that

the length is a function of the temperature, medium in which the
material is heated (air or oil), time, rapidity of heating or cooling,
etc.
584
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co n co 06 06
*^
cMinTj-vo
vo co co in 10 co
.a*
SegES
no
CO
NO *-* CO
tt
r~
r^ on eg
CO
CM CO
co
*-
n-
00 00 co -h m
o
CO NO ON CO NO NO
no o no no co
HOlNlfl
Tf NO NO m
NOt-*tN
'
t-i
ON 00 00 ON ON 00 ON
ON
a>,d
,-<
O CM
CM NO 00
cgm
bfibO
co
*onco
m 00
V CO C^ NO CO CO
CO CO CM
5 eg eg
i-nn on
m co 00 00 co co
eg~<
ON ON
CO
Tl"
00 in
rj-
NO
tooNinuim
"tooMflinm
>*
^ 00 00 eg O
& co in
co co
r-i
O ON
OtONO
O
ON in in ON
CM ON 00 -H
* NO
rtniOvOCOCO
-i
00 t> -h
ON 00 00 00
lOOOOHO
00 rH o on no eg
* CM
CnI
ON 00 CM
in co co ^r * co
ON CO NO
NO t-~
CM
mrtOii-t>
00 00 ON On On 00
ON
ON ON
O CO
ONOONOOO
Om
ifllflNNt*
NCOHN
incovd
no co co vn in co
NO
-* TJ"
Tj- -^-
o
OOO't
in
ron c^ co
<*
00 NO t-c 00 CO
ON 00 00 ON ON 00 ON
.
8 Cg
fl
CD
tJ-
cm
i-i
*-i
c--
i-H
no
o
cm
t-
co t no <*
OOihtHOOi
on 00 on on on 00
'
..
S-2 .3.2
^33
CO On ON vn
COHTfvO 00 00 in 00
m 00 m o c o> o
o
co co c^ 00
cm 00 m r- t- on
ON ON O ON
on 00 00 00 00 00
g
S
tôooM
ONNOoot^
-h -r
co
NO 00 CO c~
NO rt(N]lfl
co no
NVNNO'
* n co co
o 00
m o no
o 00 on o o
oO
io-Ht>oooco
on
no
wnouiHi
<*-mt-7-Hi-i<
on 00 00 NO
o
1
PS
OQ
71
xx
III cococo:q
:
oj
CN]
rt CNJ fN) r< rt
IO CO CM CO CO CM CM
222 ssssss
irnr>
cnj
cm eg
mx***
1 2
d s o o o
3d M
"O -0 13
o n
<U
cs
"fl
1
<}
t^
m m 00
1-4
* 00 -H NO
fH rt CM rH
O
WCgrHrtl
I
-*
*-l
*m
eg HI
cnji
110
586

II,
\Voi.x6
SUMMARIES OF PROPERTIES
The following summaries are obtained as averages of the data

on the various properties of the laminated phenolic materials as
given in section IV-i. This separates the various properties
recorded on pages 524 to 533 and shows the average of data on
each property as determined at the Bureau of Standards. Since
the properties of most of the laminated phenolic materials vary
from sample to sample, the average value would be more pracIn some of the data tables a column of
tical for general use.
per cent variation appears. These values are obtained by computing the average per cent variation from the average.
TABLE 21. Average Values of Volume Resistivity of 15
Grades of Phenolic Electrical
Insulating Material
Grade
Material
Volume
Thickness
resistivity
ohmInch
Bakelite-Dilecto
XX
X
A
xx
Vs
x
X
x
%
X
x
Vs
X
X
X
X
X
X
%
X
X
%
x
X
x
X
3
X
CB
32-Xand21-X
323
and
213
21-D
10
and
20
M
M-2
15
cm
0.64
.95
1.27
.64
.95
1.27
cm X108
18
12
26
130
790
000
000
000
000
000
640 000
.64
200
.64
.95
1.27
.64
.95
1.27
12 000
15 000
990
48 000
530
41000
1.27
100
.64
1.27
.64
4 400
.64
.95
1.27
.64
.95
1.27
.64
.95
1.27
.64
26 000
63
5 000
270
1300
25
20
710
90
600
2 000
60
Dellingerl
Preston J
TABLE
22.
587
Average Values of Surface Resistivity at three Humidities of 15 Grades

Surface
resistivity at relative
humidity
24 per
Inch.
X
%
X
X
%
X
X
X
%
True
Bakelite-Dilecto
X
CB
32-Xand 21-X
Bakelite Micarta
323
and 213
P.
%
X
x
X
x
x
x
%
X
X
%
X
X
Vs
x
X
21-D
Condensite Celoron
10
and
15
20
M
M-2
TABLE
of
Grade
Material
cm
50 per
cent
84 per
cent
Ohms
Ohms
Ohms
X108
X103
X108
0.64
.95
1.27
89 000
14 600
13 000
.64
.95
1.27
4 300
840 000
490 000
cent
2400
4700
4600
2900
6600
2600
14
120
6
9
4
.64
100
.64
.95
7 100
1900
300
520
4000
100
4100
130
37
1100
3500
280
59
96
13
16
3
10
2
3
1.27
.64
.95
1.27
1.27
1000
1900
14 000
6 500
11000
580
14 000
9
21
16
2
71
3
.64
1.27
.64
11000
1800
.64
.95
1.27
.64
.95
1.27
980
260
560
100
240
690
270
98
120
280
11
.64
.95
1.27
.64
600
220
200
340
200
65
640
220
50
3
15
71
50
80
23.
Showing the Effective Voltage Necessary to Arc Over the Surface of a
Sample of Phenolic Electrical Insulating Material Between Two 2-cm BrassSkirted Studs Bolted Through the Sample 2 cm Apart
Grade
Material
Bakelite-Dilecto
32-Xand 21-X
and 213
21-D
323
10
20
Formica
and
M-2
15
Volts
cm
Inch
rr
X
CB
Bakelite Micarta
Thickness
X
X
X
0.64
.64
.64
19 800
19 800
21 100
.64
.64
.64
20 000
19 700
22 000
.64
.64
27 800
X
X
X
X
X
%
X
.64
.64
.64
.64
21000
19 700
20 600
18 400
21000
588
TABLE 24.Average
Values of Phase Difference and Power Factor

Frequencies of Phenolic Electrical Insulating Material
\voi.16
at
Radio
Phase
Grade
Material
Thickness
differ-
ence
cm
Inch
Bakellte-Dilecto.
X
Continental-Bakelite.
CB
32-X and 21-X
and
21-D
Condensite Celoron.
10
and
2.1
2.2
1.8
1.9
1.9
3.4
3.6
3.7
3.8
3.2
3.3
3.3
.64
3.8
6.6
Vs
.32
.64
.95
1.27
2.8
3.0
3.5
2.5
2.2
3.0
2.4
2.1
4.8
5.2
6.1
4.4
3.8
5.3
4.2
3.5
.64
.95
1.27
5.4
4.8
6.7
9.5
8.4
11.7
.32
.64
.95
2.1
3.6
2.3
3.7
6.3
3.6
6.3
4.1
6.5
11.0
1.27
2.54
2.5
3.2
2.7
3.2
3.2
3.4
4.4
5.6
4.7
5.7
5.6
6.0
.64
.95
1.27
.64
.95
1.27
.64
4.6
3.1
3.4
3.7
2.6
2.4
4.5
8.0
9.1
.32
.64
.95
X
x
X
%
x
H
20
Formica.
1.27
X.
v%
15
1.27
.64
A
x
.i6
.32
.64
.95
X
y%
x
i
X
M-2
%
X
X
%
X
X
P...
R...
TABLE
25.
5.9
6.5
4.5
4.2
7.9
Comparison of Average Phase Difference and Per Cent Power Factor of

First
Samples and More Recent Samples of Formica
Samples received
Approximate
thickness
Inch
Early (1917-18)
Do
Recently (1919)
Do
Degrees Per cent

2.0
2.0
X
X
Vs
X
Vs
x
213....
factor
0.32
.64
.95
1.27
.64
.95
1.27
Vs
323
Power
y8
X
%
X
X
/8
x
x
3
Bakelite Micarta
cm
0.64
1.27
.64
1.27
Average
phase
difference
Degrees
6.4
3.6
2.5
2.6
Average
power
factor
Per cent
11.2
6.3
4.4
4.5
Dellinger'
Preston
TABLE
26.
589
Average Values of Dielectric Constant at Radio Frequencies of Phenolic

Dielectric
Grade
Material
Thickness
constant
(K)
Inch
XX
Bakelite-Dilecto.
X...
Continental -Bakelite
Bakelite Micarta
C3
32-X and 21-X
323
and
213.
21-D
Condensite Celoron.
and
0.32
.64
.95
1.27
.64
.95
1.27
4.5
5.3
5.3
5.6
5.3
5.5
5.6
.64
5.3
.32
.64
.95
1.27
5.4
5.8
5.9
6.0
.32
.64
.95
1.27
5.5
6.2
6.0
6.0
.64
.95
1.27
6.6
6.7
6.1
5.9
.32
.64
.95
1.27
.64
6.9
6.4
7.2
6.8
M...
.16
.32
.64
.95
1.27
2.54
5.7
5.2
5.1
5.6
5.8
6.1
M-2
.64
.95
1.27
.64
.95
1.27
.64
5.7
6.1
5.5
10
20
Formica.
. .
cm
P..
R...
15
6.0
5.8
5.6
6.5
59
[Voi.i6
TABLE 27.Average Values of Ultimate Strength and Modulus of Elasticity (Tensile)

