11th International Conference on

Advances in Steel and Concrete Composite Structures

Tsinghua University, Beijing, China, December 3-5, 2015

Advances in Steel-Concrete
Composite Structures

Edited by
Lin-Hai Han
Wei Li
Dennis Lam

11th International Conference on

Advances in Steel and Concrete Composite Structures
Tsinghua University, Beijing, China, December 3-5, 2015

Preface
The Association of Steel and Concrete Composite Structures (ASCCS) was founded in Harbin in
1988 during the 2nd International Conference on Steel-Concrete Composite Structures, where Prof. S. T.
Zhong (China), Prof. M. Tomii (Japan), Prof. M. J. N. Priestley (New Zealand) and Prof. J. G.
Potyondy (Canada) jointly proposed to establish the association, aiming to promote the development of
steel-concrete composite structures and to boost the international cooperation in this area. The ASCCS
conference series were held every three years, in Harbin (1985, 1988, 2006), Fukuoka (1991), Kosice
(1994), Innsbruck (1997), Los Angeles (2000), Sydney (2003), Leeds (2009) and Singapore (2012).
This 11th ASCCS conference is held by Tsinghua University, in Beijing, China, from December 3 to
5, 2015. The call for papers for ASCCS 2015 was overwhelmingly responded, 132 full papers were
collected. All papers were internationally peer-reviewed and eventually 113 papers from 18 countries
and regions were accepted for publications in this conference proceedings. The papers contained in the
proceedings draw on the experience and research advances on the research, design and applications of
steel-concrete composite structures. Several parallel sessions were established on composite beam/slab,
composite column, composite joint/connection, composite wall/structural system and composite bridge.
Selected papers will be published on Structures, a joint international journal launched by the Institution
of Structural Engineers and the Elsevier.
We would like to thank all participants for their keen supports and excellent contribution to the
success of the conference, sharing their wonderful knowledge and exchanging their excellent ideas in
this event, which would certainly promote the development of steel-concrete composite structures.
Sixteen keynote speakers were invited to present their research work on this conference. These people
are experts on their respective field and have contributed to the advances in steel-concrete composite
structures. We would like to acknowledge the Keynote speakers to their great contribution to this
conference.
We would like to thank members of the Scientific Committees and all international reviewers for
reviewing the abstracts and the full-length papers within an extremely short time period, helping to
improve the quality of the papers included in this proceedings.
We would like to thank Prof. Leroy Gardner, Editor-in-chief who kindly agreed to publish the
selected papers on the international peer-reviewed journal Structures.
We wish to express our gratitude to Tsinghua University for the supports to this conference.
Our sincere thanks to the general secretary, Dr. Wei Li and Dr. Xiao-Dong Ji, the members of
organizing committee and the hard-working assistants, Dr. Yong Ye, Miss Jia-Qi Liu, Mr. Dan-Yang
Ma, Mr. You-Xing Hua, Mr. Chang-Ming Hu, Mr. Jin-Yang Chen, Mr. Tao Wang, Mr. Kan Zhou, Mr.
Shuai Li, Mr. Ying-Zhuo Gu, Mr. Yu-Xiao Cai, Mr. Di Wang, Mr. Wei-Wu Qian and Mr. Wu Xu, for
making the ASCCS 2015 conference a great success.

Lin-Hai Han
Chairman, Organizing Committee

Dennis Lam
Chairman, Scientific Committee
I

11th International Conference on

Advances in Steel and Concrete Composite Structures
Tsinghua University, Beijing, China, December 3-5, 2015

Organization
Scientific Committee
R. Bjorhovde, USA
M. A. Bradford, Australia
I. Burgess, UK
D. Camotim, Portugal
S. L. Chan, Hong Kong, China
W. F. Chen, USA
S. P. Chiew, Singapore
K. F. Chung, Hong Kong, China
L. S. da Silva, Portugal
U. E. Dorka, Germany
D. Dubina, Romania
W. S. Easterling, USA
S. El-Tawil, USA
L. Gardner, UK
Y. Goto, Japan
J. F. Hajjar, USA
K. Harries, USA
M. Hosain, Canada
B. A. Izzuddin, UK
S. A. Jayachandran, India
S. E. Kim, South Korea
V. Kodur, USA
D. Lam, UK
H. H. Lau, Malaysia
R. T. Leon, USA

J. Y. R. Liew, Singapore
M. Mahendran, Australia
D. A. Nethercot, UK
J. G. Nie, China
J. A. Packer, Canada
R. J. Plank, UK
K. Rasmussen, Australia
C. Roeder, USA
Z. Y. Shen, China
Z. Tao, Australia
K. H. Tan Singapore
J. G. Teng, Hong Kong, China
C. M. Uang, USA
T. Usami, Japan
B. Uy, Australia
Y. Wang, UK
J. Wardenier, Netherlands
Y. Xiao, USA
E. Yamaguchi, Japan
J. Ye, UK
B. Young, Hong Kong, China
X. L. Zhao, Australia
X. H. Zhou, China
A. Zingoni, South Africa

Organizing Committee
Chairman: Prof. L. H. Han, Tsinghua University
Secretary-General: Dr. W. Li & A/Prof. X. D. Ji, Tsinghua University
Members:
Prof. J. S. Fan, Tsinghua University
Prof. X. Z. Lu, Tsinghua University
Prof. P. Feng, Tsinghua University
Prof. P. Pan, Tsinghua University
Prof. G. Shi, Tsinghua University
Dr. M. X. Tao, Tsinghua University
Dr. C. Hou, Tsinghua University
Dr. Y. Ye, Tsinghua University
Dr. Z. B. Wang, Tsinghua University

II

11th International Conference on

Advances in Steel and Concrete Composite Structures
Tsinghua University, Beijing, China, December 3-5, 2015

Conference Assistants:
Mr. W. Xu, PhD Candidate, Tsinghua University
Mr. W. W. Qian, PhD Candidate, Tsinghua University
Mr. K. Zhou, PhD Candidate, Tsinghua University
Miss J. Q. Liu, PhD Candidate, Tsinghua University
Mr. C. M. Hu, PhD Candidate, Tsinghua University
Mr. Y. X. Hua, PhD Candidate, Tsinghua University
Mr. D. Y. Ma, PhD Candidate, Tsinghua University
Mr. D. Wang, MSc Student, Tsinghua University
Mr. J. Y. Chen, PhD Candidate, Tsinghua University
Mr. T. Wang, MSc Student, Tsinghua University
Mr. S. Li, Undergraduate Student, Tsinghua University
Mr. Y. Z. Gu, Undergraduate Student, Tsinghua University
Mr. Y. X. Cai, Undergraduate Student, Tsinghua University

III

Table of Contents
Zhong Shantong - a composite life (1919 2013)

C. D. Goode & X. X. Zha

Beam/Slab
The continuous strength method for hot-rolled steel and steel-concrete composite design

(Keynote speech)
L. Gardner , X. Yun, M. Kucukler & L. Macorini
Seismic performance of partially encased composite structural members and connections

16

(Keynote speech)
Y. Y. Chen, G. H. Chuan & W. Li
Experimental investigation on shear transferring mechanisms in a composite floor beam with

22

web openings
B. Y. Huo & C. A. DMello
Simplified numerical modelling of steel-concrete composite beams with trapezoidal steel

30

decking
U. Katwal, Z Tao, T. Y. Song & W. D. Wang
Behaviour of composite floor slabs under fire conditions

38

M. M. Florides & K. A. Cashell

Experimental study on prefabricated composite box girder

47

W. S. Xiao, Y. Q. Liu, X. Q. Xu & C. B. Ma

Non-linear analysis of multi-span composite beams under combined flexure and torsion

54

H. Y. Ban, E. L. Tan & B. Uy

Bending response of steel-concrete composite beam with angled flat-plate shear connectors

59

M. Leekitwattana
Experimental study on dynamic behavior of shear stud connectors between concrete slab and

63

steel beam
H.T. Wang, J. S. Huo, Z. X. Zhu & Y. Z. Liu
Post-buckling resistance of axially restrained chord members at elevated temperatures

71

Y. Du, M. X. Xiong & J. Y. R. Liew

Study on mechanical performance of composite beam with innovative composite slabs

78

Y. Yang, Y. L. Yu, X. W. Zhou & C. Roeder

Numerical analysis of steel-concrete-steel sandwich composite beams and shells

86

J. B. Yan & J. Y. R. Liew

Experimental study on the flexural performance of cap deck composite slabs with embedded
pre-tensioned elements
S. H. Choi, J. H. Kyung, D. K. Kim, D. A. Kang & S. M. Choi

IV

95

Mechanical behavior of 3D composite floor systems under internal column loss scenarios

100

Q. N. Fu, K. H. Tan & B. Yang

Experimental research on shear capacity of through-deck welded studs using profiled steel

106

sheeting
Q. L. Sun, M. X. Tao, J. S. Fan & W. Liu
An innovative approach of geopolymer concrete profiled flange on composite beam subjected

111

to combined negative bending and high axial tension

M. Bavan, S. Baharom & M. Seraji
Negative influences of profiled steel sheet on steel-concrete composite beam subjected to

121

combined negative bending and axial tension

M. Bavan, S. B. Baharom, S. A. Osmana & M. Seraji
Pre-cambered cap decks for 7.5m span structures without supports

129

S. Lee, J. Song, Y. Park, Y. Won & S. Choi

Column
Behaviour of circular concrete filled double-skin steel tubular (CFDST) stub columns

137

(Keynote speech)
D. Lam, X. H. Dai, T. Sheehan & M. Pagoulatou
A new codified design theory of second-order direct analysis for steel and composite

145

structures from research to practice

(Keynote speech)
S. L. Chan, Y. P. Liu & S. W. Liu
Behaviour of concrete-filled stainless steel columns in fire

153

(Keynote speech)
Z. Tao, M. Ghannam, T. Y. Song & L. H. Han
Influence of ultra-high strength concrete on circular concrete-filled dual steel columns

161

(Keynote speech)
M. L. Romero, J. M. Portols, A. Espins, D. Pons & V. Albero
Numerical study of concrete-filled elliptical hollow section beam-columns

167

W. Qiu, F. McCann & L. Gardner

Numerical modelling of concrete-filled EHS under compression and biaxial bending

175

T. Sheehan, T. M. Chan, X. H. Dai & D. Lam

Second order plastic hinge analysis for seismic and static design of building structures

183

Y. P. Liu, S. L. Chan & Z. L. Du

Experimental study on static behavior of high strength steel confined concrete columns

190

X. Z. Zhao & S. Cao

Cyclic behaviour of concrete filled stainless steel tubular beam-columns
F. Y. Liao, L. H. Han, Z. Tao & K. Rasmussen

197

Finite element analysis on axial compressive behavior of circular concrete filled bimetal

205

tubular short columns

Y. Ye, L. H. Han & T. Sheehan
Comparisons of fire performance between STCRC columns and CFST columns

213

F. Q. Liu, H. Yang & Y. C. Pan

Experimental study and fire resistant design of concrete filled steel tubular columns with high

219

strength materials
M. X. Xiong, J. Y. R. Liew & Y. Du
New engineering theory for torsional buckling of steel-concrete composite I-columns

225

W. F. Zhang
Finite element analysis on mechanical performance of middle long concrete-filled square steel

233

tube column with inner I-shaped CFRP profile inside under axial loading
G. C. Li, R. R. Zhang, Z. J. Yang & B. Zhou
Post-fire performance of steel reinforced concrete (SRC) columns

239

L. H. Han, K. Zhou, Q. H. Tan & T. Y. Song

Tests of three-legged CFST latticed columns under cyclic loadings

246

Y. F. Yang & D. R. Song

Analytical behaviour of circular concrete encased CFST stub columns: finite element analysis

252

W. J. Zhang, Y. J. Li & F. Y. Liao

Composite effect and shear strength model of square steel tubed RC columns

260

X. H. Zhou, J. P. Liu & D. Gan

Experimental studies on CFDST sections under axial loading

268

M. Sulthana, A. Jayachandran & M. Praveena

Behaviour of octagonal steel-reinforced hollow concrete columns under compressive load

274

R. Wang, L. H. Han, D. Lam, T. Sheehan & B. B. Wang

Fire design method for concrete-filled tubular columns of different cross-section shape

282

A. Espins, M. L. Romero, V. Alberoa, A. Hospitalera, G. Bihinab & C. Renaud

Behaviour of concrete-filled steel tubular stub columns with different aggregates

291

X. Yu, Z. Tao & T. Y. Song

Behaviour of concrete-filled stainless steel tubular columns under axial compression

299

M. L. Patton & K. D. Singh

Design of axially loaded cold-formed steel gapped back-to-back channel built-up sections

309

using thickness reduction method (TReM)

T. C. H. Ting & H. H. Lau
Experimental investigation on thin-walled circular CFT column made using cold rolled steel
plates
K. Baskar & M. Velmurugan
VI

315

Finite element analysis for seismic behavior of concrete-encased column base for hexagonal

322

CFSTs
W. Xu, L. H. Han & W. Li
Design of Noncompact and slender rectangular CFT members

329

Z. C. Lai & A. H. Varma

Tests of seawater and sea sand concrete (SWSSC) filled stainless steel (SS) and GFRP tubes

335

Y. L. Li, Y. Y. Zhang, R. F. Nie, X. L. Zhao, R. K. S. Raman, SAl-Saddi & J. G. Teng

Preliminary study on durability of FRP and stainless steel in seawater and sea sand concrete

342

(SWSSC) environment
F. Guo, F. Khoo, SAl-Saadi, Y. L. Li, R. K. S. Raman & X. L. Zhao
Analytical study on long-term push out tests of steel-concrete composite specimens

350

R. N. Song, Y. L. Zhan, R. D. Zhao, Z. Y. Zou & D. Y. Xue

Analytical behavior of concrete-filled steel tubular columns under sustained loads, chloride

356

corrosion and lateral impact,

C. C. Hou, L. H. Han & W. Li
Behaviour of circular concrete filled steel tubular (CFST) beam-columns subjected to

364

long-term loading and chloride corrosion

Y. X. Hua, C. Hou, Q. L. Wang & L. H. Han

Joint/Connection
Fatigue behaviour of corroded stud shear connectors

372

(Keynote speech)
W. L. Jin, J. Chen & A. Y. Jiang
Structural behaviour of shear connections with solid and composite slabs under co-existing

378

shear and tension forces

(Keynote speech)
K. F. Chung, M. H. Shen & C. H. Yam
Behaviour and design of connections for demountable steel and composite structures

389

(Keynote speech)
B. Uy, VI Patel & D. Li
Mechanical behavior of end cross-girder in composite bridge with inspection hole

398

(Keynote speech)
E. Yamaguchi & H. Tsuji
Experimental investigation on cyclic behavior of stiffened joints between concrete filled steel
tubular column and steel beam with narrow outer diaphragm and partial joint penetration
welds
C. Y. Quan, W. Wang, J. Zhou, R. Wang & F. Wang

VII

404

Mechanism of composite pylon with perfobond connectors under axial loads

412

X. Z. Wang, S. J. Zheng, Y. Q. Liu, L. Tang & Y. Gao

Progressive collapse analysis concrete-filled steel tubular column to steel beam connections

417

using multi-scale model

W. D. Wang, H. W. Li & J. X. Wang
Finite element simulation of tensile failure mechanisms of high strength structural bolts

424

Y. Hu, L. E. Shen, B. Yang, G. Xiong & G. X. Dai

Experimental study on the structural behavior of H-beam to circular CFT column moment

428

connections with external diaphragms

K. S. Chung, J. M. Choi & J. H. Yoo
Analysis on uplift behavior of notched perfobond connector

435

Y. Q. Liu, Y. Q. Liu & S. J. Zheng

Experimental study on ultimate capacity of grouted connections in tripod support structure of

440

offshore wind turbines

W. H. Pan, J. S. Fan & W. Li
Simulation of beam to concrete-filled elliptical steel tubular column connections

446

J. Yang, T. Sheehan, X. Dai & D. Lam

Experimental behavior of flange-welded/web-bolted steel tubular connections under post-

454

earthquake fire
Q. Y. Song, A. Heidarpour, X. L. Zhao & L. H. Han
Post fire behaviour of innovative shear connection for composite steel-concrete structures

462

O. Mirza, F. Mashiri, C. Canuto & D. Lam

Behaviour of novel blind-bolted joints with different strengthening components

470

Z. B. Wang, D. S. Li, Z. Tao & L. H. Han

Push out test of novel deep steel decking failure modes and influence of transversal loading

478

C. Odenbreit, R. Obiala, S. Nellinger & R. M. Lawson

Experimental investigation on seismic response of exterior RCS beam-column connection

485

Q. H. Nguyen, X. H. Nguyen & D. D. Le

Combined hardening model for the BLY steel shear panel dampers

490

L. Y. Xu, J. G. Nie & J. S. Fan

Numerical simulated analysis on behavior of a new U-shaped connection between light steel

496

keel interior wall and steel-frame beam

H. X. Zhang, G. C. Li & P. Yang
Effect of welding on the tensile behavior of high strength steel t-stub joints
- part I: experimental and analytical study
M. S. Zhao, C. Chen & S. P. Chiew

VIII

500

Effect of welding on the tensile behavior of high strength steel t-stub joints

507

- part II: numerical study

C. Chen, M. S. Zhao & S. P. Chiew
Design resistance of high strength steel square hollow section K-Joints

512

F. Zuo, S. P. Vipin & S. P. Chiew

Numerical investigation and design of concrete-filled steel tubular CHS connections

518

J. Chen, F. Xu & W. L. Jin

Discussion on load transfer mechanism of WUF-B connection with CFRT column

524

Y. J. Yu, Z. H. Chen & X. D. Wang

Shape memory alloys for self-centering steel connections - test evidence and new ideas

531

C. Fang, M. C. H. Yam, A. C. C. Lam & K. F. Chung

Re-engineering composite connections for a higher construction and cost effectiveness

538

A. J. Wang

Wall/Structural System
Steel-concrete-steel sandwich composite structures the current state of the art

544

(Keynote speech)
J. Y. R. Liew, J. B. Yan & Z. Y. Huang
Static and dynamic behaviour of steel and composite structures under progressive collapse

558

(Keynote speech)
B. Yang & K. H. Tan
Modularity & innovation using steel-plate composite (SC) walls for nuclear and commercial

565

construction
(Keynote speech)
A. H. Varma, S. R. Malushte & Z. C. Lai
Advanced analysis software for frames

572

(Keynote speech)
P. C. Nguyen & S. E. Kim
Structural behaviour of steel-concrete-steel sandwich composite wall infilled with ultra

577

lightweight cement composite

Z. Y. Huang & J. Y. R. Liew
Shear behavior of steel-plate composite walls

585

X. D. Ji, X. F. Jia & J. R. Qian

Joint flexibility effects on the behavior of steel plane frames

593

ANT Ihaddoudne & JP Jaspart

Dynamic condition assessment of composite structures using different damage indices
X. Q. Zhu

IX

597

A design method for walls with several encased steel profiles

603

A. Plumier
Assessment of design expressions for walls with several encased steel profiles

612

A. Plumier
A comparison study of modeling methods of simple steel connections subject to column

620

removal scenarios
K. Chen, K. H. Tan & B. Yang
Response and parametric analysis on progressive collapse of composite frame with concrete

627

-filled steel tubular columns

J. X. Wang, H. W. Li & W. D. Wang
Experimental study of structural frame composed of steel jacketing concrete-column and

634

steel-beam with self-centering capacity

H. Nakahara & H. Yin
Critical loads and failure behaviors of combined scaffold systems

641

J. L. Peng, C. S. Wang & C. M. Ho

Experimental study on bearing capacity of the straw concrete lightweight steel composite

648

wallboard
D. Z. Liu
Seismic behavior of blind bolted CFST frames with semi-rigid connections

652

J. F. Wang & J. X. Wang

Nonlinear analysis on seismic behavior of composite tall buildings based on an efficient

658

method
Y. X. Li, M. X. Tao, R. Ding, J. G. Nie & J. S. Fan
Pseudo-dynamic tests on frame-shear wall structure: seismic behavior

664

W. S. Jiang, C. Han, Q. N. Li & H. J. Zhao

Seismic behavior of a hybrid structural system with SRC wing walled-frame

671

Y. T. Bai & G. L. Bai

Study on vibration properties of air cooled support structure in large thermal power plant

677

Z. L. Yao, G. L. Bai & Y. T. Bai

Structural responses of 3D beam-slab systems under progressive collapse events induced by

682

blast
A. T. Pham & K. H. Tan
Inelastic postbuckling performance of steel braced moment resisting frame system with

690

without composite floor slab

M. Lotfollahi, M. M. Alinia & E. Taciroglu
Test of semi-rigid composite frame under column loss
L. H. Guo, S. Gao & M. Xu

698

New engineering theory for mixed torsion of steel- concrete- steel composite walls

705

W. F. Zhang
Temperature field analysis of concrete filled steel tubular column-wall

713

J. Q. Liu, L. H. Han, W. B. Li & X. L. Zhao

Bridge
Concrete filled steel tubes for bridge pier and foundation construction

720

(Keynote speech)
C. Roeder, D. E. Lehman & M. Stephens
In-plane strength and design of fixed concrete-filled steel tubular parabolic arches

728

C. Y. Liu & Y. Y. Wang

Design and vibration control of an urban steel arch bridge with spatial cables

734

H. J. Xu & Y. Q. Liu
Research & Design on New Structure of Wave-Truss Composite Arch Bridge-Final Version

738

Y. Li, C. Zhang, M. Shi & Y. Zhou

Experiment on the axially loaded concrete filled steel tube composite stub columns

745

Q. L. Yan, B. C. Chen, X. M. Yu & J. Y. Xue

Research on calculation method of anti-overturning capacity for single column pier bridge

753

with steel-concrete composite girder

W. B. Peng, B. Jiao & Y. Z. Zhuang
Development of new type of concrete-filled steel tube (CFST) pier-to-coping connection

758

J. Moon, J. J. Kim & K. S. Youm

Early-age creep effect on concrete-filled steel tubular arch bridges

763

B. Han, H. E. Hao, X. F. Li & F. Wang

Study on the mechanical behavior of the eccentrically loaded partial concrete-filled steel

769

tubular bridge pier under in-plane cyclic loading

Z. F. Wang, G. Q. Qiu, B. Gao, Q. Wang & L. S. Bao
Cyclic behavior of multiple modular bridge piers in terms of diagonal load analyzed by

775

OPENSEES
C. H. Jeon, D. W. Kim & C. S. Shim
Experiment study of mechanical behavior for an arch bridge composite deck and application

782

P. Z. Lu, J. B. Zhou, Y. Z. Zhuang & H. Shao

Seismic behavior of steel reinforced high performance concrete composite frame

786

X. Y. Shang, S. S. Zheng, M. Li & G. Z. Deng

Author Index

792

XI

11th International Conference on

Advances in Steel and Concrete Composite Structures
Tsinghua University, Beijing, China, December 3-5, 2015

ZHONG SHANTONG - A COMPOSITE LIFE (1919 2013)

C. D. Goodea & X. X. Zhab
a

Braybank, Spring Rise, Draughton, Skipton, UK (Retired Senior Lecturer, Manchester University, UK)
E-mail: cdgoode@mypostoffice.co.uk
b

Shenzhen Graduate School, Harbin Institute of Technology, University Town, Shenzhen 518055, China
E-mail: zhahero@126.com
ABSTRACT
Keywords:
Zhong Shantong: Composite
Columns; Code Comparison

This Paper describes the life and work of Professor Zhong Shantong who was the instigator
and first President of ASCCS. His research on Composite Columns is discussed and the
development of unified theory, which forms the basis of the Chinese Code of Practice. The
Chinese Code and Eurocode 4 are compared with 1808 tests on composite columns; there is
good agreement.

last one. Zhongs input and influence will be sadly

missed.

1 INTRODUCTION
It is fitting that our Conference should have a session
dedicated to Professor Zhong Shantong. He was the
instigator, and founding President, of the Association for
International Cooperation and Research in Steel-Concrete
Composite Structures (ASCCS). The first author met
Professor Zhong when he presented a paper on
Composite Construction to Resist External Pressure to
the Conference, organised by Prof. Zhong, and held in
Harbin in 1988. It was designated an International
Conference; there were about 50 Chinese delegates, 13
from Japan, Dr Mel Hosain from Canada and Dr. Douglas
Goode from the UK!
Douglas had an interesting journey to Harbin airport
in 1988 (having arrived at Beijing airport at midnight and
spending the night sleeping on a bench as, in those days,
the whole of the airport turned out the lights and closed
down for the night) where Prof. Zhong met him and made
him very welcome. He was very well looked after by two
of Prof. Zhongs young researchers, Zhang Sumei and
Pan Yougang, who showed him round Harbin and
translated for the whole of the Conference; they were
indispensible and most helpful. The Chinese and
Japanese delegates were very keen to start an
international association specifically related to composite
construction so we met one afternoon to thrash out a
constitution, appoint officers, and agree policy; the
principal objective being to organise an International
Conference on Composite Construction every three years.
This ASCCS has successfully done, and this is the 10th
such Conference since 1988. Prof. Zhong (President and
Past-President)
and
Douglas
Goode
(former
Secretary/Treasurer) have attended all of these except the

Figure 1. Zhong Shantong on his ninetieth birthday.

God bless those who work hard

2 EARLY LIFE
Zhong Shantong was born in Hangzhong City,
Zhejiang Province on 29th April 1919, formerly named
Dong Shantong. His father Dong Jun was on the staff of

Goode et al.

Early in 1950 Santai County of Sichuan Province was

liberated and, in the same year, Zhong Shantong
graduated with an excellent academic record. Because of
his excellence, and with the agreement of the Peoples
Liberation Army and all teachers and students at
theUniversity, he was chosen to continue his postgraduate
studies at Harbin Institute of Technology (HIT). As he
was among the first group of postgraduate students he
was taught by Soviet experts and so learnt some Russian.
He passed his thesis defence in August 1954, at the age of
31, and was named as one of the Eight Hundred Heroes.
He stayed on to teach at HIT for the next 60 years.

the Zhejiang province governor. The family, 10 people,

lived on his fathers salary but when his father died life
became very difficult. His mother could only rely on
borrowing so she had to send two sons including Zhong
Shantong to live with a family called Zhong. He liked to
make out that he was born on Youth Day (4th May) which
was established to commemorate the outbreak of the May
Fourth Movement and which was officially announced as
Youth Day by the Central Peoples Government Council
in December 1949.

Figure 2. Xihu Lake, Hangzhong City, where he was born.

After finishing middle school, he studied in the

Department of Mechanics of Zhejiang University
Affiliated to Hangzhou Advanced Industrial Vocational
School.
In 1931 Japan occupied northeast China and in 1937
launched the war to invade the whole of China and in
November 1937 Hangzhou was occupied. The Chinese
people resisted and a full-scale war, to counteract the
Japanese aggression, developed between the Chinese
nation and Japan. Zhong joined the Kuomintang Car
Group Division 200 and served as first lieutenant and
later as squadron leader and automotive instructor.
Because he actively promoted anti-Japanese sentiments,
when he taught the soldiers cultural lessons, he was
suspected of being a red communist and was excluded by
the bureau of investigation and statistics of the military
council of the Kuomintang. After fighting with the
Kuomintang for eight years he ended his military career
in June 1945.
He was readmitted to the Department of Civil
Engineering of Chuanbei University (now named
Chongqing University), Sichuan Province, in October
1946. He served as President of the students union in his
third year at college.
He was active and radical and dissatisfied with the
political corruption of the Kuomintang Government and a
thorn in their eyes. Because of this he was considered a
KMT spy and once again included in the blacklist of
controlled staff by the KMT county party department.
But, due to lack of evidence he was spared from being
publicly persecuted.

Figure 3. Zhong on graduation from Chuanbei University.

Figure 4. Postgraduate study at Harbin Institute of Technology.

In 1951 he married Wu Jiqing and they had one son

Zhong Bin and one daughter Zhong Ji. In 1993 on his
second visit to England, accompanied by his wife, Mrs
Zhong was unexpectedly taken ill and died suddenly; a
traumatic experience for him as she was cremated in
Manchester and he took her ashes back to Harbin. (His
fourth brother Dong Shaoyong, an Aeroengine expert,
also studied at University of Manchester for a masters
degree in aero engineering, he graduated in October
1945.)
He was a fine calligrapher and a great cook. He also
said that drinking a glass of wine each day was as good as
running 1 km!
2

Goode et al.

graphs which defined the composite material. In 1978 he

held the first National CFST construction experience
exchange conference; in 1986 he established the China
Association of Steel Concrete Composite Structures; in
1987 he published the first edition book of Concrete
Filled Steel Tubular Structures and now there are three
editions. From this he developed his unified theory in
1994, which considers the concrete enclosed by steel as a
single material, whose properties can be defined based on
the many tests done at Harbin and elsewhere in China.
He wrote over 160 papers for international
publications, the first being in 1957 when he was 38
years old and the last in 2011 when he was 92. He also
wrote 19 books: "Steel Structures", "Prestressed Steel
Structures", "The Stability Design of Steel Structures",
"Concrete Filled Steel Tubular Structures", "The
Research and Application of Unified Theory of Concrete
Filled Steel Tubular Structures, "Analysis and Design of
Frame Composite beam column Joints in High-rise
Buildings".

Figure 5. Prof. Zhong with his wife Wu Jiqing and their son
Zhong Bin and daughter Zhong Ji.

3 ACADEMIC CAREER
He began his academic career at Harbin in 1950 and
worked there for sixty years always striving for
excellence in teaching and research. He won a high
academic reputation both at home and abroad for his
work on steel and concrete structures. He supervised 3
post-doctors, 16 doctors and 46 masters and always

Figure 7. First book Steel Structures 1955.

He promoted the China Association of Steel

Concrete Composite Structures and had a very
significant input to the Chinese Code for design of steelconcrete composite
structure DL/T 5085-1999,
"Technical specification for solid and hollow of concretefilled steel tubular structures"CECS254:2009 and 2012
and the final National Code "Technical Code for concrete
filled steel tubular structures" GB 50936-2014(3).

Figure 6. Teaching and Research at HIT for 60 years.

encouraged them to work hard and improve daily.

Many of these have gone on to become leaders in their
field in other universities.
He started research work on composite construction in
1975 and immediately saw the advantage of this method
of building for columns for high-rise buildings. He, and
his research students, tested many circular steel tubes
filled with concrete and from these developed tables and

Figure 8. The Chinese Lifetime Achievement Award in Steel

Structures and Chinese Steel Structure Industry Pioneer.

Goode et al.

Figure 10. Visiting the UK in 1990.

Figure 9. Advisor for Shenzhen SEG Plaza in 1999 (74 story

and 291.6 m high, the highest entirely CFST column building in
the world).

Figure 11. Inviting UK researchers to China in 1991.

4 UNIFIED THEORY

He acted as advisor to the designers of a number of

high-rise buildings and power stations that used
composite columns in their construction(1).
He was given many awards including the title
Heilongjiang Province Model Worker, Special
Government Allowance Experts, China; Chinese Steel
Structure Industry Pioneer and the Chinese Lifetime
Achievement Award in Steel Structures.
He was principally responsible for obtaining money
from the World Bank (the university also provided
matching money) to fund the building of the magnificent
Structures Laboratory at HIT which was completed in
1987 and which so impressed Dr Goode with its size and
facilities when he visited in 1988.
Prof. Zhong was also very keen to form a liaison
between Harbin and a British University and Dr Goode
was able, with finance from the Royal Society and the
British Council, to arrange this with Manchester
University, UK. A number of his research staff has
visited Manchester University over the years, and he
himself visited Manchester twice, so making it possible
for Dr. Goode to repay some of the hospitality given by
Prof. Zhong to him and colleagues during four visits to
Harbin, and to take Prof. Zhong round a number of
Englands research institutes and sights.

Perhaps Professor Zhongs greatest contribution to the

promotion of composite construction in China has been
the development of the unified theory(2) which forms
the basis of the Chinese Code of Practice(3) for safe
design, DL/T5085-1999, CECS254:2009 and 2012,
GB50936-2014 which is the current National standard for
the design of concrete filled steel tubular structures in
China.
Unified theory regards the concrete filled steel tube
as one composite material and the behaviour of CFST
members have the property of unification, continuity
and relativity.
Unification reflects the CFST member being
regarded as one simple material for both design and
research.
Continuity reflects that the behaviour of CFST
members are changed with the physics parameters of
materials, geometrical parameters, types of cross sections
and stress states, and this change is continuous.
Relativity reflects that the behaviour of CFST in
related to its different loads and stresses.
The composite standard compressive strength is:
fscy (1.212 B y C y2 ) fck
The composite design compressive strength is:
fsc (1.212 B C 2 ) fc

Goode et al.

y sc
sc

sc

fy
f ck
f
fc

N E'

As
Ac

0.176f/213+0.974

-0.104fc/14.4+0.031

0.140f/213+0.778

-0.070fc/14.4+0.026

0.131f/213+0.723

-0.070fc/14.4+0.026

0.106f/213+0.584

-0.037fc/14.4+0.011

5 CONCLUSION

0.056f/213+0.311

-0.011fc/14.4+0.004

0.039f/213+0.217

-0.006fc/14.4+0.002

Table 1. B and C values for various sections.

circular and
sixteen-side
solid

Octagon
square
circular and
sixteen-side

hollow

octagon
square

2 Esc Asc
1.1 2

where
N , M , T , V axial force, moment, torque and shear
force respectively;
m equivalent moment coefficient, which is
calculated according to Design Code for Steel Structure
GB 50017.
Thus, by Unified Theory, unified design formulae for
CFST members are created which can be used to design
all types of member with different cross sections. It
brings ease and convenience to design work.
Table 2 gives a summary of the comparison of the
results, from tests on 1808 concrete filled steel tube
columns, with Eurocode 4(4) and with the Chinese Code(3)
(when safety factors are set at unity). There is quite good
agreement between the two 'Codes' with, in general, the
Chinese Code being very slightly safer than Eurocode 4
(average of Test/Code slightly greater; and the last
column (EC4/China) being, in general, less than unity).
For all 1808 tests, the average Test/EC4 ratio was 1.11
and for Test/China the ratio was 1.16. A fuller
comparison with Eurocode 4 is given in reference 5 and
all tests can be viewed on the ASCCS website at
www.bradford.ac.uk where Excel spreadsheets give all
the data for the 1808 columns and the Code comparison.

where
y standard value of confinement factor;
design value of confinement factor;
sc steel ratio of CFST member;
f y , f ck yield strength of steel and standard
compressive strength of concrete, respectively;
f , f c design compressive strength of steel and
concrete, respectively;
As , Ac steel and concrete cross-section area
respectively;
B , C Parameters according to section types, see
Table 1.

section

T V
m M
N

1
'
2.17 N u M u 1 0.4 N N E Tu Vu

Professor Zhong Shantong led his students by

example, working hard and purposefully. As his elder
student He Ruoquan, the President of Suzhou University
of Science and Technology, said at his memorial service
"We still clearly remember that you are not only strict to
every one of us, but also extremely considerate towards
us. Each formula and argument in our thesis, you will
consider carefully, each data you will check by yourself;
however, when our family are sick or our children need to
go to school you will sincerely ask about them with deep
concern just like a father. For years, your spirit, insistence,
strictness and warmth, will continue to affect and inspire
us". He worked hard until near his end when, in late
2011, he told his son, Zhong Bin, All of my work has
been finished completely, after finishing the China
National code GB 50936 for design of concrete filled
steel tubular structures.
Prof. Zhongs remains are buried in Wolonggang
Cemetry, Southeast of Harbin, with the epitaph which
was written by him, enthusiastic in structures and
peaceful in life. He leaves a son Zhong Bin and
daughter Zhong Ji, a grandson (Ma Qianli) and two
granddaughters ( Zhong Xuefei and Zhong Xiaon).

