WATER QUALITY AND

WATER POLLUTION

Detergents-P
SS, Pesticides, NOM

Human Waste: Organics,

N,,P& Pathogens
Industries:
Organics,
Eutrophication
Cr,Cd,Pb, Hg
Stream Pollution

Natural Impurities:
Dissolved Solids: TDS:
Ca, Mg, HCO3, Fe, Mn,,
SO4, Cl, K, Mn, Even
Arsenic & Fluoride

Salinity

Bioaccumulation &
Biomagnification

IMPURITIES IN HYDROLOGIC CYCLE

 Natural Water Resources:

Rivers, Lakes, Rain water, Ground water, Sea water
Hard water, Soft water, Scale forming water,
Corrosive water, Fresh water, Brackish water

Treated Water
Drinking water, Irrigation water, Safe water, Distilled
water (Pure water), Impure water, Polluted water
Mineral water, RO water, Process water, Boiler water,
Cooling water

Wastewater:
Domestic wastewater (Sewage), Industrial
wastewater

WATER POLLUTION: Pollutant and Impurity

How Much ?? (mg/L)

Organic, Inorganic, Color, Odor

Presence of impurities in such

quantity and of such nature as to
impair the use of water for
designated purpose
Pollutant: Impurity which renders water unfit
for intended use or designated purpose
Drinking, Bathing, Industrial use,
Fishing, Recreation

Nature of Impurities & Related Water Quality (WQ)

Parameters
Impurities

WQ Parameters

Ionic: Dissolved salts, acids & bases

Molecular: Organic compounds

Total Dissolved Solid (TDS), Conductivity,

pH, hardness, acidity, alkalinity, F-, Cl-, NO3- etc.
TOC, BOD, COD, Nutrients

Colloidal: sol, emulsions, foams (<10 m)

Turbidity, MPN (Coliform bacteria)

Dissolved

Hydrophobic: Minerals (bentonite clay)

lignin, tannin, soap, starch
Hydrophilic:
Insoluble
Microorganisms (free floating virus,
algae, bacteria)

Insoluble
Suspended & Settleable
(Organic and inorganic in nature)

Suspended Solid (SS)

Fixed & volatile SS

WQ Parameters : Physical, Chemical, Bacteriological & Biological

Size Classification of Impurities

Micrometer Scale
10-4

10-3

Aqueous Salts

10-2

10-1

Precipitation
Oxidation

Reverse
Osmosis

102
Silt

103
Sand

Bacteria (Coliform)

Trihalomethanes

Dissolved

10
Protozoa

Virus

Metal Ions

Pesticides

1.0

Clay

Cryptosporidium

Humic Acid

Colloids

Suspended Substances

Coagulation & Flocculation Ultrafiltration, Microfiltration

Sand Filtration
Ultrafiltration &
Nanofiltration
Slow Sand Filtration

Physical Water Quality Parameters

Parameters respond to the senses of
Sight: Suspended Solids: SS or TSS,
Turbidity, Color

Touch: Temperature
Taste: Taste
Smell: Odor

Suspended Solids
Suspended Solids:
Volatile (Organic: Algae, bacteria)
Inert (Inorganic: Clay, Silt)
Generally used for Wastewater
Surrogate parameter: Turbidity

SS=0 (Clear groundwater)

300 mg/L (sewage)1000 mg/L (Monsoon Rivers)100,000 mg/L (Food Industry wastewater)

Suspended Solids
Suspended Solids: SS or TSS

Drinking Waters
(Use turbidity in place of TSS) Drinking Waters
Aesthetics, interference with other processes, treatment doses & sizing
(Turbidity)
Indian Standards Turbidity < 5 NTU

Natural Waters
Direct hazard to aquatic life: Settled & Causes Anaerobic Conditions
Siltation and hydraulic problems

Wastewaters
Measure of strength & treatment efficiency
Regulatory control on effluent (TSS) Indian Standards < 100 mg/L

Turbidity: Surrogate for TSS

Normally used for
drinking water: Due
to very Low TSS
Imparts opaqueness
& color

Color
By organic debris, leaves, tannins, humic acids:
Natural color
Iron and Manganese: Brown & Blackish Color
Different types of Industries.
Measured by Spectrophotometer
Aesthetic problem, Color causing substances react
with Chlorine and form Trihalomethane (THM)
Can be removed by Coagulation-Flocculation,
Activated Carbon Adsorption & Ozonation

Taste & Odor

Alkaline material: Bitter taste.
Metallic Salts : Salty Taste.
Organic Material: Reduced Products of
Sulphur: Rotten Eggs.
Aesthetically displeasing for consumers.
Removed by Activated Carbon Adsorption &
Ozonation.