ModuGrade
Material
Thickness
Ultimate
Vari-
strength
ation
lus of
Vari-
elas-
ation
ticity
-M000
Inch
Bakeljte-Dilecto
XX
%
y
M
%
y
X
i
Bakelite Micarta
CB
32-X and 21-X
323
and
213
H
y
H
Vs
y
k
Vs
21-D
Condensite Celoron
10
and
15
H
H
y
y
y
Vs
y?
20
y
y
Vs
y
y
Vs
y
M
M-2
i
y
Vs
p.
Vs
cm
Lbs./in.2
Per cent
0.64
.95
1.27
.64
.95
1.27
2.54
13 800
12 700
.64
1.27
9 400
8 000
.64
.95
1.27
.64
.95
1.27
10 800
13
12
14
.64
1.27
.32
.64
.95
1.27
3.02
.64
1.27
11900
15
18
18
18
500
600
600
400
11000
900
400
500
800
8 300
9 500
10
16
16
16
11200
10 700
11100
11500
17 300
8 200
7 500
11400
.64
.95
1.27
.64
.95
1.27
2.54
14
12
13
12
12
13
200
200
900
700
400
800
.64
.95
1.27
.64
.95
1.27
18
19
17
10
8
10
300
300
000
400
900
400
Per cent
Lbs./in.*
1510
15
25
30
23
21
26
2120
2120
2060
41
32
20
16
11
15
3
33
23
34
25
4
4
9
4
11
16
20
17
10
35
32
36
4
12
1720
1730
2410
4
17
2260
33
2
1
Dellinger~\
Preston J
TABLE 28.Average
591
Values of Modulus of Rupture and Modulus of Elasticity
(Transverse) of Phenolic Electrical Insulating Material
ModuModulus
Grade
Material
Thickness
lus of
elas- -
Varia-
rup-
of
tion
ture
ticity-5-
Variation
1000
Inch
XX
Bakelite-Dilecto
X
CB
0.64
.95
1.27
.64
Vs
Y2
.95
1.27
32-Xand21-X
Bakelite Micarta
323
and
H
%
H
H
213
21-D
10
and
15
Yx
%
%
H
20
H
k
%
H
y*
H
M
M-2
P
Vs
H
H
Vs
H
TABLE
29.
cm
H
%
H
Lbs./in.*
16 600
20 700
16 600
22 000
24 500
Percent Lts/in.2 Per cent

7
30
26
21600
.64
1.27
13 800
13 500
.64
.95
1.27
.64
.95
1.27
.64
1.27
17
20
18
25
16 200
15 000
400
600
000
800
14 100
13 700
10
10
3
14
6
20
15 500
20
22
.64
.95
1.27
1290
1340
2370
1440
1470
1050
2060
1150
.64
1.27
15
15
17
12
10
000
200
700
000
200
.64
.95
1.27
.64
1.27
16
18
18
17
17
800
300
100
000
700
9
12
1120
1420
3
15
16
1480
1380
.64
.95
1.27
.64
.95
1.27
18 800
24 300
4
23
21100
28
14 000
14 500
16 800
9
4
3.02
38
6
18
1410
Average
Values of Brinell Hardness Numerals of Phenolic Electrical

Insulating Material Tested at Two Temperatures
Brinell hardness numerals tested at
Grade
Material
Thickness
20-30
Inch
Bakelitp Micarta
H
H
%
CB
Yi
y%
TCTC
Bakelite-Dilecto
32-Xand21-X
323
and 213
Formica
10
20
and
n
Y2
Y2
21-D
Condensite Celoron
Vs
y*
15
y*
M-2
H
%
Y%
%
y*.
M
R
y%
50
cm
42
0.95
1.27
.95
1.27
1.27
40
34
23
32
.95
1.27
.95
1.27
1.27
39
39
35
34
37
34
34
33
30
1.27
1.27
38
38
35
32
.95
1.27
35
37
44
45
38
39
.95
1.27
1.27
1.27
37
39
31
20
30
32
33
34
40
42
34
34
592
TABLE
30.
Average Values
of Scleroscope
lating Material Tested at
[Voi.16
Hardness
Two
of Phenolic Electrical InsuTemperatures
Scleroscope hardness tested at
Grade
Material
Thickness
20-30
Inch
XX
X
Bakelite-Dilecto
H
H
CB
Bakelite Micarta .
32-Xand21-X
323 and 213
y%
Vs
21-D
Condensite Celoron
10
20
30
and
y.
15
y*
H
%
Formica
M-2
y*
y%
y%
P._
TABLE
50
cm
88
87
73
64
58
83
83
65
63
58
1.27
1.27
83
83
79
75
80
78
75
70
1.27
1.27
.64
86
87
75
82
82
74
.95
1.27
.95
1.27
1.27
1.27
84
85
94
86
80
79
93
85
82
64
0.95
1.27
.95
1.27
1.27
1.27
.95
86
70
3 1 Average Values of Resistance to Impact, Expressed in Foot-Pounds, of

Phenolic Electrical Insulating Material as Determined by the Use of Standard,
Square, Notched Specimens
Grade
Material
Bakelite-Dilecto
Inch
XX
X
CB
32-Xand21-X
and 213
21-D
323
10
20
and
M-2
Thickness
15
H
H
y%
y
y
cm
1.27
1.27
1.27
Impact
strength
Ft.-lbs.
0.7
.9
1.2
1.27
1.27
1.27
.8
2.1
1.27
1.2f
.4
1.0
1.27
1.27
1.27
1.27
.3
.3
1.5
2.9
.2
Dellingerl
Preston
TABLE
593
Average Value of density of and Percentage by Weight of Moisture Absorbed in 24 Hours by Phenolic Electrical Insulating Material
32.
Water
Grade
Material
Thickness
Density
absorbed
in 24
hours
Percent-
Inch
XX...
Eakelite-Dilecto
cm
0.64
Vs
yt
.95
1.27
.64
.95
1.27
0.30
.17
.64
1.27
1.32
1.29
.46
.52
.64
.95
1.27
1.36
1.34
1.36
.38
.38
.24
.64
.95
1.27
.64
1.27
1.37
1.37
1.37
1.36
1.36
1.09
.89
.67
1.09
.74
.64
.95
1.27
.64
1.27
1.40
1.43
1.41
1.34
1.35
.32
.24
.22
.32
.46
Yi
.64
.95
1.27
1.36
1.37
1.35
.39
.21
.19
X.
Vs
V*
.64
.95
1.27
1.34
1.33
1.36
.52
.76
.20
X
%
X
.64
.95
1.27
.64
.95
1.27
1.38
1.41
1.35
1.38
1.37
1.39
.77
.53
.52
1.47
1.38
.81
Vs
V*
H
X
Vs
H
X
32-Xand 21-X
323
and
213
Vs
Yi
X,
21-D
}-i
10
and
15..
X.
Vs
Yz
20
X.
Yt
Formica
X
H
M-2
Yi
Vs
Y2
V.
1.
age by
weight
1.34
1.34
1.36
1.34
1.37
1.31
CB
g/cms
.16
2.35
.74
2.20
DISCUSSION OF RESULTS
UNIFORMITY OF PROPERTIES
Sample to Sample.
Variations in
electrical
and other proper-
ties of
materials of the same manufacture and grades are clearly
shown
in the tabulated data
these variations are
on pages 524 to 533. In some cases

by no means unimportant. The causes of
these variations are not easily traced.
Variations in electrical
and other properties of these insulating materials
may be due
to
variations in the phenolic varnish, the paper, the atmospheric
conditions at the time of manufacture, or the

is
way
handled during manufacture.
Samples Submitted
Samples Purchased.
the material
It
has been
gratifying to find that, in general, the samples of laminated
phenolic materials purchased in the open market have checked
quite closely in electrical and other properties the samples submitted by the various companies. In one instance a sheet of
vs.
594
[Voi.16
laminated material was purchased from a Washington firm, who

sold the sheet as Bakelita Micarta, grade 21-X.
Our tests showed
quite clearly that this sheet was grade 213 Bakelite Micarta. This
emphasizes the fact previously pointed out that the purchaser
can not determine the grade of the material from appearance.
Sheets of Formica, grade M, which were purchased for laboratory use about this Bureau, have, in general, shown electrical
properties rather better than the samples furnished by the manufacturer for testing.
Uniformity of Sheet. Tests of the uniformity of a sheet of

made by measuring the volume resistivity of pieces
cut from various parts of the sheet. The results are given on
page 598. Similar tests were made on phase difference. This was
measured for a piece taken from the center and opposite corners
of a sheet taken from stock, B. S. No. 20-256, Formica M.
Pieces
25 by 31 cm (10 by 12 inches) were cut from sheet 61 by 92 cm
(24 by 36 inches).
material were
TABLE
33.
Phase
Difference and Dielectric Constant of Three Portions of a

Standard Size (24 by 36 inches) Sheet of Formica, Grade
Wave
Portion of sheet from which sample
was taken
length
(Xm)
Phase Dielectric
difference constant
(K)
<*)
Meters
Degrees
Center.
1021
1395
1925
1.77
1.73
1.70
4.71
4.74
4.77
Corner.
1015
1388
1919
1.77
1.79
1.70
4.67
4.70
4.74
Diagonally opposite corner.
1017
1390
1920
1.83
1.84
1.79
4.68
4.70
4.74
The
variations are
somewhat greater than the
limit of error of
the measurement.
2.
PHASE DIFFERENCE
512 several reasons were shown why power factor or

phase difference at radio frequencies was given special emphasis
among the properties measured. To one interested in the devel-
On page
opment or
correct use of an insulating material to be subjected
to radio-frequency voltages, the phase difference probably fur-
judgment of such material.