Other design parameters, such as compressive elastic

modulus, bending elastic modulus, shear stress and shear
modulus are all directly related with compressive strength.
The capacity of HCFST members under complex
stress states are considered:
T 2 V 2
N
0.255 1 ,
when
Nu
Tu Vu
the design formula is:
2

T V
m M
N

1
'
N u 1.5M u (1 0.4 N N E ) Tu Vu

T 2 V 2
N
1 ,

0.255
when
Nu
Tu Vu
the design formula is

Goode et al.

Table 2. A summary comparing 1808 tests with the European and Chinese Codes.
Comparison of all tests (grouped by type) with Eurocode 4(4) (EC4)
and with the Chinese Code(3) (NuCC); Test being the failure load in the test.
Eurocode 4
Type of Test

Chinese Code

Tests

Average
Test/EC4

St Dev of
Test/EC4

Average
Test/NuCC

St Dev of
Test/NuCC

EC4
China

368
369
254
330
212
29
96
76
23
19
8
24

1.06
1.17
1.15
1.09
1.06
1.01
1.1
1.22
1.15
1.03
1.25
1.16

0.091
0.148
0.111
0.112
0.097
0.108
0.097
0.095
0.123
0.099
0.051
0.088

1.17
1.19
1.12
1.12
1.07
1.84
1.18
1.32
1.24
0.84
1.32
1.42

0.117
0.173
0.137
0.111
0.194
1.457
0.146
0.015
0.370
0.170
0.078
0.116

0.91
0.98
1.03
0.97
0.99
0.55
0.93
0.92
0.93
1.23
0.95
0.82

Overall Totals

1808

1.11

0.111

1.16

0.166

0.96

Circular Columns Totals

1090
718

1.13
1.08

0.116
0.103

1.18
1.15

0.145
0.196

0.96
0.94

Short Circular No Moment

Long Circular No Moment
Long (some short) Circular with Moment
Short Rectangular No Moment
Long Rectangular No Moment
Short Rectangular with Moment
Long Rectangular with Moment
Short Hollow Circular No Moment
Circular with Moment and Preload
Rectangular with Moment and Preload
Long Rectangular, Sustained load No M
Square, 8-sided & 16-sided hollow No M

Rectangular Columns Totals

No. of

Figure 13. The whole family of Prof. Zhong.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Special thanks are due to Zhong Shantongs son
and daughter, and others of his family, for providing a
background to his interesting life.
REFERENCES
Zhong, S.T & Goode, C.D. 2001. Composite construction for
columns in high-rise buildings in China, Proceedings of
the Institution of Civil Engineers, Structures & Buildings,
Nov. 2001, pp. 333-343.

Figure 12. Zhong Shantongs tomb in Wolonggang Cemetry.

Goode et al.
Zhong, S.T. & Zha, X.X. 2009. Brief Introduction to
Technical Specification of Hollow Concrete-Filled Steel
Tubular Structures (CECS 254:2009), Proceedings of 9th
International Conference on Steel Concrete Composite
and Hybrid Structures. Leeds, UK, 8 10 July 2009,
285-292
Ministry of Housing and Urban-Rural Development of the
Peoples Republic of China, National Standard
Technical Code for concrete filled steel tubular
structures" GB 50936-2014, Beijing: China Architecture
& Building Press.

BS EN 1994-1-1:2004 Eurocode 4: Design of composite steel

and concrete structures - Part 1: General rules and rules
for buildings, British Standards Institution, Milton
Keynes, 2005.
Goode, C. D. 2008. Composite Columns 1819 tests on
concrete filled steel tube columns compared with
Eurocode 4, The Structural Engineer, 86/16, 2008, pp.
33-38.

(A Database of all the tests may be obtained by e-mailing: cdgoode@mypostoffice.co.uk).

11th International Conference on

Advances in Steel and Concrete Composite Structures
Tsinghua University, Beijing, China, December 3-5, 2015

THE CONTINUOUS STRENGTH METHOD FOR HOT-ROLLED

STEEL AND STEEL-CONCRETE COMPOSITE DESIGN
L. Gardner, X. Yun, L. Macorini & M. Kucukler
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Imperial College London, London, UK
E-mails: leroy.gardner@imperial.ac.uk, x.yun14@imperial.ac.uk, l.macorini@imperial.ac.uk,
merih.kucukler10@imperial.ac.uk
ABSTRACT
Keywords:
Continuous Strength Method;
Composite structures; Steel
structures; Hot-rolled steel.

Current design codes for steel and steel-concrete composite structures are based on elastic,
perfectly plastic material behaviour and can lead to overly conservative strength predictions due
to the neglect of the beneficial influence of strain hardening, particularly in the case of stocky,
bare steel cross-sections and composite beams under sagging bending moments. The Continuous
Strength Method (CSM) is a deformation based design method that enables material strain
hardening properties to be exploited, and thus provides more accurate capacity predictions. In
this paper, the development and application of the CSM with a tri-linear material model, suitable
for hot-rolled steel, is explained and extension of the method to steel-concrete composite design
is outlined. Predictive expressions for the key parameters in the tri-linear material model are also
introduced.

including recent developments, is outlined, and extension

of the method to composite construction is described.

1 GENERAL INTRODUCTION
The Continuous Strength Method (CSM) is a newly
developed deformation based approach to steel design,
providing an alternative treatment to cross-section
classification that is based upon a continuous relationship
between cross-section slenderness and deformation
capacity and allowing for strain hardening. The method
was originally developed for stainless steel structural
elements (Afshan & Gardner 2013, Ashraf et al. 2008,
Gardner & Nethercot 2004), which exhibit a high degree
of strain hardening, and the same concept has since been
applied to structural carbon steel (Gardner et al. 2008,
Foster 2014). The CSM has been shown to offer increases
in member resistance of up to 15% over current European
design standards, as well as a reduction in scatter of the
predictions when compared with test data.
A bi-linear (elastic-linear hardening) material model
has been employed in the CSM to date, providing
consistency and a satisfactory representation for design
purposes of the observed stress-strain response of
cold-formed steel, stainless steel and aluminum alloys.
However, due to the existence of a yield plateau, this
CSM bi-linear material model may be unsuitable for
hot-rolled carbon steel. Thus, a revised tri-linear CSM
material model is proposed for hot-rolled carbon steel
that exhibits a yield point, a yield plateau and a strain
hardening region. In this paper, the application of the
CSM to bare hot-rolled structural steel elements (focusing
primarily on cross-sections in compression and bending),

2 APPLICATION OF THE CSM TO BARE STEEL

ELEMENTS
The key characteristics of the CSM lie in the
employment of a base curve that defines the maximum
level of strain csm that a cross-section can endure prior to
failure by (inelastic) local buckling and the adoption of a
material model that allows for strain hardening.

2.1 CSM design base curve

The CSM design base curve provides a continuous
relationship between the strain ratio csm/y and the
cross-section slenderness p , where y is the yield strain
of the material equal to fy/E, with fy being the material
yield strength and E being the Youngs modulus. The
cross-section slenderness p is defined by Equation 1, in
which cr is the elastic buckling stress of the section or its
most slender constituent plate element and the CSM
design base curve is given by Equation 2, where u is the
strain at the material ultimate tensile strength fu, predicted
using Equation 3. Two upper bounds have been placed on
the predicted cross-section deformation capacity csm/y;
the first limit of 15 corresponds to the material ductility
requirement expressed in EN 1993-1-1 (2005) and
prevents excessive deformations and the second limit of
0.4u/y is applied to prevent over-predictions of
cross-section resistance due to the chosen CSM material
model. It is noted that the CSM does not currently apply

Gardner et al.

to cross-sections where p 0.68 , though developments

are underway in this area.

f y / cr

(1)

csm 0.25

0.4 u

but csm min(15,

)
y
y
y
p
u 0.6(1

fy
fu

sh (1.28

0.8) u

(5)

Within the CSM design framework, cross-section

resistance is determined utilizing the strain ratio csm/y
from the design base curve (Eq. 2), together with the
adopted material model. In this paper, the tri-linear
material model for hot-rolled steel, described in Section
2.2, is used.
For sections with p 0.68 , the cross-section
compression resistance Ncsm,Rd is given by Equation 6,
where A is the cross-sectional area, fcsm is the CSM
limiting material stress determined from the tri-linear
material model, given by Equation 7 and M0 is a partial
safety factor for cross-section resistance with a
recommended value of unity for steel elements.

(2)

) (3)

An elastic, linear hardening material model has been

adopted in the CSM to represent the strain hardening
response of metallic materials, such as cold-formed steel,
stainless steel and aluminum alloys. Despite the fact that
the actual observed - response of these materials is
rounded, the elastic, linear hardening CSM material
model has been shown to capture the general strain
hardening behaviour sufficiently well to enable accurate
design capacity predictions. However, this bi-linear
material model may be unsuitable for hot-rolled carbon
steel due to the presence of the characteristic yield
plateau, with strain hardening not commencing until the
attainment of the strain hardening strain sh. Thus, a
revised tri-linear material model, as shown in Figure 1, is
proposed for hot-rolled carbon steel considering both the
length of the yield plateau and strain hardening modulus
Esh. Based on the analysis of 125 collated stress-strain
curves from coupon tests on hot-rolled structural steel
sections, the following expressions are proposed for the
prediction of the strain hardening modulus Esh (Eq. 4) and
the strain hardening strain sh (Eq. 5).

Stress

fu

2.3 Cross-section resistance

2.2 Material model

fu

fy

fy

N csm,Rd

Af csm

M0

(6)
for y csm sh
for csm sh

f y
f csm
f y Esh ( csm sh )

(7)

For sections with p 0.68 , the cross-section

resistance in bending Mcsm,Rd depends upon whether or
not strain hardening is experienced (i.e. whether or not
csm> sh). If csm sh, then the major and minor axis
moment resistance are given by Equation 8a and 8b,
respectively, where Wpl is the plastic section modulus, Wel
is the elastic section modulus, y and z refer to the major
and minor axes, respectively, is a dimensionless
coefficient that depends on the type of section and axis of
bending as defined in Table 1. These expressions allow
for the increasing resistance with increasing deformation
capacity (i.e. strain ratio) due to the spread of plasticity.

Esh

M y,csm,Rd

Wpl, y f y

M0

[1 (1

Wel, y
Wpl, y

) /(

csm
) ]
y
(8a)

for csm sh
E

M z,csm,Rd
y

sh min(15y,0.4u) 0.5u
Strain

fu fy
0.5 u sh

M0

[1 (1

Wel,z
Wpl,z

) /(

csm
) ]
y

(8b)

for csm sh

Figure 1. CSM material model for hot-rolled carbon steel with

yield plateau.

Esh

Wpl,z f y

For the more stocky cross-sections, where csm> sh,

some benefit from strain hardening can also be exploited,
and the CSM moment capacity is given by Equation 9a
and 9b for major and minor axis bending, respectively,
where is a dimensionless coefficient and its
recommended values are given in Table 1.

(4)

Gardner et al.

M y,csm,Rd

Wpl, y f y

M0

[1 (1
) /( csm )
y
Wpl, y

E

( csm sh ) 2 sh ] for csm sh
E
y
M z,csm,Rd

Wpl,z f y

M0
(

Table 2. Compression and bending resistance comparisons with

test data.

Wel, y

[1 (1

Wel,z
Wpl,z

) /(

csm
)
y

csm sh 2 Esh
)
] for csm sh
E
y

(9a)

Compression Resistance
Ntest/Ncsm
No. of test

(9b)

Major

Minor

Major

Minor

I-sections

1.2

0.08

0.05

Box-sections

0.08

0.08

Mtest/Mcsm

20

Mtest/MEC
57

Mean

1.057

1.074

1.109

1.133

COV

0.063

0.083

0.090

0.100

engineering applications since the full plastic moment

capacity can be utilized. Current design codes for
composite structures, including EN 1994-1-1 (2004a),
employ simple sectional rigid plastic analysis to calculate
the bending capacity of composite beams and, as for the
design of bare steel beams, strain hardening effects in the
steel are usually neglected. This can be rather
conservative, as shown in several experimental and
numerical studies (Ansourian 1982, Chuang & Chan
2010), where substantial benefits from strain hardening
have been observed.
The focus of this section is on the assessment of
Eurocode 4 and the development of a more efficient
method for the design of composite beams under sagging
bending moment, based on the results of existing
experiments and numerical simulations. An analytical
model is developed to calculate the bending capacity of
composite beams with full shear connection, allowing for
the influence of strain hardening through the tri-linear
material model introduced in Section 2.2. Comparisons of
the resistances obtained from proposed design
expressions with test results are made to demonstrate the
accuracy and benefits of the method. Finally, a
two-dimensional finite element (FE) model is established
and validated against experimental results reported
elsewhere. Upon validation of the FE models, parametric
studies are performed to investigate the response of
composite beams with partial shear connection,
considering the effects of the steel grade and degree of
partial shear connection. An indicative design approach is
then proposed.

Table 1. CSM coefficient factors and for bending.

Ntest/NEC

Bending Resistance

2.4 Comparison with test data and design methods

The resulting predictions from the CSM have been
compared with experimental data on 20 hot-rolled carbon
steel stub columns (Foster 2014, Gardner et al. 2010,
Liew et al. 2014) and 57 beams (Byfield & Nethercot
1998, Gardner et al. 2010). All comparisons are made on
the basis of the measured geometric and material
properties and with partial factors set equal to unity. The
average ratios of ultimate test loads Ntest and moments
Mtest to the CSM (Ncsm, Mcsm) and EN 1993-1-1 (2005)
(NEC, MEC) predicted resistances have been determined
and are summarized in Table 2. The coefficients of
variation (COV) have also been calculated to quantify the
scatter of the predictions, and are presented in Table 2. It
can be seen that the CSM provides more accurate and
consistent predictions compared with those from EN
1993-1-1 (2005). Further research is currently underway
into refining the material model, incorporating a larger
hot-rolled carbon steel dataset and reliability analysis.

3.2 Full shear connection

3 APPLICATION OF THE CSM TO COMPOSITE

In the case of composite beams with full shear

connection, where the shear connection deformability is
small, a single neutral axis exists and the bending
resistance can be derived analytically using simple
equilibrium considerations in conjunction with suitable
material laws. The analytical model developed in this
paper is based on the following assumptions:
(1) The slip between the steel section and concrete
slab is ignored and the distribution of strains throughout
the depth of the cross-section is linear, with constant
curvature , as shown in Figure 2.
(2) The composite beam has a ductile cross-section,
with its neutral axis lying within the concrete slab and the
steel section being fully yielded, as shown in Figure 2,

BEAMS

3.1 Background
Steel-concrete composite construction seeks to
harness the combined merits of the two materials to
enable more efficient and economical structural solutions.
The case of simply supported composite beams under
sagging bending moment, whereby the concrete is largely
in compression and the steel in tension, offers the greatest
opportunity to exploit the full capacity of both materials.
Composite beams having a ductile cross-section defined
as one in which the geometrical and material properties
are such that strain hardening of the lower flange occurs
before the collapse moment is reached, are desirable in
10

Gardner et al.

which requires ycsm /( hc ha ) c,csm /( c,csm sh ) , where

ycsm is the distance between the plastic neutral axis and
the extreme fibre of the concrete slab in compression, hc
is the depth of the concrete slab, ha is the depth of the
steel section and c,csm is the outer fibre concrete strain.
(3) The stress-strain relationship for the structural
steel is represented by the tri-linear material response of
Figure 1, while the concrete material behavior is assumed
to be rigid plastic, with plasticity occurring at a stress
level of 0.85fcd, where fcd is the design concrete (cylinder)
compressive strength. The tensile strength of the concrete
is ignored.
(4) The stress within the bottom flange of the steel
section is assumed to be constant through the plate
thickness, and the stress fcsm,a is determined using the
strain at its mid-thickness a,csm.
(5) The presence of any reinforcement in the slab is
ignored.
For composite beams with full shear connection under
sagging bending moments, deformation capacity will
typically be limited by either crushing of the concrete
slab or the tensile ductility of the structural steel. In this
study, the maximum outer fibre concrete strain is limited
by the crushing strain of the concrete cu (i.e. c,csm = cu =
0.0035), while the maximum outer fibre strain (at
mid-thickness of the bottom flange) in the steel a,csm has
been limited as 15y.

Based on the governing values of csm and ycsm and the

proposed material model (Fig. 1), the outer fibre stresses
in the steel section at failure can be determined from
Equation 11.

f csm,a f y Esh [ csm (hc ha ycsm ) sh ]

For the case where concrete crushing governs, the

limiting curvature csm,c for concrete failure can be
determined using Equation 12, representing the limiting
strain of concrete cu being reached at the outer concrete
fibre.

csm,c

cu
ycsm

0.0035
ycsm

2
Bycsm,c
Cycsm,c D 0

B 0.85 f cd beff
C 0.0035 Esh (1

sh 2
0.0035
tw Esh (1
)
2
0.0035

sh
0.0035

(13)

(14)

)[bf tf tw (hc ha )] f y Aa (15)

tw
( hc ha )] (16)
2

When steel failure governs the deformation capacity

(i.e. when the strain at the outer steel fibre reaches the
limiting strain of 15y), the limiting curvature csm,a can
be determined from Equation 17:

csm,a

The initial step in the determination of the bending

resistance is to locate the position of the neutral axis at
failure. However, the neutral axis shifts under increasing
curvature, and its location at failure will therefore depend
on which of the two failure modes (concrete or steel)
governs. The general relationship, calculated from the
equilibrium of internal forces, between curvature csm and
neutral axis position ycsm is given by Equation 10, in
which beff is the effective width of the concrete slab, Aa is
the cross-sectional area of the steel section, tw is the steel
beam web thickness and bf and tf are the steel beam
flange width and thickness, respectively.

15 y
hc ha ycsm,a

(17)

Similarly, substituting Equations 11 and 17 into

Equation 10 results in Equation 18, which can be used to
determine the neutral axis position ycsm,a at the point of
failure in the steel section.
ycsm,a [ f y Aa Esh (15 y sh )bf tf

Esh

(15 y sh )tw (hc ha )(1 sh )] / [0.85 fcd beff

2
15 y
+

0.85 f cd beff ycsm f y Aa ( f csm,a f y )bf tf

+0.5tw (f csm,a

(12)

Substituting Equations 11, 12 into Equation 10, the

quadratic Equation 13 can be derived to determine the
position of the neutral axis ycsm,c , in which the
coefficients B, C and D are given by Equations 14, 15
and 16, respectively.

D 0.0035 Esh ( hc ha )[bf tf

Figure 2. Strain and stress distributions for a composite beam

with full shear connection and tri-linear steel material model.

(11)

Esh

(15 y sh )tw (1 sh )]
2
15 y

(18)

The lower of csm,c and csm,a defines the governing

failure mode. The relationship between the neutral axis
position ycsm and its corresponding curvature csm for a
typical composite beam, given by Equation 10, is plotted

f y )(hc ha ycsm sh ) (10)

csm

11

Gardner et al.

in Figure 3 as an example illustrating the above

calculation process. The geometric and material
properties employed are: beff = 1500 mm, hc = 120 mm,
fcd = 35 N/mm2, fy = 355 N/mm2, E = 210000 N/mm2 and
the steel section is a UB 47515260. The strain
hardening strain sh and modulus Esh were determined
from Equations 5 and 4, respectively. In this case, the
neutral axis position at failure lies within the concrete
slab and the steel section is fully yielded. Figure 3 shows
how the position of neutral axis moves downwards with
increasing curvature, and there is a change in slope as the
deformation progresses through the elastic region, outer
fibre yielding of the steel and strain hardening of the
steel. The points at which the concrete failure criterion
(Eq. 12) and the steel failure criterion (Eq. 17) intersect
with Equation 10 define the corresponding neutral axis
positions and curvatures at failure. For the case
illustrated, steel failure governs the failure mode.
Finally, the moment capacity of the composite
section, considering the tri-linear material model, with
both the yield plateau and strain hardening, can be
calculated from Equation 19.
M csm,c ( f csm f y )bf tf ( hc ha
f y Aa (hc
(hc ha

Table 3. Comparison of moment capacity from tests with those

predicted by EN 1994-1-1 and the proposed method.
No. of tests: 14

MEC/Mtest

Mcsm,c/Mtest

Mcsm,c/MEC

Mean

0.922

0.970

1.052

COV

0.054

0.059

3.3 Partial shear connection

In the case of composite beams with partial shear
connection, the contribution of strain hardening to the
cross-section moment capacity cannot be calculated using
the analytical method described in Section 3.2. The
deformability and finite resistance of the shear connection
leads to a more complex arrangement of internal forces in
the composite section, with two distinct neutral axes
lying within the concrete slab and the steel section. A
numerical approach, using the finite element (FE)
package ABAQUS, was adopted herein to predict the
collapse load of composite beams with partial shear
connection. The numerical models were initially
validated against a series of experimental results and then
used to perform parametric studies to generate additional
data over a range of steel grades and shear connection
ratios.

ycsm
)
2

ha ycsm
t

) w ( f csm f y )
2
2
12

3.3.1 FE model and validation

sh

ycsm )[4(hc ha ) 2 sh ycsm ] (19)

csm
csm

The FE method has been used in a number of studies

to investigate the behaviour of composite beams
(Gattesco 1999, Zona & Ranzi 2011, Queiroz et al. 2007,
Ban & Bradford 2013). Among the previous research, a
two dimensional FE model for composite beams has been
developed and validated by Queiroz et al. (2007). This
two-dimensional model was shown to provide accurate
results and was far more efficient than equivalent three
dimensional representations in terms of reduced
numerical convergence issues and processing times. A
similar approach was adopted in this paper. Geometric
and material nonlinearities were considered in the model.
The steel beam and concrete slab were modelled using
quadratic beam elements (B22), while the mechanical
shear connectors were simulated using rigid links
(CONN2D2) and nonlinear spring elements (SPRINGA),
as shown in Figure 4.

Figure 3. Relationship between neutral axis position ycsm and

curvature csm.

The resistances obtained from the proposed analytical

method have been compared against a series of
experimental results collected from the literature
(Ansourian 1982, Chapman & Balakrishnan 1964) on
composite beams with full shear connection. The
comparisons, shown in Table 3, have been made on the
basis of the measured geometric and material properties,
with all partial factors set to unity. The proposed method,
accounting for strain hardening, may be seen to provide a
more accurate prediction of test capacity than the current
approach given in EN 1994-1-1.

Figure 4. Finite element types used in composite beam model.

12

Gardner et al.

The material properties of the steel beam were

represented using the tri-linear stress-strain relations
shown in Figure 1. In validation of the two dimensional
FE models against existing tests, the steel reinforcement
in the concrete slab was simulated using the *rebar
keyword in ABAQUS, which can be used to add discrete
axial reinforcement in beam elements. Note that only
longitudinal reinforcement was considered in the FE
model for simplicity. An elastic perfectly plastic material
model was used for the reinforcement. The nonlinear
stress-strain relationship of concrete in compression was
described using Equation 20, according to EN 1992-1-1
(2004b) as:

c / f cm

k ( c / cl ) ( c / cl ) 2
1 (k 2)( c / cl )

15y for the steel, or when the maximum allowable slip in

the shear connectors, defined as smax = 6 mm, was
reached. The Riks solution method was used to trace the
nonlinear equilibrium paths of the models and to obtain
the peak loading magnitude.
The FE model developed in this sub-section was
employed to analyze a series of simply supported
composite beams reported in the literature (Ansourian
1982, Chapman & Balakrishnan 1964, Kwon et al. 2011,
Vasdravellis et al. 2015). Experimental investigations
with a total of 14 composite beams with full shear
connections and 5 with partial shear connections were
employed herein to validate the FE model. Two typical
load versus mid-span deflection curves obtained from the
FE model are compared with those obtained
experimentally and numerically with a 3D FE model
(Ban & Bradford 2013), as shown in Figure 6.

(20)

where c is the compressive stress (in MPa), fcm is mean

value of concrete cylinder compressive strength, c is the
compressive strain, cl is the compressive strain at the
peak stress fcm and taken as cl = min(0.7fcm0.31, 2.8), k =
1.05Ecmcl/fcm, where the mean value of the secant
modulus of elasticity of concrete Ecm (in GPa) is obtained
from Ecm = 22(fcm/10)0.3, cul is the ultimate compressive
strain and is taken as cul = min[2.8+27(98- fcm /100)4,
3.5], and fctm is the mean value of the axial tensile
strength and may be determined through fctm =
0.3(fcm-8)2/3 when fcm 58 MPa, otherwise fctm =
2.12ln(1+ fcm/10). The concrete strain at cracking is
taken as 0.01, beyond which the concrete carries zero
stress. The stress-strain model for concrete is illustrated
in Figure 5.

(a) Composite beam A5 with full shear connection.

(b) Composite beam HASAA-30BS with partial shear

connection.

Figure 5. Stress-strain relationship of concrete material

employed in FE model.

Figure 6. Comparision of load-deflection curves from FE

models and experiments.

The approach taken to the modelling of the shear

connectors is indicated in Figure 4. The load-slip
relationship proposed by Johnson & Molenstra (1991)
was used to simulate the shear stud connectors, where
curve A and a maximum slip smax = 6 mm was adopted in
the present study. Failure was signified when the
designated maximum strains in either of the materials
were reached: cul = 0.0035 for the concrete and a,csm =

The results indicate that the FE models developed

herein are capable of accurately simulating the
load-deformation response and ultimate capacity of
composite beams with both full shear connection and
partial shear connection, with the mean value of the ratio
of FE ultimate capacity to test ultimate capacity (FFE/Ftest)
being 0.99 and the COV being 0.054.

13

Gardner et al.

3.3.2 Parametric analysis and design approach

steel (S460) because the assumed rigid plastic model

overestimates the development of plasticity.

To evaluate the influence of the steel grade and the

degree of shear connection , which is defined as the
ratio of the design value of the compressive normal force
within the concrete flange Nc to the design value of the
compressive normal force within the concrete flange with
full shear connection Nc,f, 36 simply supported composite
beams loaded by a point load at mid-span were analyzed
using the validated FE model. The considered steel
grades were S275, S355, S420 and S460, and the degrees
of shear connection ranged from 0.4 to 1.2. The beam
cross-section dimensions (UB30516540) and the span
length of 6 m were kept constant, while different steel
grades, concrete slabs and grades and levels of shear
connections were considered. The basic material
parameters and dimensions of the concrete slab are
summarized in Table 4. The material models introduced
into the FE model are determined according to the
proposed equations described in sub-section 2.2 for the
steel and to EC2 for the concrete. The shear connectors
were located uniformly along the entire span of the
composite beams and their ultimate shear capacity was
taken as 119 kN (Chapman & Balakrishnan, 1964). In the
parametric studies, the number of the shear connectors
was determined based on the prescribed values of and
the computed values of Nc,f. The reinforcement was not
considered in the parametric studies; hence conservative
predicted capacities may be obtained. Note that the
amount of reinforcement provided has been shown to
have a significant influence on composite beam
behaviour (Loh et al. 2004), in terms of both the ductility
and strength, and the reinforcement should be considered
in future studies.
EC4 provides two alternative approaches, namely the
equilibrium and the interpolation method, for the design
of composite beams with partial shear connection. The
former approach uses equilibrium equations and,
considering the maximum force that can be transferred by
the shear connection, determines the position of neutral
axis within the cross-section and hence the plastic
moment resistance, while the interpolation method
simply adopts a linear interpolation between the plastic
moment resistance of the bare steel section for = 0 and
the full plastic moment resistance of the composite beam
for = 1. Figure 7 shows a comparison of the maximum
moment capacity (MFEA) of the 36 beams obtained from
the FE model with the results (MEC4) obtained using the
EC4 equilibrium method.
It can be seen that, for composite beams with partial
shear connection, the ratio of MFEA/MEC4 decreases with
an increase of the degree of shear connection and the
grade. The equilibrium method predicts accurate results
when > 0.8, and conservative ones when < 0.8.
However, the equilibrium method may overestimate the
bending capacity of composite beams with high strength

Figure 7. Comparision of the bending strength of composite

beams from FE model and EC4.

On the basis of the numerical results generated, a

tentative approach to calculate the bending capacity of
composite beams with partial shear connection, but
accounting for strain hardening, is proposed. The adopted
approach utilizes the CSM bending resistance of the bare
steel section Mcsm described in Section 2 for = 0 and the
proposed bending resistance for the composite beams
with full shear connection Mcsm,c derived in Section 3.2
for = 1, in conjunction with an interpolation function
for intermediate degrees of shear connection. In Figure 8,
the ratio between MFEA and Mcsm,c is plotted on the
vertical axis and the degree of shear connection is given
on the horizontal axis. It can be seen that the composite
beams with conventional mild steel (fy < 460MPa) exhibit
a similar linear trend between = 0.4 and = 1,
indicating that a bi-linear interpolation function may be
used to predict the ultimate capacity of composite beams
with partial shear connection allowing for strain
hardening, as shown in Figure 8, where an indicative
interpolation line is presented. For composite beams with
high strength steel, lower reduction factors may be
needed. Clearly a wide range of parameters including
different cross-sectional geometries, reinforcement ratios
and steel grades need to be considered before the method
is suitable for use in practical design; the present study
demonstrates the validity of the proposed approach.
Table 4. Material properties and concrete slab dimensions for
parametric studies.

14

fy

fu

fcm

beff

hc

MPa

MPa

MPa

mm

mm

275

390

30

1500

120

355

490

35

1500

120

420

520

35

1500

120

460

540

40

1500

150

Gardner et al.
Afshan, S. & Gardner, L. 2013. Experimental study of
cold-formed ferritic stainless steel hollow sections. J Struct
Eng 139, Special Issue: Cold-Formed Steel Structures, 717
728.
Ashraf, M., Gardner, L. & Nethercot DA. 2008. Structural
stainless steel design: Resistance based on deformation
capacity. J Struct Eng, ASCE 134(3): 402-411.
Ban, H., & Bradford, M. 2013. Flexural behaviour of composite
beams with high strength steel. Engineering Structures 56:
1130-1141.
Byfield, M. & Nethercot, D. 1998. An analysis of the true
bending strength of steel beams. Proceedings of the
ICE-Structures and Buildings 128(2): 188-197.
CEN (European Committee for Standardization). 2004a. EN
1994-1-1: Eurocode 4: Design of composite steel and
concrete structures-Part 1.1: General rules and rules for
buildings. Brussels, Belgium.
CEN (European Committee for Standardization). 2004b. EN
1992-1-1: Eurocode 2: Design of concrete structures-Part
1.1: General rules and rules for buildings. Brussels,
Belgium.
CEN (European Committee for Standardization). 2005. EN
1993-1-1: Eurocode 3: Design of steel structures-Part 1-1:
General rules and rules for buildings. Brussels, Belgium.
Chapman, J. & Balakrishnan, S. 1964. Experiments on
composite beams. The Structural Engineer 42(11): 369-383.
Chung, K.F. & Chan, C. 2010. A numerical investigation into
the effect of strain hardening on the structural behavior of
simply supported composite beams. Proceedings of the 9th
Pacific Structural Steel Conference, Beijing, China, pp.
988-993.
Foster, A. 2014. Stability and design of steel beams in the
strain-hardening range. PhD thesis, Imperial College
London, London, UK.
Gardner, L. & Nethercot, D. 2004. Stainless steel structural
design: A new approach. The Structural Engineer 82(21):
21-28.
Gardner, L. 2008. The continuous strength method. Proceedings
of the ICE-Structures and Buildings 161(3): 127-133.
Gardner, L., Saari, N. & Wang, F. 2010. Comparative
experimental study of hot-rolled and cold-formed
rectangular hollow sections. Thin-Walled Structures 48(7):
495-507.
Gattesco, N. 1999. Analytical modelling of nonlinear behavior
of composite beams with deformable connection. J Constr
Steel Res 52(2): 195-218.
Loh, H.Y., Uy, B. & Bradford M. 2004. The effects of partial
shear connection in the hogging moment regions of
composite beams, Part IExperimental study. J Constr
Steel Res 60: 897-919.
Liew, A., Boissonnade, N., Gardner, L. & Nseir, J. 2014.
Experimental study of hot-rolled rectangular hollow
sections. Proceedings of the Annual Stability Conference,
Structural Stability Research Council, Toronto.
Queiroz, F. D., Queiroz, G., & Nethercot, D. 2009.
Two-dimensional FE model for evaluation of composite
beams, I: Formulation and validation. J Constr Steel Res
65(5): 1055-1062.
Vasdravellis, G., Uy, B., Tan, E. L., & Kirkland, B. 2015.
Behaviour and design of composite beams subjected to
sagging bending and axial compression. J Constr Steel Res
110: 29-39.
Zona, A. & Ranzi, G. 2011. Finite element models for nonlinear
analysis of steel-concrete composite beams with partial
interaction in combined bending and shear. Finite Elements
in Analysis and Design 47(2): 98-118.

Figure 8. Indicative interpolation function for composite beams

with partial shear connection.

4 CONCLUSIONS
Developments to the Continuous Strength Method
(CSM) for hot-rolled carbon steel, covering recent
refinements, have been described. A tri-linear material
model, enabling representation of both the yield plateau
and strain hardening, has been proposed and used for the
derivation of CSM resistance equations for the
compression and bending of hot-rolled carbon steel
members. Test data on hot-rolled carbon steel stub
columns and beams were used to make comparisons with
the CSM predictions and EN 1993-1-1 guidelines. It was
shown that the CSM offers improved mean resistance
predictions and lower scatter compared with EN
1993-1-1. The method was then extended to composite
beams under sagging bending moment, where the
influence of strain hardening has been found previously
to be significant. For composite beams with full shear
connection, a new analytical model has been developed
accounting for strain hardening through the tri-linear
material model and explicit analytical expressions have
been derived. Comparison of the predictions with 14 test
results on composite beams from the literature showed
that the proposed analytical equations may be more
accurate than the current codified approaches. A
two-dimensional FE model was then developed and
validated against test results reported in existing studies.
Based on the numerical results, a new design approach
was suggested for composite beams with partial shear
connection. Additional analyses considering various
geometric properties and different reinforcement ratios
for composite beams are needed to confirm the wider
applicability of the proposed design method to
steel-concrete composite constructions.
REFERENCES
Abaqus. 2011. Reference manual, version 6.11. Simulia,
Dassault Systmes, France.
Ansoutian, P. 1982. Plastic rotation of composite beams. J
Struct Div, ASCE 108(3): 643-659.