Temperature/Thermal Pollution
Life threatening: Trout & Salmon
Beneficial: for some fishes
Within certain limits- promotes fish growth, fishing
may
improve
Sudden change in temperatureundesirable
With increase in temp.:
Metabolic rate increases by a factor of 2 for each 10 degree C rise
in temp.
DO requirement increases & Available DO reduces

A coal-fired plant converts one-third of the coal energy into electrical energy. The
electrical power output of the plant is 1000 MW. The other two-thirds of the
energy content of the fuel is rejected to the environment as waste heat. About
15 % of the waste heat goes up the smoke stack and the other 85 % is taken away
by cooling water that is drawn from a nearby river. The river has an upstream
flow of 100 m3/s and a temperature 0f 20oC.
If the cooling water is only allowed to rise in temperature by 10oC, what flow rate
from the stream would be required ?
What would be the river temperature just after it receives the heated cooling
water ?

Power input = 3 x 1000 MW = 3000 MW

Power output = electrical energy + Waste Heat = 1000 MW + 2000 MW
Heat extracted by cooling water = 0.85 x 2000 = 1700 MW
M x S x change in Temp = M (kg/s) x 4180 J/Kg oC x 10oC = 1700 x 106 W
Water input (M) = 40660 kg/s = 40.6 m3/s
Apply Heat balance at the output point
40.6 x 30oC + (100-40.6) x 20oC = 100 x XoC
XoC= 24.06

Chemical Water Quality Parameters

pH
Total Dissolved Solids:
Major Ions (Ca, Mg, HCO3, SO4, Na, Cl)
Hardness
Fluorides
Metals:
Non Toxic: Ca, Mg,Fe, Mn, Al, Cu, Zn
Toxic: Cr, Cd, Pb, Hg
Organics
Biodegradable
Non-Biodegradable
Nutrients:
Nitrogen
Phosphorus

pH

pH = - log [H+]
pH scale at 250C: 0 to 14
H2O
H+ + OH-; Kw = [H+] [OH-] = 10-14 at 250C
pKw = pH + pOH = 14
pH, 0 to 7: acid range & 7 to 14: alkaline range
pH = 7 represents neutrality
pH of neutrality changes with temperature; 7.5 at 00C and 6.5 at
600C
pH is a measure of intensity of acidic and basic conditions
pH, an important parameter to be considered in several
reactions and processes e.g.
oxidation reduction reactions, complexation reactions, acid
base reactions, precipitation reactions

Total Dissolved Solids (TDS) or Salts

Dissolved solids, or salts, may be present as any
number of ions
Cations: Na+, K+, Mg 2+, Ca2+
Anions: Cl-, SO42-, HCO3-

Typically measures as Total Dissolved Solids (TDS)

Water classification

freshwater < 1500 mg/L TDS

brackish water 1500 5000 mg/L
saline water >5000 mg/L
sea water 30-34 g/L

Total Dissolved Solids

Comprise sodium, potassium, calcium, magnesium, chloride, sulfate,
bicarbonate, carbonate, silica, organic matter, fluoride, iron,
manganese, nitrate (and nitrite) and phosphate.
The palatability of drinking water has been rated according to TDS
concentrations as follows :

mg/L
120-200
200-500
500-800
800-1000
>1000

quality
Excellent
Good
Fair
Poor
Unacceptable

TDS Standards (Drinking Water)

Water with extremely low TDS may taste flat and
insipid.
High TDS associated with excessive scaling in pipes,
fittings and household appliances.
Based on taste, TDS < 500 mg/L is regarded as good
quality water
TDS up to 1000 mg/L is acceptable to many
communities

Electrical conductivity: Surrogate

for TDS
TDS or Total Dissolved Solids is a measure of the
total ions in solution.
EC is actually a measure of the ionic activity of a
solution in term of its capacity to transmit current.
In dilute solution TDS and EC :
TDS (mg/L) = A x EC (S/cm)
where A = 0.5

Conductivity Values

Ion Balance (meq/L)

Ca2+

Mg2+

HCO3-

Cl-

% Error =

Na+
SO42-

meq of Cations meq of Anions

meq of Anions+ meq of Cations

Ca2+ = 55 mg/L, Mg2+ = 18 mg/L, Na+= 98 mg/L

HCO3- = 250 mg/L, SO42- = 60 mg/L, Cl-= 89 mg/L
Check its balance

x 100

pH of Natural Water: pH of rainwater

CO2 + H2O = [CO2(aq) ]

H2CO3
H+ + HCO3- ;
Ka1 ={[H+] [HCO3-]/ [CO2(aq) ]} = 4.45 x 10-7 or pKa1 = 6.35
Here, [H+] = [HCO3-]; & pKa1 = 2pH + log [CO2(aq) ] ---eq
Solubility of CO2 is governed by Henrys Law; Accordingly,
Equilibrium concentration of [CO2(aq)] = KH(CO2) x pCO2;

KH(CO2) -Henrys Constant for CO2 & pCO2 - partial pressure of CO2 in air;
Concentration of CO2 in air 370 ppm or 0.037%;
pCO2 = 0.037 x 10-2 atm = 3.58 x 10-4 atm;
KH(CO2) = 3.38 x 10-2 M/atm at 250C;
[CO2(aq)] = 1.18X10-5 M
from eq ;
pH = (pKa1 - log [CO2(aq)]) = 5.64
Acid rain has pH < 5.64

pH of surface & ground water

Surface Water (sw): rivers, lakes, ponds
Ground Water (gw): spring water, well water
pH of sw & gw is governed by CO2
carbonate equilibrium

pH 6.35 + log (HCO3-)/(CO2aq)