measures of phase difference have been made on a
temporarily constructed condenser using the insulating material
as a solid dielectric, it is not to be inferred that such materials
are actually used for radio condensers or recommended for such
use.
However, when a solid insulating material is used as a
nishes the best single basis for
Because
all
Dellingerl
Preston J
means
of supporting
and insulating binding
wires carrying alternating current, there
is
595
posts, contacts, or
in reality a condenser
or series of condensers between these conducting pieces with the
A relatively
poor insulating
material for radio use is a material that adds resistance to a cirFor this reason it is of value to have
cuit and causes power loss.
experimental data that will determine the relative superiority of
insulating material as the dielectric.
materials in respect to power
loss.
In the equation P = RP, the equivalent resistance (R) of a

sample is equal to the watt loss (P) per ampere. However, (R)
not a constant of the material, since it varies with frequency

size and shape of the specimen.
Phase difference or power factor assists also in an understanding of some other radio properties of an insulating material.
Formula i states that phase difference may be expressed as a
ratio of the power dissipated in the form of heat to the total
power flowing. The effect of the energy lost as heat is cumuis
and with the
lative.
The
initial
heating lowers the electrical resistance of the
insulating material, this causing greater current conduction
and
Thus, when high voltage are used, the insulating material gradually becomes conductive and a flash-over or
breakdown occurs. The phase difference, a property which
expresses the heating of the material, is the most important
single property in determining the radio-frequency current and
voltage that an insulating specimen will stand. It indicates in a
comparative way which material should stand longest under high
This is discussed further in section V-3
Voltage
electrical stress
increased heating.
'
'
effects at radio frequencies."
Effect of Metal Particles in Material. In comparing

some values of phase difference obtained on three samples of
laminated phenolic insulating materials of the same grade received
at the same time surprising differences of properties in the different
thicknesses were observed. The following is a statement of results
on the three samples
TABLE 34.Effect of Metal Particles in Material
Approximate thickness
96422 22-
cm
Inch
0.34
.65
.98
Vs
Vs
Average
phase
difference
(*)
Degrees
3.6
2.2
2.1
596
ivoi.16
It seemed strange that the first
two samples should differ so much,

view of the fact that they were the same grade, made under
same conditions, and presumably differed in thickness only.
Ordinarily the thinner sheets show a lower phase difference or
power loss. After close inspection, howe T er, it was found that
many small metallic particles had found then way into the material.
It seemed probable that these were sufficient to cause, the
unusually high phase difference. They may have been present
in the particular batch of paper used in making up this sheet of
in
material.
3.
VOLTAGE EFFECTS AT RADIO FREQUENCIES
The methods of measuring the radio-frequency flash-over voltage

and other voltage effects at radio frequencies upon the various
insulating materials have not been worked out as completely as
the method of measuring phase difference. It is hoped that more
work can be done at this in the future. The results given on
page 549 show some differences, although not great, in the makes
and grades of material. The data also show a difference in flashover voltage with time of test. This seems to be another effect
of surface-absorbed moisture.
Flash-over voltage is dependent upon the nature of the material,
character of the surface, and the shape, size, and spacing of the
contacts.
Besides the measurements of flash-over voltage, the
materials were tested for endurance voltage, as described in a
Bureau publication mentioned on page 506.
As explained
there,
the measurements of endurance voltage can not be so readily pre-
sented nor interpreted as the flash-over voltage, and hence are

not included in this paper. The results run quite parallel to those
in flash-over voltage and are a fairly good index of the voltage
properties in general.
Measurements of breakdown voltage at radio frequencies were

not made in any systematic way. This occurs at very much lower
voltages than for low frequencies. The breakdown voltage is of
less practical importance than flash-over voltage, since the metal
parts on insulating panels in radio apparatus are usually so placed
that high voltage will produce failure across the surface rather
than through the material.
Breakdown voltages, and to a somewhat smaller extent all the
voltage effects at radio frequencies, are a function of the heating
of the insulating material.
The
not a definite puncture but
is
failure of the insulation is usually
instead a loss of insulating and
Dellinger'X
Preston
597
That is, the material heats up and becomes

a conductor, so that it no longer functions as a dielectric. This
research has shown that a simple statement of voltage for breakdown or any other effect at radio frequencies is meaningless without accompanying specification of a number of other factors.
The experiments made indeed indicate that the phase difference
is fully as good a criterion of the breakdown point as a single
value of voltage. The fact is that the phenomenon of breakdown
depends on the dielectric constant, phase difference, thermal conductivity, specific heat, temperature at which material carbonizes,
disintegrates, and melts, as well as frequency, voltage, and time
of application. The breakdown voltage differs for different shape
and size of sample, shape, size, and location of electrodes, frequency, time of application of voltage, and characteristics of the
source supplying the voltage. It depends very largely upon the
dielectric properties.
phase difference, because for a given voltage the heat produced in

the material is greater the greater the phase difference, and consequently the more rapidly does the material heat and a failure
occur for a given applied voltage. Materials which have high
phase difference generally show low values in the voltage tests.
4.
The values
VOLUME
volume
RESISTIVITY
laminated phenolic indifferent samples of

the same grade in some cases vary by a factor of about ioo in
volume resistivity values. Rather wide variations were also found
when measurements were made at different places on a comparaThe sketch and results below show this:
tively large sample.
of
resistivity of the
sulating materials vary widely also
that
31 c*
l.en.fih.
Fig. 54.
Diagram of
is,
volume resistivity measurements were made on a

sample 25 by 31 cm
places -where
598
TABLE
35.
Volume Resistivity Values a
at
Five Positions on a 25 by 31
[Voi.16
cm
sample
Volume
Position
resistivity
'
Ohm-cm
X108
500
130
130
680
300
3
4
5
All
volume
resistivity
measurements were made at room temperature and humidity.

5.
SURFACE RESISTIVITY
The curves shown on pages 550 to 561 were plotted from the
data given in the summary tables on pages 524 to 533. The dates
of tests recorded in column 5 apply only to the data in columns
6 to 11, inclusive. However, the resistivity data in the table
are recorded chronologically. That is to say, where two or more
resistivity measurements have been made on the same sample,
the values appear in the summary table in chronological order.
Only a few of the first curves shown will be discussed here. The
curves for B. S. sample No. 164 (Fig. 29, p. 551) are rather uniform.
Two test samples (A and B) were cut from the same sheet and
tested twice (about 50 days apart). The earlier data are represented by the two upper curves. The curves for B. S. samples
Nos. 61 and 62 (Fig. 28, p. 550) represent data taken about one
year apart, the upper curves being for the earlier data. In fact,
in all cases where the same sample has been tested twice, the
earlier surface resistivity values are the higher.
This can be
ascertained by comparing the curves and the data on pages 524
to 533-
By comparing the upper curves

Nos. 61 and 62
samples
(Fig. 28, p. 550) for B. S.
might appear that Bakelite-Dilecto, grade X,

was equivalent to hard rubber (see Fig. 39, p. 561) in surface reHowever, if the average values of surface resistivity of
sistivity.
hard rubber at a 25 per cent humidity be compared with a similar
average on the Balelite-Dilecto, the hard rubber will show a much
12
At 84 per cent
higher value, in the ratio of about io 15 to io
hard
rubber
to the X
humidity the ratio of surface resistivity of
10
8
grade, Bakelite-Dilecto sample, is about 3 X io to 1 X io
Some of the second-grade samples (Bakelite-Dilecto, X, and
Bakelite Micarta, 323 and 213) show a higher surface resistivity
at the lower humidities than the first grades. This may be owing
it
Dellingerl
Preston J
599
to the smaller percentage of varnish in the second-grade materials

or to the slightly rougher surfaces on such grades.
table of average values of surface resistivity of the various
and thicknesses
given on page 587.
kinds, grades,
of laminated phenolic insulating
material
It is evident
is
from these data that
the surface resistivity of a particular grade of material varies
The
within wide limits.
following table shows the observed range
of variation
TABLE
36.
Range of Variation in per cent from the Lowest to the Highest Value of
Surface Resistivity at 25 per cent Relative Humidity for Phenolic Electrical Insulating Material Irrespective of Thickness
Grade
Material
Per cent
XX
X
Bakelite-Dilecto
680
11 000
32-Xand21-X
Bakelite Micarta
323
Condensite Celeron
10
Formica
and
and
213
15
130
The
700
210
380
690
550
M-2
6.
Variation
MOISTURE ABSORPTION.
moisture contained in or absorbed by an insulating

now considered very carefully. The effect on per-
effect of
material
is
manence
of shape
and mechanical properties may be temporarily
disregarded for the more serious effect on insulation resistance and
power
By
loss.
on pages 524 to 533 or to the

summary tables on page 593, one can see the different amounts of
water absorbed by the materials of different grade. As an example, the average per cent of water absorbed by a sample of
Bakelite-Dilecto, grade XX, 5 by 10 by 0.64 cm, is 0.30.
The
amount absorbed by a sample of the same dimensions but of grade
X is 2.35 per cent. The grade XX material is advertised to be
made from paper saturated with Bakelite varnish and grade X
from paper coated with the varnish. The data show less moisture
to have been absorbed by the saturated paper material. This
same comparison can be made between Bakelite Micarta, grades
32-X (21-X) and 323 (213), or between Formica, grades M and P.
The other grades and kinds are not so readily compared because
referring to the itemized data
either the binder or

sult
filler
(base), or both,
pages 508 and 509 for this difference.
may
be
different.
Con-
6oo
[Voi.16
The percentages of moisture absorbed by the different kinds

and grades of material can not be compared directly unless
samples of the same size and thickness are used. Where samples
of the same grade are considered, it is evident, from most of the
data given on page 593 that the percentage of moisture absorbed
apparently decreases as the thickness increases. This is because
the percentage values are based on weight and the weight of
the samples does not increase in proportion to the absorbing area
Future measurements of
of samples of different thicknesses.
moisture absorption expressed in grams per square centimeter of
cut and uncut surface will be independent of sample size and
,
thickness.
The impression that any
of the laminated phenolic insulating
are strictly nonhygroscopic is erroneous. One has