15

11th International Conference on

Advances in Steel and Concrete Composite Structures
Tsinghua University, Beijing, China, December 3-5, 2015

SEISMIC
PERFORMANCE
OF
PARTIALLY
ENCASED
COMPOSITE STRUCTURAL MEMBERS AND CONNECTIONS
Yiyi Chena,b, Guanghong Chuanc & Wei Lic
a

State Key Laboratory of Disaster Reduction in Civil Engineering, Shanghai, China

College of Civil Engineering, Tongji University, Shanghai, China
E-mails: yiyichen@tongji.edu.cn

Tongji University Architectural Design and Research Institution, Shanghai, China

E-mail: 12cgh@tjadri.com,12lw@tjadri.com
ABSTRACT
Keywords:
Partially encased composite
structures; seismic behavior;
beam and columns; connection;
test; earthquake design

Partially encased composite (PEC) structural members are efficient to resist axial load, bending
moment and shear force. In this paper, the cyclic loading tests on thin-walled H steel PEC
(TWS-PEC) members and connections are reported. It is shown that for TWS-PEC, the
existence of concrete filled in steel flanges effectively prevents the early local buckling of pure
H steel, and the confining effect provided by steel also enhances the infiled concrete. A rigid
beam-to-column connection by bolted end plate is developed, and by test it is shown that the
connection can realize full strength to resist beam end moment. Based on the tests, the resistance
and deformability of the PEC members and connections are discussed. The test results show
that by proper design the TWS-PEC structure can perform well against cyclic loads. prepared
strictly according to the instructions set below. The publisher will print it in black only.

In contrast with hot-rolled H steel PEC members,

TWS-PEC members might be vulnerable to local buckling,
especially under the cyclic loading condition as seismic
load. In case of local buckling, the concrete losing
effective confining is apt to crush, and thus induce
progressive damage till to complete failure of the TWSPEC members.
Recently at Tongji University, the authors carried out
series loading tests on hysteretic properties of TWS-PEC
beams, columns and beam-to-column connections. Based
on the test results, the failure mechanism and the
improvement of construction details are studied. This
paper shall report the achievements of this research work.

1 INTRODUCTION
Partially encased composite (PEC) structural members
are efficient to resist axial load, bending moment and shear
force. Besides the function of fire protection, the concrete
filled between steel flanges raises the global and local
stability of H steel, and contributes its capacity against
compression. On the other hand, the surrounded steel
plates play the roll in confining effect somewhat on the
infilled concrete. Unlike the common SRC members in
which core steel is fully encased in concrete, casting
concrete to make PEC members is free from forms, thus
prefabrication at workshop instead the site work is
possible. These advantages make PEC structures have
potential to be widely used.
In the early study and application of PEC structures
their members were mainly those with relative thick steel.
For example, in European practice hot-rolled wide flange
H steel is commonly used, thus not prone to local buckling.
Since ten more years ago, thin-walled H steel PEC (TWSPEC) members and their performance against earthquake
load have been paid more attention to (Tremblay et al.
2000; Chicoine et al. 2002, 2003). TWS-PEC members
adopt steel in relatively light weight, and large widththickness ratio of the H steel makes the structural material
more efficient. Most economic potential of TWS-PEC can
be expected, especially in middle rise building frames.

2 TEST ON TWS-PEC BEAMS

2.1 Key parameters of beam specimen and loading
patterns
The typical configuration of TWS-PEC beam
specimens is shown in Figure 1 and the key parameters are
listed in Table 1(Chuan 2014; Li 2015).
In Table 1, the steel size refers to the H steel section in
beam. The symbol w and f in the third column refer to
the strength of steel web and flange, respectively. In the
fourth column, symbol a and b refer to the compressive
strength of the concrete on both sides of the H steel web.
Because the concrete was cast at one side of the web first
and after seven days the specimen was turned upside down

16

Chen et al.

(a)

(b)
Figure 1. Configuration of beam specimens

(c)

Table 1. Parameters of beam specimens

Specimen
code
CS-X-ZD
CS-X-ZF
M22-C

Steel size
mm
25017556
25017556
20012044

Steel yield strength

MPa
w-409, f-367
w-409, f-367
w-297, f=297

Concrete strength
MPa
a-34.9, b-32.4
a-34.9, b-32.4
a-41.2, b-39.1

Links

Rebar

X-6
X-6
C-6

10
10
-

Length
mm
1500
1500
1500

Loading
pattern
L1
L2
L3

to Class 3 according to Eurocode (EN1994-1-1, 2004). It

is the feature of TWS-PEC members.

to cast the other side, the strength of concrete in two sides

shows a little different. In column of Links, the symbols
of X and C indicate the two link types shown in Figure
1a, b. The last column notes the loading pattern, where, L1
means the cyclic uniform bending moment on the test
specimens, L2 means cyclic antisymmetric bending
moment, and L3 means the cantilever load cyclically
applied on the beam ends, as demonstrated in Figure 2.
Though M22-C looks like joint test specimen (Figure 2c),
the beam failure mode was designed in advance.

2.2 Failure mode and hysteretic loops

Figure 3a shows the damage of the specimen CS-X-ZD
after cyclic loading. During the test, the flexural cracking
was firstly observed when the end rotation of the specimen
reached 0.5y (y: the yielding value of beam slope), then
the yielding of tensile flange was detected when beam
slope reached y; local buckling occurred when 2y, and
concrete crushed locally when 3y. Till to 4y cycle, the
links were torn from the flange. Figure 3b is the picture of
specimen CS-X-ZF. The inclined cracking caused by shear
force firstly occurred, and then the tensile flange yielded,
compressive flange locally buckled, and concrete crushed
till 5y. Different from CS-X-ZF, the local buckling of H
steel and crush of concrete concentrated at the two fixed
ends of beams due to linear distribution of moment.

(a)

(b)

(a)

(b)

Figure 3. Failure mode of specimen CS-X-ZD and CS-XZF

Figure 4 shows the picture of damage of the beam in

specimen M22-C. In actually, the loading pattern for M22C was the same feature as that on specimen CS-X-ZF,
however the initiation of concrete crack was flexural crack
(Figure 4a). It is because that the M22-C was equivalent to
the double span of CS-X-ZF, moment effect was

(c)
Figure 2. Test loading setup

The equivalent width-thickness ratio of H steel

outstanding flange in specimens is about 12~14 (
f /235), among which the maximum is 17.5, belonging

17

Chen et al.

predominant on the beam. And other damage phenomena

were similar with CS-X-ZF such as local buckling (Figure
4b) and concrete crushing. Larger displacement was
enforced in test till the tensile flange cracked (Figure 4c).
The failure mechanism for three specimens is the same:
after local buckling deformation becomes large and the
compressed concrete loses the boundary restraint and will
soon crushes.

The moment distribution affects the resistance and

ductility of TWS-PEC beams in somewhat.
The width-thickness ratio of H steel flange should be a
key parameter. By the test results, we know that TWS-PEC
beam can perform well against cyclic loads if the
equivalent width-thickness ratio does not exceed 18,
though it is within the scope of Class 3 by Eurocode.
The type of link and the existence of longitudinal bar
or not have no distinguished effects on beam behavior.
However, the X type link restrained the concrete crack a
little better. As for the latter, it can be explained that in test
specimens the steel occupies about 7% of the whole
section area, and contributes more than 85% of moment
capacity.

(a)

(b)

3 TEST ON TWS-PEC COLUMNS

3.1 Detailing and key parameters of column
specimens
Three kinds of detailing about rebar and stirrup were
considered for the test specimen as shown in Figure 6.
(Chen et al. 2010) Another parameter investigated was the
axial load ratio. Considering that the column of frame
structures is possibly subject to horizontal load in two
directions, the bending about strong and weak axis of H
steel was planned.

(c)
Figure 4. Failure mode of specimen M22-C

Figure 5 shows the hysteretic loops of three specimens,

CS-X-DF, CS-X-ZF and M22-C in sequence. According
to the loading protocol of the tests, the controlled beam
slope (for specimen CS-X-DF and CS-X-ZF) or beam end
displacement (for M22-C) increased as the whole number
times of yield rotation or displacement. Thus we can see
that in Figure 5, all members were loaded at least five
times of yield deformation. The ductility factors defined
by the deformation corresping to ultimate loads could
reach 3 to 5. The prediction of the ultimate is based on the
assumptions that include the following points: completely
yielding of steel section, without reduction due to local
buckling for steel plate, and compressive resistance only
for concrete. The predicted ultimate compared with test
ultimate are 0.93, 0.83 and 0.80 for three specimens
respectively. It indicates that for TWS-PEC beams the
assumption above mentioned and the computation
procedure for its ultimate moment capacity are both
acceptable.

Figure 6. TWS-PEC column specimen detailings

Table 2 shows the main parameters of the specimen.

For the specimen code, S refers to the bending about
strong axis of H steel, and W to the bending about weak
axis, while the Roman numerals followed corresponding

2.3 Influence of key factors on beam performance

200

200

50

CS-X-ZF

CS-X-ZD

40

150

150

M22-C

30

100

50
0
-50

20

50

Load,P(kN)

Moment,M(kN )

Moment,M(kN*m)

100

10
0

-10

-50

-20
-100

-100

-150

-150

-30

-200
-0.06

-0.04

-0.02

0.00

0.02

Rotation,?(rad)

(a)

0.04

0.06

0.08

-200
-0.06

-40

-0.04

-0.02

0.00

0.02

0.04

0.06

Rotation,?(rad)

(b)
Figure 5. Hysteretic loops of beam specimens
18

-50
-120

-80

-40

Displacement,D(mm)

(c)

40

80

120

Chen et al.
Table 2. Parameters of column specimens
Specimen
code
C1-S-I
C2-S-II
C4-W-I
C6-W-III

Steel size
mm
24024066
24024066
24024066
24024066

Steel yield strength

MPa
301
301
301
301

Concrete strength
MPa
34.1
34.1
34.1
34.1

Links

Rebar

Stirrup

10
10
10
10

16
16

Axial load ratio

0.6
0.2
0.2
0.2

lateral load, and horizontal coordinate is lateral

displacement at column top. Specimen C1-S-I seems quite
different from the others due to its high axial load ratio up
to 0.6, and shall be discussed in the next section. Except
that one, other specimens exhibit identical behavior. After
the initial elastic performance, the curves deviate from
linearity when relative deformation rotation is near to
about 1/150. The ultimate loads corresponding to the
rotation of 1/75 through 1/30 for specimen C2-S-II, 1/75
through 1/50 for specimen C4-W-I, and about 1/75 for
specimen C6-W-III, respectively. After ultimate, the
resistance of C2-S-II degrades gradually, behaving quite
good ductile considering that the compressive flange is in
the margin of width-thickness ratio specified by Eurocode.
In actually other specimens bent about strong axis but not
listed in this paper show similar behaviors. And for
specimens bent about weak axis we can observe the slow
deterioration after ultimate. If defining the ultimate
deformation is the one corresponding to the post-ultimate
resistance till to 85% of ultimate, the ductility factor of
specimen C4-W-I and C6-W-III are 3 and 4, respectively.

to the detailing type in Figure 6. By parameters listed in

Table 2, the equivalent width-thickness ratio of H steel
flange can be computed as about 22, reaching the
maximum value allowed by Eurocode (EN1994-1-1, Table
6.3) for compressive flange of PEC column.

Figure 7. Loading setup

A cantilever loading pattern is adopted as shown in

Figure 7. The length of cantilever column specimen was
1500mm. The axial load ratio listed in Table 2 is the
applied axial load proportional to the plastic compression
resistance which is computed considering the contribution
of H steel, longitudinal rebar and concrete following the
Eurocode.

3.3 Influence of key factors on column performance:

Axial load ratio plays a very important role in the
hysteretic behavior of the column specimens. Though
Eurocode allows axial load ratio till 0.9, the experimental
investigation reveals that the specimen applied axial load
equal to 0.6 times of its plastic resistance collapses when
the cyclic lateral load is about half of predict capacity by
fully plastic assumption. On the other hands, the ultimate
of other specimens, no matter which axis the specimen is
bent about, are 10% to 30% higher than the predicted
lateral resistance by the same assumption. For TWS-PEC
members, the composite effect strongly relies on the
confining between steel and concrete. In the case of
specimen C1-S-I, the axial load exerted on is 1.5 times of
the pure steel axial resistance. Once the sum of stress by
axial load and applied bending moment makes the flange

3.2 Test results: phenomenon, failure mode and

hysteretic loops
For specimens bent about strong axis, local buckling of
the steel flanges along with crushing of concrete was
observed. So did the same phenomenon in specimens bent
about weak axis. For specimens bent about strong axis,
concrete cracks first spread at the locations corresponding
to one transverse link, and then two or three main cracks
developed gradually, becoming wider and deeper, until
concrete crushing occurred almost simultaneously on both
side.
The loading-displacement curves of specimens are
shown in Figure 8, in which the vertical coordinate is

150

100

P(k N )

50
0

-50
-100
-150
-80 -70 -60 -50 -40 -30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80

(mm)

(a)

(b)
(c)
Figure 8. Hysteretic loops of column specimens

19

(d)

Chen et al.

plate connecting the beam in perpendicular direction is an

option for detailing to prevent the concrete in joint zone
cracking or crushing early.
A group of 6 pieces of cruciform assemblages as shown
in Figure 2c was designed as connection specimen in
which the column at joint panel zone between division
plates was with the section of H20020046, while the
other part of the column was H20020066. Notice that
here only the panel zone plate was made of Q235 (with the
yield strength of 297MPa actually) but others were Q345
(with the yield strength of 355MPa). Such a design,
accompanying
with
the
beam
section
of
H200(100~120)810 made of Q345 guaranteed the
failure of connection being prior to the other parts in the
tests. Two rows of high-strength bolts connected the beam
end plate with thickness of 20mm to the flange of column.
The parameters selected for comparison in tests included
the position of bolts and their sizes, with or without tie
rods, as well as the beam section which would lead to
different stress distribution in joint zone.

yielding, inelastic local buckling occurs at once, and then

initially confined concrete crushes suddenly. Thus most of
axial load shall move to steel and make it collapse, very
low ductility can be observed from Figure 8a. For the other
specimens, however, the applied axial loads are equal to
only half of the steel axial resistance, therefore their
performance exhibits quite well both in resistance and
ductility. By the supplement of numerical analysis, it is
shown that for the given section of TWS-PEC columns, if
the axial load ratio within the limit of 0.3, i.e. about 75%
of the pure H steel resistance, stable hysteretic behavior
can be obtained.
The lateral resistance and hysteretic loops for specimen
bent about strong or weak axis show different. However,
the resistance can reach or exceed the predicted one if axial
load ratio is limited in proper range. And both behave good
ductile performance.
By comparison of Figure 8c and Figure 8d, it tells that
the constructional detailing does not affect the hysteretic
performance of the TWS-PEC columns significantly. The
tests on other specimens and supplemental numerical
analysis also support the conclusion.
One key parameter, the spacing of links, was not
compared in tests. The results of numerical analysis
indicate that the spacing not greater than the width of
outstanding flange can obtain almost the same and
satisfied behavior both for resistance and ductility.

4 TEST ON BOLTED BEAM-TO-COLUMN

CONNECTION

Figure 9. Configuration of proposed connection

4.1 Configuration and detailing of connection

4.2 Test phenomenon, failure mode and hysteretic

specimen

loops

Eurocode recommends several rigid connections

which seems more suitable for gravity predominant
design. When suffering seismic loading, especially in the
zone with the risk of severe earthquake, a rigid connection
shall be subject to beam end moment positive and negative
cyclically. For this reason, an improved end plate
connection is proposed as shown in Figure 9. The end plate
outstanding out of low flange of beam is main difference
from Eurocode type. A couple of horizontal division plates
are arranged above and below the joint zone stiffener,
making the region between the division plates capable of
site casting after installation of beam to column, so that
other part of the PEC member can be precast at workshop.
Tie rods that link the column flange and middle vertical

(a)

Figure 10 shows typical damage of the connection

under cyclic beam loads. We can see the cracking of
concrete in joint zone (Figure 10a), completely crushing of
concrete without tie rods (Figure 10b) and the surface
cracking and crushing with the tie rods (Figure 10c), the
bending deformation of column flange in joint zone, end
plate and local buckling of column web (Figure 10b and
d), and the tear failure of column flange by pull force of
tensile bolt (Figure 10e). Figure 10f shows the residual
deformation of the cruciform assemblage.
Figure 11 shows a couple of hysteretic loops of one
connection specimen. The left is the beam end load versus
its displacement, and the largest deformation is

(b)

(c)
(d)
Figure 10. Failure mode of connection

20

(e)

(f)

Chen et al.

TWS-PEC beams with the flange plate belonging to

Class 3 can perform ductile under cyclic bending, implying
that their potential for seismic design can be used. Both the
X and C type links can effectively prevent the infilled
concrete cracking early.
TWS-PEC columns with the flange width-thickness
ratio marginally is vulnerary to local buckling, however,
when the axial load is limited not to exceed the H steel
resistance, satisfied hysteretic behavior can be expected.
The contribution of longitudinal rebars to resistance and
ductility is little.
Supposed connection details can guarantee the
resistance to negative and positive moment, thus it can be
used in the PEC frame located in region with high
earthquake risk.

corresponding to the member slope of 1/10. The right

figure is the beam end load which is proportional to the
moment on connection versus shear deformation of joint
zone. We can see that the remained resistance equal to 85%
of ultimate corresponding to the member slope of 0.067
and shear distorting of 0.06.

70

70

60

60

50

50

40

40

30

30
20

Shear,V(kN)

Shear,V(kN)

20
10
0

-10

10
0

-10

-20

-20

-30

-30

-40

-40

-50

-50

-60
-70
-200

-60
-150

-100

-50

50

100

Displacement,D(mm)

150

200

-70
-0.15

-0.10

-0.05

0.00

0.05

0.10

Shear angle,g(rad)

0.15

Figure 11. Hysteretic loops of connection

REFERENCES

4.3 Evaluation of the resistance and ductility of

beam-to-column connections
The ultimate of connection depends on the minimum
of the resistances of end-plate, welds of beam to end-plate,
bolts connecting end-plate to column flange, and joint
zone. Here joint zone is also an assemblage composed of
three main parts: steel panel zone, infilled concrete and a
quasi-frame composed of column flange, stiffener,
division plates, tie rods and vertical plate. The ultimate
capacity of joint zone is the sum of these three parts. When
computing the concrete capacity, an inclined compressive
stub model is adopted. For the quasi-frame, a mechanism
in which plastic hinges occur at all the nodes of elements
is supposed. Comparison of the predicted resistance with
the test results shows that the errors is less than 10%.
Ductility of the connection specimen is evaluated too.
Here, the deformation at cantilever beam end is used to
define the ductility, because the specimens were all in
connection failure mode, so non-elastic deformation
almost concentrated in joint zone. For all the cyclically

5 CONCLUSION

21

Tremblay, R., Chicoine, T. & Massicotte, B. 2000. Design

equation for the axial capacity of partially encased noncompact columns. Proceedings of the Fourth International
Conference on Composite Construction in Steel and
Concrete , May 28-June 2, 2000. Banff, Alberta, Canada.
Eurocode 4 (2004). Design of composite steel and concrete
structures, Part 1-1: General rules and rules for buildings.
(EN 1994-1-1).
Chicoine, T., Tremblay, R., Massicotte, B., Ricles, J. M. &
Lu, L.W. 2002. Behavior and strength of partially encased
composite columns with built-up shapes. Journal of
Structural Engineering. 128(3): 279-288.
Chicoine, T., Massicotte, B. & Tremblay, R. 2003. Longterm behavior and strength of partially encased composite
columns made with built-up steel shapes. Journal of
Structural Engineering, 129(2):141-150.
Chen, Y.Y., Wang, T., Yang, J. & Zhao, X.Z. 2010. Test and
numerical simulation of partially encased composite columns
subject to axial and cyclic horizontal loads. International
Journal of Steel Structures. 10(4):385-394.
Chuan, G.H. 2014. Constitution design and experimental
study of PEC beam-column joints bolted with end-plates.
Shanghai: Tongji University (in Chinese).
Li, W. 2015. Experimental study on partially encased
composite beam. Shanghai: Tongji University (in Chinese).

11th International Conference on

Advances in Steel and Concrete Composite Structures
Tsinghua University, Beijing, China, December 3-5, 2015

EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATION ON SHEAR TRANSFERRING

MECHANISMS IN A COMPOSITE FLOOR BEAM WITH WEB
OPENINGS
B. Y. Huoa & C. A. DMellob
a

Alpha Property Investments Pty Ltd, Calamvale, Brisbane, Queensland, 4116, Australia
E-mails: hubingyu@yahoo.co.uk

Department of Civil Engineering, City University London, Northampton Square, London, EC1V 0HB, U.K.
E-mail: C.A.Dmello-1@city.ac.uk
ABSTRACT
Keywords:
Shear transfer mechanism;
Composite beams; Web opening;
Flexural bending test; Composite
action; flexural behaviour

The increasing demand for composite floor beams with shallow structural depth and service
integration had led to the development of a new composite shallow cellular floor beam. This
new type of composite floor beam consists of an asymmetric steel section with regularly spaced
web openings and the concrete slab incorporated between the top and bottom flanges. The
asymmetric steel section reduces the weight of the beam with a smaller top tee. The moment
resistance of the floor beam is optimized by having a bigger bottom tee. The web openings are
filled with in-situ concrete when the floors are cast. The longitudinal shear force is transferred
by the concrete plugs passing through the web openings. The shear transferring mechanisms of
the composite shallow cellular floor beams are different to those with conventional shear studs.
The concrete plugs enable the steel section and concrete slabs to interact with each other. This
paper presents the experimental investigation of the shear transferring mechanisms subjected to
bending load in a flexural test of a full-scale composite shallow cellular floor beam. The flexural
test demonstrated that both moment resistance and flexural stiffness were increased by 50%
when compared with the bare steel section. The flexural test also provided the information on
slip behaviour and shear performance of the shear transferring mechanisms.

1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 Composite shallow cellular floor beam
The recent demands on shallow floor beam had led to
the development of the Slimflor and Asymmetric
Slimflor Beam (ASB). However, the thickness and width
of the top flange increases with the increase of span; this
often results in steel sections are being heavier than
required (Huo et al. 2010). A new composite beam was
developed, composite shallow cellular floor beam, which
is fabricated by welding two highly asymmetric cellular
tees together along the web. Regularly spaced openings
are formed on the web post. The top and bottom tees are
cut from different parent sections. Generally, the top tee
is cut from the universal column (UC) or universal beam
(UB); and the bottom tee is cut from the UC. The weight
of the steel section is reduced by having a smaller top tee.
The precast floor units or profiled steel decking sit on the
bottom flange, creating a shallow floor construction
system (Huo et al. 2010), as illustrated in Figure 1.

Figure 1. Schematic cross section of the composite

shallow floor beam with web openings (Huo et al. 2010)

The composite shallow cellular floor beam is a

construction system that fits in the range of flat slab beam
used in steel building technologies. The composite
shallow cellular floor beam is similar to the Slimflor
beam and ASB. The common feature of these beams is
the flat slab structure which minimises the overall floor
depth. However the manufacturing process and the web
opening feature of the composite shallow cellular floor
beam gives three key advantages when compared with
the Slimflor and ASB. The first one is the flexibility
owing to the manufacture process, so the depth of this
beam section is not fixed and can be designed according
to the required floor depth. The second advantage is the
22

Huo and DMello

1.2 Shear transferring mechanisms

service integration which provided by the unique feature

of web openings. The third advantage is the enhanced
composite action due to the concrete plug passing
through the web opening transfers the longitudinal shear
force.
The composite shallow cellular floor beam creates a
profile of encased section with only the bottom flange is
being exposed. Typical proportion of this composite
beam is 190mm to 350mm for a span of 6m to 12m. A
flat and shallow floor structure is achieved by the
asymmetric section allowing either pre-cast units or metal
decks to sit on the bottom flange. The construction details
are depicted in Figure 2. The composite shallow cellular
floor beam has regularly spaced cells in the web to permit
the passage of reinforcing tie bars. The web openings can
also be used for the passage of building services if it is
required. This further minimises the overall floor depth
and eliminates unwanted floor depth needed to
accommodate the building services passing underneath
the beam structures. Full service integration can be
achieved when the deep profile decking is employed for
the ducting passing between the ribs of the decking.
The in-situ concrete fills the web openings when the
floors are being cast. The concrete plug passing through
the web openings, with or without tie-bars, interacts with
the web openings transferring the longitudinal shear
force. This paper presents experimental investigation of
the unique shear transferring mechanisms subject to
bending load in a flexural test of composite shallow
cellular floor beam prototype.

The most common type of shear connection is the

headed shear stud, which is typically welded on the top
flange of the downstand composite beams. The shear
transferring mechanism is achieved by the interaction
between the studs and concrete slab. The composite
shallow cellular floor beams has unique shear transferring
mechanisms which are formed by incorporating the web
openings. The concrete plugs passing through the web
openings interact with the web section transferring the
longitudinal shear force.
The authors previously investigated the shear resisting
property and behaviour of the unique shear transferring
mechanisms in a series of push-out tests (Huo and
DMello 2013). The details of the shear transferring
mechanisms are explained in the section below. In order
to further study the shear performance and behaviour
characteristics of the unique shear connection, authors
had carried out a full-scale flexural test.
In total, four types of shear transferring mechanisms
can be used in the composite shallow cellular floor
beams. They are concrete-infill-only, tie-bar, ducting and
web-welded stud shear connection.
The concrete-infill-only shear connection is formed
by the concrete plugs passing through the web openings
without other elements, i.e. tie-bar or ducting. The
concrete plugs interact with the web post transferring the
longitudinal shear force. The mechanism of the
concrete-infill-only shear connection is illustrated in
Figure 3.
The tie-bar shear connection is formed as the
reinforcing bars pass through alternative web openings
and cast with in-situ concrete filling the web openings.
The reinforcing bar and concrete infill act in combination
transferring the longitudinal shear force, as illustrated in
Figure 4. The other function of the reinforcing bars is to
provide tie force to the concrete slabs on both sides of the
web openings. In general, the tie-bars used are 16mm
high yield reinforcing bars of 1m length.
The ducting is used to pass through the web openings
(a)
for building services. The voids between the web
openings and ducting are filled by the in-situ concrete
while the floor is being cast. The ducting shear
connection is formed as the concrete infill acts in
combination with the ducting to transfer the longitudinal
shear force, as illustrated in Figure 5.
The web-welded stud shear connection is using the
headed studs welded on the web post to provide
additional shear transferring resistance in the region of
high shear. The headed studs and concrete plugs
(b)
simultaneously transfer the longitudinal shear force, as
Figure 2. Composite shallow cellular floor beam used
illustrated in Figure 6.
with (a) profiled steel decking (b) precast floor units
(courtesy of ASD Westok Limited)

23

Huo and DMello

In contrast, the concrete-infill-only shear connection

which demonstrated the brittle failure mode with slip
capacity of 4 5mm. An 16mm tie-bar passing through
the concrete plug of 150mm diameter increased the shear
resistance twofold in comparison with that of the concrete
plugs (Huo and DMello 2013). The results of the
push-out tests were used in the design of the full-scale
test beam specimen and the flexural test.

Figure 3. Shear transferring mechanisms of the

concrete-infill-only shear connection

2 FLEXURAL TEST
2.1 Test beam specimen
The flexural test carried out was a four-point
symmetric bending test. The two most commonly used
shear connection for the composite shallow cellular floor
beams were investigated in the flexural tests, namely the
concrete-infill-only and tie-bar shear connection. The
four-point symmetric bending test created a loading
profile that was similar to the uniformly distributed
loading, with a region of constant bending moment and
regions of constant shear within the shear spans.
The behaviour and shear performance of the shear
connection in the flexural tests were studied and
compared with that in the push-out tests. The flexural
behaviour and failure mechanism of the shallow cellular
floor beam were also studied.
The full-scale composite beam specimen for the
flexural tests was designed to represent the composite
shallow cellular floor beams used in the construction
practice. The composite action of the composite beam
specimen was provided by both the concrete-infill-only
and tie-bar shear connection. The composite beam
specimen had an asymmetric steel section with circular
web openings and cast with a solid concrete slab. The
overall length of the specimen was 6.2m. The span
between the supports was 6m with the total width of the
concrete slab being 1m.
The steel section was fabricated by welding two
highly asymmetric cellular tees together along the web.
The top tee was cut from the 305x165x54UB and the
bottom tee was cut from the 305x305x97UC. The width
of the top flange was 167mm and the width of the bottom
flange was 305mm. The degree of asymmetry in flange
width was 55%. The net projection between the two
flanges was 69mm. The dimensions of the steel section
are shown in Figure 7. There were 22 web openings of
150mm diameter spaced at 265mm. The steel section had
no end plates to avoid the confinement of slips. The steel
grade of the steel section was S355. The coupon tests
showed that the yield and ultimate strengths were 414 and
527N/mm2 respectively.

Figure 4. Shear transferring mechanisms of the tie-bar

shear connection

Figure 5. Shear transferring mechanisms of the ducting

shear connection

Figure 6. Shear transferring mechanisms of the

web-welded stud shear connection
The authors had previously studied the above shear
transferring mechanisms under the direct longitudinal
shear force in a series of push-out tests. The results of
push-out tests showed that tie-bars or headed studs
significantly increased the shear resistance, slip capacity
and ductility of the shear connection comparing with the
concrete-infill-only shear connection. The tie-bar and
web-welded stud shear connection showed the ductile
failure mode with moderate slip capacity of 12 16mm.

24

Huo and DMello

Figure 7. Cross section of the steel section

Figure 9. Layout of the tie-bars

The test beam specimen was constructed and tested in
the Structures Laboratory of City University London. The
steel section was greased to prevent the development of
bond between the steel section and concrete. This would
enable the flexural tests to demonstrate the shear
transferring mechanism of the shear connection without
the influence of other mechanism. The test beam
specimen was propped during the concreting and curing
and was cast using concrete of Ordinary Portland cement
with 20mm maximum size of coarse aggregate.

2.2 Four-point flexural bending test

The loading position of the four-point symmetric
bending test is shown in Figure 10. There were nine web
openings within each shear span and four web openings
within the region of constant moment. Three incremental
loading cycles were applied before the test beam was
loaded up to the occurrence of plastification in the
mid-span deflection. The applied loading cycles were to
establish the residual deflections and slips within the
elastic loading range and also to break local bond,
although de-bonding grease was applied onto the steel
section.
The shear connection within the left and right shear
spans provided 1575kN and 2545kN longitudinal shear
resistance respectively, which were calculated by using
the results of the previous push-out test series (Huo and
DMello 2013). The required longitudinal shear
resistance for full shear connection was 898kN,
calculated
in
according
with
Eurocode
4
(EN1994-1-1:2004) and BS5950 (BS5950-3.1:1990). The
full composite action was expected for both shear spans.
The shear resistance of the shear connection was assumed
not affected by depth of plastic neutral axis of the beam
specimen. The design full moment resistances for both
shear spans were the same, which was 354kNm
calculated in accordance with the methods of Eurocode 4
and BS5950.
The deflection stiffness of both shear spans under the
elastic loading was expected to be the same, as the two
shear spans had the same elastic (uncracked) section
properties. The four-point symmetric bending test created
the same magnitude of constant shear force within each
shear span. Hence, the slip distribution along both shear

Figure 8. Test beam specimen and cross sectional views

The concrete slab was flush with the top flange of the
steel section and sat on the bottom flange of the steel
section, as shown in Figure 8. The depth of the concrete
slab was 215mm. The concrete slab on both sides of the
web post was connected by the concrete plugs with or
without the 16mm tie-bars. The 28-day concrete cube
compressive strength was designed to be 30N/mm2.
The test beam specimen had both the
concrete-infill-only and tie-bar shear connection. One
half of the beam span had only the concrete plugs passing
through the web openings. The other half span had an
16mm tie-bar of 1m length passing through alternative
web openings, as shown in Figure 9. The four-point
flexural bending test created two regions of constant
shear force. One shear span investigated the
concrete-infill-only shear connection. The other shear
span investigated the combined shear transferring
mechanism of the concrete-infill-only and tie-bar shear
connection. The performance of the different shear
transferring mechanisms in the two shear spans was
studied under the same longitudinal shear force.

25

Huo and DMello

quarter-spans. The slip between the steel section and

concrete slab were measured by dial gauges at mid-span,
quarter-spans and end supports. The strain of the steel
section was measured by strain gauges at four locations,
as shown in Figure 11. At each location, the strain gauges
were glued on the top flange, web post and bottom
flange.
Three incremental loading cycles were applied before
the test beam was loaded up to the occurrence of
plastification in the mid-span deflection. The four-point
symmetric bending test was load-controlled, with load
increments of 9.8kN applied to a load level of 49kN.
Smaller load increments of 4.9kN were then applied up to
the designated load levels.

spans was expected to be uniform. The elastic slip

stiffness of the two types of shear connection shown in
the push-out tests was the same. Therefore, the elastic slip
values of the shear connection within both shear spans
were expected to be the same.
The shear span/depth ratio of the four-point
symmetric bending test was 10.7, which was much
greater than the minimum limit of 2.5 (Oehlers and
Bradford 1995) for creating the flexural failure mode.
Although the four-point symmetric bending was not a
failure test, yielding of the bottom flange at the loading
point was expected.

2.3 Objectives and aims

The objectives and aims of the four-point symmetric
bending test were:
1. To demonstrate the composite action achieved by
the unique shear transferring mechanisms;
2. To provide information on the flexural behaviour
of the test beam, and the shear performance and slip
behaviour of the shear connection;
3. To compare the shear performance and slip
behaviour of the shear connection in flexural test and
push-out tests;
4. To observe the same elastic deflection stiffness of
the two shear spans and the uniform slips distribution
within both shear spans;
5. To observe the yielding in the steel bottom flange
as an indication of the flexural failure mode.