7.2 to 8.2

Hardness
A term often used to characterize the ability of a water
to:
cause soap scum
Ca2+ + (Soap)- Ca(Soap)2 (s)
increase the amount of soap needed
cause scaling on pipes
cause valves to stick due to the formation of
calcium carbonate crystals
leave stains on plumbing fixtures

Formation of Hardness
Precipitation
Topsoil
Subsoil
CO2 + H2O H2CO3
Limestone

CaCO3(s) + H2CO3 Ca(HCO3)2

MgCO3(s) + H2CO3 Mg(HCO3)2

Fluorides
Occurs in few types of sedimentary or igneous
rocks
Toxic to humans in large quantities:
discoloration of teeth if fluoride > 2mg/L
> 5 mg/L causes bone fluorosis or other
abnormalities.
Can be removed by alum and ion exchange
methods

Arsenic
This is a metalloid. The most commonly found valence states
in the groundwater are As(III) and As(V).
Over-exploitation of underground water causes the geochemical leaching of arsenic from the arsenic-bearing rocks
into the groundwater used for drinking purposes in many
places in India
It is by far one of the most toxic substances found in
groundwater.
Ingestion of arsenic at a level higher than 10 micro-g/L for a
prolonged time causes severe disorders. The manifestation
starts with pigmentation in the skin, soon followed by skin
lesions, keratosis, and damage to the internal organs causing
cancers and often becomes fatal.
In India, more than seven states have dangerous levels of
arsenic concentration in public drinking water, often in the
range of 100-500 micro-g/L (10 to 50 times the regulatory
limit). Currently, about 10 million people are directly affected
and many more are at risk.

Sulphates & Chlorides

Chloride-250 mg/L
Taste
Corrosion
Palatability
SO4 200 mg/L
Gastro-intestinal
No Long term health effect
Palatability
Scales
Reduced Form odor and inhibit anaerobic activity

Metals
Na (non- toxic): Bitter taste and health hazard
to cardiac and kidney patients. Standard (250
mg/L)
Iron & Manganese (non- toxic): Impart color.
Arsenic, barium, cadmium, chromium, lead
mercury: Hazardous: concentrated by food
chains and greatest danger to the top of food
chain organisms

Heavy Metals
Important ones- Hg, Pb, Cd, As
Toxic Non-degradable
Essential nutrients-Cr, Fe
Cr, Cd in higher doses nervous system / kidney
damage, creation of mutation , induction of tumors
Inhaled / Ingested: Absorption depends on
particular metal and form .
Ex. Liquid Hg- not very toxic
Hg Vapor- Highly Toxic/ enters lungs./ diffused in to
blood stream/ can pass in to the brain / damage the
central nervous system

Heavy Metals
Kidney/complex filter/ eliminate toxic
substance from body.
Kidney- Contain millions of excretory unitsnephrons,
Chemicals toxic to kidney- nephrotoxins
Example Of nephrotoxic metals-Cd, Pb, Hg

Pesticides
Kill undesirable organisms
Insecticides , herbicides,
Rodenticides,
Fungicides

Volatile Organic Compounds

Most commonly found contaminated in GW
Suspected carcinogens/ Mutagens
Can be removed by aeration

DRINKING WATER QUALITY STANDARDS

Characteristics

Standard

Remarks

Color

Colorless

Generally cause by decaying vegetation or industries

Odor

Unobjectionable (a) Test cold when heated

(b) Test at several dilutions
Caused by biological reactions and sewage

Turbidity

5 NTU

Dissolved solids mg/L,

Max

500

Beyond this palatability decreases and may cause gastro

intestinal irritation From minerals, metals

pH

6.5-8.5

Beyond this range, the water will affect the mucous

membrane and/or water supply system

Total Alkalinity

200 mg/L

Associated with hardness, bitter taste

Total hardness (as

CaCO3) mg/L, Max

300

Encrustation in water supply structure and adverse effects

on domestic use

Characteristics

Standard

Remarks

Chlorides (as Cl) mg/L,

max

250

Beyond this limit, taste, corrosion and palatability are

affected

Fluoride (as F) mg/L,

Max

1.0

Fluoride may be kept as low as possible. High chloride

may cause fluorosis, Less than 1 mg/L help to prevent
dental activities in children.

Sulphate (as SO4) mg/L,

Max

200

Beyond this limit, taste/appearance are affected, has

adverse effect on domestic uses and water supply
structures

Nitrate (as NO3-N) mg/L,

Max

45 as NO3-N
10 mg/L as
NO3

Beyond this methaemoglobinemia takes place.

(bluish discoloration)

Bacterial Counts: Nil