only to oven dry a small piece of this material (5 by 5 by 0.64
cm) and try to weigh it in the open atmosphere by using a very
The dried
sensitive chemical balance to determine this point.
sample immediately absorbs moisture (in minute quantities)
from the air and renders a permanent balance difficult. If one
weighs the sample before drying and compares that with some
momentary dry weight, there is an evident loss in weight. If
one claims that this loss in weight is due to passing off of vapors
from continued chemical reaction, then the impression that
such materials are unaffected by heat is erroneous. This is
discussed more fully under Thermal properties below.
materials
'
'
'
7.
'
TENSILE STRENGTH
Effect of Grain. The apparent effect of the grain of the

paper used in these insulating materials has been mentioned on
page 511. The data given on pages 524 to 533 in the columns
headed ultimate strength in most cases are followed by x or y.
When the samples were cut from the large sheets, those cut in
one direction were labeled x and those cut at a right angle to x
were labeled y. It is practically impossible to know the direction
of the grain of
some
of the materials before testing, so the labels
x and y refer only to different directions of cutting. This explains

why some of the x values are greater than the y values.
The data mentioned above shows a greater apparent effect
of grain for those grades that are recommended for mechanical
work. Such grades are designated in this report as second
grade (see p. 617). There is a difference of from 30 to 100 per
cent in the x and y data for these grades of material.
60
pfJl?*]
canvas base materials (see

strength as the paper or fiber
It is interesting to notice that the

p. 590)
do not have as great
base materials.
This
is
tensile
contrary to the
first
beliefs of
many.
a quite apparent explanation of this lower strength in

that,
although there is greater strength in a single canvas
the fact
sheet than in a single paper sheet, a single sheet of canvas is so
much thicker that in a built-up piece of canvas base insulating
material there are fewer binding cellulose fibers in a given space
There
is
than in the paper base material. The canvas base material does
have greater resistance to impact. This is discussed in section
V-10, page 604.
Ductility. The difficulty met in determining the elongation
of the tensile test specimen under stress has been stated in the
paper mentioned on page 506. Values of elongation are, therefore, not determined at more stresses than are sufficient to locate
the proportional limit. The last points plotted in the curves on

page 562, do not represent ultimate strength. By referring to
these curves (Fig. 40) on page 562 one will notice that the
greatest total elongation or deformation of any of the specimens
is about 0.019 of an inch in 2 inches, while the average of the
specimens plotted is about 0.013 of an inch in 2 inches.
8.
TRANSVERSE STRENGTH
The method of making transverse or cross-bend strength tests

on laminated insulating materials is described and illustrated in
another Bureau publication mentioned on page 506.
The curves (Figs. 42 to 51, inclusive) on pages 564 to 573 were
plotted from data obtained by the screw-press method of applying
the load. The curves (Fig. 41) on page 563 differ from the curves
shown in Figs. 42 to 51, in that in Fig. 41 fiber stress has been
plotted against deflection instead of load in pounds against
deflection.
By
plotting the data in this
way
the transverse
obtained and is marked by the point at

which the curve deviates from a straight line.
Not enough curves are shown here to give a complete comparison of the modulus of rupture or maximum fiber stress of all
proportional limit
is
Curves on B. S. samples Nos. 18 and 24, 19 and

20 and 26 show quite well the effect of grade on the modulus
of rupture.
One of each of the three pairs of samples is Bakelite
Micarta, grade 32-X, the other being grade 323. As outlined
on page 617, grade 323 is classed as second-grade material but
the materials.
25,
602
possesses better mechanical properties.
[Voi.16
It is interesting to notice
moduli of rupture of one-fourth inch Bakelite Micar ta, grades 32-X and 323 (B. S. samples Nos. 19 and 25) are
higher than the values for the corresponding grades in threealso that the
eighths inch thick material.
As stated above, the curves in Figs. 42 to 51 were plotted

from data found by using the screw-press method of applying
From
the load.
these particular curves
it is
not feasible to
make
an intercomparison of kinds and grades of insulating material

except for shape of curve, because the samples were not all cut
the same width. The actual load in pounds is plotted against
deflection, so the area of cross section does not enter.
If the
actual moduli of rupture or moduli of elasticity values are desired
on these samples, reference may be made to the tables on pages
524 to 533.
apparent that, by using the screw-press method of

applying the load and a platform scale for determining the magnitude of the load, the measured load is entirely dependent on
whether the sample sustains or yields under the applied load.
This explains why some of the load-deflection curves for the
canvas base materials run part of their course about parallel with
or even approach the ordinate with an apparent increase in load.
The curves for the paper and fiber base phenolic insulating
materials have a much steeper curve throughout, being less
flexible than the canvas base materials.
The first curve on Fig. 45 shows the effect of failure of the outer
The sample finally broke under
layers of canvas under tension.
a load lower than the maximum load previous to the failure of the
It is quite
lower strata.
The curves on pages 570 to 573 (Figs. 48 to 51) were plotted

from data obtained by suspending a known mass from the test
sample midway between the supports and measuring the deflection
This method is called the dead- weight
In many ways it is superior to the screw-press
method. The load is independent of the yielding of the sample
under stress. This is shown by the fact that all curves by this
method have a continuous and more or less gradual upward trend.
It is impossible by this method to get a curve similar to the first
curve in Fig. 45.
It is worthy of note that all of these curves for samples of like
thickness are directly comparable, in that all samples were
at the center in inches.
method
here.
pSlT]
machined quite accurately to the same width.
603
It does not
necessary to analyze particular curves in this group.

of grade
effect of
pictured.
The
seem
effect
on the magnitude of applied load at rupture and the

grade on the ultimate yield or deflection is quite. clearly
Reference
grades on page 508.
is
again
made
Attention
to
the differentiation of
called to the first
is
and third
curves in Fig. 49, page 571

These samples were both more or less
poorly laminated. The magnitude of the possible suspended load
.
and computed modulus
of rupture
9.
is
correspondingly lowered.
HARDNESS
The hardness
of the laminated phenolic insulating materials

mainly dependent on the amount of varnish (phenol condensation product) in the material and upon the press pressure and
length of time the material is cured in the press.
In the event
one is considering sheet-asbestos-filled phenolic insulating materials, then it would be necessary to include filler as one of the
factors influencing hardness.
The effect of the various papers
used may be neglected, however, in their bearing on hardness.
Hardness and brittleness are associated in some respects.
Brittleness affects the impact strength or shock-absorbing property of a material. With this in mind, the impact strength data
on Bakelite-Dilecto, grades
and X, and Bakelite Micarta,
grades 32-X and 323 (p. 592), seem to bear out the conclusion
that the amount of phenol varnish affects hardness, other factors
being equal. Grades
and 32-X, which contain more varnish
than grades
and 323, have lower impact strength values and
higher hardness values than grades
and 323.
It is quite apparent that the press-pressure temperature and
is
XX
XX
length of curing will affect the hardness of these materials, the
more apparent than temperature and

duration of curing. A more complete chemical reaction caused by
higher temperature and longer curing renders the phenolic varnish
more hard and brittle.
The data on pages 524 to 533 and page 591 show that the Brineffect of pressure being
nel hardness numerals of all the materials have been lowered some-
what by heating the material to 50 C. The values of hardness

(B. h. n.) of the materials at 50 C are from 2 to about 16 per cent
lower than at 20-30
drawn
C.
This
in section V-13, page 607.
is
in accord with the conclusions
604
10.
[Voi.16
IMPACT STRENGTH
The determination of impact strength of insulating materials

with our present equipment we have found rather difficult. The
impact testing machines in our strength-of-materials laboratory
are all designed for testing of metals. They are, therefore, of
larger capacity than is advisable for the more brittle insulating
materials.
When
the
pendulum hammer was drawn to some
workable angular distance from the position of rest, so much

potential energy was stored in the pendulum hammer that when
released the hammer would break the sample and swing too far
beyond
its position of equilibrium.

More accurate results are
obtained when the total kinetic energy of the pendulum hammer
exceeds but little the energy absorbed by the sample during
fracture.
The data shown on page 574
divides the phenolic insulating
materials reported into three classes with respect to impact
The following classes are in the descending order

and the grade names are alphabetical.
strength.
strength,
of
grade 21-D; Condensite

and Formica, grade R.
Class 2 contains Bakelite-Dilecto, grade X; Bakelite Micarta,
grade 213; and formica, grade P.
Class 3 contains Bakelite-Dilecto, grade XX; Bakelite Micarta,
Class
contains Bakelite Micarta,
Celoron, grade 20; Continental- Bakelite;
21-X and 32-X; Condensite
Celoron, grades 10 and 15;

M-2.
and Formica, grades
and
The above classification does not imply that the materials in a
certain class have an equal impact strength, but that the several
grades manufactured by each of the four companies when intercompared fall into these classes.
It is interesting to notice that even by using testing machines
having large capacity the grades of material having no dissimilarity, except that of color or kind of varnish, the values of im-
grades
pact strength are almost identical. Condensite Celoron, grades