Figure 11. Strain measurement locations

3 TEST RESULTS
3.1 Bending moment
The results of the four-point symmetric bending test
at the final load level are listed in Table 1. The final load
at the two loading points was almost the same, 104kN
and 108kN. The shear forces (SF) and bending moments
(BM) were calculated by including the self-weight of the
beam specimen. The SF and BM diagrams are shown in
Figure 12.
A small variation of the shear force along the shear
span was due to the self-weight of the beam specimen.
The quarter-span deflections at final load level were very
similar, 46.4mm and 41.4mm. This confirmed the
prediction of the same deflection stiffness for the two
shear spans, as their elastic (uncracked) section properties
were same. The residual deflection of the beam specimen
at the mid-span was 16mm after the test. The two end
slips at the final load were in complete contrast, 5.96mm
and 0.41mm. These test results were further discussed in
the following sections.
Bending moments at the loading points were 285kNm
and 287kNm. The test bending moments and calculated
moment resistances were compared in Table 2. The
moment resistance of the beam specimen in full
composite action and moment resistance of the steel
section were calculated by using plastic stress block

Figure 10. Loading position and set up of the flexural test

2.4 Set up and testing procedures

The test beam specimen was simply supported by the
footings with the steel bottom flange in contact with the
rollers. The applied load was measured by using load cell.
Deflections were measured by linear voltage
displacement transducers (LVDT) at mid-span and
26

Huo and DMello

was 5mm, which was negligible. This indicated there was

no local failure of the beam specimen occurred within the
loading cycles. The deflection behaviour of the beam
specimen after the third loading cycle was slightly
different, as the deflection stiffness dropped. This might
be caused by local failure of the shear connection.
The deflection stiffness of both shear spans was the
same. This confirmed the prediction made base on the
two shear spans had the same elastic (uncracked) section
properties.

method with measured material properties. The

comparisons are further shown in the deflection curve,
Figure 13.
The significant composite action of the beam
specimen was demonstrated in the four-point symmetric
bending test. The test bending moment was 1.5 times the
plastic moment resistance of the steel section.
Table 1. Results of the flexural test
Load
(kN)

SF
(kN)

BM
(kNm)

Quarter-span
Deflection
(mm)

End
Slip
(mm)

Left
shear-span

104

-108

-285

44.6

5.96

Right
shear-span

108

109

-287

41.4

0.41

450
400
full moment resistance
(measured properties)

span/360

350
300
Mid-span 250
Moment
(kNm) 200

Mid-span Deflection: 64.9mm

bare steel resistance

(measured properties)

150
150

Mid-span
1/4-span(concrete)
1/4-span(tie-bar)

50

50

SF
(kN)
-50
-150

100

123

109
1
-5

0
0

-108

-122

20

40
60
Deflection (mm)

80

100

Figure 13. Deflections at mid-span and quarter-spans

450

-100

BM
(kNm)
-200

400

-287

full moment resistance

(measured properties)

350

Figure 12. SF and BM diagrams of the flexural test

span/360

-285

-300

300
Mid-span 250
Moment
(kNm) 200

Table 2. Comparison for moment resistance

bare steel resistance

(measured properties)

150

Test
Moment*
(kNm)

Full Moment
Resistance of the Test
Beam (kNm)

286

348

Plastic Moment
Resistance of the
Steel Section (kNm)

100
50

Mid-span

196

* average bending moment of the two loading points

20

40
60
Deflection (mm)

80

100

Figure 14. Deflections at mid-span

3.2 Deflection
The deflections were measured at mid-span and
quarter-spans. The deflection curves of Figure 13 15
show the deflections at the mid-span moments which are
calculated by including the self-weight of the beam
specimen. The beam specimen was essentially elastic
when the serviceability deflection limit of span/360 was
reached. The test was stopped when the plastification of
the mid-span deflection occurred. The residual mid-span
deflection was 16mm (=span/372) after all loading were
removed, that was less than span/360.
The elastic behaviour of the beam specimen was
clearly demonstrated well after the serviceability
deflection limit of span/360 and plastic moment
resistance of the steel section was exceeded. After the
third loading cycle, the residual deflection at mid-span

450
400
350
300
Mid-span 250
Moment
(kNm) 200
150
100
1/4-span(concrete)
1/4-span(tie-bar)

50
0
0

20

40
60
Deflection (mm)

Figure 15. Deflections at quarter-spans

27

80

100

Huo and DMello

3.3 Slip

The slip was measured at the end-spans, quarter-spans

and mid-span. The slip over the span at the different
loading stages is plotted in Figure 16. It was shown that
both shear spans had the same uniform slip distributions
during the first two loading cycles. This was due to the
longitudinal shear force was uniform along the two shear
spans and the elastic slip stiffness of the two types of
shear connection was the same as shown in the push-out
tests.
The slip at the end of the first two loading cycles was
0.25mm when the mid-span deflection was 26mm which
exceeding the serviceability deflection limit of span/360,
16.7mm. The slip of the shear connection was negligible
when the serviceability limit state was reached.
The shear span had solely the concrete-infill-only
shear connection showed a significant slip increase at the
third loading cycle. The end-span slip values further
demonstrated the failure of the shear connection at the
end of the third loading cycle. This indicated that the drop
of deflection stiffness after the third loading cycle was
due to the failure of the concrete-infill-only shear
connection. The brittle failure mode of the
concrete-infill-only shear connection shown in the
flexural test was the same as in the push-out tests.
The distinctive slip difference between the two shear
spans at the end of the flexural test was clearly observed.
The end-span slip of the left shear span was 6mm, which
was similar to the 5mm slip capacity of the
concrete-infill-only shear connection shown in the
push-out tests. This is another clear indication that the
failure of the concrete-infill-only shear connection
occurred in the flexural test. The slip of the right shear
span at the end of the flexural test was 0.41mm, which
was negligible. The combination of concrete-infill-only
and tie-bar (16mm) shear connection within the right
shear spans remained intact. The additional tie-bars
significantly increased the longitudinal shear resistance
for the composite test beam specimen.

3.4 Strain and stress

It was shown there were nonlinear strains on the top
flange and the web post of the top and bottom tees.
Linear strains were shown on the bottom flange at all
locations. Significant nonlinear compressive strains were
shown on the top flange at the left loading point. This
indicated possible buckling of the top flange due to
compression. At the end of the test, small nonlinear
tensile strain was also shown on the bottom flange at left
loading point. This was an initial indication of the
flexural failure mode, as the bottom flange started to
yield.
The tensile stresses of the bottom flange at the
different loading stages were calculated by using the
linear tensile strains with the Youngs Modulus of
2e5N/mm2 as listed in Table 3. The small nonlinear
tensile strain at the left loading point at the end of the test
was omitted in the calculation; the linear strain value
prior to the nonlinear behaviour was used instead. The
loading locations listed in the Table 3 are shown in
Figure 11.

Table 3. Tensile stresses on the steel bottom flange at

different loading stages

Tensile Stress (N/mm2)

1st
Loading
Cycle

2nd
Loading
Cycle

3rd
Loading
Cycle

Final
loading

Location (I)

89

116

151

164

Location (II)*

148

184

246

324

Location (III)*

145

187

247

309

Location (IV)

71

92

120

146

* loading points

4 CONCLUSION AND SUMMARY

6
(1): 1st cycle

(4)

(3): 3rd cycle

(4): end of test

4
3

In order to further study the shear transferring

mechanisms of concrete plugs, with or without the
tie-bars, the four-point symmetric bending test was
performed on a full-scale composite shallow cellular floor
beam. The loading was applied up to the plastification of
the mid-span deflection. This flexural test created a
bending moment profile similar to that of the uniformly
distributed loading. The composite action was provided
by the concrete-infill-only and tie-bar shear connection.
The following conclusions were made from the flexural
test.
Significant composite action due to the unique shear
transferring mechanism was demonstrated in the flexural

(2): 2nd cycle

slip
(mm)

2
(3)

(1) (2)
0
0

3
span (m)

Figure 16. Slips over the span at the different loading

stages

28

Huo and DMello

Eurocode 4, EN1994-1-1: 2004. Design of Composite Steel and
Concrete Structures, Part 1-1: General Rules and Rules for
Buildings, December 2004.
British Standard, BS5950-3.1: 1990. Structural Use of Steel
Work in Building, Part 3: Design in Composite
Construction, Section 3.1 Code of Practice for Design of
Simple and Continuous Composite Beams.

tests. The test moment resistances were 1.5 times the

plastic moment resistance of the steel section only.
The behaviour of the beam specimen was essentially
elastic when the serviceability limit state was reached.
The flexural failure mode of the beam specimen was
shown; although the four-point symmetric bending test
was not failure test, but the yielding of the steel bottom
flange was observed as an initial indication for the
flexural failure mode.
The brittle failure mode of the concrete-infill-only
shear connection was shown in the flexural test. The
failure slip of the concrete-infill-only shear connection
was the same as that obtained in the push-out tests.
In terms of slip behaviour and longitudinal shear
resistance, the flexural test clearly demonstrated the
difference between the shear connection of the concrete
plugs and additional tie-bars. One shear span showed the
brittle failure of the concrete-infill-only shear connection.
The other shear span which has additional tie-bars
showed complete elastic shear performance with
negligible slips.
Overall, the flexural test demonstrated that the
additional tie-bar significantly increased the ductility and
shear performance of the shear connection.
Cracks of concrete slab were observed before the
serviceability deflection limit of span/360 was reached;
hence the cracked section properties of the test beam
specimen can be used in the future deflection analysis.
The same uniform elastic slip was shown between
the two shear spans in the four-point symmetric bending
test. This was mainly due to the elastic slip stiffness of
the two types of the shear connection was the same as
shown in the push-out tests.
Although the behaviours and shear resistances of the
concrete-infill-only and tie-bar shear connection were
complete different as shown in the push-out tests. But,
uniform (non-discrete) shear behaviour was demonstrated
in the flexural tests, where they were used in combination
in one of the shear spans. It is suggested that this
combined shear transferring mechanisms can be
considered as one unit in the future design.

5 REFERENCES
Huo, B.Y., Tsavdaridis, K.D. & DMello, C. 2010.
Experimental and Analytical Study of Push-out Shear Tests
in Ultra Shallow Floor Beams, Proceedings of the 34th
International Symposium on Bridge and Structural
Engineering, IABSE, Venice, Italy, 2010: 174, ISBN.
978385748122.
Huo, B.Y. & DMello, C. 2013. Push-out Tests and Analytical
Study of Shear Transfer Mechanisms in Composite Shallow
Cellular Floor Beams, Journal of Constructional Steel
Research, V88: 191-205, ISSN: 0143-974X.
Oehlers, D.J. & Bradford, M.A. 1995. Composite Steel and
Concrete Structural Members: Fundamental Behaviour,
Pergamon Press, 1995, ISBN: 0080419194.

29

11th International Conference on

Advances in Steel and Concrete Composite Structures
Tsinghua University, Beijing, China, December 3-5, 2015

SIMPLIFIED NUMERICAL MODELLING OF STEEL-CONCRETE

COMPOSITE BEAMS WITH TRAPEZOIDAL STEEL DECKING
U. Katwala, Z. Taoa, T. Y. Songa & W. D. Wangb
a

Institute for Infrastructure Engineering, Western Sydney University, Penrith, Australia

E-mails: u.katwal@westernsydney.edu.au, z.tao@westernsydney.edu.au, t.song@westernsydney.edu.au

School of Civil Engineering, Lanzhou University of Technology, Lanzhou, China

E-mail: wangwd@lut.cn
ABSTRACT
Keywords:
Composite beams; Shear
connectors; Profiled sheeting;
Simplified modelling; Finite
element analysis.

Steel-concrete composite beams with trapezoidal steel decking have been widely used in
building construction for their superior structural performance and ease in construction. In
structural design, it is favourable to accurately simulate the performance of composite beams. It
has been rigorously proved that detailed finite element (FE) modelling using shell and solid
elements can predict the behaviour of composite beams precisely, but this method is tedious and
time consuming. Thus, it is impractical to carry out global non-linear analysis of structures using
this method for routine design. Therefore, there is a need to develop simplified numerical
models for composite beams with trapezoidal steel decking, which should be fast, efficient and
accurate to be used for global structural analysis. In this paper, such a simplified model is
developed and implemented in ABAQUS, where shell elements are used to simulate the
concrete slab, rebar elements are used to represent steel sheeting, and connector elements are
used to simulate the shear studs. The predicted results are compared with test results of
composite beams presented in the literature, including simply supported and continuous beams
with trapezoidal steel decking. Meanwhile, the predictions from the simplified model are also
compared with predictions from detailed FE models using solid elements reported in the
literature. The comparisons indicate that the accuracy of the simplified model is reasonable, and
can be efficiently used in global structural analysis.

Hicks and Smith (2014) reported test results of composite

beams with profiled steel sheeting. In general, the
reported tests are highly sophisticated and very expensive
and time-consuming in nature to conduct. There is a need
to develop accurate and efficient finite element (FE)
modelling for routine design of steel-concrete composite
beams. But such a task is very challenging. This is due to
the material non-linearity and complex interaction of
different components in the composite beam, such as the
steel beam, concrete, metal decking and especially the
shear studs (Bradford 2012).
Generally, the use of solid elements in FE modelling
can predict the behaviour of any structural member
reasonably well. Recent research conducted by
Tahmasebinia et al. (2012, 2013) and Main (2014) mainly
used solid elements in FE modelling of composite beams
with profiled steel sheeting. The developed models can
predict the behaviour of composite beams very well in
terms of both initial stiffness and ultimate strength. But
for structural analysis in real practice, the applicability of
such detailed FE models is questionable because of the
complexity of the modelling and the time it consumes. In
particular, global analysis of structures is becoming more

1 INTRODUCTION
Steel-concrete composite beams are now widely used
in steel framed building construction (Ranzi et al. 2009).
In such beams comprising of composite slabs, the
concrete is often cast on thin high-strength profiled steel
sheeting to form the slab, which is connected to the steel
I-section beam by welding headed shear connectors
through the profiled steel sheeting to the top flange of the
beam. The use of profiled steel sheeting immediately
provides a platform to work and acts as a form itself.
Moreover, once the beam is in service, the steel deck also
acts as tensile reinforcement which partially reduces the
time-consuming placing and handling of rebars.
Furthermore, the cellular geometry of profiled steel
sheeting permits the formation of ducting cells within the
floor, so that services can be incorporated and distributed
within the floor depth (Abdullah 2004).
In recent years, some full scale tests have been
conducted on steel-concrete composite beams.
Rambo-Roddenberry (2002), Loh et al. (2004), Nie et al.
(2005, 2008), Ranzi et al. (2009), Ernst et al. (2010) and

30

Katwal et al.

crucial because the design philosophy of structures is

nowadays in the phase of transition from conventional
individual member-based design towards advanced
analysis (direct design). In this context, codes like
AS4100 (1998) and AISC360-10 (2010) allows the
design of steel structures by advanced analysis.
Recent efforts have been made by Main (2014) and
Jeyarajan et al. (2015) to develop simplified models for
composite beams with trapezoidal steel decking. The
model developed by Main (2014) simplifies the
trapezoidal shape of the ribs into alternating strong and
weak strips, where strong strips have a depth equal to the
depth of the composite slab and weak strips include only
the concrete above the top of the steel deck. The
contribution from the steel deck is not included in the
weak strips. The analysis also considers the slip
characteristics of shear studs based on a model developed
for composite beams with solid slabs. To incorporate the
effect of steel deck, it is assumed that the shear force
remains constant between 5 mm to 15 mm, after which it
drops linearly to zero at a displacement of 25 mm. The
model developed by Main (2014) is still relatively
complex for simulation because of the alternating strong
and weak strips' shapes.
Recently, another simplified model was proposed by
Jeyarajan et al. (2015) using ABAQUS in which the
complicated trapezoidal shape of composite slabs is
converted to an equivalent rectangular shape. Tie
constraint is used to represent the bond between the
composite slab and steel beam. This simplification
virtually ignores the slip between the slab and steel beam.
Therefore, this model may give unsafe predictions,
especially for composite beams with partial interaction.
With this background, this paper aims to develop
efficient but more accurate simplified modelling for
composite beams with trapezoidal steel sheeting. The test
data available in the literature for simply supported and
continuous composite beams is used to verify the
proposed simplified model. The predictions from the
simplified model are also compared with results of
detailed FE modelling.

Concrete

Simplified metal deck

A1
Metal deck

Ds
A2

A2

Dp

A3

A3

(a) Metal deck and concrete slab.

Metal deck strip area, Ai

Ds Dp 2

Concrete
A1
A2

A2

A3

A3

a1
a3

a2

a2

a3

Ds Dp 2

(b) Equivalent metal deck and concrete slab.

(c) Concrete slab with metal deck modelled as rebars with

equivalent areas.
Figure 1. Simplified model for composite slab proposed by
Jeyarajan et al. (2015)

of the steel decking. The steel decking is simplified as

shown in Figure 1(a) and the corresponding steel deck
strip areas A1, A2, and A3 are calculated by multiplying
the deck thickness by its corresponding strip length. The
deck strips are modelled as rebars as shown in Figure
1(c). The equivalent area of a rebar (ai) is calculated from
the corresponding steel deck strip area (Ai) by equating
their second moment of area. The rebar areas are
determined as: a1=A1, a2=A2 and a3=A3Ds2/[(DsDp/2)2].
The equivalent concrete slab is simulated using four-node
homogeneous shell element with reduced integration
(S4R) and the equivalent rebars are defined using
REBAR LAYER option available in ABAQUS. Slip
between the concrete and metal deck is neglected, and
embossment in the metal decking is not taken into
account. It is also assumed that the stiffness of the metal
deck in the orthogonal direction is negligible.
Tie constraint was used by Jeyarajan et al. (2015) to
represent the interaction between the composite slab and
steel beam. Instead, this paper considers the slip
characteristics of shear studs in the simplified model. The

2 FINITE ELEMENT MODEL

Three types of elements are used in the simplified
model, including beam, shell and connector elements.
Beam elements B31 are used to simulate the steel
I-section beam, whilst shell elements with reduced
integration S4R are used to represent the composite slab
based on the simplified model proposed by Jeyarajan et
al. (2015). Connector elements CONN3D2 are used to
define the behaviour of shear studs. The simplified model
proposed by Jeyarajan et al. (2015) is shown in Figure 1.
The composite profiled slab is converted into an
equivalent concrete slab with uniform thickness of
DsDp/2, where Ds is the slab depth and Dp is the height

Shell elements

Connector elements
Steel beam
Figure 2. Typical FE model of composite beams.

31

Katwal et al.

with:

= 0.2 (

+ 1)

1
0.9

k5

k4
k3

0.5
k2

0.3

k1
0

s0.5

s0.9

su
Slip, mm

smax

Figure 3. Idealisation of force-slip curve for shear studs.

200
Force per stud, F (kN)

Fmax = kt 0.29 d2

Normalised shear force, F/Fmax

difference between the two models will be analysed in

Section 3. The behaviour of shear studs is incorporated in
the model by defining shear force versus slip relationship
using zero length connector elements to connect beam
flange nodes with slab nodes in the interface where studs
are located. A typical FE model of composite beams
developed in ABAQUS is shown in Figure 2.
Based on Eurocode 4 (2004) and test results presented
by Smith and Couchman (2010) and Hicks and Smith
(2014), a multi-linear shear force-slip model is tentatively
proposed in this paper as shown in Figure 3. The
maximum resistance of a shear stud Fmax is calculated
based on Eurocode 4 (2004), clause 6.6.3.1, where two
formulae as shown in Eqs. (1) and (2) are used for
determining the shear strength of shear connectors
whichever is smaller.
Fmax = kt 0.2 fu d2
(1)
or

Modified push test (Smith and Couchman 2010)

Modified push test (Hicks and Smith 2014)
Proposed model

150
100

(2)
for 3 hsc / d 4

=1
for hsc / d 4
where, d is the diameter of the shank of the stud, fu is the
specified ultimate tensile strength of the stud but not
greater than 500 N/mm2, hsc is the overall nominal height
of the stud, kt is the strength reduction factor. Since the
composite beams selected in this paper contains profiled
sheeting with ribs transverse to the supporting beams, kt
is calculated based on clause 6.6.4.2 in Eurocode 4
(2004). fc is the cylinder compressive strength of the
concrete and Ec is the secant modulus of elasticity of
concrete.
To generate the shear force-slip curve, the stiffness
has been approximately taken from the tests conducted by
Smith and Couchman (2010). Five stiffness values are
proposed for different stages as shown in Figure 3. A high
initial stiffness, k1 of 2000 kN/mm is taken upto 0.3 Fmax
assuming that there is very little slip occurred in the
beginning of the beam tests. After that stiffness values of
k2, k3 and k4 are proposed whose stiffness are 100, 50 and
5 kN/mm respectively. The stiffness k2, k3 and k4 are
proposed for force levels up to 0.5 Fmax, 0.9 Fmax and Fmax
whose corresponding slips are s0.5, s0.9 and su respectively.
Then the proposed curve decreases linearly upto half of
Fmax with a slope of 3 kN/mm and reaches upto slip of
smax. Smith and Couchman (2010) conducted experiments
on push tests where 12% normal load was applied to the
specimen with the objective to get results which can
closely reflect the behaviour of shear studs in the beam.
Hicks and Smith (2014) compared the results of normal
push tests with those of beam tests, indicating a big
difference between them. In normal push tests, the studs
demonstrate brittle premature failure; whereas in beam
tests, the ductility of shear studs is much higher. Hicks
and Smith (2014) conducted modified push tests with

50
0
0

10

20

30

Slip, mm
Figure 4. Comparison between predicted and measured shear
force versus slip curves.

different amount of normal load but the tests where 12%

normal load was applied was found to produce the similar
results to that of the beam tests.
Considering the maximum resistance from modified
push test by Smith and Couchman (2010) for test A1D-3,
and using the proposed stiffness in this paper, the shear
force-slip curve is obtained as shown in Figure 4 which
has good agreement with the modified push tests
conducted using one stud per rib by Smith and Couchman
(2010) and Hicks and Smith (2014).

2.1 Boundary conditions

Test specimens presented in the literature were
supported by hinge and roller supports. In the simulation,
the slab lies in the X-Y plane and the longitudinal axis of
the beam is taken as the X-axis. One end of the simply
supported beam and three-span continuous beam is
assigned hinged supported, where all displacements in X,
Y and Z axes are fully constrained (U1=U2=U3=0). For
the other end and intermediate supports of three span
continuous beam, the displacements in the Y and Z
directions (U2=U3=0) and rotation around the Z axis
(UR3=0) are constrained. For two span continuous
beams, the displacements in the Y and Z directions
(U2=U3=0) and rotation in the Z direction are
constrained at either ends whereas the displacements in
all X, Y and Z axis are fully constrained in the
intermediate support.

32

Katwal et al.

2.2 Interactions

3.1 Simply supported composite beams

The concrete, reinforcement and profiled steel

sheeting are integrated into a slab component.
Surface-to-surface interaction available in ABAQUS is
used to represent the interface between the slab and steel
beam. A hard contact property is defined in the direction
normal to the interface plane while tangential property is
defined using penalty approach. For the Coulomb friction
model, a very small friction coefficient of 0.01 is used
since the friction between the slab and steel beam has
been included in the shear force-slip relationship shown
in Figure 3. The zero length connector elements are used
to define the stud behaviour and the proposed shear
force-slip relationship is adopted.

3.1.1 Nie et al. (2005)

The test results of four composite beams with
trapezoidal steel decking SB1, SB3, SB4 and SB5 having
dimensions of 3900800105 mm are taken from Nie et
al. (2005). The material properties and number of shear
studs for each specimen are shown in Table 1. Shear studs
(1690 mm) were welded to I20a steel beams through
YX60-200-600 1 mm thick profiled sheet. The loads were
applied transversely as shown in Figure 5.
P/2

P/2

2.3 Material nonlinear constitutive relationships

1650

The stress-strain model proposed by Tao et al. (2013)

is used for the structural steel of I-section beams. For the
reinforcement and profiled sheeting, they are modelled
using a bilinear stress-strain curve which has linear
elastic relationship up to yielding followed by a perfectly
plastic condition. Concrete damaged plasticity model
available in ABAQUS is utilised to define the concrete
properties. The stress-strain curve of concrete in
compression is defined using the equations proposed by
Carreira and Chu (1985), whilst the tensile stress-strain
curve for concrete is adopted as proposed by Massicotte
et al. (1990).

1650

600

Figure 5. Layout of the beam tests reported by Nie et al. (2005).

16

Energy (kNm)

12
8
Internal energy

Kinetic energy

0
0

0.1

0.2
0.3
Time, sec

0.4

Figure 6. Comparison of energy versus time for specimen SB1.

Mid-span moment, M (kNm)

2.4 Analysis procedure

Due to the convergence problem encountered in using
the static general analysis available in ABAQUS,
dynamic implicit analysis method is used in this paper to
simulate composite beams. Quasi-static loading is
applied, and the kinetic energy (KE) of the whole model
during the entire time period is kept below 5% compared
to that of total internal energy (IE) of the structure. This
is to make sure that the solution does not lead towards
dynamic analysis which may generate unrealistic results
for static case (Abdullah (2004).
The proposed simplified FE model is very efficient in
modelling composite beams. Using a typical modern
computer (8GB RAM and 3.4GHz processor), the
computational time takes only a few minutes for both
simply supported and continuous composite beams. If a
detailed FE model is used, it can take a few hours to a
few days depending on the number of elements used.

200
150

100

Test (Nie et al. 2005)

Tie constraint

50

FE (Tahmasebinia et al. 2012)

Simplified Model

0
0

40
80
Mid-span deflection, (mm)

120

Mid-span moment, M (kNm)

Figure 7. Comparison of M for specimen SB1.

3 FE MODEL VALIDATION
To verify the proposed simplified FE model, four
simply supported composite beams tested by Nie et al.
(2005), two simply supported composite beams tested by
Ranzi et al. (2009) and three continuous composite beams
tested by Nie et al. (2008) are used in this paper.

160
120

80
Test (Nie et al. 2005)

40
Simplified Model

0
0

4
8
Beam end slip, (mm)

Figure 8. Comparison of M for specimen SB1.

33

12

Katwal et al.

SB1 is quite close to that from detailed FE model carried

out by Tahmasebinia et al. (2012). To predict the beam
end slip from the simulation, the node of beam element at
the end where the roller support has been assigned and
the corresponding node in the shell element are selected
and then displacements in X direction for both nodes are
noted. The end slip is then predicted from the
displacement difference of the two nodes.
The simulation of composite beams using tie constraint
is also conducted. As shown in Figure 7, the strength is
over-predicted when tie constraint is employed to connect
the shell elements and beam elements. Although the
initial stiffness of the mid-span moment versus mid-span
deflection is well predicted by using tie constraint, the
yield and ultimate moments cannot be predicted properly.
The predictions for mid-span deflections of specimens
SB3, SB4 and SB5 are shown in Figure 9 which shows
the excellent correlation with the test results. Similar to
the specimen SB1, the use of tie constraint between steel
beam and shell element over-predicts the strength. Figure
10 presents the comparison between measured and
predicted beam end slips for specimens SB3, SB4 and
SB5, indicating a good agreement. The ratio of predicted
to measured ultimate strength is presented in Table 2
which ranges from 0.98 to 1.02. It demonstrates that the
predictions are very close to test results.

Table 1. Material properties, trough length and number of shear

studs (Nie et al. 2005).
Concrete
Strength
fc (MPa)
34.9
34.8
34.7
34.3

Specimen
SB1
SB3
SB4
SB5

Steel
beam
fy (MPa)
291
291
291
291

Trough
Length
mm
110
110
70
70

Stud in each
rib
1
2 (transverse)
1
2 (transverse)

Table 2. Comparison between experimental and numerical

ultimate moments for beams SB1, SB3, SB4 and SB5 reported
by Nie et al. (2005).
Specimen
SB1
SB3
SB4
SB5

MEXP (kNm)
143.5
160.9
119.5
132.5

MFEA (kNm)
144.6
158.1
122.4
132.4

MFEA/MEXP
1.01
0.98
1.02
0.99

In the simulation, the total KE has been maintained

very low compared to IE, as shown in Figure 6 for a
typical specimen SB1. The predictions for the mid-span
deflection and beam end slip for specimen SB1 are found
to be in excellent correlation with the test results as
shown in Figures 7 and 8 respectively. The predicted
mid-span moment versus mid-span deflection curve for

150
100
Test (Nie et al. 2005)
Tie constraint

50

Simplified Model

0
0

200
Mid-span moment, M (kNm)

200
Mid-span moment, M (kNm)

Mid-span moment, M (kNm)

200

150
100
Test (Nie et al. 2005)
Tie constraint

50

Simplified Model

50
100
150
Mid-span deflection, (mm)

0
50
100
150
Mid-span deflection, (mm)

(a) Specimen SB3

(b) Specimen SB4

150
100
Test (Nie et al. 2005)
Tie constraint

50

Simplified Model

0
0
50
100
150
Mid-span deflection, (mm)

(c) Specimen SB5

Figure 9. Comparison of M for simply-supported composite beams.

150
100
Test (Nie et al. 2005)

50
Simplified Model

0
0

4
8
Beam end slip, (mm)

(a) Specimen SB3

Figure 10.

12

150
Mid-span moment, M (kNm)

150
Mid-span moment, M (kNm)

Mid-span moment, M (kNm)

200

100

Test (Nie et al. 2005)

50

Simplified Model

0
0

4
8
Beam end slip, (mm)

(b) Specimen SB4

Comparison of M for simply-supported composite beams.

34

12

100

Test (Nie et al. 2005)

50

Simplified Model

0
0

4
8
Beam end slip, (mm)

(c) Specimen SB5

12

Katwal et al.

3.1.2 Ranzi et al. (2009)

Table 3. Material properties for CB1 and CB2.

Two composite beams CB1 and CB2 were tested by

Ranzi et al. (2009) with an objective to obtain benchmark
results for composite beams. The beams were 80502000
130 mm. The steel beams were Australian sections
360UB44 and 410UB54 for CB1 and CB2 respectively.
Shear studs (19115 mm) were welded to the steel beams
where one stud per trough and two studs per trough were
installed in CB1 and CB2, respectively. These composite
beams have also been used by other researchers such as
Tahmasebinia et al. (2012) and Bradford (2012) to
validate FE models. The general layout of the beams is
shown in Figure 11. The material properties for both
beams are presented in Table 3. The beam tests were
conducted by applying 16 point loads. For simplicity,
equivalent uniformly distributed load is applied in this
paper on each side to a strip of 1008050 mm parallel to
the longitudinal axis of the beam as shown in Figure 12.
The predictions for the mid-span deflection are
compared with test results and FE model using solid
elements in Figures 13(a) and (b) for specimens CB1 and
CB2, respectively. The predictions are comparable to the
test results and the predicted results using detailed
modelling conducted by Tahmasebinia et al. (2012).

Specimen
CB1
CB2

fy (MPa)
310.5
332.3

Figure 11. Layout of beam tests reported by Ranzi et al. (2009).

Figure 12. Simplified model in ABAQUS for CB1.

Table 4. Comparison of predicted and measured ultimate
strengths.
PEXP (kN)
383.3
531.2

PFEA(kN)
379.8
532.8

PFEA/PEXP
0.99
1.00

600

Test (Ranzi et al. 2009)

FE (Tahmasebinia et al. 2012)
Simplified Model

400

200

400

Test (Ranzi et al. 2009)

FE (Tahmasebinia et al. 2012)
Simplified Model

200

50
100
150
200
Mid-span deflection, (mm)

250

(a) Specimen CB1

50
100
Mid-span deflection, (mm)

150

(b) Specimen CB2

Figure 13. Comparison of P- for specimens CB1 and CB2.

600
Total load, P (kN)

400
Total load, P (kN)

Steel beam

8050

Total load, P (kN)

Total load, P (kN)

Modulus of elasticity
of concrete
MPa
25977
26895

Specimen
CB1
CB2
600

Concrete
strength
fc (MPa)
26.4
28.3

300
200
Test (Ranzi et al. 2009)
Simulation by Bradford (2012)
Simplified Model

100
0

450
300
Test (Ranzi et al. 2009)
Simulation by Bradford (2012)
Simplified Model

150
0

5
10
Beam end slip, (mm)

15

(a) Specimen CB1

3
6
Beam end slip, (mm)
(b) Specimen CB2

Figure 14. Comparison of P- for specimens CB1 and CB2.

35

Katwal et al.

were welded per rib for all the specimens. The concrete
cylinder compressive strengths for SB9 and SB10 were
33.5 MPa and 33.2 MPa respectively and for SB13 it was
36.7 MPa. The loading and general layout of specimens
SB9 and SB10 are shown in Figure 15 whereas for SB13
it is shown in Figure 16.
The predicted load-deflection curves for specimens
SB9 and SB10 from the current simplified model are
presented in Figure 17(a) and (b) respectively, which
shows that the predictions are reasonably well compared
with the test results. For specimen SB13, the edge span
deflection is predicted and compared with the test results
as shown in Figure 17(c), which shows excellent
correlation with the test results. The predictions utilising
tie constraint between the steel beam and composite slab
is again much higher than the test results. The ratio of
predicted to measured ultimate strength is presented in
Table 5 which is found to vary between 1.02 and 1.09.

Meanwhile, the predicted beam end slips for CB1 and

CB2 are compared with test results as well as simulation
carried out by Bradford (2012) as shown in Figure 14 (a)
and (b) respectively. For both beams, the beam end slips
are well predicted. The predictions are in excellent
correlation with the simulation carried out by Bradford
(2012). The ratios of predicted to measured ultimate
strength are calculated in Table 4 and these values are
found to be 0.99 and 1.00 for specimens CB1 and CB2,
respectively. The comparisons indicate that the current
predictions have excellent correlation with the test
results.

3.2 Simply supported continuous beams

Three continuous composite beams SB9, SB10 and
SB13 tested by Nie et al. (2008) are used to verify the
proposed simplified model in simulating continuous
composite beams. SB9 and SB10 were two-span
continuous composite beams, whereas SB13 was a
three-span continuous composite beam. The width and
thickness for all three specimens were 800 mm and 110
mm, respectively. The length of the specimens SB9 and
SB10 was 7800 mm whereas the length of the specimen
SB13 was 11800 mm. Five 12-mm-diameter
reinforcement were used as longitudinal reinforcement
for samples SB9 whereas for SB10 and SB13, eight
12-mm-diameter reinforcement were used. Two studs

Table 5. Comparison between experimental and numerical

ultimate loads for the beams SB9, SB10 and SB13 reported by
Nie et al. (2008)
Specimen
PEXP (kN)
PFEA(kN)
PFEA/PEXP
SB9
207.3
227.1
1.09
SB10
215.7
233.7
1.08
SB13
232.0
237.7
1.02

P/2

P/2

2250

2250

1650

1650

Figure 15. General layout of SB9 and SB10.

P/3

2030

P/3

P/3

1870

2000

1870

2000

2030

300

200

200

Test (Nie et al. 2008)

Tie constraint
FE (Tahmasebinia et al. 2013)
Simplified Model

100

300

Test (Nie et al. 2008)

Tie constraint
Simplified Model

100

50
100
150
Deflection at loading point (mm)
(a) Specimen SB9

200

100

Test (Nie et al. 2008)

Tie constraint
Simplified Model

Load (kN)

300

Load (kN)

Load (kN)

Figure 16. General layout of SB13.

50

100

150

25

50

75

Deflection at loading point (mm)

Deflection at loading point (mm)

(b) Specimen SB10

(c) Specimen SB13

Figure 17. Comparison of load versus deflection at loading point for specimens SB9, SB10 and SB13.

36

Katwal et al.
Sheeting." Structural Engineering International, 24(2),
246-253.
Jeyarajan, S., Richard Liew, J. Y., and Koh, C. G. (2015).
"Progressive
collapse
mitigation
approaches
for
steel-concrete composite buildings." International Journal
of Steel Structures, 15(1), 175-191.
Loh, H. Y., Uy, B., and Bradford, M. A. (2004). "The effects of
partial shear connection in the hogging moment regions of
composite beams Part I-Experimental study." Journal of
Constructional Steel Research, 60(6), 897-919.
Main, J. A. (2014). "Composite floor systems under column loss
collapse: Collapse resistance and tie force requirements."
Journal of Structural Engineering, ASCE, 140, 140,
(A4014003), 1-15.
Massicotte, B., Elwi, A. E., and MacGregor, J. G. (1990).
"Tension-stiffening model for planar reinforced concrete
members." Journal of Structural Engineering, 116(11),
3039-3058.
Nie, J., Cai, C. S., and Wang, T. (2005). "Stiffness and capacity
of steelconcrete composite beams with profiled sheeting."
Engineering Structures, 27(7), 1074-1085.
Nie, J., Fan, J., and Cai, C. S. (2008). "Experimental study of
partially shear-connected composite beams with profiled
sheeting." Engineering Structures, 30(1), 1-12.
Rambo-Roddenberry, M. D. (2002). "Behavior and strength of
welded stud shear connectors." PhD thesis Submitted to
Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University.
Ranzi, G., Bradford, M. A., Ansourian, P., Filonov, A.,
Rasmussen, K. J. R., Hogan, T. J., and Uy, B. (2009).
"Full-scale tests on composite steelconcrete beams with
steel trapezoidal decking." Journal of Constructional Steel
Research, 65(7), 1490-1506.
Smith, A. L., and Couchman, G. H. (2010). "Strength and
ductility of headed stud shear connectors in profiled steel
sheeting." Journal of Constructional Steel Research, 66(6),
748-754.
Tahmasebinia, F., Ranzi, G., and Zona, A. (2012). "Beam tests
of composite steel-concrete members: A three-dimensional
finite element model." International Journal of Steel
Structures, 12(1), 37-45.
Tao, Z., Wang, X.-Q., and Uy, B. (2013). "Stress-Strain Curves
of Structural and Reinforcing Steels after Exposure to
Elevated Temperatures." Journal of Materials in Civil
Engineering, 25(9), 1306-1316.