10 and 15, and Formica, grades M and M-2, show this.
It has been mentioned in section V-7 above that the canvasbase materials have lower tensile strength than the paper or fiber
base materials. The data on page 574 show, however, that the
impact strength of the canvas-base material of a certain make is

from 2.5 to 10 times as great as the grade having the best electrical properties in that same make.
As an example, Bakelite
Micarta, grade 21-D, has over 10 times greater impact strength
2 o
<J0
o
g
1-8
pST]
605
than grade 32-X. Likewise, Formica, grade R, has an impact

strength almost 10 times higher than grade M. Because of this
shock-absorbing property of the canvas-base materials and other
good mechanical properties they find a ready use in the .manufacture of pinions, racks, and other such parts.
11.
PERMANENT DISTORTION
The data given on pages 575 and 576 on permanent distortion or warp under stress is not as complete or conclusive as we
had hoped it would be. By referring to the method of determining permanent distortion as described in the Bureau publication
mentioned on page 506 it will be seen that a complete test on
the 52 samples would have required several months.
The various increments of added load were not small and
numerous enough to plot curves that would show the relation of
stress applied for a specified time to permanent distortion or
deflection.
However, the data do give a general idea of how
strips of these phenolic insulating materials yield under the stress
of a dead weight.
No attempt will be made to show which manufacturer's material is the better in this respect.
not
The data
are
sufficient.
The data given on the sag of panels under stress are practical
(see p. 577)
They show that a three-eighths inch thick sample 18
by 24 inches when loaded between V blocks 22 inches apart is
.
apparantly perfectly elastic to about 400 pounds applied for 24

hours. A half -inch sample seemed perfectly elastic to about 600
pounds applied for 24 hours. The latter sample took a permanent set of 0.156 inch when a load of about 800 pounds was applied
for 24 hours.
Natural Warp. The manufacturer of instrument panels or

other parts requiring sheets of insulating material of fair dimensions often has greater concern over the natural warp of the sheets
than over later warp or distortion under stress. As reported on
page 578 some of the samples as received from the manufacturers
had a natural warp of 2 cm in a distance of 1 m. For many uses
the sheet of material must be free from this natural warp.
12.
The summary
tables
MACHINING QUALITIES
on pages 579 to 580
is
the result of
sift-
ing about 500 single page reports covering the opinions of the two
mechanics after machining as many samples of insulating material.
606
The
detailed reports are interesting
and
[Voi.16
It is quite
satisfactory.
evident that but few of the details can be given here.
In so far as possible black materials only were used. This

it practically impossible to identify the several materials.
These black samples were numbered in such a way as to give no
indication of the kind of material or grade. Two or more samples
made
of each grade
were given to machinist
h and one
of each to
ma-
chinist R.
It is interesting to see
how
generally consistent I/s reports
by two samples
numbered 9DX and AB, as a rule he decided either
that both worked equally well in a certain test or that they worked
very similarly. There were, however, some inconsistencies in the
were.
a given grade of material was represented
If
arbitrarily
machinists' reports.
The mechanics' reports on
No. 6 showed that the majority

In some cases the hole diameter
i
drill
This made some of the
ncn
ess
than
the
size.
^
was 0.005
samples more difficult to tap for the one-fourth inch 20 thread.
Tests Nos. 4, 8, and 9 are particularly severe. Test No. 4,
die threading, determines how well the laminations adhere.
Since the samples were cut from laminated sheet material and
lathe turned, the die cut threads in two ways of the laminations.
In many cases the thread would not hold in the cross-lamination
test
of the samples drilled undersize.
direction.
Test No. 8 would have been less severe if the samples had been
clamped in a vise before tapping. This would have supported
the laminations but would not have tested the relative strengths
of adhesion.
The samples in test No. 9 would have had more perfect corners
and edges if the samples had been backed where the shaper tool
This was intentionally omitted. All the samples
left the cut.
stood this test surprisingly well.
A summary
of the results of this series of tests
may
be given as
follows
For general machine work there hardly seems to be a preference
among the grades of material tested.

Where the machining work requires
strongly adhered lamina-
tions, the first-grade materials are better.
have a higher percentage
The materials with the lower per cent

machine
tool the least.
These grades usually
of varnish.
of varnish affect
the
ptett']
607
Paper and canvas-base materials differ in machining qualities.

The experience which the particular machinist has had with
this type of material has more to do with the finished product
than has the kind or grade of material.
13.
The
THERMAL PROPERTIES
measurements on thermal expansion are quite

completely given on pages 581 to 583. It may be concluded from
results of
the changes in dimensions caused
a phenolic insulating material

60 C
is
by high temperatures that when
to be used at temperatures above
should be carefully ascertained that the changes of dimensions will not injuriously affect the operation of the device in
it
which it is used. For such temperatures these materials would

not be suitable in delicate instrument parts but would be suitable
for such devices as a magneto distributor cap and similar parts.
Miscellaneous Temperature Effects. When samples of
the laminated material were heated in a closed electric muffle
furnace, three stages of destruction were noticed, and in the following order: (1) Blistering of the surface; (2) cracking within
and along the body; (3) smoking, with the odor of phenol and of
charring organic matter.
The sample of Bakelite-Dilecto, grade XX, Bakelite Micarta,

(the only grades which were
grade 32-X, and Formica, grade
given this test), all blistered at about the same time at about
235 C. The second grade materials (Bakelite-Dilecto, grade X,
and Bakelite Micarta, grade 323) started to blister at about 185 C.
The second stage of destruction has no definite limits of temperature but comes approximately between 200 and 400 C.
The second-grade materials precede the first-grade in the tendency
to curl and split. At about 500 C all the materials began to
glow and burn to ash. This is equivalent to the third stage
prolonged.
14.
The reasons
EFFECTS OF ACID AND ALKALI
making this test have been given on page 515

and the method can be found in the Bureau of
Standards publication mentioned on page 506.
for
of this paper,
Acid.
It
is
evident that either sulphuric acid or caustic soda
(NaOH) would attack
cellulose in the
form of rag or wood pulp
base paper. This is a test of how well the phenolic condensation

product (varnish) protects the cellulose from the acid and caustic
solution
and how the varnish
itself resists
the action of the acid
608
and
[Voi.is
appears from the data given on page 584 that in

all cases the samples have increased in weight when immersed in a
22 per cent solution of sulphuric acid for 48 hours. This shows
that these materials are somewhat permeable. It is interesting
to notice, however, that the first-grade materials of each -make
caustic.
show
It
change in weight and
little or no change in hardness

immersed in the acid. The other grades contain a
lower per cent of varnish and show a resulting greater increase in
weight and decrease in hardness. The hardness tests point to the
less
after being
probability that in the first-grade materials the fluid of lower

specific gravity (water) has been absorbed, while water and acid
have been absorbed by the second-grade materials, since the acid
surrounding the cellulose fiber or
and render
filler
tends to carbonize that fiber
it soft.
Continental -Bakelite and Bakelite Micarta, 21-D, canvas-base

seem to be exceptions, for they are about one point
materials,
immersion in acid than before. This difand may be due to errors in measuring the diameter
(B. h. n.) harder after
ference
is
slight
of indentation.
Some irregular tests
were made on different kinds and grades
of laminated phenolic materials using 20 per cent solution of
sulphuric acid at 80 C.
solution for 48 hours.
The samples were immersed in

None of the samples withstood the
this
test.
All crumbled in the hardness testing machine.
Pieces of Formica, grade M, have been used in a commercial
bath at room temperature

This use is not for the purpose of a test.
for about a month.
The pieces were used for about six months and were found to
have sufficient insulating and mechanical properties.
Alkau. The acid solution mentioned above showed practically
no discoloration after the samples had stood in it for 48 hours,
while the caustic solution was very much discolored, with a noticeIt is recognized by the manufacturers of
able amount of sediment.
phenolic varnish and resin that such compounds are affected by
even weak caustics if time is sufficiently prolonged and are disintegrated by stronger caustics. In comparing the Brinell hardness
as shown in the table on page 585 one should bear in mind that only
250 kg pressure was used on the Brinell machine when testing
the samples after being subjected to the caustic. The samples
were too soft to bear 500 kg. Although pressure (P) enters into
way
in a 10 per cent sulphuric-acid
PrfsZT]
the formula for B. h. n. (formula

are not directly comparable
15.
9, p.
when
609
521), the values of hardness
different pressures are used.
EFFECTS OF SEASON OF YEAR
On Phase Difference. The results tabulated on pages 524 to

533 show some variations of phase difference of the same sample
when tested at different seasons of the year. These changes
may
be attributed to the ordinary changes of atmospheric conThe building in which the insulating materials are kept
ditions.
and tested is heated by hot, dry air. This heat is probably effecDuring the warmer months the
tive from November to March.
windows are open and temperature and relative humidity are
more nearly the same as the outdoor air. The autumn months
It is evident, then, that since
are very humid in this locality.
there is a gradual change of moisture conditions from winter to
summer there will be changes in the insulating materials. The
changes are not visible. These may be only temporary physical
changes. Our data do not cover sufficient cycles of seasons to
merit an opinion as to permanent changes of any properties.
The effects of season are particularly noticeable in the phase
difference of B. S. samples Nos. 5, 8, 14, 18, 146, and 212.
As an
example, in the tabulated data (p. 526) the phase difference (\p)
of B. S. sample No. 146 is as given in Table 37.
TABLE
37.- Phase Difference
Sample
Measurements Made Six Months Apart on the Same
Phase difference
Wave
length (X m ) (in Meters)

Oct. 21, 1918
Degrees
Mar.
4,
1919
Degrees
4.28
696
1376
3482
3420
3.71
5.31
3.90
This shows the probable effect of moisture on the sample as

High humidity accompanies large
tested in October and March.
phase difference. These changes are presumably owing to the
varying amount of moisture absorbed from the air by the materials.