CONCLUSIONS
The following conclusions can be drawn from the
results presented above.
(1) The proposed FE model in this paper can solve
the modelling complexity of composite beams with
profiled sheeting and connector elements.
(2) Compared with detailed FE model, the simplified
FE model is much more efficient. Using a typical modern
computer, the computational time takes only a few
minutes for both simply supported and continuous
composite beams.
(3) The predictions for both deflection and beam end
slip have excellent correlation with the test results of
composite beams.
It should be noted that the current model was only
verified by test results of composite beams having
profiled sheeting with ribs transverse to the supporting
beams. Further research should be conducted when the
ribs of the profiled sheeting are parallel to the supporting
beam. Meanwhile, the shear force-slip model for shear
studs may be refined to improve the robustness of the
proposed model. Furthermore, simplified models should
also be developed for other types of profiled steel
sheeting, such as re-entrant profile.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This study is supported by Western Sydney
University under the International Postgraduate Research
Scholarship scheme. The financial support is gratefully
acknowledged.
REFERENCES
Abdullah, R. (2004). "Experimental evaluation and analytical
modeling of shear bond in composite slabs." PhD thesis
Submitted to Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State
University.
AISC360-10 (2010). "Specification for structural steel
buildings." American institute of steel construction,
Chicago, Illinois.
AS4100 (1998). "Australian standard AS4100-Steel structures,
Sydney, NSW 2001, Australia."
Bradford, M. A. (2012). "Numerical modelling of shear
connection in steel-concrete composite beams with
trapezoidal slabs." Australian Journal of Structural
Engineering, 12(3).
Carreira, D. J., and Chu, K.-H. (1985). "Stress-strain
relationship for plain concrete in compression." Journal of
ACI Structural, 82, 797-804.
Ernst, S., Bridge, R. Q., and Wheeler, A. (2010). "Correlation of
beam tests with pushout tests in steel-concrete composite
beams." Journal of Structural Engineering, ASCE, 136(2),
183-192.
Eurocode4 (2004). "Design of composite steel and concrete
structures, Part 1.1: General rules and rules for buildings."
BS EN 1994-1-1: 2004, British Standards Institution,
London, UK.
Hicks, S. J., and Smith, A. L. (2014). "Stud Shear Connectors in
Composite Beams that Support Slabs with Profiled Steel

37

11th International Conference on

Advances in Steel and Concrete Composite Structures
Tsinghua University, Beijing, China, December 3-5, 2015

BEHAVIOUR OF COMPOSITE FLOOR SLABS UNDER FIRE

CONDITIONS
M. M. Floridesa & K. A. Cashella
a

Department of Mechanical, Aerospace and Civil Engineering, Brunel University, London, UK

E-mails: Marios.Florides@brunel.ac.uk, Katherine.Cashell@brunel.ac.uk

Keywords:
Composite slabs; Fire;
Numerical modelling;Tensile
membrane action; BRE method.

ABSTRACT
This paper is concerned with the ultimate behaviour of composite floor slabs during fire
scenarios. Steel/concrete composite structures are increasingly common in the UK and
worldwide, particularly for multi-storey construction. The popularity of this construction form is
mainly due to the excellent efficiency offered in terms of structural behaviour, construction time
and material usage all of which are attractive given the ever-increasing demands for improved
sustainability in construction. In this context, the engineering research community has focused
considerable effort in recent years towards understanding the response of composite structures
during fires. In particular, the contribution made by the floor slab system is of crucial
importance as its ability to undergo secondary load-carrying mechanisms (e.g. membrane
action) once conventional strength limits have been reached may be the key to preventing
disproportionate collapse of the overall structure. Researchers have focused on developing the
fundamental understanding of the complex behaviour of floor slabs and also improving the
methods of analysis. Building on this work, the current paper describes the development and
validation of a finite element model which can simulate the response of floor slab systems until
failure, both at ambient and elevated temperature. The model can represent the complexities of
the behaviour including the temperature-dependent material and geometric nonlinearities. It is
first developed at ambient temperature and validated using a series of experiments on isolated
slab elements. The most salient parameters are identified and studied. Thereafter, the model is
extended to include the effects of elevated temperature and is employed to investigate the
behaviour under these conditions. Comparisons with current design procedures are assessed and
discussed.

experiments led to a surge in interest from the

engineering research community with work focused on
developing a greater understanding of the behaviour
through further experimental and numerical analysis.
The response of a slab during a fire is particularly
complex owing to the inter-related material and
geometric nonlinearities which develop with increasing
deflections and temperature. Although the slab exhibits
significantly lower bending capacity in a fire due to the
degradation of material strength and stiffness, the
development of tensile membrane action can lead to a
greater overall capacity than predicted by the design
codes (e.g. Eurocodes). However, before tensile
membrane action can be incorporated into design
standards, a detailed and fundamental assessment of the
behaviour of floor slab must be attained.
Towards this end, a limited number of experimental
programmes have studied the performance of isolated
slab elements both at ambient and elevated temperature

1 INTRODUCTION
Over the last number of years, the performance of
buildings with steel/concrete composite floors during fire
conditions has received increasing attention from the
structural engineering community e.g. Bailey (2004),
Cashell et al. (2011a, b). This mainly followed
observations during real building fires such as the
Broadgate and Basingstoke fires when buildings with
composite floors performed much better than expected
due to the ability of the slabs to survive and re-distribute
loads around the structure. Large-scale experiments were
conducted at Cardington (Martin & Moore 1999) to
investigate the behaviour under more controlled
conditions and it was observed that traditional
prescriptive design methods are overly conservative and
steel-framed buildings with composite floors inherently
possess sufficient ductility and resistance during extreme
loads to delay or even prevent failure. The Cardington

38

Florides & Cashell

(e.g. Bailey & Toh 2007). However, large-scale

experiments are prohibitively expensive and so a full
examination of the various parameters affecting the
behaviour is not feasible. Therefore, a number of
purpose built numerical models have been developed by
the research community to study the effects influencing
the response of structures and floor slabs (e.g. Izzuddin
1991, Huang et al. 2003) in particular under fire loading
scenarios. Although these models have led to
considerable advancement in the understanding of
structures in fire, they are often not suitable for design as
they can be computationally expensive and the scale of
the structures may be difficult to realistically represent.
Practical design guidance and software for steel framed
buildings with composite floor slabs in fire has been
proposed (e.g. Bailey & Moore 2000, Newman et al.
2000) to help engineers achieve safe and efficient
designs. However, several shortcomings of the BRE
method have been presented by various researchers (e.g.
Cashell et al. 2011, Burgess 2014) including a lack of
appropriate failure criteria and also a lack of consistency
in terms of the method providing a conservative or
unconservative assessment of the load carrying capacity,
depending on the aspect ratio of the slab.
The main focus in this paper is the response of
isolated simply-supported slab panels in both ambient
and elevated temperature conditions. This work is part of
a larger research programme which will investigate the
effects of various boundary and geometric properties and
also propose analytical solutions. Accordingly, the paper
proceeds with an overview of recent studies carried out
to examine the ultimate performance of floor slabs. A
finite model is developed using the ABAQUS software.
The model is first described for ambient conditions and
validated against a series of experiments on isolated
slabs. Subsequently, the results are compared with those
obtained utilising the finite element software VULCAN
and the BRE Method. This is an essential precursor to
further expansion of the model to incorporate the effects
of elevated temperature, such as those which occur
during a fire. The elevated temperature model is then
described and validated against data available in the
literature.

be used for this purpose and have been by other

researchers. However, ABAQUS was selected for this
project because great importance is given to being able to
readily compare results to those from other researchers
and, more importantly, developing models and
procedures which are not reliant on proprietary software.
The model represents the key components of a
composite floor such as the concrete slab and steel
reinforcement. The steel decking is not included in the
analysis because it was observed at Cardington that it debonded from the concrete slab at an early stage during
the fire tests and ceased contributing to the load-carrying
capacity of the slab (Bailey & Moore 2000).
The concrete slab panels are modelled using 3D solid
elements with reduced integration (C3D8R) from the
ABAQUS library. The model employs a mesh
comprising of 20mm cubic elements, based on a mesh
sensitivity assessment. Solid elements are employed
because although they are computationally expensive,
they better represent damage in the material and the
relationship between the concrete and the embedded
reinforcement at elevated temperature. The reinforcement
is modelled using linear 3D truss elements (T3D2) which
are embedded in the solid slab elements. Due to
symmetry, a quarter of the slab is modelled (Fig. 1). The
slab is simply supported and free to move both
rotationally and laterally at the supports. The loading
arrangement can be varied (e.g. uniformly distributed,
point loads, etc.) and the slabs are generally loaded in
displacement control. Although ABAQUS includes
several static analysis methods, in order to facilitate both
the ambient and elevated-temperature loading, a quasistatic dynamic, implicit analysis is employed.

Embedded
reinforcement

2 AMBIENT TEMPERATURE RESPONSE

Load points

Symmetry
planes

Figure 1. Assembly of the simulated slab model

2.1 Development of the numerical model

The concrete is represented using the concrete
damaged plasticity model which uses the concept of
isotropic damaged elasticity in combination with
isotropic tensile and compressive plasticity to represent
the inelastic behaviour of concrete, and a combination of

A finite element model (FEM) has been developed

using the commercially-available ABAQUS software,
(ABAQUS 2013) which is capable of achieving
numerical convergence despite the geometric and
material nonlinearities. Many different FE packages can

39

Florides & Cashell

multi-hardening plasticity and isotropic damaged

elasticity to describe the irreversible damage that occurs
during the fracturing process. The tension stiffening
property in this model is employed to simulate the bond
between the steel reinforcement and the surrounding
concrete in an indirect way. The stress-strain curves for
concrete at ambient temperatures are shown in Figure 2.
Under uniaxial compression, the response of concrete
is based on the equations given for non-linear analysis by
BS EN 1992-1-1 (2004) while in tension the relationship
specified in the CEB-FIP Model Code 90 (1990) is used.
More specifically, under compression the response is
linear until the proportional stress is reached
(approximately equal to 0.4fc, where fc is the concrete
compressive strength) and then irreversible damage is
included in the calculations.
Under tension, the stress-strain curve follows a linear
elastic relationship until the value of the maximum
tensile capacity (ft) after which there is a softening
response to compensate for the existence of the
embedded reinforcement and thus the bond between the
two materials. The CEB-FIP code recommends that a
stress-strain diagram should be used for uncracked
concrete and a stress-crack opening diagram for the
cracked section whereas ABAQUS requests the input of
a single curve. The stress-crack opening was converted to
the softening stress-strain part of the curve using the
fracture energy Gf (energy required to propagate a tensile
crack of unit area) divided by the crack band width
Baant (1983).

deformed bars spaced at 200mm centres) while A, B, C

and D signify various reinforcement arrangements used.
The table also includes information relating to the depth
of the slab H, the long and short spans L1 and L2,
respectively, and also 1 and 2, which are the
reinforcement ratios in the long and short spans. All of
these experiments have been modelled using the FEM
but owing to space limitations, one experiment (S-F60M6-A) is selected for detailed analysis of the loaddeflection and temperature-deflection performance (see
Section 3).

(a)

2.2 Validation of the numerical model at ambient

temperature
In this section, the FEM described above is calibrated
and validated using a series of ambient temperature tests
on isolated slab members with various geometric and
material properties. The experiments focused on lightly
reinforced concrete slab specimens with the main aim of
providing a greater insight into the large displacement
behaviour of floor slab systems. For brevity, only a brief
account of the tests will be given herein with a more
comprehensive description available elsewhere (Cashell
et al. 2011). Figure 3 shows the general geometry of the
two different types of specimens tested (aspect ratio of 1
and 1.5), while Table 1 provides the relevant geometric
and material properties for all slab specimens. The
reference system adopted in labelling each specimen is
kept the same as in the original work and is as follows:
the first parameter denotes a rectangular (R) or square (S)
slab; F40 and F60 represent the depth of the slab in mm;
the third parameter describes the reinforcement used (P6
for plain bars of 6mm diameter, D6 for deformed bars of
6mm diameter, D8 for deformed bars of 8mm diameter
and M6 for A142 welded mesh consisting of 6mm

(b)
Figure 2. Representation of the concrete characteristics in (a)
compression and (b) tension

Figure 3. Layout of the slab specimens

40

Florides & Cashell

Table 1 Properties of the slab tests (Cashell et al. 2011)

Model
L1 (mm)
L2 (mm)
R-F60-M6-A
2250
1500
R-F60-P6-A
2250
1500
S-F60-M6-A
1500
1500
R-F40-D6-B
2250
1500
R-F60-D6-C
2250
1500
R-F60-D6-A
2250
1500
S-F60-D6-A
1500
1500
S-F60-D6-D
1500
1500
S-F60-D8-D
1500
1500
S-F60-P6-A
1500
1500
R-F60-M6-A
2250
1500
R-F40-M6-B
2250
1500
R-F60-D8-A
2250
1500
R-F60-D8-C
2250
1500

H (mm)
60
60
60
40
60
60
60
60
60
60
60
40
60
60

Figure 4(a) shows the crack pattern for specimen SF60-M6-A whilst the FEM prediction for the same
specimen is given in Figure 4(b). Clearly, the model
depicts the development of conventional yield line cracks
as well as the additional cracks in the centre of the slab.
The experimental and numerical load-deflection response
for slab specimen S-F60-M6-A is given in Figure 5. Also
presented in the graph is the simulation from the BRE
analytical method as well as the prediction from another
commonly-used finite element model, VULCAN. The
BRE simplified design method estimates the loadcarrying capacity of a lightly reinforced concrete slab as
a function of the vertical displacement based on the inplane stresses (membrane action) in the slab. VULCAN,
on the other hand, is a finite element package which was
first developed at the University of Sheffield to model
the 3-dimensional nonlinear behaviour of composite
steel-framed buildings under fire conditions. It has been
extensively validated since its development and is used
herein to ratify the results obtained from the ABAQUS
FEM.
In the VULCAN model, a 9-noded quadrilateral plate
element (as shown in Fig. 6) is used to model the slab
specimens which can capture both the bending and
membrane effects. Each element is divided into 16 layers
of which 14 represent the concrete with the remainder
used for steel reinforcement. The configuration of the
model is an exact replicate of the experimental conditions
at ambient temperature. More advanced elements are
available in VULCAN which is capable of representing
the interaction between the steel reinforcement and
concrete but these are beyond the scope of the current
work and will be incorporated into future models.

Bar type
M6
P6
M6
D6
D6
D6
D6
D6
D8
P6
M6
M6
D8
D8

1 (%)
0.24
0.24
0.24
0.35
0.24
0.24
0.24
0.52
0.52
0.24
0.24
0.35
0.28
0.28

2 (%)
0.24
0.24
0.24
0.35
0.48
0.24
0.24
0.52
0.52
0.24
0.24
0.35
0.28
0.56

(a)

(b)
Figure 4. Cracking pattern for S-F60-M6-A (a) from the
experimental programme (Cashell et al. 2010) and (b) from
ABAQUS

41

Florides & Cashell

100

0.04

90

0.035

Load (kN)

0.03

Reinforcement Ultimate Strain

70

0.025

60
50

0.02

40

0.015

30

EXPERIMENTAL
ABAQUS
VULCAN
BRE
FEM Reinforcement Strain

20
10
0
0

10

20

30

40
50
Deflection (mm)

60

70

80

0.01

Reinforcement strain (%)

80

0.005
0
90

Figure 5. Load-displacement response of S-F60-M6-A (primary axis) and strain induced in the reinforcement along the formed yield line
for the corresponding vertical displacement (secondary axis)

Slab elements

A finer mesh at the interaction interface would reduce

this effect as the distortion of the contact elements would
be smaller. Nevertheless, the results obtained are reliable
with this level of noise.
The VULCAN model also provides a very good
representation of the nonlinear behaviour of the slabs
although only one slab is presented herein owing to space
limitations, the other slabs in this test programme have
also been studied and show similarly good results. The
BRE method provides a reasonable prediction of the
response at small deflections in ambient temperatures but
this prediction becomes less representative and overly
conservative at large deflections.
In terms of failure, the slab failed by fracturing of the
steel reinforcement across a localized through-depth
crack across the shorter span. The ultimate strain of the
steel reinforcement in the tests was found through tensile
testing to be 0.033%, as indicated in the Figure 5. Also
presented in the graph using the secondary y-axis is the
FEM prediction for the strain induced in the
reinforcement along the failure crack for the
corresponding vertical displacement of the slab. Clearly,
failure of the reinforcement is well predicted although it
is important to note that this prediction is very much
dependent on the depiction of bond strength in the model,
which is currently represented through the tension
stiffening property in the concrete damaged plasticity
model. In this respect, the experiments calibrate the
numerical model rather than validate the behaviour.

Slab nodes
Concrete
Reinforcement

Figure 6. 9-noded quadrilateral plate element employed for

analysis in VULCAN

The load-deflection response shown in Figure 5 for

the specimen S-F60-M6-A illustrates that the overall
behaviour of the slabs is well described by the FEM.
First cracking of the concrete, evidenced by the drop in
load at small levels of deflection, is well predicted.
Furthermore, yielding of the reinforcing steel is also well
simulated with reasonable accuracy until failure.
Discrepancies in the results are attributed to the effect
of the smeared cracked approach associated with the
concrete damaged plasticity model which is reliant on the
mesh size. Although the gross crack patterns remain the
same regardless of the mesh size, the load capacity is
inaccurate if the mesh density is relatively coarse. A
mesh sensitivity study has been completed in order to
calibrate the elements used in the current work. The local
fluctuations in the numerical results are a numerical issue
due to the simulation of the interaction between the rigid
elements (loading plates and base) and the concrete slab.

42

Florides & Cashell

3 ELEVATED TEMPERATURE RESPONSE

1000
900
800
700
600
500
400
300
200
100
0

Temprature (Co)

In this section, the ABAQUS FEM developed

previously for ambient temperature conditions is
extended to consider the effects of elevated temperature.

Top ABAQUS
Top VULCAN
Bottom ABAQUS
Bottom VULCAN
Reinforcement ABAQUS
Reinforcement VULCAN

3.1 Elevated temperature numerical model

The sequentially coupled thermal-stress analysis
procedure in ABAQUS/Explicit is used to represent the
slabs behaviour at elevated temperature. This approach
has been used by other researchers (e.g. Nguyen, T-T. et
al.
2015)
and
is
employed
because
the
stress/displacement solution is dependent on a
temperature field without any inverse dependency. The
sequentially coupled thermal-stress analysis is performed
by first performing a heat transfer analysis to obtain the
temperature distribution through the cross-section of the
slab and then reading these values into the stress analysis.
ABAQUS allows different meshes to be used
between the two stages of the analysis and so a finer
mesh was employed in the heat transfer stage,
particularly through the depth. This was to ensure that the
nodes at the reinforcement level in the stress analysis are
matched by the nodes at the same locations in the heat
transfer analysis and the temperature of the embedded
reinforcement is depicted accurately.
As in the ambient temperature model, the concrete is
depicted using the damaged plasticity model whilst the
reinforcement is modelled as an elastic/plastic material.
The material mechanical properties for both concrete and
the reinforcement at elevated temperatures are
represented using the material reduction factors and
properties specified in EN 1992-1-2.

2000
4000
Time (sec)

Figure 7. Temperatures at key layers for ABAQUS and

VULCAN stress analysis

Figure 8. Crack pattern for S-F60-M6-A after the elevated

temperature analysis

3.2 Results from the elevated temperature numerical

3.3 Validation of the elevated temperature numerical

model

model

The same slab previously modelled at ambient

temperature (i.e. S-F60-M6-A) is again presented in this
section to illustrate the results at elevated temperature. A
uniformly distributed load of 15kN/m2 was applied to the
concrete surface; this load level results in an elastic
response at ambient temperature (Fig. 5). The slab is then
subjected to the standard ISO 834 fire curve, as included
in BS EN 1991-1-2 (1991), for 90 minutes. The
temperature values for the top, bottom and reinforcement
layers are presented in Figure 7.
Figure 8 presents the crack pattern simulated by the
ABAQUS model. It is observed to be very similar to that
presented in Figure 4 for the same slab at ambient
temperature and also to the pattern predicted by yield line
theory. This indicates that a similar failure mechanism is
likely to occur both at ambient and elevated temperature.

In order to verify the results obtained from the

ABAQUS numerical model, a comparison of the
behaviour is made with the FE code VULCAN which has
been extensively validated for similar elevatedtemperature applications (e.g. Huang et al. 2004).
VULCAN considers the nonlinear elevated-temperature
material behaviour.
The model created in VULCAN has similar material
and loading properties to those in the ABAQUS model.
The slab shown in Figure 9 is simulated and meshed so
that the layers are compatible with the VULCAN layered
quadrilateral plate element. The heat transfer component
of the analysis is performed in ABAQUS because
VULCAN does not readily have this capability and then
the temperature values in the various layers are imported
into the VULCAN model.

43

Florides & Cashell

As before, during the heat transfer analysis, the slab

is subjected to the standard ISO 834 fire curve for 90
minutes. Assuming a linear distribution of temperature
along each layer of the VULCAN model, the nodal
temperatures from the ABAQUS heat transfer analysis
are used to calculate the average temperature in each
layer. The difference between the ABAQUS nodal
temperatures and the VULCAN average layer
temperatures reduces towards the unheated site of the
slab. Of particular interest is the temperature on the
reinforcement layer where the difference is insignificant.

Figure 10, the results demonstrate that the BRE

simplified design method is in good agreement at
elevated temperature and large deflection levels with the
response predicted by the two models, contrary to the
estimated response at ambient temperatures.

4 EFFECT OF TENSION STIFFENING/BOND

The model in ABAQUS is used to test a range of
salient factors that alter the response of the slab at
elevated temperatures, including the effect of the tension
stiffening property used in the concrete damage plasticity
model to simulate the bond, which will be discussed
herein. As evidenced by Cashell et al. (2010), bond is of
great importance in the evaluation of lightly reinforced
concrete members in large displacements, particularly
failure. The line labelled ABAQUS (TS) in Figure 10
illustrates the response of the same slab specimen with
altered tension stiffening concrete properties (tensile
strength of concrete remains the same). In this case the
crack band width used to transform the stress-crack
opening to stress-strain is smaller than that suggested by
Baant (1983) (wc=2da instead of 5da, where wc is the
width of the crack and da is the maximum aggregate size
equal to 10 mm for the tests presented in this paper).
A simple three-point bending experimental setup as
shown in Figure 11 has been created in ABAQUS to
investigate the effect of tension stiffening and highlight
its effect on bond simulation. Two sets of three simply
supported concrete elements with a single embedded
reinforcing bar are created. The reinforcement bar has a
different tension stiffening value for each set, related to
the crack band width, and each element within the set has
a different cover distance (either 20, 35 or 50 mm).

Figure 9. Heat transfer analysis model used to extract the

VULCAN temperatures

The graph in Figure 10 presents the results of the

ABAQUS and VULCAN models in solid black and grey
lines, respectively. It is observed the two approaches are
in reasonable agreement. Discrepancies between the two
models are most likely due to differences in the
development of cracks.

Reinf. temperature (Co)

600

500
400
300
ABAQUS (TS)
ABAQUS
VULCAN
BRE

200
100
0
0

20
40
Central displacement (mm)

60

Figure 10. Temperature-displacement response of S-F60-M6-A

Figure 11. Model created for the investigation of tension

stiffening in the concrete damage plasticity model

The BRE simplified design method has also been

used to analyse this slab at elevated temperatures and the
results compared to those from the ABAQUS and
VULCAN FE models, and these predictions are also
presented in Figure 10. This analytical method estimates
the load-carrying capacity of a lightly reinforced concrete
slab as a function of the vertical displacement based on
the in-plane stresses (membrane action) in the slab. By
incorporating the thermal effects on the material
properties in the equations the temperature-displacement
response of the slab can be extracted. As shown in

The results from the model show that the tension

stiffening property of concrete is affected by the position
of the reinforcement relative to the cracking face of the
concrete. The development of the crack is disrupted by
the embedded reinforcement (Baant 1985) and stress is
concentrated in the reinforcing bar at the position of the
crack. If the fracture energy is increased (i.e. smaller wc)
the strain in the reinforcement is less localised. To obtain
the results presented for S-F60-M6-A (Figs. 8 and 10) a
bilinear relationship is used to represent the post-

44

Florides & Cashell

cracking stress strain relationship; the values used in the

model were calibrated using the test results of Cashell et
al. (2010). It is possible to use a linear relationship postcracking instead with reduced ultimate strain values, as
shown in the descending branch in Figure 12. This model
can be used to simulate a range of bond conditions
accordingly through the slope of the descending branch.
A more detailed study into the effect that bond and
tensioning stiffening has on the behaviour is currently
underway and will be presented in future publications.

essential background to enable the development of more

performance-based design expressions.
REFERENCES
ABAQUS 2013. ABAQUS users manual Version 6.13-2.
Hibbitt, Karlsson & Sorensen, Inc, Rhode Island, USA.
Bailey, C.G. & Moore, D. 2000. The structural behaviour of
steel frames with composite floorslabs subject to fire. Pt. 1:
theory. The Structural Engineer.
Bailey, C.G. & Moore, D. 2000. The structural behaviour of
steel frames with composite floorslabs subject to fire. Pt. 2:
design. The Structural Engineer.
Bailey, C.G. 2004. Membrane action of slab/beam composite
floor systems in fire. Engineering Structures 26(12): 16911703.
Bailey, C.G. & Toh, W. 2007. Behaviour of concrete floor slabs
at ambient and elevated temperatures. Fire Safety Journal
42(6): 425-436.
Baant, Z.P., & Oh, B.H. 1983. Crack band theory for fracture
of concrete. Materials and Structures 16:155-177.
Baant, Z.P. 1985. Fracture in concrete and reinforced concrete.
Mechanics of Geomaterials.
Thomas Telford. 1991. Model Code for Concrete Structures
MC90. London: CEBFIP.
Burgess, I.W., Huang, S.S., & Staikova, S. 2014. A reexamination of the mechanics on tensile membrane action
in composite floor slabs in fire. 8th International
Conference on Structures in Fire, 2012.China.
Cashell, K.A., Elghazouli, A.Y., & Izzuddin, B.A. 2010.
Experimental and analytical assessment of ductility in
lightly reinforced concrete members. Engineering
Structures 32(9): 2729-2743.
Cashell, K.A., Elghazouli, A.Y., & Izzuddin, B.A. 2011.
Failure assessment of lightly reinforced floor slabs. I:
Experimental investigation. Journal of Structural
Engineering 137(9): 977-988.
Cashell, K.A., Elghazouli, A.Y., & Izzuddin, B.A. 2011. Failure
assessment of lightly reinforced floor slabs. II: analytical
studies. Journal of Structural Engineering 137(9): 9891001.
EN 1991-1-2. 2002. Eurocode 1: Actions on structuresPart 12: General actionsActions on structures exposed to fire.
UK :British Standards Institution.
EN 1992-1-2. 2004. Eurocode 2: Design of concrete structuresPart 1-2: General rules-Structural fire design. UK: British
Standards Institution.
Huang, Z., Burgess, I.W., & Plank, R.J. 2003. Modeling
membrane action of concrete slabs in composite buildings
in fire. I: Theoretical development. Journal of Structural
Engineering 129(8): 10931102.
Huang, Z., Burgess, I.W., Plank, R.J., & Bailey, C. 2004.
Comparison of BRE simple design method for composite
floor slabs in fire with nonlinear FE modelling. Fire and
Materials 28(24): 127-138.
Izzuddin, B.A. 1990. Nonlinear dynamic analysis of framed
structures PhD Thesis, Imperial College London.
Martin, D. & Moore, D. 1999. The behaviour of multi-storey
steel framed buildings in fire. UK :British Steel Plc.

Figure 12. Stress-strain diagrams assumed to assess the tensions

stiffening effect in the ABAQUS model.

5 CONCLUSIONS
This paper presents a numerical model using the
commercially-available ABAQUS software which is
capable of depicting the nonlinear response of steelconcrete composite slabs in fire conditions. The model
has been validated using the previously-validated
VULCAN software, and compared to the BRE simplified
design method for both ambient and elevated temperature.
Important parameters that influence the outcome of the
FEM have been identified and discussed where
appropriate. The work described in this paper is the first
step in a larger research programme and the future targets
include:
Expanding the model to include the influence of
neighbouring compartments on the overall behaviour
in fire;
Using the validated model to develop an
understanding of the most salient parameters such as
boundary conditions, continuity, bond strength and
various other material and geometric properties under
ambient and elevated temperatures on the overall
response; and
Proposing performance-based expressions which can
be used in design for the ultimate response of floor
slabs under fire conditions
The results of this investigation will offer detailed
insights into the key factors that govern the ultimate
behaviour of buildings with composite floor systems
under extreme loading conditions, and provide the

45

Florides & Cashell

Newman, G.M., Robinson J.T. & Bailey C.G. 2000. A New
Approach to Multi-Storey Steel-Framed Buildings. The
Steel Construction Institute, Ascot, UK.
Nguyen, T. T., Tan, K.H. & Burgess, I.W. 2015. Behaviour of
composite slab-beam systems at elevated temperatures:
Experimental and numerical investigation. Engineering
Structures 82: 199-213.

46

11th International Conference on

Advances in Steel and Concrete Composite Structures
Tsinghua University, Beijing, China, December 3-5, 2015

EXPERIMENTAL STUDY ON PREFABRICATED COMPOSITE

BOX GIRDER
W. S. Xiaoa, Y. Q. Liua, X. Q. Xua & C. B. Mab
a

Department of Civil Engineering, Tongji University, Shanghai, China

E-mails: 1310238@tongji.edu.cn, yql@tongji.edu.cn, xq.xu@foxmail.com
b

Xingtai Road & Bridge Construction Corporation, Hebei, China

E-mail: xtlqmcb@163.com
ABSTRACT
Keywords:
Composite box girder;
Corrugated steel web; Concrete
filled steel tube; Full-scale
model test; Loading capacity;
Mechanical behavior

This paper presents a type of prefabricated composite box girder with composite deck,
corrugated webs and concrete filled steel tube to reduce self-weight, overcome concrete
cracking on webs and shorten construction periods. In order to understand the mechanical
behavior and loading capacity of the composite girder, a full-scale model was loaded
monotonically to investigate the deflection and strain distribution during the whole loading
process. The experimental results show that the bending moment is resisted by the top deck and
bottom slab without considering the contribution of corrugated webs, and shear force is almost
resisted by corrugated webs. Longitudinal strains on the deck and slab agrees with the plain
section assumption except the strains on corrugated webs. The load at steel yielding is about
6.0 times to the design load, while the vertical deflection at steel yielding is about 9.0 times to
the deflection at design load. The composite girder has enough load carrying capacity and
ductility.

webs, concrete filled steel tube slab and diaphragms. All

these components are connected by welding as a whole
section, so that the shear connectors on corrugated webs
can be eliminated. Concrete is directly casted on the top
steel plate and combined by bent-up-bar connectors, no
formworks or supporting posts are necessary.
An experimental study was conducted to understand
the mechanical behavior and loading capacity of such type
of composite structure. A full-scale model of composite
box girder was loaded monotonically to failure and the
deflection, strain distribution and loading capacity during
the whole process was measured.

1 INTRODUCTION
Prefabricated composite box girder bridge has
advantages of less self-weight, shorter construction period
and more simplified construction progress (He et al. 2014).
Compared with reinforced concrete structures, corrugated
steel webs in the girder can overcome the problem of
excessive cracking on webs (Nakamura et al. 2002). Due
to the limit axial rigidity of corrugated webs, buckling
instability on webs can be prevented and excessive
stiffeners can be ignored (Cheyrezy & Combault 1990).
In 1986, the first bridge using corrugated webs was the
Cognac Bridge, built in France. Such structure inspired a
number of experimental and numerical researches to
investigate the flexural behavior (Mo et al. 2003), shear
behavior (Sause & Braxtan 2011), torsional behavior (Mo
& Fan 2006) and other behaviors (He et al. 2012). But it
is difficult to cast the concrete on joint sections between
webs and deck (or slab). Also, using formworks to
construct the deck or slab leads to longer construction
periods.
Therefore this paper presents a type of prefabricated
composite box girder with composite deck, corrugated

2 STRUCTURE PRESENTATION
This type of bridge is made up of four composite box
girders, and each girder is connected by diaphragms, as
shown in Fig.1 (a). The total length, width and diaphragm
spacing of the bridge are 18 m, 7.4 m and 3 m respectively,
as shown in Fig.1 (b). The design load grade is determined
according to the Chinese specification JTG D62-2004
(Ministry of communication of China. 2004) as two-lane
road.

47

Xiao et al.

Composite deck

Concrete filled steel tube

Top steel plate

Diaphragm
Corrugated steel web

(a) Structure of prefabricated composite box girder bridge

Reinforced bar
Bend-up-bar connector

(b) Elevation view and cross-section view

(c) Arrangement of reinforced bars and bent-up-bar

connectors at top steel plate

Steel tube

Truss-bar connector

(d) Steel tube and truss-bar connectors

(e) Bridge application

Fig.1 Composite box girder bridge with corrugated webs and concrete filled steel tube slab, cm

The girder is composed of top composite deck,

corrugated webs and concrete-filled steel tube slab. While
the width and thickness of the composite deck are 1.76 m
and 0.1 m respectively, concrete is casted on top steel
plates, these two components are connected by bend-upbar connectors, and one layer of reinforcing bars with
diameter of 10 mm and spacing of 100 mm are embedded
in the concrete deck, as shown in Fig.1 (b) and (c). The
width and thickness of concrete-filled steel tube slab are
0.85 m and 0.15 m respectively. Self-compacting concrete
is filled into steel tube slabs. Truss-bar connectors are used
in the bottom slab to connect the concrete and steel tube,
such connectors also have the function of avoiding
deformation when steel tubes were fabricated, as shown in
Fig.1 (d). Corrugated steel plates are used for the webs, the
unit wavelength is 1000 mm. The thickness of all the steel

plates is 6 mm. The practical application of the composite

box girder bridge is shown in Fig.1 (e).

3 EXPERIMENTAL PROGRAM
3.1 Test specimen
A full-scale girder was prepared and tested to
investigate the mechanical behavior and loading carrying
capacity, as shown in Fig.2. The length and height of the
specimen were 18 m and 1.2 m respectively. The width and
thickness of the composite deck were 1.76 m and 0.1 m
respectively. The wavelength of web plates was 1000 mm,
the width of horizontal plate was 340 mm, the projected
width of inclined plate was 160 mm. The thickness of all
steel plates was 6 mm.

48

Xiao et al.

Fig.2 Section size of test specimen, cm

by the bearings, and the partially-uniform distributed load

was applied on the deck using steel blocks, as shown in
Fig.3. Each steel block had the length of 9.3 m and weight
of 16.4 kN. The steel blocks were piled up in two zones
along the axial direction, the distance between two
adjacent zones was 60 cm. In order to reduce the local
deformation generated by steel blocks, sand cushion with
the thickness about 20cm was put on the deck before steel
blocks were piled up. Preloading was applied to check the
reliability of supports and test equipment. Six pairs of
lateral supports were installed to prevent the test specimen
falling down. After the stage of steel tube yielding, the
loading test was stopped when the abnormal deformation
appeared.