On Dielectric Constant. The effect of the season of the year
on dielectric constant at radio frequencies is strictly parallel to the
The measurements of dielectric
effects on phase difference.
constant of the insulating material are made simultaneously with
6io
\voi.i6
measurements of phase difference. The preceding examples of

the change of phase difference of a given sample from season to
season are directly applicable to the discussion on the change of
dielectric constant.
One
additional example will serve as an illustration.
Many
such examples can be found in the tabulated results on pages 524

to 533-
TABLE 33. Dielectric
Constant Measurements Made on Same Sample on Different

Dates, Using Radio-Frequency Current
Date
Wave
Dielectric
length
(Xm)
constant
(K)
Meters
Mar.
Apr.
Feb.
29, 1919
19, 19 19
20, 1920
1919
1963
2027
5.9
6.1
6.7
On Surface
Resistivity. While no measurements of surface

have been made on samples exposed to an open atmosphere of varying humidity, the same effect has been attained and
measurements made on samples using a cabinet in which the
humidity could be carefully controlled. The data are given on
pages524to533and summarized on page 587. The effects are very
large.
It would naturally be expected that a surface property
would be more affected by atmospheric conditions than properties
of the inner volume of the material such as phase difference and
resistivity
dielectric constant.
16.
EFFECTS OF BAKING OR DRYING
On Phase Difference. The foregoing explanation of the

change in phase difference of this type of insulating material with
atmospheric humidity is substantiated by the fact that the phase
difference of most samples can be lowered by subjecting it to a
moderate heat for several hours. The sample is tested again after
The above sample (B. S.
it has returned to room temperature.
No. 146) shows this effect also.
TABLE
39.
Phase Difference Lowered by Baking or Drying Sample

Baking
Date
or drying
Mar.
After drying 120 hours at about 70 C.

After standing 5 months
Also B. S. sample No.
Aug.
5,
Table 40.
of test
11,1919
2, 1919
"Wave
Phase
length
(Xm)
difference
(*)
Meters
Degrees
1264
677
2.20
2.79
er
pre!Z
611
TABLE
40.
Phase Difference Lowered by Baking or Drying Sample

Baking
Date
or drying
of test
Mar. 4,1918
Before baking
Sept. 20, 1918

Oct. 17,1918
After drying 150 hours at about 70 C.
Oct.
25,1918
Mar.
25, 1919
Sept. 20,1919
B. S. samples Nos.
On
7,
60, 61,
and 117 show
Dielectric Constant.
Wave
Phase
length
(Xm)
difference
(*)
Meters
Degrees
3.17
5.40
5.71
3.79
3.67
5.97
1025
672
707
664
1002
1064
similar results.
In
accordance with the explanation that the greater part of the change of phase difference with
time is owing to surface moisture, it would be expected that when
the moisture content is high the effective capacity of the insulating
material condenser would be proportionally higher. The dielectric
constant should thus tend to decrease as the sample is dried. A
part of the change of phase difference and dielectric constant may
also be owing to some varying property of the organic constituents
The phenolic insulating materials are
of the insulating material.
rather complex chemically.
One example
change of dielectric constant of a sample of

laminated phenolic material with a greater and lesser amount of
surface moisture on the sample is given below.
Others are given
in the data tables on pages 524 to 533.
TABLE
41.
of the
Dielectric Constant Lowered by Baking or Drying Sample

Wave
Baking
Date
of test
length
Dielectric
constant
(Xm)
(K)
Meters
June
After baking for 90 hours at about 70
17.
7,1918
Dec. 17,1918
1355
1597
5.6
5.0
EFFECTS OF FREQUENCY
On Phase Difference and
Dielectric Constant. The deon pages 524 to 533 give numerous examples of the
frequency on phase difference and dielectric constant
tailed results
effect of
of laminated insulating materials over a range of radio frequen-
As stated in the heading above the data on pages 524 to 533,

the values of phase difference and dielectric constant given there
include those at the extreme frequencies only. If five determicies.
wave lengths (frequencies,

nations were made, using 500 to 3500
600 000 to 85 700 cycles per second), the values of phase differ96422 22
612
[Voi.16
ence and dielectric constant would be recorded in these tables

for only 500 to 3500 m.
The curves on pages 534 to 548 show the change of phase differand equivalent resistance with frequency, of a
ence, capacity,
few representative samples.
These curves have been plotted,

using all the frequencies at which the above properties were
determined. Values of wave length in meters have been used
on the abscissas, but this can be converted to frequency (/) in
cycles per second,
by the
relation,
8
/= 3JpThe curves
do)
of phase difference are derivable
capacity and resistance, since phase difference

resistance, capacity,
The curves
and frequency
(see
formula
of capacity in micromicrofarads
from those of
is
a function of
id).
may
be converted
by using formula
to curves of dielectric constant (K)
2 in the
form
CT
55-047
The capacity (C) and the thickness (T) may be taken from the
curves (T is given more accurately in the tables on pp. 524 to 533)
By glancing at these curves one will notice that the effect of
frequency change on different samples of the same grade is not
Using the curves shown on pages 534 to 538 it appears
that the phase difference of Bakelite-Dilecto increases with fre-
the same.
quency.
The phase
some grades of Bakelite Micarta

Different
and of others decreases.
have phase difference curves increasing
difference of
increases with frequency
grades of Formica also
as well as decreasing with frequency, while in Condensite Celoron

it
increases with frequency.
The
tests
have covered a wave
length range of about 500 to 3000 m. It is rather difficult to

give the magnitude of the variation of phase difference with
frequency or wave length when considering so many samples.
Over this range, however, the apparent changes in phase difference

are from 2 to 30 per cent. About 75 per cent of the curves show
an upward trend with increasing frequency (or decreasing wave
length)
In addition to the above-mentioned determinations of phase

and dielectric constant at radio frequencies, a few
measurements of these properties have been made at 100, 500,
difference
pfJSmr]
and 3000 cycles per second.
613
Average representative values at
these frequencies are:
TABLE 42.Phase
Difference and Dielectric Constant at 100, 500, 3000, and 300 000
Cycles per Second
Phase
Radio frequency
differ-
ence
(tfO
Dieleccon-
tric
stant
(K)
Degrees
Cycles per second:

100
500
9.0
5.0
6.9
6.0
3000
300 000
4.0
2.8
6.0
5.3
The phase
difference measuring apparatus used in the labobeing improved so as to make possible measurements
at any frequency from 3000 to 3 000 000 cycles per second.
It
ratory
is
expected that tests can be made at this Bureau on insulating

material condensers over the range of 100 to 3 000 000 cycles per
second of alternating voltage. More extensive data on the effect
of a wide range of frequency on phase difference and dielectric
constant can then be given.
is
18.
EFFECTS OF THICKNESS
On Phase Difference.
Some
results of our early
work on
laminated insulating materials of the phenol-methylene type

showed a tendency of phase difference or power factor to increase
with the thickness of the sample. It is an established fact that
the 60-cycle puncture voltage of this type of material does not
increase in proportion to thickness, so one might reason that the
phase difference might be greater in thicker dielectrics, but our
data do not show it sufficiently to merit a conclusion. The change
in properties from sample to sample may be sufficient, however,
to cover
up any change owing
to thickness.
made on a 2.52
compared with measurements made
on a 0.64 cm (one-fourth inch) thick sample of the same make,
grade, and color. The values were lower for the 0.64 cm thick
sample. A possible explanation of this difference was thought to
Some
cm
(1
early
measurements
of phase difference
inch) thick sample were
be incomplete curing of the phenolic varnish in the center of the

thicker sample. To test this belief, a 25 by 31 by 2.52 cm sample
was sawed into three samples 25 by 31 by about 0.6 cm, one of
which came from the middle of the original slab. As shown in
the tabulated results, the thinner samples did have a lower phase
614
[Voi.16
difference, but the sample taken from the center of the original
sample shows lower phase difference than the two outside samples.
This did not substantiate our beliefs in regard to incomplete
chemical reaction and high volatile content in the middle of
thicker sheets of insulating material.
TABLE 43.Phase
Difference of Four Samples, the First Being 1 Inch Thick, the

Other Three Obtained by Cutting the Original Sample into Three One-Fourth
Inch Samples
B.S.
sample
Wave
Phase
Thickness
length
(X m )
difference
cm
Meters
Degrees
459
713
1078
1375
2756
4.0
3.3
3.3
3.3
3.3
Feb. 20,1919
Feb. 24,1919
Feb. 20,1919
1027
1919
3430
1038
1963
3.1
Mar.
3.3
3.4
3.2
3.5
3443
1133
2027
3670
2035
3.7
4.7
5.3
5.6
5.3
960
1822
3245
976
1848
2.7
2.8
2.8
2.6
2.8
3207
1059
1886
3383
2.9
4.0
4.4
4.5
983
1865
3228
1855
3222
1051
1910
3423
3.8
4.0
4.3
3.9
4.1
5.1
5.7
6.2
number
3-0
2.52
3-0-A
Inch
1
.64
3-0-B
.64
s-o-c
.57
Date
Source
of test
The
25
original sample
31 by 2.52
by
No cut surfaces
cm
Feb. 21,1919
29,1919
Outside sheet
by 31 by 0.64
25
One cut
Apr.
cm
surface
19,1919
Feb. 20,1920
Feb. 24,1920
Mar.
27, 1919
Inside sheet
25 by 31 by 0.64 cm
Two cut surfaces
Apr. 18,1919
Feb. 20,1920
Apr.
12,1919
Outside sheet
25 by 31 by 0.57 cm
One cut surface
Apr. 14,1919
Feb. 20,1920
On Mechanical Properties. From the data thus far collected

thickness of sheet has
ties of
little
or no effect on the mechanical proper-
the laminated phenolic insulating materials.
By
referring
to the data on pages 524 to 533 one will notice that in some cases the
thicker samples of the same grade show a higher tensile strength,
but
if
the variation of values for different samples of the same
thickness and grade are considered also, the probable variation
owing to thickness alone is small.