3.2 Material properties

The average compressive strength, tensile strength and
Youngs modulus of concrete cube specimens at 28 days
after casting were 39.1 MPa, 2.5 MPa and 3.3104 MPa
respectively. The steel components were made of
weathering steel with yielding stress of 410 MPa and
ultimate stress of 540 MPa. Reinforcements adopted with
nominal yielding stress of 335 MPa. The Youngs
modulus and shear modulus of steel components were
2.1105 MPa and 8.1104 MPa respectively.

3.3 Test method

The tested composite box girder was simply supported

Fig.3 Test set-up and loading procedure, cm

(Sec.3 and 6). In additional, LVDTs were installed at the

end section (Sec.1 and 8) to measure the slip between the
top steel plate and concrete deck. At critical sections
(Sec.2 to 7), the strains were measured using 50mm
electrical gauges for the concrete and 5mm electrical
gauges for the steel plate. Strain rosettes were installed on
steel web (Sec 1, 2, 4, 7, 8) to obtain the shear strain, the
arrangement of strain gauges is shown in Fig.4 (c).

The position and test contents of measure points are

shown in Fig.4. There were eight test sections distributing
in the supporting section, 1/4 span and mid-span of the
girder, as shown in Fig.4 (a). Displacement transducers
LVDTs (Linear Variable Differential Transformer) were
used to measure the vertical deflection at Sec.1 to 8, as
shown in Fig.4 (b). LVDTs were also installed to measure
the transverse displacements on the steel web at the
supporting section (Sec.2 and 7) and 1/4 span section

49

Xiao et al.

(a) Positions of test sections

(b) Measure points of vertical and transverse displacements

(c) Measure points of longitudinal and shear strains

Fig.4 Test instruments of composite girder, cm

4 EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS
4.1 Load-displacement relationship
The relationships between load and vertical
displacement at the supporting section (Sec.2), 1/4 span
section (Sec.3) and mid-span section (Sec.4) are shown in
Fig.5. The load is the self-weight of steel blocks applied
on the deck of the girder. It can be found that the concrete
in the steel tube cracked at the load about 259.6 kN, the
flexural rigidity of the girder reduced so that the vertical
displacement increased more rapidly after the cracking
load, as shown in Fig.5 (a). After that, the deflection
increased almost linearly with the applied load at the
elastic stage. In addition, the deflection variation along the
longitudinal direction under different loading levels is
presented in Fig.5 (b), the deflection increased with the
load and distributed symmetrically with respect to middle
span. When the load grew to 2063.6 kN, the steel tube
yielded at the mid-span section, vertical deflections
increased dramatically.

(a) Relations between load and vertical displacements

50

Xiao et al.

(b) Deflections of along longitudinal direction of composite

girder
Fig.5 Relations between load and deformation

(a) Load-strain curves on steel tube

The relative slip between concrete deck and top steel

plate at the end section (Sec.1 and 8) was obtained through
the LTVDs, as shown in Fig.6. The maximum slip at the
ultimate load was about 0.07 mm which denoted that
concrete deck fully connected with the top steel plate by
bent-up-bar connectors.

(b) Load-strain curves on concrete deck

Fig.6 Relations between load and slip at end sections

4.2 Strain results

4.2.1 Flexural strain

(c) Longitudinal strain distribution

Fig.7 Longitudinal strains on steel tube and concrete deck

The load-strain curves of the steel tube and composite

deck are shown in Fig.7. Due to the limit axial rigidity of
webs, almost all the bending moments were resisted by the
slab and deck. The relationships between load and
longitudinal strains of steel tube at mid-span and 1/4 span
are shown in Fig.7 (a), the positive value of abscissa
means tensile strain. At the load about 259.6 kN, the
concrete strain in the steel tube reached the ultimate
tensile value, and the turning point of load-strain curve
appeared. The flexural contribution of concrete in tension
was ignored and strains of steel tube increased more
rapidly after concrete cracking.

The longitudinal strains on the concrete surface of

composite deck at middle-span section (Sec.4) are shown
in Fig.7 (b), and the negative value of abscissa means
compressive strain. The longitudinal strains increased
almost linearly with the applied load. The distribution of
longitudinal strains on the mid-span concrete surface in
transverse direction is shown in Fig.7 (c). Although the
load was not applied absolute symmetrically on the deck,
it can be still found that the minimum longitudinal strain
appeared on the center of the concrete deck in transverse
direction, and the larger strain appeared at the connecting
area between corrugated steel webs and composite deck,
the shear lag effect shew up during the loading process.
The longitudinal strains at section 4 were depicted
along the height of the girder, as shown in Fig.8. It can be
found that longitudinal strains on the corrugated webs
were very small even after the yielding of bottom steel
tube. Therefore, flexural strength was provided by the top
deck and bottom slab with almost no contribution from the

51

Xiao et al.

gauge Y2-9 was failed at the load about 1693.5 kN. Shear
stresses were in linear proportion to the applied load, and
distributed almost uniformly along the height of web. The
maximum shear stress of the web was 35.1 MPa, much
less than the yielding one, which indicated that the
corrugated web was still in elastic stage at the ultimate
state of the test. Most of the shear force was resisted by
corrugated webs at each test section.

webs. In addition, longitudinal strains on the deck and slab

almost distributed in a straight line and agreed with the
plain section assumption (only slab and deck without
corrugated webs in section).

Fig.8 Longitudinal strains distribution along height at section 4

When the load increased from the concrete cracking

load (259.6 kN) to the steel yield load (1970.3 kN), the
link lines of longitudinal strains along the height of the
girder under different load values almost intersect at the
same point, the height of neutral axis remained essentially
constant. When the load increased from 1970.3 kN to
2096.4 kN, the vertical deformation at mid-span section
became abnormal, the loading test was stopped with
regard to the test specimen entering the ultimate stage, and
the failure mode was similar with that of proper reinforced
concrete beam. Before the steel tube yielded, there was no
local failure occurred on all the components of the test
specimen.

Fig.9 Shear stress on corrugated steel web

4.3 Force state of composite box girder under different

loading values
Table 1 lists the test results of load carrying capacity
and related stress level under different stages, where F is
the load value, M, Z, c and s are the bending moment,
vertical displacement, longitudinal strain of concrete and
steel plates at the mid-span section respectively, is the
shear stress at the supporting section. In the table, the
design load is determined according to the Chinese
specification JTG D62-2004 with the bending moment of
734.6 kNm at the mid-span section; while the
serviceability state is defined as the maximum vertical
deflection reaches to L/600 (30 mm), where L is the span
of the girder. It can be found that the cracking load is less
than the design load, which means the structure works
under the situation of the concrete slab cracking in the
steel tube, and the bending contribution of the concrete
slab should be ignored. The vertical deflection increased
abnormally at the load about 2096.4 kN, the loading test
was stopped and this load was determined as the ultimate
load. Moreover, after final stage of loading, all the steel
blocks were removed, it was found that no visible concrete
cracking or crushing on the top deck.

4.2.2 Shear strain

The shear strain () and shear stress () on the
corrugated steel webs at the supporting section (Sec.2) are
obtained according to the measurement by strain rosettes,
as follows:

x y 2 45

(1)

(2)

Where x, y, 45 are the longitudinal, vertical and

inclined strain respectively, G is the shear modulus of steel
plates.
The shear stress of corrugated webs at the support
section (Sec.2) was shown in Fig.9. It should be noted that

Table 1. Test results at different loading stages

Stage
Concrete cracking

F / kN
259.6

M / kN m
572.4

z / mm
4.7

c / MPa
2.0

s / MPa
23.0

/ MPa
3.6

Design load

327.1

734.6

7.7

3.0

31.0

13.7

Serviceability state

1047.6

2308.2

30.0

6.7

143.2

18.2

Steel Yielding

1970.3

4343.9

69.0

15.2

410.0

33.4

Ultimate state

2096.4

4630.5

76.7

16.2

410.0

35.1

52

Xiao et al.
steel tube slab. Structural Engineering and Mechanics,
50(4), 501-524
Ministry of communication of China. (2004). Code for design of
highway reinforced concrete and prestressed concrete
bridges
and
culverts-JTG
D62-2004.
China
Communications Press, Beijing. (in Chinese)
Mo, Y.L., Jeng, C.H., and Krawinkler, H. (2003). Experimental
and analytical studies of innovative prestressed concrete
box-girder bridges. Materials and Structures, 36(2), 99-107
Mo, Y.L., Fan, Y. (2006). Torsional design of hybrid concrete
box girders. Journal of Bridge Engineering, ASCE, 11(3),
329-339
Nakamura, S., Momiyama, Y., Hosaka, T., and Homma, K.
(2002). New technologies of steel/concrete composite
bridges. Journal of Construction Steel Research, 58(1), 99130
Sause, R., and Braxtan, T.N. (2011). Shear strength of
trapezoidal corrugated steel webs. Journal of Construction
Steel Research, 67(2), 223-236

According to table 1, the longitudinal stress of steel

tube, concrete deck and shear stress of steel web are much
less than the allowable values at the design load and
serviceability state. And the load at steel yielding is about
6.0 and 1.9 times to the design load and serviceability load
respectively, while the deflection at steel yielding is about
9.0 and 2.3 times to the vertical deflection at design load
and serviceability state respectively. From the
experimental results, it was confirmed that the composite
girder with corrugated steel webs has enough load
carrying capacity and ductility.

5 CONCLUSION
(1) The experimental results show that the flexural
strength was resisted by the top deck and bottom slab
without considering the contribution of corrugated web,
but the shear force was almost resisted by corrugated web.
Longitudinal strains on the deck and slab almost
distributed in a straight line, and agreed with the plain
section assumption without strains on corrugated webs.
(2) The shear stress on the corrugated web increased
linearly with the applied load and distributed uniformly
along the height of steel web. The web was still in elastic
stage at the ultimate state.
(3) The load at steel yielding is about 6.0 and 1.9 times
to the design load and serviceability load, while the
vertical deflection at steel yielding is about 9.0 and 2.3
times to that at design load and serviceability state
respectively. It is confirmed that the composite girder has
enough loading capacity and ductility.
(4) The maximum slip between the concrete deck and
top steel plate was 0.07mm, and it reveals that the concrete
deck fully connected with the top steel plate by bent-upbar connectors.
(5) The composite box girder went through three
stages of bottom concrete slab cracking, steel tube
yielding and full plasticity of the mid-span section during
the whole loading process, and the height of neutral axis
remained essentially constant. After the ultimate stage, all
the steel blocks were removed, no visible concrete
cracking or crushing was found on the top composite deck,
and there was no local failure occurred on all the
components during the whole loading process.
REFERENCES
Cheyrezy, M., and Combault, J. (1990). Composite Bridges
with Corrugated Steel Webs- Achievements and Prospects.
Proceedings, IABSE Symposium, Brussels, Mixed Structures
and New Materials, 479-484
He, J., Liu, Y., Chen, A., and Yoda, T. (2012). Mechanical
behavior and analysis of composite bridges with corrugated
steel webs: State-of-the-art. International Journal of Steel
Structures, 12(3), 321-338
He, J., Liu, Y., Xu, X., and Li, L. (2014). Loading capacity
evaluation of composite box girder with corrugated webs and

53

11th International Conference on

Advances in Steel and Concrete Composite Structures
Tsinghua University, Beijing, China, December 3-5, 2015

NON-LINEAR ANALYSIS OF MULTI-SPAN COMPOSITE BEAMS

UNDER COMBINED FLEXURE AND TORSION
H. Bana, E.L. Tanb & B. Uyc
a

Department of Civil Engineering, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China

E-mail: banhy@tsinghua.edu.cn

School of Computing, Engineering and Mathematics, University of Western Sydney, Penrith, NSW 2751, Australia
E-mail: E.Tan@uws.edu.au
c

Centre for Infrastructure Engineering and Safety, School of Civil and Environmental Engineering, The University of
New South Wales, Sydney, NSW 2052, Australia
E-mail: b.uy@unsw.edu.au
ABSTRACT

Keywords:
Composite beams;
Multi-span; Finite element
analysis; Ultimate strength in
pure torsion; Flexure-torsion
interaction.

Multi-span steel-concrete composite beams fabricated from two steel joists and one concrete
slab are widely utilised in bridges and highway interchanges, and are commonly subjected to
combined actions of flexure and torsion. However, few national standards involve such loading
combinations for the design of composite beams, and little research reported in the literature
concerns the multi-span composite beams. With the aim of understanding the strength
characteristics of such members subjected to combined flexure and torsion, a three-dimensional
finite element (FE) model is introduced herein, and is calibrated against experimental results in
terms of the loading capacities, the ultimate strength in torsion as well as the load-deformation
response. A large number of parametric analyses are subsequently presented by using the FE
model, and the effects of various parameters relating to the degree of shear connection, material
strengths, stirrups and geometries are elucidated. Based on the non-linear analysis results, the
degree of shear interaction, the spacing of the joists and the span-to-depth ratio are found to be
influential in the ultimate strength in pure torsion of multi-span composite beams, in addition to
the well-known parameters relating to the plain concrete and stirrups. Regarding the
flexure-torsion interaction relation, the torsional and bending strengths are decreased within the
presence of combine flexure and torsion, respectively. Furthermore, the interaction is generally
consistent with varying parameters being incorporated. In accordance with a review of previous
methodologies reported in the literature and the non-linear analysis results, practical design
guidance and equations are developed for evaluating the torsional strength and the
flexure-torsion interaction relation.

of Steel Construction 2010) and Chinas Code (MCPRC

2006) for composite construction.
Little research is reported in the literature regarding
performance of the multi-span composite beams under
combined flexure and torsion, and most of the previous
investigations were focused on conventional composite
beams with one steel joist, including their torsional
resistance and flexure-torsion interaction response.
Extensive investigations including analytical analyses
(McManus & Culver 1969), experimental studies on
curved (Colville 1973, Thevendran et al. 2000, Tan & Uy
2009b) and straight (Heins & Kuo 1972, Singh & Mallick
1977, Nie et al. 2000, Tan & Uy 2009a) composite
beams, as well as numerical modelling (Nie et al. 2009,
Tan & Uy 2011) were undertaken. The only research
work on the behaviour of multi-span composite beams

1 INTRODUCTION
Steel-concrete composite beams have been
increasingly applied in building and bridge structures as
they may combine the benefits of both the steel material
in tension and the concrete in compression. In bridge and
highway
interchanges,
multi-span
steel-concrete
composite beams consisting of two steel joists and one
concrete slab are one of the most common paradigms,
and they are normally subjected to combined loading
actions of flexure and torsion. However, few national
standards involve such loading combinations for practical
design, including the Australian Standard (Standards
Australia 2003), Eurocode 4 (EC4) (British Standards
Institution 2004b), British Standard (British Standards
Institution 1990), American Code (American Institution

54

Ban et al.

torsion-dominated mode, with diagonal cracks being

observed. In addition, load versus deflection responses of
the specimens were also investigated.
Table 1 lists loading capacities of all the eight
specimens.

subjected to combined flexure and torsion reported in the

literature seems to be that by Tan et al. (2013).
Given lack of research outcomes on the non-linear
performance and strength characteristics of the
multi-span composite beams under combined flexure and
torsion, a three-dimensional finite element (FE) model is
developed herein and an extensive range of parametric
analyses are undertaken, which provide important bases
for proposing design guidance.

Table 1. Loading capacities of beam specimens.

Specimen
Pu (kN)
Mu (kN)
Tu (kN)
MCBF1
646.30
428.17
/
MCBF2
596.57
395.23
39.52
MCBF3
522.45
346.12
51.92
MCBF4
415.44
275.23
55.05
MCBP1
591.49
391.86
/
MCBP2
576.54
381.96
38.20
MCBP3
512.04
339.23
50.88
MCBP4
372.5
246.78
49.36

2 EXPERIMENTAL STUDY
The afore-mentioned literature review indicates that
the only research work on the multi-span composite
beams subjected to combined flexure and torsion is that
by Tan et al. (2013), which served as an essential basis
for calibrating the FE model developed in this paper.
Eight multi-span steel-concrete composite beams with
various degrees of combination of flexure and torsion
were tested, and both partial and full shear connections
were incorporated (Tan et al. 2013). The eight specimens
possessed identical cross-sectional geometries and
simply-supported span. Separate push-out testes were
undertaken to quantify the shear performance of shear
connectors utilised in the beam tests.
Figure 1 shows two typical beam test setups.

3.1 Finite element model

(a)

Figure 2. Typical FE mesh of a multi-span composite beam.

(b)
Figure 1. Typical multi-span beam test setup. (a) Under pure
bending; (b) Under combined flexure and torsion.

The steel joist was meshed by using shell element

S4R, and the concrete slab was meshed by solid element
C3D8 with T3D2 truss elements being embedded in for
simulating reinforcement. Mechanical connectors at the
interface between the top flange of the steel joist and the
concrete slab soffit were modelled by utilising connector
element CONN3D2, and a hard contact pair was defined
at the interface.
With respect to material models adopted in the FE
model, the steel of the joists was modelled through a
multi-linear stress-strain relation, and that of the
reinforcement through an elastic perfectly-plastic model.
Both the material models may be defined through
keywords *ELASTIC and *PLASTIC in ABAQUS. The
concrete material was modelled by employing a concrete
damaged plasticity model, in which the non-linear
stress-strain relation in compression was determined in
accordance with Eurocode 2 (EC2) (British Standards
Institution 2004a) and the behaviour in tension was

3 FINITE ELEMEINT MODELLING

With the aim of clarifying the strength characteristics
of the multi-span steel-concrete composite beams under
combined flexure and torsion, a three-dimensional FE
model was developed by ABAQUS. A typical FE mesh is
shown in Figure 2.

Based on the test results, two failure modes including

flexure-dominated or torsion-dominated modes were
observed. Cracking and crushing patterns within the
concrete slab were also analysed. The beam specimens
under pure flexure or combined high flexure and low
torsion mainly failed by crushing of the concrete which is
flexure-dominated, whilst the beam specimens subjected
to combined low flexure and high torsion failed in a

55

Ban et al.

the FE modelling analyses. The FE modelling results

were 1.5% lower than the test results on average, with a
standard deviation of 5.9%.

expressed as a cracking-displacement based curve

(Gopalaratnam & Shah 1985). Keywords *CONCRETE
COMPRESSION HARDENING and *CONCRETE
TENSION STIFFENING in ABAQUS were utilised for
defining parameters of the concrete damaged plasticity
model.

3.2 Validation of FE model

Behaviour of all the eight multi-span composite
beams was modelled through the FE model, and the FE
modelling results were compared with the test results.
Figure 3 illustrates typical comparisons of the
load-deflection responses between the FE modelling
results and the test results. Good consistency is indicated
for both the peak load and the initial stiffness.

Figure 5. Comparison between FEA results and test results for

loading capacities.

Based on the afore-mentioned comparisons, it is

demonstrated that the FE model developed herein is
validated against the test results and may be utilised for
further parametric analyses.

4 PARAMETRIC STUDIES
4.1 Parameters
To fully understand the strength characteristics of the
multi-span steel-concrete composite beams, an extensive
body of parametric studies was conducted by utilising the
validated FE model, with a large number of parameters
being incorporated.
Both full and partial shear connections were involved
in the parametric analyses, with three degree values of
0.5, 1.0 and 1.5 being considered. Normal strength steel
(350 MPa) and concrete (32 MPa) as well as
high-strength materials (690 MPa and 65 MPa for steel
and concrete, respectively) were utilised. Four values of
stirrup ratio between the cross-sectional area of one leg of
the stirrup and its spacing were considered, ranging from
0.16 to 0.64. Two cross-sectional geometries were
modelled, with two universal beams 200 UB 29.8 and
460 UB 76.4 being adopted. Spacing of the two joists
ranged from 400 mm to 600mm, and span-to-depth ratio
was between 15 and 25. In addition, eight values of
moment-to-torsion ratios ranging from 0 to + were
involved for simulating various loading conditions
including pure flexure, combined flexure and torsion, and
pure torsion.
Totally 96 multi-span composite beams with varying
parameters were modelled herein, and all were
simply-supported and the beam ends were both restrained
from twisting.

(a)

(b)
Figure 3. Typical comparison between FEA results and test
results for load versus mid-span deflection responses. (a) Full
shear connection; (b) Partial shear connection.

Figure 4 shows a typical comparison for the torsion

versus twist response, from which good agreement can be
seen.

4.2 Torsional strength

Due to lack of knowledge for quantifying the
torsional strength of the multi-span composite beams
subjected to pure torsion, the parametric analyses results
herein for the torsional strength were compared with
predictions obtained in accordance with previous research

Figure 4. Typical comparison between FEA results and test

results for torsion versus twist deflection responses.

Figure 5 summarises the loading capacities of all the

eight beam specimens obtained from both the tests and

56

Ban et al.

curve proposed by Colville (1973), which was suggested

for practical design of the multi-span composite beams.

findings for composite beams with only one steel joist.

The research findings included the Rauschs Space Truss
Analogy (STA) (Rausch 1929), Cowans Efficiency
Coefficient (CEC) (Cowan 1950), Hsu (1968) theory
based on PCA tests (PCA), Skew-Bending Theory (SBT)
(Hsu 1979), Hsu more recent theory (Hsu) introduced by
Ray and Mallick (1980), and the theory (NIE) developed
by Nie et al. (2009).
Figure 6 illustrates a comparison of the torsional
strength between the parametric analyses results and the
predictions of the afore-mentioned research findings.

Figure 6. Comparison between parametric analyses results and

predictions of previous theories for torsional strength.

Figure 7. Comparison between parametric analyses results and

flexure-torsion interaction relations. (a) Comparison with
existing relations; (b) Comparsion with proposed relation.

Based on Figure 6, it can be seen that the predictions

from theories SBT, PCA and STA are the lowest, and that
from approaches CEC and Hsu are medium, whilst the
theory NIE produces the highest results, which are closest
to the parametric analyses results. Furthermore, the
torsional strength of the multi-span composite beams was
demonstrated to be sensitive to the degree of shear
connection, the spacing of the two joists and the
span-to-depth ratio, which were not considered in the
previous theories. Despite this, the equations developed
by Nie et al. (2009) may give satisfactory predictions of
the torsional strength of the multi-span composite beams
under pure torsion, which was therefore suggested in the
practical design of such member.

To develop a more accurate flexure-torsion interaction

relation for such beams, a new equation (Eq. 1) was
proposed through non-linear fitting of the parametric
analyses results:
1

M u Tu

M u0 Tu0

3.5

1,

(1)

and a comparison of the FE modelling results with the

proposed relation curve is shown in Figure 7(b).

5 CONCLUSIONS

4.3 Flexure-torsion interaction

Based on the non-linear analyses on the strength

characteristics of the multi-span composite beams under
combined flexure and torsion, some conclusions can be
made:
The three-dimensional FE model developed in this
research is demonstrated to be adequate for modelling
the behavior of the multi-span composite beams
subjected to combined flexure and torsion, including
the loading capacities and deflection responses.
Compared with conventional composite beams with
only one steel joist, the torsional strength of the
multi-span composite beams is sensitive to some new
parameters, such as the degree of shear connection,
the spacing of the two joists and the span-to-depth
ratio. The theory developed by Nie et al. (2009) may
generally produce satisfactory results for such beams
in a practical range.

The parametric analyses results were compared with

previous interaction relations in a flexure-torsion
diagram, including that proposed by Colville (1973),
Singh & Mallick (1977), Ghosh & Mallick (1979), Ray &
Mallick (1980) and Nie et al. (2000, 2009), as shown in
Figure 7(a).
From Figure 7(a) it can be found that the
flexure-torsion interaction of the multi-span composite
beam is insensitive to the parameters considered herein,
and no increase in the torsional strength is observed with
the presence of the combined flexure, which is quite
different from that of composite beams with one steel
joist. One of possible reasons for this is that the
multi-span composite beams possess better integration of
the cross-section when they are subjected to torsion. The
parametric analyses results are close to the lower bound

57

Ban et al.

Contrast with conventional composite beams, there is

no increase in the torsion strength with the presence
of combined flexure for the multi-span composite
beams, and their flexure-torsion interaction is
insensitive to the parameters considered herein.
The lower bound curve is suggested to design the
flexure-torsion interaction of such beams, and another
more accurate curve is also proposed.

combined flexure and torsion. Indian Concrete Journal

51(1): 24-30.
Standards Australia (AS) 2003. AS 2327.1-2003 Composite
structures Part 1: Simply supported beams. Sydney: AS.
Tan, E.L. & Uy, B. 2009a. Experimental study on straight
composite beams subjected to combined flexure and torsion.
Journal of Constructional Steel Research 65: 784-793.
Tan, E.L. & Uy, B. 2009b. Experimental study on curved
composite beams subjected to combined flexure and torsion.
Journal of Constructional Steel Research 65: 1855-1863.
Tan, E.L. & Uy, B. 2011. Nonlinear analysis of composite
beams subjected to combined flexure and torsion. Journal of
Constructional Steel Research 67: 790-799.
Tan, E.L., Uy, B. & Hummam, G. 2013. Behaviour of
multi-span composite steel-concrete beams subjected to
combined flexure and torsion. In Zingoni, A.: Research and
Applications in Structural Engineering, Mechanics and
Computation - Proceedings of the Fifth International
Conference on Structural Engineering, Mechanics and
Computation, SEMC 2013. London.
Thevendran, V., Chen, S., Shanmugam, N.E. & Liew, J.Y.R.
2000. Experimental study on steel-concrete composite
beams curved in plan. Engineering Structures 22(8):
877-889.

REFERENCES
American Institution of Steel Construction (AISC) 2010.
ANSI/AISC 360-10. Specification for Structural Steel
Buildings. Chicago: AISC.
British Standards Institution (BSI) 1990. BS 5950-3.1: 1990
Structural Use of Steelwork in Building - Part 3: Design in
composite construction - Section 3.1 Code of practice for
design of simple and continuous composite beams. London:
BSI.
British Standards Institution (BSI) 2004a. BS EN 1992-1-1:
2004 Eurocode 2: Design of Concrete Structures Part 1-1:
General rules and rules for buildings. London: BSI.
British Standards Institution (BSI) 2004b. BS EN 1994-1-1:
2004 Eurocode 4: Design of Composite Steel and Concrete
Structures Part 1-1: General rules and rules for buildings.
London: BSI.
Colville, J. 1973. Tests of curved steel-concrete composite
beams. Journal of the Structural Division 99(7): 1555-1570.
Cowan, H.J. 1950. An elastic theory for torsional strength of
rectangular reinforced concrete beams. Magazine of
Concrete Research 2(4): 3-8.
Ghosh, B. & Mallick, S.K. 1979. Strength of steel-concrete
composite beams under combined flexure and torsion.
Indian Concrete Journal 53(2):48-53.
Gopalaratnam, V.S. & Shah, S.P. 1985. Softening response of
plain concrete in direct tension. Journal of the American
Concrete Institute 82(3): 310-323.
Heins, C.P. & Kuo, J.T.C. 1972. Composite beams in torsion.
Journal of the Structural Division 98(5): 1105-1117.
Hsu, T.T.C. 1968. Ultimate torque of reinforced rectangular
beams. Journal of the Structural Division 94(2): 485-510.
Hsu, T.T.C. 1979. Discussion of "Pure torsion in rectangular
sections- A re-examination" by McMullen AE and Rangan
BV. Journal of the American Concrete Institute 76(6):
741-746.
McManus, P.F. & Culver, C.G. 1969. Nonuniform torsion of
composite beams. Journal of the Structural Division 95(6):
1233-1256.
Ministry of Construction of the Peoples Republic of China
(MCPRC) 2006. GB 50017-2003 Code for design of steel
structures. Beijing: China Architecture & Building Press.
Nie, J., Luo, L. & Hu. S. 2000. Experimental study on
composite steel-concrete beams under combined bending
and torsion. Composite and Hybrid Structures 2: 631-638.
Nie, J., Tang, L., Cai, C.S. 2009. Performance of steel-concrete
composite beams under combined bending and torsion.
Journal of Structural Engineering 135(9): 1048-1057.
Rausch, E. 1929. Design of Reinforced Concrete in Torsion.
Ph.D. Thesis, Berlin: Technische Hochschule (in German).
Ray, M.B. & Mallick, S.K. 1980. Interaction of flexure and
torsion in steelconcrete composite beams. Indian Concrete
Journal 54(3): 80-83.
Singh, R.K. & Mallick, S.K. 1977. Experiments on
steel-concrete composite beams subjected to torsion and

58

11th International Conference on

Advances in Steel and Concrete Composite Structures
Tsinghua University, Beijing, China, December 3-5, 2015

BENDING RESPONSE OF STEEL-CONCRETE COMPOSITE

BEAM WITH ANGLED FLAT-PLATE SHEAR CONNECTORS
M. Leekitwattana
Department of Maritime Engineering, Faculty of International Maritime Studies, Kasetsart University Sriracha Campus,
Chonburi, Thailand
E-mail: manit.le@ku.th
ABSTRACT
Keywords:
Composite beam;
Steel-concrete composite; Shear
connector; Static loading test.

Shear connectors are the most important physical part of steel-concrete composite (SC)
construction used to prevent the separation between steel plate and concrete core. Most patterns
of shear connectors have been widely experimented. However, such patterns are mostly limited
to the normal angle of the neutral axis of SC beam.
This experimental study investigated the effect of angled shear connectors on the bending
responses of SC beam. Seven SC beams with different inclined angle of flat-plate shear
connector type were tested using a three-point loading pattern of flexural test. The angles of
flat-plate shear connector were between thirty and ninety degree.
The results indicate that the inclined angle of shear connector affects the bending responses of
the SC beam, especially the ultimate tested load. The optimum point occurs at the inclined angle
of sixty-nine degree in outward direction. This benefit should be studied further in the SC
construction.

study investigated the effect of angled flat-plate shear

connectors on the bending responses of SC beams. The
objective is to investigate the load and displacement
responses of steel-concrete beam connected with each
other with angled flat-plate shear connectors and the
optimum angle of flat-plate shear connector.

1 INTRODUCTION
Shear connectors are the most important physical part
of steel-concrete composite (SC) and steel-concrete-steel
sandwich (SCS) construction used to prevent the
separation between steel plate and concrete core. Most
patterns of shear connectors have been widely
experimented. However, such patterns are limited to the
normal angle of the neutral axis of SC and SCS beam, for
example, as presented by Collings (2005) and Valente &
Cruz (2004) for SC and by Bowerman et al. (2002) and
Liew & Sohel (2009) for SCS.
Nevertheless, a few inclined shear connectors have
been presented and studied, for example, Kim et al.
(2014) have presented the transverse inclined Y-type
perfo-bond rib shear connectors for steel-concrete
composite girder and Steinberg et al. (2003) have
presented the longitudinal inclined nail as shear
connectors for timber and lightweight concrete composite
beam.
To the current knowledge of the author, however, the
SC beam with longitudinal inclined shear connectors
might not be studied and presented. Exceptionally, a
similar conceptual design of inclined cable shear
connectors can be found in Sohel et al. (2012).
This paper presents the extended version of the paper
presented by Leekitwattana (2015). The experimental

2 ANGLED FLAT-PLATE SHEAR

CONNECTORS
The angled flat-plate shear connectors were cut plate
in shape of parallelogram as shown in Figure 1. The
angles of flat-plate shear connectors were of thirty,
forty-five, sixty and ninety degrees. All of shear
connectors were 5 mm thick plate.

Figure 1. Sketch of angled flat-plate shear connectors.

59

M. Leekitwattana

Table 1. Detail of SC beam specimens.

Shear Connector
Beam No.
angle
direction
B30-in
30
Inward
B45-in
45
Inward
B60-in
60
Inward
B30-out
30
Outward
B45-out
45
Outward
B60-out
60
Outward
B90*
90
* Control beam.

3 EXPERIMENTAL SET-UP
3.1 Material properties
All of SC beam specimens were made of normal
strength concrete 300 ksc (cylindrical specimen) and
normal grade SS400 steel plates.

3.2 Details of SC beam specimens

All of SC beams were 2.40 m long with a 2.00 m
clear span between roller supports. The overall cross
section of each SC beam was 90 mm width and 160 mm
height. The bottom plate of each beam was 10 mm thick,
as shown in Figure 2.

3.3 Fabrication of specimens

The angled flat-plate shear connectors were welded to
the bottom steel plate in longitudinal two-row pattern, as
shown in Figure 3. Then, the concrete was poured in
formwork and normal 28-day cured at room temperature.

(a) Inward direction

(b) Outward direction

(c) Right angle

Figure 2. Geometry and dimension of SC beams (not to scale).

There were seven specimens of the SC beam tested

and presented in this paper. All beams were similar in
geometry and dimension except the direction and angle of
flat-plate shear connectors. Each beam was numbered as
listed in Table 1.

Figure 3. Fabrication of SC beam specimens.

60

M. Leekitwattana

3.4 Three-pointed loading test

The SC beam specimens were tested in static
three-pointed loading test, as shown in Figure 4.

Figure 4. Static three-point loading test.

4 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Figure 5 presents the load and displacement
relationship obtained from the test. It can be seen that all
beam but B30-in and B45-in behave in the same manner.
The linear relationship between P and occurs without
any significant slip before reaching the ultimate tested
load. For B30-in and B45-in, however, it may be seen
that an obvious slip occur at lower applied load stage.

Figure 6. Ultimate load and angle relationship.

Using the interpolation technique, the approximated

second-order polynomial equation fitted to only the four
tested data of B30-out, B45-out, B60-out and B90, as
shown in Figure 6, is as following equation

0.0011
0.1514
1.4782
(1)

It was found that the optimum point of the ultimate

tested load may occur at the inclined angle of sixty-nine
degrees.

5 CONCLUSION
This experimental study investigated the effect of
angled shear connectors on the bending responses of SC
beam. Seven SC beams with different inclined angle of
flat-plate shear connector type were tested using a
three-point loading pattern of flexural test. The angles of
flat-plate shear connector were thirty, forty-five, sixty,
and ninety degrees. The results indicate that the inclined
angle of shear connector affects the ultimate tested load.
The optimum point occurs at the inclined angle of
sixty-nine degrees in outward direction.

Figure 5. Load and displacement relationship.

6 REFERENCES

Figure 6 shows the relationship between the ultimate

loads obtained before the SC beam fail and the angle of
flat-plate shear connectors. It is found that the ultimate
loads of B30-out, B45-out and B60-out dramatically
increase from 5.01, 6.02, and 6.52 ton for the angle of
thirty, forty-five, and sixty degrees, respectively. Then,
the ultimate load decreases to 6.01 ton in which the angle
of flat-plate shear connector is ninety degrees. For
B30-in, B45-in and B60-in, the ultimate loads are
obviously lower than those of B30-out, B45-out and
B60-out beams.

Bowerman, H., Coyle, N. & Chapman, J.C. 2002. An

innovative steel-concrete construction system. The
Structural Engineer 80(20): 33-38.
Collings, D. 2005. Steel-Concrete Composite Bridges. London:
Thomas Telford Publishing, Thomas Telford Ltd.
Kim, S.-H., Choi, J., Park, S.-J., Ahn, J.-H. & Jung, C.-Y. 2014.
Behavior of composite girder with Y-type perfobond rib
shear connectors. Journal of Constructional Steel Research
103(0): 275-289.
Leekitwattana, M. 2015. Experimental study of steel-concrete
composite beam with angled flat-plate shear connectors. In:
Eighth International Conference on ADVANCES IN STEEL
STRUCTURES, July 22-24, 2015. Lisbon.

61

M. Leekitwattana
Liew, J.Y.R. & Sohel, K.M. 2009. Lightweight
steel-concrete-steel sandwich system with J-hook
connectors. Engineering Structures 31(5): 1166-1178.
Sohel, K.M.A., Richard Liew, J.Y., Yan, J.B., Zhang, M.H. &
Chia, K.S. 2012. Behavior of steel-concrete-steel sandwich
structures with lightweight cement composite and novel
shear connectors. Composite Structures 94(12): 3500-3509.
Steinberg, E., Selle, R. & Faust, T. 2003. Connectors for
timber-lightweight concrete composite structures. Journal
of Structural Engineering 129(11): 1538-1545.
Valente, I. & Cruz, P.J.S. 2004. Experimental analysis of
Perfobond shear connection between steel and lightweight
concrete. Journal of Constructional Steel Research 60(3-5):
465-479.

7 ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The author would like to thank Mr. Sarawut
Yodmunee and Ms. Sirirat Jungrungruengtaworn for their
commendation to this study. The author also would like
to thank Italian-Thai Development Public Company
Limited for their material, testing equipment, and
technicians support.

62

11th International Conference on

Advances in Steel and Concrete Composite Structures
Tsinghua University, Beijing, China, December 3-5, 2015

EXPERIMENTAL STUDY ON DYNAMIC BEHAVIOR OF SHEAR

STUD CONNECTORS BETWEEN CONCRETE SLAB AND STEEL
BEAM
Haitao Wang a, Jingsi Huo a,b*, Zhengxi Zhu a & Yanzhi Liu a
a

College of Civil Engineering, Hunan University Changsha, 410082, China

E-mails: jingsihuo@gmail.com

China Ministry of Education Key Laboratory of Building Safety and Energy Efficiency, Changsha, 410082, China
E-mail: wht_kaoyan2012@126.com, liuyanzhi@hnu.edu.cn
ABSTRACT
Keywords:
Shear stud; Push-out test;
Impact loading; Stub fracture;
Ultimate slippage.

This paper deals with the shear behavior of steel stud connectors between concrete slab and steel
beam under static and impact loading. A total of fourteen specimens were designed and
examined according to the description of the standard push-out tests in ECCS. Static shear tests
on stud connectors are firstly reported in this paper, followed by the impact tests. The failure
modes of steel studs and concrete, the time history of impact load and the slippage displacement,
as well as the shear strength of the composite connectors were recorded and investigated. It is
indicated from static tests that the slip resistance of stub connectors met the corresponding
requirements in EC4 code. Moreover, it is found that the dynamic shear capacities of the
connectors were improved by 60-70% when compared with the static response. The testing
results can provide an essential data for the design and construction of shear stud connectors in
the composite beam under extreme loading conditions.

mechanism of concrete slab. As the concrete slab is

connected to steel beam by shear connectors, it is evident
that the constraint effect and failure mechanism mostly
depends on the dynamic behavior of the shear connectors
under larger deformation. But the current design method
for shear connector was developed in theory based on
bending mechanism. Therefore, a further research is
needed on the shear behavior of stud connectors through
experimental investigation.
To this end, this paper examined the shear behavior of
steel stud connectors between concrete slab and steel
beam through static and impact tests. The failure modes
of steel studs and concrete, the relationships of the impact
load and the slippage displacement, as well as the shear
strength of the composite connectors were investigated.

1 INTRODUCTION
Comprehensive researches on the progressive collapse
of steel structures have been conducted to develop design
methods for the aim to prevent or mitigate progressive
collapse[1-3]. Recent investigation shows that the
beam-column joints of a steel frame structure play a key
role in the cause of progressive collapse due to their
vulnerability under larger deformation. The concrete slab,
which supports and restrains the steel beams, also has a
positive effect on the collapse resistance of steel frame
structures. Slutter et al. [4] carried out a series of the
beam model and push-out tests on the shear connectors.
Shim et al. [5] conducted the static shear tests of stud
with large diameter, considering the influence of concrete
strength and the diameter of the stud. Vasdravellis et al.
[6] carried out a seismic test of structure frame, and the
influence of the connection between the slab and steel
beam on the earthquake dynamic performance of the
framework was discussed. Zhang et al. [7] completed the
longitudinal shear tests of composite beam, including
static beam model simulations and push-out tests.
However, the contribution of concrete slab to
progressive collapse resistance is not taken into account
in the current design codes. It needs further study to
understand and quantify the constraint effect and failure

2 EXPERIMENTAL PROGRAM
2.1 Specimen details
This paper investigated the shear behavior of steel
studs between concrete slab and steel beam through static
and impact tests. Fourteen connectors were designed
according to the requirement for the standard push-out
tests described in ECCS [8]. Fig.1 illustrated the
configuration of the stud connectors. The H-shape steel
beams H25012569 mm and the concrete slabs
560300150mm were employed for all test specimens.

63

Wang et al.

while the second number 1 and 2 mean 'Group one'

and 'Group two', respectively. The third number refers to
the serial order of the specimens in the same group. The
fourth number represents the impact height. For the static
testing connectors, the impact height is assumed as zero,
and the fourth number is not presented in the specimen
reference. Increasing the hammer weight and reducing
hammer height as practical ways to decrease the strain
rate effect, and the mass of the hammer was chosen as
847 kg. From six coupon tests in each component, the
mean yield strength of steel beam and the stub were
obtained as 285 MPa and 385 MPa, respectively, and
their average ultimate strengths were 415 MPa and 466
MPa, respectively. The modulus of elasticity for the
steels was about 186000 MPa. The cubic strength of
concrete C30 and C50 were 31.8 MPa and 46.2 MPa at
the age of concrete under testing, respectively.

150

150

The stubs of 1690 were used for the connectors.

Moreover, the distance from the end of steel beam bottom
to the end of concrete slab was set as 150 mm for the
application of shear displacement.

90

30
150

240

30

355

230

1390 10

205

90

150

200
300

H25012569

(a) Front view

(b) Side view

30
87.5

2.2 Testing arrangement

300

30 65
30

90

The static test setup is shown in Fig. 2, where the

concrete slabs were fixed on the rigid base by the angles,
while a hydraulic jack in a reaction frame was employed
for the application of shear displacement through the top
surface of H-shape beam. The impact tests were carried
out using the drop hammer testing machine in Hunan
University, as shown in Fig. 3. The impact load was
conducted by the free-fall hammer with a impact height.
The failure modes of studs and concrete, bearing
capacity of the stud, and the slippage between concrete
slab and steel beam were investigated in the static test.
The impact velocity, impact load, the shear displacement
as well as the strain development of steel beam and
concrete were also recorded in the impact tests.

150

30
(c) Top view

Fig.1 Connector configuration (unit: mm)

Table 1 Summary of test specimens
Specimen reference

Concrete grade

Impact height (m)

C30

S31-1-1
S31-2-1
S31-3-1
S32-1
S32-2
S32-3-0.7

0
C30
0.7

S32-4-0.7
S51-1
S51-2
S51-3-1.5

3.1 Failure modes

S52-1-2

S52-3-1

Fig.3 Impact test setup

3 STATIC TEST RESULTS

1.5

S51-4-1.5

S52-2-2

Fig.2 Static test setup

C50

C50

The stud connectors of composite beams were at a

complex stress state, as the studs were interacted with the
concrete and steel beam. Fig.4 illustrates the stress
distribution of the stubs between the concrete and steel
beam. When the connector was under shear force, Area A
of the stub (depicted in Fig.4) was effected by the upward
force from the concrete, while area B was subjected to the
downward force of the concrete, which generated the
opposite force on the stud. With the increase of the

2
1+1+0.5

Where, Specimen S52-3-1 is employed for initial trial test

under three impacts. Their impact heights were 1 m, 1m and 0.5
m, respectively.

Table1 summarizes the details of test specimens,

including the concrete grades and the impact height. In
the specimen reference, the first number 3 and 5 stand
for the grade of concrete, C30 and C50, respectively,

64

Wang et al.

stage. In the elastic stage, the shear load developed

linearly with vertical displacement. When the shear force
load was about 0.5-0.6 times of the peak force, the
connector yielded and entered into the plastic stage. After
the maximum shear load, large deformation was occurred
on the concrete and stud. Moreover, it is found that the
capacity of the stud and connector initial stiffness for
specimens with concrete C50 were greater than that for
specimens with concrete C30. But the slippage for the
former was relatively smaller.

couple forces, the deformation of the stud became lager,

and finally the stub reached its ultimate bearing capacity.
The failure modes of Connectors S32-2 and S51-2
with different concrete grade were illustrated in Fig.5 and
Fig.6, respectively. Both specimens experienced the
diagonal crack of concrete. Due to the increase of
concrete grade, crack width of Specimen S51-2 was
smaller than Specimen S32-2. However, for Specimen
S51-2, the shear fracture of one stud was observed, and
the fracture area was located at the welding root of the
stud. The ultimate response of the studs in Specimen
S32-2 was dominated by the significant bending
deformation.

F (kN)

300

200

100

S32-1
S32-2

0
0

10
S (mm)

15

20

(a) Specimens with concrete C30

NB

300
F (kN)

MB

VA

MA

200
S51-1
S51-2

100

NA

Fig.4 Stress distribution of the stubs

10
S (mm)

15

20

(b) Specimens with concrete C50

Fig.7 Shear load-vertical displacement relationships

3.3 Shear capacity

(a) Concrete

The shear capacity of the connectors and the ultimate

slippage were examined through the static tests. Table 2
summarizes the static testing results, where the ultimate
load was assumed as 90% of the maximum force
measured from the static loading curves in Fig.7, the
ultimate slippage was corresponding to the ultimate load
in Fig. 7, and the characteristic slippage was taken as the
ultimate slip reduced by 10% [9]. As stated above, the
connectors with concrete C30 failed due to the crushing
of concrete, while shear fracture of studs was observed
for the specimens with concrete C50. Assuming that each
stud had average stress, the bearing capacity of the studs
in the specimens with concrete C30 and C50 were
assumed as 49.73 kN and 56.78 kN, respectively.

(b) Stud

Fig.5 Failure mode of Specimen S32-2

(a) Concrete

(b) Stud

Fig.6 Failure mode of Specimen S51-2

3.2 Shear load-vertical slippage relationships

Table 2 Results of push-out tests

Shear load-slippage relationships of the connectors

are presented in Fig.7. It is observed their static response
can be divided into two stages: the elastic and plastic

Ultimate Ultimate Characteristic Maximum

Specimen
slippage
load
slippage
load
reference
u/mm
Fu/kN
t/mm
Fmax/kN

65

Wang et al.
S32-1
S32-2
S51-1
S51-2

11.5
10.4
6.5
8.7

207.0
174.8
242.0
206.5

10.3
9.3
5.9
7.8

230.0
191.7
269.3
227.1

According to the requirement of stud ductility in EC4

code [9], the characteristic slippage in push-out tests is
demanded to be more than 6 mm. The test results of the
specimens with concrete C30 meet the requirements in
EC4 code, but the slippage of S51-1 with concrete C50
was less than 6 mm. It is indicated that the stud ductility
of the former was better than the latter.

(a) Concrete

(b) Stud

Fig.9 Failure mode of Specimen S31-2-1

4 IMPACT TEST RESULTS

4.1 Failure modes
The failure modes of Specimens S32-4-0.7 and
S31-2-1 with concrete C30 were illustrated in Fig.8 and
Fig.9, respectively. Both concrete slabs had the diagonal
cracks. The concrete at the area below the studs crushed.
Large bending deformation was observed for the stubs in
Specimen S32-4-0.7 subjected to a impact height of 0.7
m, while the stubs in Specimen S31-2-1 under a impact
height of 1 m was in shear fracture due to the application
of high impact energy.
The failure modes of Specimens S51-3-1.5 and
S52-2-2 with concrete C50 were presented in Fig.10 and
Fig.11, respectively. No obvious cracks on the concrete
were found for both specimens. However, all the
connector finally failed due to the shear fracture of the
stubs, and the cutting area was located at the welding root.
The studs experienced large deformation in a short time,
and then suddenly broke under the vertical load. As the
interaction time between the studs and concrete was
limited, and the reaction force transferred from the stud to
the concrete was not enough to make the concrete crack.

(a) Concrete

(b) Stud

Fig.10 Failure mode of Specimen S51-3-1.5

(a) Concrete

(b) Stud

Fig.11 Failure mode of Specimen S52-2-2

curves were composed of three stages: impact stage,

fluctuant plateau stage and the declining stage. The time
of the whole impact process for the specimens with
concrete C30 was about 15 to 20 ms, and their peak
impact force was around 300 kN. However, The impact
time for the specimens with concrete C50 was within 10
ms, and the peak impact load was about 100 kN higher
that the former.

4.2 Time history of impact load

The force sensor was set within the hammer head to
acquire the impact load-time curves. The time history
curves of impact load for all the specimens are depicted
in Figs. 12-14. It is observed that all of the time history

4.3 Time history of slippage

The slippage-time curves of the specimens with concrete
C30 and C50 were illustrated in Fig.15 and Fig.16,
400
S32-3-0.7
F (kN)

300

(a) Concrete

S32-4-0.7

200
100

(b) Stud

Fig.8 Failure mode of Specimen S32-4-0.7

66

10

20
t (ms)

30

40

Wang et al.

divided into three stages, but for the impact stage, the
initial displacement was in a zero level due to the short
impact time. In platform stage, the vertical displacement
linearly grew up. In the declining stage, the vertical
displacement of the specimens with concrete C30 was
kept constant, while the displacement of the specimens
with concrete C50 still increased due to the successive
fracture of the stubs.

400
S31-1-1
S31-2-1
S31-3-1

F (kN)

300
200
100
0
0

10

20
t (ms)

30

40
20

S (mm)

Fig.12 Impact load-time curves of specimens with concrete

C30
500
S51-3-1.5
S51-4-1.5

F (kN)

400

15
10

S32-3-0.7
S32-4-0.7

300

0
0

200

20

40
t (ms)

60

80

100
50

0
10

20
t (ms)

30

40

40
S (mm)

500

20

S52-1-2
S52-2-2

F (kN)

400

10

300

0
0

200
100

20

40
t (ms)

60

80

Fig.15 Slippage-time curves of specimens with concrete C30

0
10

20
t (ms)

30

40

40
S (mm)

Fig.13 Impact load-time curves of specimens with concrete

C50

S51-3-1.5

30

S51-4-1.5

20
10

500
h=1m

400
F (kN)

S31-1-1
S31-2-1
S31-3-1

30

h=1m

300

h=0.5m

200

t (ms)

10

40
S (mm)

100
0
0

10

20
t (ms)

30

40

30
20
S52-1-2
S52-2-2

10

Fig.14 Impact load-time curves of Specimen S52-3-1 under

0

different impact height

respectively. Different from the impact force-time curves,

a initial lag happened in the time history curves of slip.
The lag time was about 2 ms. Corresponding to the
impact force-time curves, the slip-time curves were also

t (ms)

10

Fig.16 Slippage-time curves of specimens with concrete C50

67

Wang et al.

Fig.17 shows the slippage-time curves of the trial

400

specimen S52-3-1. The maximum shear displacement

S31-1-1
F (kN)

was 8.5 mm under the first impact. But the elastic

displacement was rebounded, and the final residual was

300

S31-2-1
S31-3-1

200

around 5mm. The maximum displacement was 10.2 mm

100

20
h=1m

S (mm)

h=1m

15

10

h=0.5m
10

20
S (mm)

30

40

Fig.18 Impact load-slip curves of specimens with concrete C30

500

S51-3-1.5

400

10

20
t (ms)

30

F (kN)

0
40

S51-4-1.5

300
200

Fig.17 Slippage -time curves of Specimen S52-3-1

100

under the second impact. It was observed that the

specimen reached its ultimate state at this time. Due to
the occurrence of the large plastic deformation after the
second impact, limited deformation was took placed on
the connector under the third impact, and the studs finally
failed in shear fracture.

F (kN)

S52-1-2

F (kN)

S52-2-2

300

100
0
0

30

40

F (kN)

S32-3-0.7
S31-1-1
S32-2

300
200
100
0
0

100
0
30

20
S (mm)

400

S32-4-0.7

20
S (mm)

10

Fig.19 Impact load-slip curves of specimens with concrete C50

S32-3-0.7

10

40

200

400

30

400

The impact load-slip curves of the connectors under

different impact height were compared for concrete C30
and Concrete C50 groups in Fig.18 and Fig.19,
respectively. When the impact load rapidly reached its
peak value, no slippage was occurred between the steel
beam and the concrete slab. This is because the stress
wave from the hammer to the steel beam need enough
time pass to the studs and concrete. Afterwards, a plateau
was observed. In this stage, the slippage grew up

200

20
S (mm)

500

4.4 Impact load-slip relationships

300

10

40

68

10

20
S (mm)

30

40

Wang et al.

500
S51-3-1.5
S52-1-2
S51-2

F (kN)

400
300
200

0
10

20
S (mm)

30

40

Fig.20 Comparison of the shear response for the connectors

under static and impact load

gradually. The impact then began to drop when the

slippage reaching a certain value. However, the slippage
was kept unchanged for the specimens with concrete C30,
while the slippage continued to rise with the decay of the
impact load for concrete C50 connectors.
The comparison of the shear response for the connectors
under static and impact loadings were shown in Fig.20.
Under the static load, the curves experienced elastic stage
and plastic development, the initial stiffness was
obviously performed. Moreover, it is evident that the
impact load decreased after its maximum. However,
when the connectors were under the impact load, the
response involved three stages: sudden impact stage,
fluctuating platform stage and declining stage. Due to a
certain lag, the initial stiffness was close to infinity. After
the park point, the curves entered into a fluctuant
platform stage. Importantly, the peak shear force of the
connectors under impact loadings was double times of the
static value.

12.7

308

11.5

342

S32-4-0.7

15.9

282

14.3

313

S31-1-1

17.4

289

15.7

321

S31-2-1

12.2

314

10.9

348

S31-3-1

12.6

303

11.3

337

421

S51-4-1.5

5.1

355

4.6

394

S52-1-2

5.6

375

5.1

419

S52-2-2

6.6

357

5.9

397

S52-3-1

5.0

383

4.5

425

6 REFERENCES
[1] Izzuddin B A, Vlassis A G & Elghazouli A Y et al.
Progressive collapse of multi-storey buildings due to sudden
column loss, Part I: Simplified assessment framework.
Engineering Structures, 2008, 30(5): 1308-1318
[2] Izzuddin B A, Vlassis A G & Elghazouli A Y et al.
Progressive collapse of multi-storey buildings due to sudden
column loss, Part II: Application. Engineering Structures,
2008, 30(5): 1424-1438.
[3] Galal K & El-Sawy T. Effect of retrofit strategies on
mitigating progressive collapse of steel frame structures.
Journal of Constructional Steel Research, 2010, 66(4):
520-531.
[4] Roger G Slutter & Geogre C Driscoll. Flexural strength of

Maximum
load
Fmax/kN

S32-3-0.7

5.4

This paper deals with the shear behavior of stud

connectors between concrete slab and steel beam through
static and impact tests. The failure modes of steel studs
and concrete, the time history of impact load and the
slippage, as well as the connector capacity were recorded
and investigated.
It is found from the static tests that the slip resistance
of stub connectors met the corresponding requirements in
EC4 code. The impact testing results showed that the
impact energy has significant effects on the shear
behavior of the steel-to-concrete connectors, especially
on the failure mechanism including the concrete crushing
and stub fracture. Additionally, the dynamic shear
capacities of the connectors were improved by 60-70%
when compared with the static shear capacity.
To this end, it is recommended that the dynamic
behavior of steel studs under catenary action should be
taken into consideration of the design of the composite
beam.

Table 3 provides the results of the impact tests. It is

found that the difference of the testing results for the
connectors under the same impact height was within 10%.
It illustrated the good reliability of the impact test. Under
impact load, the shear capacity of the connectors was
improved greatly in about 1.6~1.7 times of that under the
static load. This can be attributed to strain rate effect of
the concrete as well as the stud. In addition, the reaction
time of the connector subjected to impact load was
shorter, and the inertia force played an important role
during the loading process.

Specimen
reference

379

5 CONCLUSIONS

4.5 Studs dynamic bearing capacity analysis

Table 3 Results of impact tests

Ultimate Ultimate Characteristic
slippage
load
slippage
u/mm
Fu/kN
t/mm

5.9

Moreover, for the specimens with concrete C30, the

slippage displacement under impact load was improved
comparing to that under static load. The larger impact
energy resulted in high slippage displacement. The value
of the characteristic slippage for these group specimens
satisfied the requirement for the stud slip resistance in
EC4 code [9]. However, for the specimens with concrete
C50, the slippage displacement under impact load was a
little lower than under static load. This can be attribute to
the brittle fracture of the stubs under dynamic loadings.
But the results of the characteristic slippage were lower
than 6 mm. It illustrated that the slippage ability was not
enough for the stub connectors with high strength
concrete under impact load due to the failure of the brittle
stub.

100

S51-3-1.5

69

Wang et al.
steel-concrete composite beams. Proceeding of ASCE,
Journal Duvusuibm, 1965, 91(4).
[5] Chang-Su Shim, Pil-Goo Lee & Tac-Yang Yoon. Static
behavior of large stud shear connectors. Engineering
Structures, 2004, 26: 1853-1860.
[6] G.Vasdravellis, M. Valente & C. A. Castiglioni. Dynamic
response of composite frames with different shear
connection degree. Journal of Constructional Steel Research,
2009, 65: 2050-2061.
[7] ZHANG Q, HU X M & WANG G. Nonlinear analysis for
longitudinal shear resistance of steel-concrete composite
beams, Journal of Nan Jing University of Technology, 2005,
27 (5): 37-41.
[8] Joint Committee IABSE/CEB/FIP/ECCS. Composite
Structures(Model Code). London: Contrustion Press, 1981.
[9] Eurocode4: Design of composite steel and concrete
struetures[S], Part1-1: General rules and rules for buildings.
ENV1994-1-1: 2004.

70

11th International Conference on

Advances in Steel and Concrete Composite Structures
Tsinghua University, Beijing, China, December 3-5, 2015

POST-BUCKLING RESISTANCE OF AXIALLY RESTRAINED

CHORD MEMBERS AT ELEVATED TEMPERATURES
Y. Dua, M. X. Xiongb & J. Y. R. Liewa,b
a

School of Civil Engineering, Nanjing Tech University, Nanjing, China

E-mail: yongdu_mail@njtech.edu.cn
b

Department of Civil Engineering, National University of Singapore, Singapore

E-mails: ceexm@nus.edu.cn, ceeljy@nus.edu.cn

ABSTRACT
Keywords:
Axial restraint; Large span
structure; Localized fire; Post
buckling resistance; Spatial
structure.

The temperature distribution in structural members of large span spatial structures are
non-uniform in nature due to localized fires, which is different from compartment fire inducing
uniform temperature within the entire compartment. The chord members in large span
structure, which are heated by localized fire, tend to expand but are restrained by adjacent cooler
members. This axial restraint force could induce high thermal stresses in the chord members
causing them to buckle. To determine the crtical temperature of the critical chord members, it is
necessary to consider the post-buckling resistance of the axially restrained chord members as
they can contribute to the overall load carrying capacity of the spatial structure in the event of a
localised fire. This paper proposes an analytical model to determine the transient post-buckling
resistance of the chord members with initial out-of-strightness subject to elevated temperature
corresponding to a maximum lateral displacement of midspan length/20. The buckling
resistance of the compression chord member at elevated temperature is a function of the
members slenderness ratio, axial end restraint stiffness and the load level. Based on parametric
analyses, analytical expression is proposed to determine the post-buckling resistance of the
critical chord member in large span spatial structure subject to localised fire.

returned to its initial value P0. Wang. (2002) suggests that

it is important to distinguish between the column
buckling temperature and the column failure temperature
which always occurs during the post-buckling stage, and
the column failure temperature can be much higher than
its buckling temperature.

1 GENERAL INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background
A series of fire tests have shown that the critical
members in steel structures have the ability to redistribute
the loads to adjacent member after they buckled under
localized fire (Tan. et al. 2007, Wang. 2008). The
fire-resistance of end-restrained H-section steel columns
had been studied by numerical simulation using SAFIR
software (Franssen. 2000). The temperature distribution
in structural members of large span spatial structures are
non-uniform in nature due to localized fires. This is
different from compartment fire inducing uniform
temperature within the entire compartment. The members
that are heated by localized fire tend to expand but are
restrained by adjacent cooler members. The axial restraint
could induce high thermal stresses in the chord members
causing them to buckle.
As shown in Fig. 1, the axial load dependent on
temperature history may be divided into three stages, i.e.
pre-buckling, buckling and post-buckling stage. Franssen.
(2000) suggests to define the column failure temperature
as the one at which the axial load in the column has

Figure 1. Axial load versus temperature curve for axially

restrained members

The chord members in space frame structures,

especially for initial tension one which would be
compression due to thermal expansion restrained in
localised fire (Du. et al. 2014), usually have significantly
larger slenderness ratio than columns in steel building

71

Du et al.

effect due to adjacent structure can be represented by a

restraining spring attached at one end, as shown in Fig.
2(c). As shown in Figure 2(d), an upward displacement of
us due to thermal expansion is observed, and a downward
displacement of uc due to initial force and the additional
restrained force, P+P upon the freedom thermal
expansion chord member, as shown in Fig. 2(e).
The fire resistance of an axially restrained chord
member at pre-buckling, buckling and post-buckling
stages can be determined as shown in the following
sub-sections.

frames, and they are more sensitive to the effect of

member initial bow imperfection. An analytical model
has been developed by Zou. & Du. (2014) to investigate
the performance of axially restrained chord members at
pre-buckling, buckling and post-buckling stage
respectively, considering the effect of member initial bow
imperfection. It should be noticed that the axial internal
force of axially restrained chord members with initial
bow imperfection increases more slowly than that of
perfect chord members. The effect of the initial bow
imperfection leads to the buckling resistance Pmax (see
Fig.1), decreasing and the buckling temperature
increasing distinctly, i.e. 50 ~70 , with high
slenderness (slenderness>150) and high restraint stiffness
(>2% the initial chord member axial stiffness).
Furthermore, the post-buckling behaviours of axially
restrained chord members should be determined to update
the maximum post-buckling resistance PcrT (see Fig. 1),
which is benefit for most practical application.
This paper presents the parametric analyses to
determine the maximum post-buckling resistance of
axially restrained chord members at elevated temperature
taking account of axial restraint stiffness ratio,
slenderness ratio and load level. Finally, an empirical
formula is proposed to determine the maximum
post-buckling resistance of chord members so that they
can be applied to determine the fire resistance of large
span spatial structure subject to localized fire precisely
for design calculation.

1.3 Fire resistance at pre-buckling stage

At ambient temperature, the axial displacement, u and
force P0 relationship can be determined based on second
order analysis of member with initial bow imperfection as
follow:
P
(1)
u 0 um,0
kc,0
where, kc,0 = the axial stiffness of chord members at
ambient temperature.
When subject to heating, the compression chord member
expands by us, under an initial compression force Po and
axial end restraint with transient stiffness, ks, Additional
force, P, is induced in the member due to the end
restraint. The total load, PT, acting on the member
becomes

PT P0 P P0 ks us (2)
The axial thermal expansion, l, of the member as shown
in Figure 2(e) may be calculated as
l T l (T )= th l (3)
Where T = thermal expansion coefficient, [1.410-5/C];
T = temperature increment.
According to Fig. 2(e), the deformation caused by axial
load can be derived as
uc um ( P0 ks us ) / kc (4)
where um = the longitudinal deformation caused by the

1.2 Axial behavior of end-restrained members

Figure 2(a) shows a simply supported chord member with
an initial bow imperfection with maximum magnitude v0
at the mid-height. The vertical displacement u0, caused
by axial load P0 , is superimposed by um,0 caused by the
curvature effect due to bending at ambient temperature.
Meanwhile, the axial load causes a lateral deformation,
vm,0 at the mid-height as shown in Fig.2(b). When the
chord member is further exposed to fire, the restraint

Figure 2. Deformation for a chord member with initial imperfection at ambient temperature and elevated temperatures

72

Du et al.

temperature is determined.
where T = stability coefficient at elevated
temperature; T = reduced coefficient of steel strength

bending curvature at elevated temperature; k c = transient

axially stiffness of chord members at elevated
temperature; uc = the axial displacement due to the
combined actions of axial load and bending moment.
Comparing Fig. 2(d), Fig. 2(b) and Fig. 2(e), a
relationship of deformation can be expressed as
P
(6)
us uc th l 0 um,0
kc,0

at elevated temperature; f y = yield strength of steel at

ambiance temperature; A = size of cross-section.
1.4 Fire resistance at buckling stage
For buckling at elevated temperature, the axial force
Pb (see Fig. 1), in a chord member can be determined as

Substituting Eq.(5) into Eq.(6), and let

umec P0 kc,0 P0 kc , then

PT P0

Pb Pmax k s

ks k c
( th l umec um,0 um ) (7)
ks k c

an axially restrained chord member at buckling.

The moment M, of an axially restrained member at
buckling is given as
M Nv (13)

where N = axial load Pb, of an axially restrained

member at buckling,.
At buckling , the moment and axial load in a member
should satisfy the interactive equation as following

x
y

M
EI

N
M
+
= 1 (14)
N cr,T M P,T

Figure 3. Force equilibrium based on deformed geometry

where N cr,T = buckling resistance of chord members at

elevated temperature; M P,T = the plastic bending
moment resistance at elevated temperature.
At buckling, the lateral displacement, v, of an axially
restrained member can be derived from Eq. (12), Eq.
(13) & Eq. (14), and the axial force Pb , can be obtained
by substituting the lateral displacement, v, into Eq. (12).

Based on the forth order differential equation of the

lateral displacement and introducing boundary conditions
i.e. if x=0 or x=l, then y=0, the lateral displacement of
member with initial bow imperfection can be obtained as
2v
x
(8)
y 2 2 0 2 sin( )
k l
l
where k 2 P EI , EI = stiffness of a chord member at
ambient temperature, l = initial length of a chord member;
v0 l / 1000 is the assumed initial bow imperfection.
The axial displacement of the end-restrained chord
member caused by bending action at ambient temperature
or at elevated temperatures (T) can be obtained as follows

um,0

1 l
y2 ( P0 )dx
2 0

1 l 2
y ( PT )dx
2 0
Substituting Eq.(9) & Eq.(10) into Eq.(7) gives
um

(12)

where Pmax =TT f y A ; =2 ; v = lateral deformation of

Fig. 3 shows the mechanical model of an axially

loaded member with initial bow imperfection. The
second order analysis is carried out based on the
deformed geometry.
P

v2
l

1.5 Post-buckling resistance at elevated temperature

Substituting the initial conditions of P0T Pb & v v0
into the Eq. (15), the transient axial load, Pi T , of the
axially restrained chord member can be obtained as

Pi T Pi-1T

(9)

ks kci

i
( thi l umec
4 i1 d ) (15)
i
ks kc
l

where i = temperature step.

The axially restrained chord member is assumed to
reach the maximum post-buckling resistance when the
midheight lateral displacement of l 20 , equivalent to
maximum displacement at fire limit state, is reached
and the failure temperature can be obtained
accordingly.

(10)

ks kc
I 2 6 v02
{ th l umec
4l
ks kc
(11)
E0
ET
2
[( 2
) ( 2
)2 ]} PT 0
2
2
E0 I
Pl
PT l ET I
0

The transient total load, PT, of axial restraint chord

members can be obtained by solving Eq. (11) at any
temperature by using software MATLAB.
When PT TT f y A , at a given temperature, the axial
P0

PARAMETRIC ANALYSES

Instead of determining the post-buckling resistance by

using Eq. (15) where iteration is involved, the parametric
analyses are conducted to find out the key factors

restraint chord member is buckling and the buckling

73

Du et al.

influencing the post-buckling resistance. Consequently,

an empirical equation is proposed based on the
parametric analysis results by means of regression.
Based on Eq. (15), the key parameters that influence
the buckling resistance of axially compressed members at
fire are slenderness ratio, restraint stiffness ratio and
loading ratio.
One of the space grid structures is shown as Fig. 4
which displays the configuration of a typical double
layer grid structure. Since the space grid structures are
usually made from modular units as shown in Fig. 5
where the member slenderness is mainly dependent on
the size of section of chord members. The typical
cross-sectional sizes of chord members with a widely
range of slenderness from 35~192 are listed in Table 1.

Table1. Typical chord members in space grid structures

For restraint stiffness ratio, l , in the range of

0.002~0.5 and loading ratio, N , ranging from 0.1~0.9
and the slenderness ratio ranging from 35~192, the
post-buckling resistance in terms of the various key
factors are determined here after by solving Eq. (15) via
MATLAB. A total of 2300 data of maximum
post-buckling resistance of axially restrained chord
members at elevated temperature are obtained.

3m824m

3m824m

2.1 Effects of slenderness ratio

As shown in Fig. 6 for the same loading ratio and
restraint stiffness ratio, the maximum post-buckling
resistance decreases with the increase of slenderness.
However, the discrepancies are reduced as the
slenderness increases.

(a) Plan view

1.5m
(b) Side elevation view
Figure 4.Configuration of a double layer grid structure

Figure 5. Modular unit for space grid structures

74

Du et al.

Figure 6. Effects of slenderness ratio on maximum

post-buckling resistance at elevated temperature

Figure 7. Effects of load ratio on maximum post-buckling

resistance at elevated temperature

2.3 Effects of restraint stiffness ratio

2.2 Effects of load ratio

As shown in Fig. 8 & Fig. 9 for the same loading ratio

and slenderness ratio, the maximum post-buckling
resistance increases with the axial restraint stiffness ratio
increasing. It should be noticed that there is a critical
axial restraint stiffness ratio after which the maximum
post-buckling resistance is nearly constant. Furthermore,
the critical axial restraint stiffness ratio changes with the
slenderness ratio as shown in Fig. 8 & Fig. 9.

As shown in Fig. 7 for the same slenderness ratio and

restraint stiffness ratio, the post-buckling resistance
increases more with the increase of load ratio at lower
slenderness ratio. In general, the effects of load ratio on
the ultimate post-buckling resistance of an axially
restrained chord members cannot be ignored.

Figure 8. Effects of restraint stiffness on post-buckling

resistance at elevated temperature under load ratio, r N =0.2

75

Du et al.

In which case the critical restraint stiffness ratio is

achieved, the post-buckling resistance of an axially
restrained chord members in terms of slenderness ratio
and restraint stiffness ratio at elevated temperatures can
be obtained as shown in Eq.(16).