On Moisture Absorption. As pointed out in the Bureau
publication mentioned on page 506, experimental data on percentage by weight of moisture absorbed can not be compared unless
samples of the same size and thickness are considered. It is quite
pST]
615
however, that the percentage, by weight, of

moisture absorbed increases as the area of the cut surface (and
hence thickness of sample) increases. To obtain experimental
readily apparent,
data on this would necessitate a determination of moisture absorpSuch work

tion based on a unit area of cut and uncut surface.
would be a separate research in itself and should be undertaken.
19.
EFFECTS OF COLOR OR DYE
On Phase Difference. By consulting the summary of data on

pages 524 to 533, one will notice that for some of the materials there
is apparently a greater phase difference for the samples containing
black pigment. Theoretically, this should be the usual result.
The pigment is occasionally lampblack (amorphous carbon) which
means that a conducting material is added to the insulating material.
There should be little or no change in electrical properties
when analine dyes are used.
,
careful determination of the effect of dye
on phase difference
at radio frequencies requires that color be the only characteristic
that is changed a difficult limitation in a factory without an

experimental laboratory. The data above mentioned often show
quite different values of phase difference of insulating materials
of the
do
same make, grade,
color,
and thickness.
differ in this respect, it is difficult to
difference in phase difference
is
Since the materials
determine
how much
owing to color and how much
is
owing to process variation.

On Flash-over Voltage and Surface Resistivity. What
has been written above about the variation of phase difference
with color
is
equally true
when
applied to flash-over voltage at
radio frequencies and surface resistivity.
The data on pages
524 to 533 show very wide variations of resistivity from sample to

sample of the same grade and color, so it is again difficult to separate the differences owing to color and process variation.
20.
EFFECTS OF SURFACE FINISH
On Flash-over Voltage and Surface Resistivity.

determination of the effect of surface finish on flash-over voltage
at radio frequencies and surface resistivity is difficult.
As pointed
out elsewhere in this paper, it is not conclusive to determine these
properties on two different samples one with a highly burnished
surface and the other with a dull surface.
Such results would be
a combination of effects owing to surface and process changes.
Such an error could be brought to a minimum provided the manufacturer would fabricate the two samples at the same time, using
6x6
\voi.i6
the same varnish bath and press the samples together in the hydraulic press.
two
We have not received such samples.
from the same burnished sheet, the

one having the natural burnished surface and the other a sandpapered or sand-blasted surface, the results would be only an
approximation of the effect of surface on these properties. If a
dull sample is used, one part could* be tested as it is and the other
buffed to a polish, but then the heat of friction and buffing paste
have added their share of changes.
Theoretically, the flash-over voltage and the surface resistivity
should be increased when the sample surface is irregular, because
the actual surface distance between metallic contacts is greater.
If an etched or like surface is considered, there is also a tendency
for congealed moisture to form in globules at the apex of the minute mounds instead of coating the whole surface. It is to be understood that when the electrical properties of an irregular or etched
surface (similar to the surface of a copper halftone plate) are compared with plane surfaces all surfaces shall have about the same
If
test samples are cut
degree of polishing or burnishing.

21.
On Surface
EFFECTS OF ULTRA-VIOLET LIGHT
Resistivity.
We have made but few tests using
the ultra-violet light as a rapid aging medium. The data given

need no further comment. We do not know the number of hours'
exposure to sunlight which is equivalent in its effect to 30 hours'
exposure to ultra-violet light.
TABLE 44.Effect
of Ultra-violet Light
Insulating Material.
Tests
Made
on Surface Resistivity of Phenolic Electrical

Per Cent Relative Humidity (See Also
at 42
B. S. Sci. Paper No. 234)

Surface
Grade
Material
B. S.
sample
number
Approximate
thickness
Before
exposure
to ultraviolet
light
at 42
per cent
humidity
Bakelite-Dilecto
Bakelite Micarta
XX
XX
XX
32-X
323
Formica
M
M
M
cm
Inch
resistivity
After
exposure
to ultraviolet
light
for 30
at
hours
42 per cent
humidity
OhmsXIO 8 OhmsXIO8
14
14
11
0.95
.95
%
%
.64
X.
9000
7500
4000
3700
2700
1900
21
27
1.27
1.27
y*
y*
400
3000
220
650
1.27
1.27
y2
y*
7-0
.95
90
100
180
5.6
37
45
Dellingerl
Preston J
22.
EFFECTS OF RATIO OF VARNISH TO PAPER
On Phase
Difference.
There
analyze the effect of the per cent of

the phase difference of the sample.
The
culties.
was an attempt made to

absorbed phenol varnish on
Such a test has many diffi-
ratios of varnish to paper of the samples here con-
sidered were determined

lating
617
by the manufacturer making the insuThere was no
and were only approximate.
material
attempt made to calculate the ratio of
which
solid resin to paper,
necessitates a correction for the volatile matter escaping in the
drying and pressing.

There is no simple analytic method of making a percentage
composition test after the insulating material is made, for then
the varnish has passed to practically an infusible, insoluble state.
Our density determinations on the various samples point to a

probable error in the percentage composition data supplied to
If one assumes the percentage values correct, then our
us.
data give little light on the electrical effect of the varnish. Each
sample has been tested at various frequencies, but only those
frequencies that are about equal will be
shown here
com-
for
parison.
TABLE 45.Possible
Effect of Relative Per Cent of Varnish to Paper on

Difference
Frequency,
Wave
Per cent
of
varnish
length
(Xm)
cycles per
second
Meters
30
40
50
55
60.
1335
1415
1340
1325
1305
more complete understanding
Phase
Phase
difference
(*)
Degrees
224
212
223
226
229
700
000
900
400
900
of the effect of composition
2.83
4.07
2.56
3.00
2.05
on
the electrical properties of such materials may be obtained when

the testing is done under controlled atmospheric conditions.
By referring
general,
to the tabulated data (p. 588) one

,
may see
most second-grade materials have lower phase
that, in
difference
than first-grade material. Materials of this grade average about

30 per cent varnish. In some cases there may also be a different
base paper used in the second-grade material.
By second grade we mean here the following materials and
grades
Material
Grade
Bakelite-Dilecto
Bakelite Micarta
323 and 213
Formica
6i8
Formica, M-2,
[Voi.16
may
be considered as second grade also, but is a

different type of material and does not show the peculiarity
cited above.
The above grades are not recommended by the manufacturers
for use on radio apparatus.
These grades have a distinct -use as
commercial insulators possessing better mechanical and, in
some respects, better machining properties than the first-grade
materials.
On Moisture Absorption. What has been said above concerning the samples prepared for a study on phase difference
may
be said of the samples considered in the table below. It

will be noticed that the percentage by weight of water absorbed
by the various samples does not decrease as the percentage of
varnish increases, neither does the density decrease as the percentage of varnish increases. The varnish should protect the
cellulose fiber of the paper from the water in proportion to the
degree of saturation of the cellulose fiber by the varnish. This
assumes that the surfaces of the several samples are uniform,
and that the
size,
thickness,
and weight
of the samples are about
the same.
is taken as i .44 and of the varnish as
then the experimental value of density (D = i.4o) for the
30 per cent resin sample is about correct, but the percentage of
moisture absorbed is low.
If
the density of the paper
1.30,
TABLE
46.
Effect of Percentage
of Varnish Upon Percentage by Weight of Moisture Absorbed in 24 Hours
Percentage
of
varnish
Density
Percentage by
weight
of water
absorbed
Size of
sample
in 24
hours
cm
g/cm 3
30
40
50
55
60
1.40
1.35
1.39
1.35
1.38
0.17
.34
1.13
.18
by 10 by 0.64
.34
be noticed in the data on page 593 that the second-grade

materials have a higher percentage of moisture absorption. In
some cases the second-grade materials absorb 10 times as much
water in 24 hours as the first grades. That is why only the first
grades are recommended for the majority of radio work.
It will
iSST]
619
not to be understood that this type of material absorbs

water, swells and becomes flexible as does vulcanized fiber. We
have not made any moisture-absorption tests extending more than
It is
24 hours.
On Mechanical
Theoretically if one considers

Properties.
only well-cured samples of laminated phenolic insulating materials,
the sample with the higher percentage of varnish will have lower
tensile and transverse strength, be harder, be more brittle, and
be difficult to manipulate in some machining operations.
For reasons stated on page 617 we can not illustrate the theory
by data on samples of different percentage of varnish, nor are we
sufficiently sure that the samples we have hold closely enough to
the percentage composition stated.
23.
COMPARISON OF PROPERTIES OF HARD RUBBER, VULCANIZED

LAMINATED AND MOLDED PHENOLIC INSULATING MATERIALS
FIBER,
comparative summary of the properties of these materials is

This is based upon the results of many investigations and the experience of many users and manufacturers.
Hard rubber and vulcanized fiber have been used by engineers for
tabulated below.
many
years.
Some
still
find in these materials the particular
property needed for their work, others have
felt
a need for some
other material but have not had sufficient information to choose
that better material. Some engineers have failed to study these

two materials hard rubber and vulcanized fiber sufficiently to
use them wisely and economically. Often too little or too much
has been expected of an insulating material.
The problem of the proper use of the proper insulating material
has been at once facilitated and complicated by the advent of the
laminated and molded phenolic materials. These materials lend
themselves to many uses not satisfactorily filled by either hardrubber or vulcanized fiber, but they are likewise used where hard
rubber or fiber might better be used. The phenolic insulating
many
purposes not hard-rubber substitutes.

They are distinctly different. It is evident that the idea of phenolic
insulating materials as a hard-rubber substitute has been overmaterials are for
worked.
This tendency
may
well be explained
on the ground
new and
that the phenolic insulating materials are really quite
yet in a state of development.

material but have found
use.
little
Engineers have turned to this
new
data at hand to direct them in
its
620
[Vol. 16
Hard rubber is composed of crude rubber, sulphur, and usually

some mineral filling compound. As previously stated, the great
demand for raw rubber in other industries in i9i7to 1919 induced
some makers of hard rubber to use reclaimed rubber or else load
the new rubber with a high percentage of mineral filler. The lack
of a proper understanding of this fact between the maker and the
user has often resulted in unjust censure of hard rubber as an
The
insulator.
better grades of hard rubber are
rubber containing no mineral

phur.
With
filler
mind
these points in
and are
it is
free
made
new
of
from excess
sul-
evident that the values
assigned to a particular property or the effect of a certain test
must
necessarily be broad.
hard rubber
is
Neither the best nor the poorest grade of

considered in the data and opinions given in the
following table.
Vulcanized fiber is made of parchmentized paper. For the

better grades of fiber rag base paper is used. The paper is run
slowly through a warm concentrated solution of sulphuric acid
or zinc chloride, the one solution being used in making fiber
sheets one-eighth inch thick or less, the other solution being used
The purpose of the
for thicknesses greater than one-eighth inch.
acid or zinc chloride is to soften the walls of the cellulose (cotton)
fibers, so that when several sheets of treated paper are pressed
together the fibers tend to
wound on
is
drum
mat and
cohere.
The treated paper
is
until the cylindrical tube of the desired thickness
obtained, the cylindrical tube being then cut so as to form a
sheet whose width
length
is
is
equal to the width of the paper and whose
equal to the circumference of the drum.
sheet of treated paper
then soaked in water to
is
The term
The composite
remove the acid
or zinc chloride, dried,
and
somewhat misleading.
Fiber does not depend upon heat and
pressure to cure
it
pressed.
" vulcanized"
is
as does hard rubber.
much in both mechanical and electrical

The properties depend somewhat on the quality of
the amount of residual sulphuric acid or zinc chloride,
Vulcanized fiber varies

properties.
rags used,
and upon the density of the finished product. Since the various
processes of fiber making are difficult to control, the following
statements relative to fiber must be taken as general and the
recorded numerical data as average data.
The several makes and many grades of laminated phenolic insu-
have been discussed quite fully in this paper. It

be evident to the reader that any numerical value or statement given in the following summary table is an approximation.
lating material
will
621
fvSr]
The molded phenolic insulating materials

variations as hard rubber.
There
is
tion in the phenolic resin binder in the
as there
There are
molded phenolic materials
in the crude or reclaimed rubber binder of
is
many
filler.
ized mica,
and
hard rubber.
other chances for variation in the press pressure
and temperature, length

quality of
many
much varia-
are subject to as
probably not as
Some
of curing in the presses,
and kind and
wood flour, pulverThe kind and amount of filler will affect
of the fillers used are
asbestos.
both the mechanical and electrical properties. All these possible

variations make the data only approximate and require rather
general statements in the
Most
summary
table.
below are from

Actual results on hardrubber samples are given on page 622. The statements concerning the effects of various things on the different insulating materials are based on the experience of various members of the Bureau
of Standards staff and upon the experience of the manufacturers
of these materials. The manufacturers' experience on hard rubber
and vulcanized fiber extends over many years, while the experience
tests
of the numerical data given in the table
made
at the Bureau of Standards.
on the phenolic insulating materials is much more limited.

While it is possible to make up insulating materials which would
give results different from those recorded for any particular property, yet it is believed that this table gives information in a
condensed form which will serve to show some of the limitations

as well as some of the possibilities of these various materials as
now obtainable
commercially.
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625
626

VI.
\Voi.i6
SUMMARY
A comprehensive experimental research
has been
made upon
the principal electrical and mechanical and a few other properties

of the laminated phenolic materials.
The measurements were
made upon
the sheets of materials as furnished commercially.
Specimens for measurement of all the various properties were cut

from the same large sheet, so the results are comparable. The
influences of a large number of factors upon the properties were
studied and have been discussed herein. The scope of the work
may be judged from the table of contents. The properties varied
greatly with the thickness of sheet as well as grade of material.
While there were, furthermore, considerable variations from
sample to sample, characteristic values of the properties are given
by the summary table below. This table gives the averages of all
data on samples received at the Bureau of Standards between
December 20, 191 7, and August 24, 191 9.
TABLE
48.
General Summary of Properties

Bakelite-Dilecto,
Property
XX
Continental
Bakelite
Phase difference
Power factor
resistivity at
Surface resistivity at
Surface
resistivity at
in 24 hours
Ultimate tensile strength
Modulus
Modulus
Modulus
rupture
of (transverse) elasticity
Brinell hardness at 20-30

Brinell hardness at 50
1.9
3.8
2.9
2.4
6.6
5.1
4.2
9.9
5.2
5.5
5.3
5.8
5.9
6.4
19 800
22 000
ohmsXlO8
ohmsXlO8
ohmsXlO8
19 800
21 100
20 000
19 700
200
9 400
29 900
100
38 900 445 000
100
3 300
10 400
580
130
3 900
4 000
900
2 700
48
22
30
1.34
1.34
1.30
1.35
1.37
1.36
Impact strength
per cent.
.21
1.76
.49
.33
.88
.91
lbs./in. 2 .
12 800
17 800
8 700
10 900
16 600
8 900
13 600
16 200
21 400
13 900
lbs./in. 2 .
1000 lbs./in. 2
Scleroscope hardness at 50
5.6
18 800 520 000
Scleroscope hardness at 20-30
21-D
3.3
1000 lbs./in. 2
of (tensile) elasticity
of (transverse)
and
213
2.1
Density
Water absorbed
323
3.6
ohm -cm X 108

24% humidity
50% humidity
84% humidity
32-X
and
21-X
degrees
Flash -over voltage, radio frequency

Surface
grade
per cent.
Dielectric constant
Volume resistivity
Bakelite Micarta,
grade
C
ft.-lb.
500
2 100
18 000
22 700
310
900
260
600
41
28
32
39
34
37
40
26
30
34
32
32
88
68
58
83
81
75
83
64
58
80
76
70
0.7
0.9
1.2
0.2
0.8
2.1
Delingcr~[
627
Preston J
TABLE
48.
General
Summary
of Properties
Continued
Condensite
Formica, grade
Celoron, grade-
Property
10
and
15
Phase difference
Power factor
degrees.
2.9
6.3
3.0
3.7
2.9
per cent.
5.1
11.0
5.3
7.7
5.1
7.9
6.6
6.8
5.6
5.8
5.8
6.5
21 000
27 800
19 700
20 600
18 300
21 000
15 100
63
2 200
250
900
60
800
600
340
670
340
220
Dielectric constant
Flash-over voltage, radio frequency
Volume
ohm-cmXIO 8
resistivity
M-2
4.5
Surface resistivity
at 24
per cent humidity
12 500
Surface resistivity
at 50
per cent humidity
2 300
275
160
120
300
humidity
77
13
10
34
80
1.41
1.34
1.36
1.34
1.38
1.38
Surface
resistivity at 84 per cent
Density
Water absorbed
in 24 hours
per cent
Ultimate tensile strength
Modulus
Modulus
Modulus
of (transverse) elasticity
Brinell hardness at 50
.39
.26
.49
.60
1.22
7 800
12 600
13 200
18 200
9 900
950
2 260
15 800
11 100
17 700
17 300
21 400
1000 lbs./in. 2 .
Scleroscope hardness at 20-30
Scleroscope hardness at 50
C
ft.-lb.
Washington, November
9
30, 1921
270
430
15 100
410
38
36
44
38
39
35
34
41
34
34
86
Impact strength
96422 22
.26
12 300
ibs./in. 2 .
rupture
Brinell hardness at 20-30
lbs./in. 2 .
1000 lbs./in. 2 .
of (tensile) elasticity
of (transverse)
84
90
86
70
82
82
80
89
82
64
0.4
1.0
0.3
0.3
1.5
2.9

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PROPERTIES OF ELECTRICAL INSULATING MATERIALS OF THE LAMINATED PHENOL-METHYLENE

of phenolic synthetic resins as applied to the fabrication of

has only become commercially important within the last

base; grade 15, fiber base; grade 20, fabric base.

Grade M, paper base; grade M-2, paper base;

grade P, paper base; grade R, fabric base. Westinghouse Electric

which have been determined for this type of

material are listed below.

in such a manner as to be conby a person desiring detailed information

veniently available for reference, either

by a person interested only in a

tests are also

very fully described in a Bureau

publication referred to in the text.

Technologic Papers of the Bureau of Standards

Reasons for choice of properties

Definitions of electrical properties

IV. Tabulation of results

19. Effects of color or

20. Effects of surface finish

21. Effects of ultra-violet light

Effects of ratio of varnish to paper

Electrical Insulating Material

materials have been more or

THE DEMAND FOR THE PHENOLIC INSULATING MATERIALS

Phenolic insulating materials have been introduced during the

which hard rubber (sometimes

called ebonite or vulcanite) has

and apparatus. The everraw rubber in other industries has increased

lating parts of electrical instruments

the tendency to load hard rubber with

Incorporation of reclaimed rubber and

necessarily cheapen the

expensive materials using phenol condensation products as the

NEED FOR THIS RESEARCH

the United States entered the war against Germany, the

various Government departments and private manufacturers were

making demands on a few manufacturers of laminated materials

Technologic Papers of the Bureau of Standards

instead of specifying the qualities or properties required for

the particular use in view.

possible, or choosing their basic naterials so that their

that the composition of the insulating materials using phenol

designed and constructed for the measurement of various properties.

While much valuable information had been previously collected

facturers of these materials, to various departments of the Govern-

Electrical Insulating Material

consumer are better understood.

the experience gained in this investigation

evident that there

material chosen that has the best combination of properties to

meet the need.

that to obtain the best

electrical properties the mechanical properties

Other general conclusions are presented in

section V, "Discussion of Results."

SCOPE OF THE WORK

To obtain comparative data on the various kinds and grades of

resistivity, voltage effects at radio

frequencies, phase difference or

power factor and

stant at radio frequencies, ultimate tensile strength, proportional

(tensile), modulus of rupture