A1 (1+ e A2 l A3 )

PcrT
A1 (1 e A2 ld A3 )

0 l ld

l ld

16

where A1, A2, A3 are fitting coefficients and given as

below
for l 110 ld 0.2
A1 B1 (1 B2 / )
then,
B1 21051 77907 N 131496 N

B2 171 11 N 40 N

and
A2 12.6 19.8N 2 82.9N3 61.5N 4

A3 B3 4 105 2 3.66 107 3

then,
B3 1.0214 0.1796 N ;

for l > 110 ld 0.1

A1 B1 +B2 /
then,
B1 13300 70948 N 150404 N 2 89158 N 3

B2 0.377 1.357 N 2.75 N 2 1.598 N 3 10 7

Figure 9. Effects of restraint stiffness on post-buckling
resistance at elevated temperature under load ratio, r N =0.5

and

A2 B3 (1

3
POST-BUCKING RESISTANCE OF CHORD
MEMBER AT ELEVATED TEMPERATURE

1
)
92.6

then,
B3 66 160.8 N 2 180.5 N 3

Based on the parametric studies of key parameters

that influence the compression resistance of axially
restrained chord members under the effects of fire as
shown in Fig. 8 & Fig. 9, the critical restraint stiffness
ratio, b ld , can be determined and an empirical formula
for calculating the maximum resistance at post-buckling
stage under fire condition can be fitted by using
Levenberg-Marquardt method as below. This empirical
formula can be applied extensively because the axial
restraint of chord members caused by non-uniform
temperature is due to any localised fire scenarios
As shown in Fig. 8(a) & Fig. 9(a) for slenderness ratio
not greater than 110, the critical restraint stiffness ratio,
b ld , is equal to 0.2. Similarly, as observed from Fig. 8(b)
& Fig. 9(d), for members with slenderness ratio greater
than 110, the critical restraint stiffness ratio, b ld , can be
taken as 0.1.

and
A3 (1.167 5.92 106 2 3.68 108 3 )
(0.986 0.199 N ) / 1.145
If the load ratio, slenderness ratio and axial restraint
stiffness ratio are given, the maximum post-buckling
resistance of the axially restrained chord members can be
determined by solving Eq. (16).
4

CASE STUDY

The above mentioned empirical formula is validated

by case studies. The studies were carried out based on
load ratio of 0.1 & 0.9, the axial restraint ratio ranges
from 0.002 to 0.5 and the member slenderness ratio
between 35 and 184. The maximum post-buckling
resistance of the axially restrained chord members at
elevated temperature are shown in Fig. 10 & Fig. 11.

76

Du et al.

It is evident that both curves according to Eq. (15) and

Eq. (16) agree well with each other. Compared with the
analytical solution in Eq. (15), the proposed method in
Eq. (16) is more convenient and straightforward to
determine the post-buckling resistance of axially
restrained chord members at elevated temperatures for
application in fire engineering calculations.
5

CONCLUSIONS

This paper presents calculation models to predict the

post-buckling resistance of axially restrained chord
members at elevated temperatures. The conclusion can be
drawn as follows:
The calculation model is derived based on second
order analysis of members with initial bow imperfection
and considering the interaction of axial force and moment
on cross section resistance. The key parameters that have
strong influence on the maximum post-buckling
resistance of chord member in space frame have been
investigated.
The maximum post-buckling resistance increases
with the increase of axial restraint stiffness ratio, or load
ratio, and with the decrease of slenderness ratio.
An empirical formula has been developed based on
curved fitting with the analytical solutions to estimate the
fire resistance of compression chord of space frame
structure subject to localized fire.
Figure 10. Maximum post-buckling resistance at load ratio,
r N =0.1

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

This study is a part of the project which is supported

by National Natural Science Foundation of China.
7

REFERENCES

Tan, K.H., Toh, W.S., Huang, Z.F. & Phng, G.H. 2007.
Structural responses of restrained steel columns at elevated
temperatures. Part 1: Experiments. Engineering Structures
29: 16411652.
Wang, P. 2008. Experimental and theoretical study on
behaviors of restrained steel columns in fire. Tongji
University, Shanghai ( in Chinese).
Franssen, J. M. 2000. Failure Temperature of a System
Comprising a Restrained Column Submitted to Fire. Fire
Safety Journal 34: 191207.
Wang, Y. C. 2002. Steel and Composite Structures Behaviour
and Design for Fire Safety. London: Spon Press
Du, Y., Li, X. & Jin, G. 2014. Fire-resistance of Regular
Pyramidial Grid Structures Exposed to Localized Fire with
New Temperature-time Curve. 8th International Conference
on Structures in Fire, 2014, China
Zou, J. & Du, Y. 2014. Calculation method of post-buckling
load-bearing capacity for axially restrained tubular members
in grid structures exposed to localized fire. 7th European
Conference on Steel and Composite Structure. Italy.
Figure 11. Maximum post-buckling resistance at load ratio,
r N =0.9

77

11th International Conference on

Advances in Steel and Concrete Composite Structures
Tsinghua University, Beijing, China, December 3-5, 2015

STUDY ON MECHANICAL PERFORMANCE OF COMPOSITE

BEAM WITH INNOVATIVE COMPOSITE SLABS
Y. Yanga , Y. L. Yua, X. W. Zhoua&C. W. Roederb
a

School of Civil Engineering, Xian University of Architecture & Technology, Shannxi, China
E-mails:yyhhp2004@163.com, 332765745@qq.com, 308926429@qq.com

Civil and Environmental Department, University of Washington, Seattle, WA. 98115

E-mails:croeder@uw.edu
ABSTRACT
Keywords:
Flat steel plate-concrete
composite slabs; Composite
beam; Bending performance;
Bending capacity; Experimental
study.

A new type of composite beam that consists of a wide flange steel shape beam and an innovative
type of composite slab was introduced. The composite slab is composed of concrete slab and
normal flat steel plates, which are connected by perfobond shear connectors (PBL shear
connectors). This paper describes experiments of two large-scale specimens of that composite
beam. Both specimens were loaded at two symmetric points for 4-point test, and mechanical
behaviors under hogging and sagging bending moments were investigated respectively. During
the experiments, the crack patterns, failure modes, failure mechanism and ultimate bending
capacity of composite beam specimens were investigated, and the strains of concrete and flat
steel plate as well as steel shapes were measured and recorded. As shown from the
experimental results, composite actions were fully developed between the steel shape and the
composite slab, this new type of composite beams was found to have good mechanical
performance both under hogging and sagging bending moment with high bending capacity,
substantial flexure rigidity and good ductility. It was further shown that the plane-section
assumption was verified. Moreover, a design procedure including calculation methods of
bending capacity of this new type of composite beam was studied and proposed based on the
experimental results, and the calculation methods based on the plane-section assumption and
plastic theories were also verified by comparisons of the calculated results and experimental
results, which were agreed with each other.

Therefore, neither of these two methods will be

cost-effective for large-span floors with thin profiled steel
sheeting. In order to overcome these limitations, normal
flat steel plates with greater thickness should be
introduced. For normal flat steel plates, no special
fabricating procedures and moulding machines are
needed, and therefore the fabrication costs are much less
then for profiled steel sheetings. Most importantly, flat
steel plates could be easily adopted without any limitation
of thickness. Consequently, spans of composite slabs
could be as large as wanted, and neither too many beams
nor temporary scaffoldings should be used, because of the
large flexural rigidity and bending capacity of thicker
steel plates with some stiffeners or ribs. Furthermore
these slab systems can be produced in every steel
fabrication shop, which can also result in reduced
transporting time and costs. Therefore, the totally
construction costs of composite slabs with flat steel plates
could be substantially reduced, despite the fact that more
steel materials are used compared to the composite slabs
using metal slabs.

1 INTRODUCTION
Steel-concrete composite floor slabs have been
utilized for their advantages in elements of construction
such as avoiding formworks and temporary scaffoldings,
and constructing several stories simultaneously.
Composite slabs with profiled steel sheetings or metal
slabs have been extensively studied and widely used in
many countries for a number of years (Johnson 2004,
Rackham 2009, Oehlers 1995, Uy B. 1994, Leon 2004
and Leon 2008). However, the profiled steel sheetings
require shops with a special moulding machine and
specific prefabricating procedures, and consequently the
thickness of the profiled steel sheeting is always limited
to about 2 milometers. As a result, if temporary
scaffoldings are not used for sustaining the construction
loads, the slab spans are always limited to small spans,
and a large quantity of secondary beams are subsequently
needed for a sizeable space. If temporary scaffoldings are
adopted instead of using an excessive number of beams,
the cost of labor and time for scaffolding will be high.

78

Yang et al.

One critical problem involving this kind of flat steel

plate-concrete composite slab is the shear stress
transferring between the steel plate and the concrete. In
most composite slabs with normal flat steel plate, shear
studs are used to develop this stress transfer. Shear studs
can definitely supply enough shear force resistance, in
spite of strict welding requirements, and this sometimes
requires more time and money. The problem involves the
flexure rigidity of the flat steel plate when the concrete is
still fresh and wet during the construction stage, because
the flexure rigidity is only contributed by the flat steel
plate and is not sufficient to sustain the weight of wet
concrete of big span slabs, which will also result in small
spans like metal slabs.
The authors have recently conducted a series of
experiments on a new type of composite slab named flat
steel plate-concrete composite slab. As illustrated in
Figure 1, common flat steel plate instead of profiled steel
sheeting was adopted as bottom metal slab, and the flat
steel plate was connected to concrete by a type of
perforbond shear connectors (abbreviated here as PBL
shear connectors) instead of stud shear connectors (Li
2009, Nishiumi 1999, Yeol 2006 ). During the
construction stage, the PBL shear connectors could also
serve as stiffeners or ribs to enhance the flat steel plates
bending capacity and flexure rigidity, with which the
slabs span can be substantially enlarged. The PBL shear
connectors could develop significant stress transfer
between the steel and concrete so that the flat steel plate
could fully serve as the reinforcing steel bars, and
therefore no other reinforcement is needed. This kind of
composite slab offers several significant advantages
including large bending capacity and flexure rigidity,
reducing cost and flexibility as well as simplifying
construction and design for big spans (Ren 2006, Zhao
2006). A series of experiments have been conducted to
study the mechanical performance of this type of
composite slab (Yang 2009,2011,2012). In practice, the
composite slab rests on steel and therefore forms a new
kind of composite beam as shown in Figure 2, whose
composite actions were achieved by the shear the studs
shear connectors. Figures 2a and 2b present a schematic
of the construction of the composite beam. This kind of
flat steel plate-concrete composite slabs and the
composite beams were be used in some buliding floors in
China, and were also used in the Dongping bridge in
Guangdong province in Southern China, which were
showed in the Figure 3(Ren 2006, Zhao 2006).

Fig 1. The schematic of flat steel plate-concrete composite

slabs.

(a) Cross section

(b) Perspective view

Fig 2. The schematic of the composite beam.

(a) The panoramic view

(b) The composite slabs
Fig 3. The Dongping bridge in Fushan city of Guangdong
province, China.

In order to establish the design methods of this

composite beam, the bending capacity and the flexure
rigidity under positive (sagging) and negative (hogging)
moment were studied by experiments. In the experiment,
two composite beam specimens were tested: one
specimen was tested under sagging bending moment, and
the other one was tested under hogging bending moment,
which means the specimen was turned over for testing.
The results of these tests provide the basis of a design
method presented later in this paper.

79

Yang et al.

2 TEST PROGRAM

and 65mm-height, and the measured yield stress and

ultimate stresses of the shear connectors were 440MPa
and 560MPa. It should be noted that the main aim of this
experiment was not to study the influence of shear
connectors but rather to examine the bending capacity of
the composite beams with full composite action.
Therefore the stud shear connectors were designed to
ensure full composite action between the steel shape and
the composite slab, and the spacing of the stud shear
connectors were somewhat narrower than the calculated
spacing of 135mm, which was calculated by according to
procedures of designing codes for other kind of
steel-concrete composite beams. Considering that the
shear capacity of stud shear connectors in the tension
zone may be somewhat smaller than that in the
compression zone, the stud shear connectors were finally
laid with spacing of 120mm in Specimen CBZ and 80mm
in specimen CBF respectively. In order to ensure
sufficient connection integrity of the flat steel plate and
the steel shape during the construction stage, the flat steel
plates were welded to the top flange of the steel shape
with 6mm-height fillet welds. These welds acted as
additional shear connectors but were ignored in the
designing of specimens.
All the key size parameters and key material
properties such as compression strength of concrete and
arrangement of studs are listed in Table 1. The details of
the specimens cross-sections are denoted in Figure 4a
and Figure 4b.

2.1 Test specimens

Two composite beam specimens labeled as CBZ and
CBF have similar cross-section shape and geometry
dimensions. The steel shapes were Chinese steel standard
shapes HM250175, in which the thickness of web and
flanges were 7mm and 11mm respectively, and the
measured yield stress and ultimate stress of the steel
shape were 303MPa and 490MPa. In order to avoid local
buckling of the steel shape at the load points, some
vertical stiffeners were adopted.
The thickness of the composite slabs in both
specimens was 100mm, the thickness of the flat steel
plate in the composite slabs was 6mm, and the measured
yield stress and ultimate stress of the flat steel plates were
310MPa and 434MPa. In the composite slabs of both
specimens CBZ and CBF, the reinforcing steel bars at the
transverse direction were arranged at spacing of 200mm
with 12mm diameter, and at the longitudinal direction,
the reinforcing steel bars were arranged with the total
area of 1696 square mm (15 species of 12mm diameter
rebars) for specimen CBZ and 2148 square mm (19
species of 12mm diameter rebars) for specimen CBF
respectively. The measured yield stress and ultimate
stress were 320MPa and 425MPa respectively. The
concrete grades in composite slabs of two specimens
were not the same: the concrete strength grade in
specimen CBZ was C25 with the aim of making the
whole composite slab in the compression zone to avoid
concrete cracking, while the concrete strength grade of
CBF was C45 with the aim of postponing the concrete
cracking and therefore improving the shear capacity of
the stud shear connectors in the tension zone. The test
cube compression strength of concrete C25 and C45 were
23.0MPa and 44.9MPa respectively.
In both specimens, the PBL shear connectors were
arranged at the space of 240mm, the size of the each PBL
shear connector plate was 1470565mm, and the
measured yield stress and the ultimate stress of the PBL
plate were 304MPa and 497MPa respectively. A series of
holes with a diameter of 40mm were spaced at 100mm in
the PBL shear connector, and one steel bar with a
diameter of 10mm was laid through each hole in the PBL
connector. Herein, the rebar combined with the concrete
between the rebar and hole acted as a dowel, which could
transfer the shear force between the steel plate and
concrete. The diameter of the bar and the diameter of the
hole both play important roles on the shear capacity of
the PBL shear connectors. For the purposes of the study
described in this paper, the diameter of the holes and the
bars were designed according to the experimental results
reported in reference (Yang 2009).
Specimen CBZ and specimen CBF had the same kind
of stud shear connectors with the size of 16mm-diameter

(a) Schematic of steel skeleton of specimen CBZ

(b) Photo of steel skeleton of specimen CBZ

Fig 4. Section details of the composite beam specimen CBZ.
Note: the difference between the steel skeleton of specimen
CBZ and CBF was the spacing of shear connectors and quantity
of the longitudinal rebars.

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Yang et al.

Table 1. Geometry size and key parameters of specimens.

Steel shape

Studs arrangement

PBL shear
connectors

Concrete
compression
strength/MPa

1200

HM250175

1665@120

1470565@240

23.0

1200

HM250175

1665@80

1470565@240

44.9

Specimen
No.

Span
/mm

Height
/mm

Width
/mm

CBZ

3300

350

CBF

3300

350

2.2 Test load-setup

Composite beam specimens CBZ and CBF were
loaded under 4-point symmetric loading setup as
illustrated in Figures 5 and 6. However, specimen CBZ
was placed with steel-concrete composite slabs upward
(in the tension zone) and wide flange steel shape
downward (in the compression zone) for investigating
sagging bending (or positive bending) performance, while
specimen CBF was placed in the opposite direction, with
the composite slabs downward and the steel shape
upward for investigating hogging bending (or negative
moments) performance. Static loads were applied in the
loading point position (seen in Figure 5) by two hydraulic
jacks. During the experiments, all the deflections of the
specimens at the central point, the two loading points and
the two supports were measured by LVDTs. In addition,
LVDTs labeled D47 and D48 were placed at two ends of
the specimens to measure the slip between the steel shape
and concrete slab. All the strains in the steel beam flanges
and web, the flat steel plates and the concrete were
measured by strain gauges. Two series of strain gauges
(S17, S18, S19, S26 and S27, S28, S29, S30) were set
along the height of the steel shape in both sides of the
specimens at the center point to verify the plane sections
hypothesis. The layout of LVDTs (from D41 to D48) is
presented in Figure 5 and Figure 6.

(a) Specimen CBZ

(b) Specimen CBF
Fig 6. Photos of test setup of two specimens.

2.3 Test phenomenon

Two specimens were loaded monotonically and
statically by two 1000kN hydraulic jacks. At the
beginning of the test, a 5kN force was applied firstly to
check the test setup. Following that, the load was
increased with load steps of 2kN for observing and
recording the cracks of the specimens.
Specimen CBZ was loaded under sagging bending
moment, and concrete was mainly at the composite zone.
The first batch of cracks didnt appear until the specimen
was loaded to about 70% to 80% of maximum load Pu.
The first batch cracks were longitudinal cracks and
appeared initially near the ends of the specimens. With
the load increasing, the longitudinal cracks progressed
quickly toward the load points. When the specimen was
loaded to 95%Pu, two new longitudinal cracks that were
almost parallel to the first longitudinal cracks appeared.
When the specimen was loaded to its ultimate load Pu, the
top concrete of the composite slab began to crush and
drop. The deformation of the specimen increased quickly
after concrete crushing, but the load decreased slowly.
With increasing deformation, the concrete of the top
surface at mid-span were severely crushed, the load
began to decrease fast, and the experiment was stopped.
Photos of the crack patterns and the final failure modes of
specimen CBZ are shown in Figures 7 and 8.

Specimen CBZ

(a) Specimen CBF

Fig 5. Schematic of test setup of two specimens

81

Yang et al.

(b) Photo of cracks

Fig 9. Cracks of specimen CBF

Fig 7. Crack patterns of specimen CBZ

Fig 8. Final failure mode of specimen CBZ

Fig 10. Final failure modes of specimen CBF

For specimen CBF, the composite slab of specimen

CBF was in the tension zone, and the concrete in the
composite slab was tensed and cracked very early. The
cracks were sequentially labeled from 1 to 8, and their
locations are shown in Figure 9. When the specimen was
loaded to about 20% Pu, the first batch of cracks 1, 2, and
3 were observed in the mid-span cross section of the
specimens, and these cracks propagated transversely.
When the load increased to about 35% Pu, the second
batch of cracks 7 and 8 appeared, which were almost
parallel to the first batch of cracks. As the load increased
to 50% Pu, some other new transverse cracks (4, 5 and 6)
appeared, and with the load increasing progressively,
most of the main cracks gradually caused some new tiny
cracks. When the load reached Pu, the steel shape at the
mid-span section was severely buckled, with the
deformation increasing quickly and the load decreasing
suddenly. All the cracks at the surface of composite slab
are shown in Figure 8, and the final failure modes are
also shown in Figure 10.

2.4 Experimental results

The load-deflection curves of specimen CBZ and
specimen CBF are presented in Figure 11. These figures
show that the failure progress of both specimens can be
divided into four stages, which can be referred to as the
elastic stage, the elastoplastic stage, the plastic stage and
the failure stage. And from the curves, it could be also
concluded that both of the two specimens had good
ductility. Neither specimen failed suddenly, which
demonstrated reasonable ductility and bending capacity
with relatively large deflections. Ductility ratios of
specimen CBZ and CBF were 5.2 and 5.4 respectively;
here the deformation ductility ratios were calculated as
the ultimate deflection divided by the yielding deflection,
in which the ultimate deflection was the deflection when
the load was 85% Pu at the load-descending stage, and the
yielding deflection was the deflection referring to the
steel shape yielded, which was determined from the strain
gauges of steel shape flanges and web.

(a) Scheme of cracks

(a) Specimen CBZ

82

Yang et al.

When the height of the compression zone x is smaller

than hc, it is considered that the steel beam and bottom
steel plate is tensed to yielding stress. The following
formulas can be obtained from equilibrium conditions.
The bending capacity of composite beams can be
calculated from formula (1).
1
1

x
x
1
x
M u Ab f p h ts As f p h hs Acx f p hc tcx
2
2
2
2
2
2

(1)

1
x
x
x
Au f p hc ts tcx A's1 f 'y (a 's1 ) A's 2 f 'y (a 's 2 )
2
2
2
2

(b) Specimen CBF

Fig 11. Load vs. deflection curves of two specimens

Where x is the calculation depth of the compression

zone of concrete, and can be calculated by formula (2)

3 BENDING CAPACITIES
3.1 Basic assumptions

During the process of examining these two specimens,

no obvious slipping either on the interface between flat
steel plate and concrete or on the interface between steel
shape and composite slab was observed, which denoted
that the specimens were fully connected and composited.
For this kind of composite beam, the flat steel plate and
concrete in the composite slab was only connected by the
PBL shear connectors. But the interaction of steel shape
and composite slabs were not only attributed by the stud
shear connectors but also attributed by the fillet welds
between the steel shapes top flange and flat steel plate,
and for safety and simplification, the fillet welds that
could be regarded as additional shear connectors and not
be counted in designing.
From the experimental results reported above and
others research results (Nie 2004), it could be concluded
that two composite specimens were fully shear connected
or fully composited. The following assumptions can be
summarized from these tests:
(1) The plane-section assumption was satisfied.
(2) The composite beam was ductile, and the cross
section could be considered as in wholly plastic stage,
and therefore the stresses of steel shape both at the
tension zone and the compression zone could be taken as
yield stress.
(3) The tension strength of the concrete was relatively
small and was therefore neglected.
(4) The stress of the concrete at the compressive zone
could reach its design compressive strength and the
rectangle stress block method could be used.

Ab As Au Acx f p As1' f y' As' 2 f y'

bc f cm

hc

(2)

(2) Case 2: Neutral axis passes through the web

When the height of the compression zone x is
larger than hc + tcx, it is considered that the steel shape
above the axis and the composite slab are in the
compression state and yielded. The following formulas
can be obtained from equilibrium conditions. The
bending capacity of composite beams can be calculated
as the formula (3).
h ts x hc
1
1
Mu Ab fb (h ts hc ) (As As1 ) f p
2
2
2
x tcx ts
1
1
As1 f p
Au f p ( ts tcx hc )
2
2
2
tcx hc
1
1
'
'
'
Acx f p
As2 f y (a s2 hc ) A's1 f ' y (a's1 hc )
2
2
2

(3)

Where x can be calculated by formula (4)

h hc
As Au Acx f p
Ab

'
'
'
'
hf
A f A f b h f

x
s1 y s 2 y c c cm h f hc

2As f p
2As f p

bc
As2 fy
As1 fy

hc

Acc1 fp

bc x fc

Acc2 fp
Acx fp

Au fp

fc

As fp
Ab fp
fp

aCase 1:Neutral axis is across composite slabs

3.2 Design procedure

bc

3.2.1 Bending capacity under sagging moment

For the composite beams under sagging moment, the
bending capacity varies for the variation of neutral axis,
and in order to simplify the design procedure, two
different cases could be defined as the following, which
are also denoted in Figure 12. For simplification, the
contribution of two side plates in the composite beam
specimens with area of Acc was not taken into account.
(1) Case 1: Neutral axis passes through the slab

hc

fc
As2 fy

Acc fp
x

y
fp

(As-As1) fp

b c h c fc
As1 fy
Acx fP
Au fp
As1 fp

Ab fp
fp

bCase 2:Neutral axis is across steel shape

Fig 12. Bending capacity calculation diagram of CBZ

83

(4)

Yang et al.

3.2.2 Bending capacity under hogging moment

For the composite beams under hogging moment, the
bending capacity also varies for the variation of neutral
axis, and two different cases could also be defined as the
following, which are denoted in Figure 13.
(1) Case 1: Neutral axis passes through the slab
When the height of the compression zone x is smaller
than hc, it is considered that both the steel shape and flat
steel plate are compressed to yield. The following
formulas can be obtained from equilibrium conditions,
and the bending capacity of composite beams could be
calculated by the formula (5).

Ab f b ( t cx
Acx f p

hc

bc

Acc1 fP

Au fp
As1 fp
fp
x

hc

As3 fy
bc

As1 fy
As2 fy

(As-As1) fp
Ab fp
Acx fP
Acc fp

bCase 2:Neutral axis is across the steel beam

Fig.13 Bending capacity calculation diagram of CBF
x
x
x
M u A's1 f 'y (a 's1 ) A's 2 f 'y (a 's 2 ) A's 3 f 'y (a 's3 )
2
2
2

t
1
x
x
Ab f p h ts Acx f p cx hc
2
2
2
2

h
ts
x
x
Au f p tcx hc As f p tcx ts f hc
2
2
2
2

(5)

Ab As Au Acx f p bc hc f cm

bc f cm

2Acc f p
hc

As1' f y' As' 2 f y' As3' f y'

bc f cm

2Acc f p

hc

2
t cx hc
2

1
2

hc ) As 1 f p

Au f p ( h

As' 1 f y' As' 2 f y' As' 3 f y'

2 As f p

As1

1
2

h x t s hc

ts

(7)

2
1
2

hc )

(8)

h f hc

x hc tcx t s
As
hf

(6)
As2 is the area of the steel web that is beneath the
neutral axis, and can be calculated by formula

Where x can be calculated by formula (6)

x

ts

In all the formulas above, the variables are defined as

the following:
y is the distance between the centroid of the steel
shape and the surface of the composite slab;
A's1 is the area of the section of the steel bars in the
bottom of the composite slab;
A's2 is the area of the section of the steel bars in the
middle of the composite slab;
A's3 is the area of the section of the steel bars at the
top of the composite slab;
bc is the width of the composite slab of the composite
beam;
tcx is the thickness of the bottom steel plate of the
composite slab;
tc is the thickness of the web of the steel shape;
Au, Ab are the areas of the upper and the bottom flange
of the steel shape, respectively;
As1 is the area of the web of the steel shape;
As1 is the area of the steel web that is above the
neutral axis, and can be calculated by formula

aCase 1:Neutral axis is across composite slabs

hc )

t x t cx
1
hc ) ( As As1 ) f p s
2
2

2 As f p

Au f p
Acx fp
bc (hc-x) fc

Acc2 fp

t cx hc h

As Au Ab Acx Acc f p h f

hf

As fp

As1 fy
As2 fy

hc ) A ' s 2 f ' y ( a ' s 2

Where x can be calculated by formula (8)

Ab f p

As3 fy

A ' s 1 f ' y ( a ' s1

fp

M u A's3 f ' y (a 's3

As 2 As As1

(6)

h x ts
As
hf

(10)
Acx is the area of the bottom steel plate of the
composite slab;
fp is the design value of yield strength of the steel
plate or steel beam;
fy is the design value of yield strength of the steel
bar;
fc is the compressive strength of the concrete;
hs is the height of the steel shape;
as1, as2 and as3 are the distances from the surface of
the concrete flange to the centroid of the bottom steel bar,
the intermediate steel bar and the upper steel bar.

hc

(2) Case 2: Neutral axis passes through the web

When the height of the compression zone x is larger
than hc + tcx, it is considered that the steel shape above
the axis, the bottom steel plate, and side steel plate as
well as the composite slab were all in tension state, and
the steel shape underneath the axis was in the
compression state. The following formulas can be
obtained from equilibrium conditions. The bending
capacity of composite beams can be calculated by the
formula (7).

84

Yang et al.

3.3 Verification of the design procedure

ACKNOLEDGEMENTS

Based on design procedure described above, the

bending capacity of composite beams both under the
sagging moment and hogging moment were easily
calculated. The calculated result of the bending capacity
of specimen CBZ was 349.4kN-m, and the tested result
of that was 376.4kN-m, which were in good agreement.
The calculated result of bending capacity of specimen
CBF was 286.9kN.m, and the tested result of that was
284.4kN.m, which were also in good agreement.
Therefore, the bending capacity of this kind of composite
beam can be calculated by the proposed calculation
formulas.

The experiments were sponsored by the National

Natural Science Foundation of China (Program
No.50708040 and No.50978107) and supported by the
Program for Changjiang Scholars and Innovative
Research Team at the University of China as well as the
Program for Innovative Research Team of Xian
University of Architecture and Technology.
REFERENCES
Johnson, R.P. 2004. Composite structures of steel and concrete:
beams, slabs, columns, and frames for buildings. Blackwell
Pub.
Rackham, J.W. Couchman, G.H. & Hicks, S.J. 2009. Composite
Slabs and Beams Using Steel Decking: Best Practice for
Design and Construction [M], Steel Construction Institute.
Oehlers, D.J. & Bradford, M. A. (1995) composite steel and
concrete structural members-fundamental behavior [M],
Pergamon, Elsevier Scienc.
Uy, B. & Bradford, M.A. 1994. Inelastic local buckling
behavior of thin steel plates in profiled composite beams.
The Structural Engineer, Vol. 72, No, 16, 259-267.
Roberto, T.L. 2004. Composite construction in steel and
concrete V: Proceedings of the 5th international conference:
July 18-23, Kruger National Park, Berg-en-Dal,
Mpumalanga, South Africa
Roberto, T.L. 2008. Composite construction in steel and
concrete VI: Proceedings of the 2008 Composite
Construction in Steel and Concrete Conference, July 20-24,
Tabernash, Colorado
Li, S.Q., Wan, S. & Chen, J.B. (2009). Test study of a new type
of shear connector, International Journal of Bridge
Construction, (04), 17-19.
Nishiumi K. & Okimoto, M. 1999. Shear Strength of Perfobond
Rib Shear Connector under the Confinement, International
Journal of Japanese Society of Civil Engineering, 633,
193-203.
Yeol, H. & Jeong, Y. J. 2006. Experimental investigation on
behavior of steelconcrete composite bridge decks with
perfobond ribs [J]. Journal of Construction Steel Research,
62(5): 463-471.
Zhan, Y.L. & Zhao, R.D. 2006. Experimental study and
theoretical analysis on steel-concrete composite bridge
decks. Journal of Southwest Jiaotong University, 41(3):
360-365. (in Chinese)
Ren, J. 2006. Experimental study on fatigue behaviors of
steel-concrete composite structures. [D], Southwest Jiaotong
University, China. (in Chinese)
Yang, Y., Zhu, G., Zhou, P,J. & Nie, J,G etc. 2009,
Experimental study on the mechanical behavior and design
method of plane steel-plate and concrete composite bridge
decks, China Civil Engineering Journal, 42(12), 135-141.
(in Chinese)
Yang, Y. & Huo, X.D. 2011. Experimental study on fatigue
behavior of steel plate-concrete composite bridge decks,
Engineering Mechanics. 28(8): 37-45. (in Chinese)
Yang, Y., Zhou, X.W., J Xue, J.Y. & Huo, X.D. 2012.
Experimental study on fatigue behavior of composite
girders with steel plate-concrete composite decks, China
Civil Engineering Journal, 45(6). (in Chinese)
Nie, J.G., Fan, J.S. & Cai, S.C. 2004. Stiffness and Deflection
of SteelConcrete Composite Beams under Negative
Bending. The Structure Engineer, 130(11): 1842-1851.

4 CONCLUSIONS
Two specimens labeled CBZ and CBF of composite
beams with flat steel plate-concrete composite slabs were
tested, and the performances of the composite beam
under hogging and sagging bending moments were both
examined. The following conclusions can be drawn from
these experiment results.
1 Specimen CBZ was tested under sagging
bending moment and specimen CBF was tested under
hogging bending moment. Both specimens failed in
flexural failure modes, and behaved very well with large
bending capacity, flexure rigidity, and good ductility.
2The two specimens were first designed and
connected with full composite action, which was verified
by the experimental results that showed no measurable
slip between the interface of steel shape, flat steel plate
and concrete. For this kind of composite beam, the
composite action of steel shape and composite slabs was
mainly attributed by the stud shear connectors, and was
also enhanced by the fillet welds joining the flat plate to
the beam flange, although it could be ignored for safety
and simplification reasons.
3The plane-section assumption was verified by
experimental observation and measuring slippage and
strains of the cross section, and therefore bending
capacity of this kind of composite beam both under
hogging and sagging bending moment could be analyzed
based on the plane-section assumption.
4Based on the plane-section assumption, a set of
methods for calculating bending capacities of this kind of
composite beam both under sagging and hogging bending
moment was proposed, and the bending capacities of two
specimens were calculated, which were in good
agreement with the tested results.
(5) The shear connectors played very important roles
in the mechanical performance of this kind of composite
beam, and further research should be focused on the
design of the shear connectors, as well as the contribution
of the fillet welds between flat steel plate and steel shape.

85

11th International Conference on

Advances in Steel and Concrete Composite Structures
Tsinghua University, Beijing, China, December 3-5, 2015

NUMERICAL ANALYSIS OF STEEL-CONCRETE-STEEL

SANDWICH COMPOSITE BEAMS AND SHELLS
J.B. Yana,*, J.Y.R. Liewb,c
a,*

Department of Civil Engineering, Tianjin University, Tianjin 300072, China

E-mail: ceeyanj@163.com
b
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, National University of Singapore, Singapore
c
College of Civil Engineering, Nanjing Tech University, Nanjing, China
E-mail: ceeljy@nus.edu.s
ABSTRACT
Keywords:
Steel-concrete-steel structure;
Finite element analysis; Headed
stud; Sandwich structure;
Damage plasticity; Numerical
analysis.

Steel-concrete-steel (SCS) sandwich beams and shells have been developed for building and
offshore constructions. This paper investigates the structural performances of SCS sandwich
composite beams and shells through the finite element (FE) analysis method. Three-dimensional
nonlinear finite element models were developed for the ultimate strength analysis of such SCS
sandwich composite beams and shells. The FE models considered complex geometric
nonlinearities of dozens of stud connectors in the structure, complex interaction between the
connectors and concrete and material nonlinearities of steel and concrete used in the structure. In
the developed FE model for curved SCS sandwich shell, the stud connectors and steel shells
adopted a continuum damage model to phenomenological describe the damage evolution in the
steel material. The accuracy of the finite element analyses were established by comparing the
predicted results with the quasi-static tests on the SCS sandwich beams and shells.

Shear Wall

Steel-concrete-steel
sandwich deck
A

1 INTRODUCTION
Steel-concrete-steel (SCS) sandwich composite
structure consists of two external steel face plates and an
internal concrete core bonded together at their interface
using mechanical shear connectors to form a composite
panel. SCS sandwich structures exhibit superiorities in
applications that require high strength, high ductility, and
high blast and impact resistances. This type of structure
has great potential for applications in hulls of cargo tank,
bridge decks, Arctic offshore structures, offshore decks,
shear walls, protective structures, nuclear structures,
submerged tunnels, and LNG or oil containers as shown
in Fig. 1 (Yan 2012, Yan et al. 2014a).

Steel face plate

Concrete

J-hook
connectors
Beam

J-hook connector

Main Beam
Sea level

A-A section

(b) Offshore deck

Concrete
Steel plate

(c) Shear wall

Protective structure
T

Explosion

T= Tension
force

Separation
J-hook
connector

(d) Protective structure

(e) LNG or oil container
Figure 1. Applications of SCS sandwich structures

Outer steel skin

In SCS sandwich structure, mechanical shear

connectors provide localized bonds at discrete points
along the member depending on their spacing. Different
types of shear connectors have been developed and used
in the steel-concrete composite structure, e.g. headed
shear studs and J-hook connectors. The headed studs or
J-hook connectors in SCS sandwich structure not only
served to transfer interfacial shear force and resist
interfacial slip to achieve composite action, but also acted

Concrete core
Inner steel skin

(a) Arctic offshore structure

86

Yan & Liew

2.1 Modelling of headed studs and J-hook connectors

as the shear links to provide transverse shear resistance as

shown in Fig. 2.

Since the strength and force deformation behaviour of

connectors have significant influence on the global
behaviour of SCS sandwich composite structure, their
longitudinal
shear-slip
behaviours
and
axial
tension-elongation behaviours should be properly
simulated in the FE model. A new method was developed
to model a pair of overlapped headed studs or J-hook
connectors in the SCS sandwich structure by using two
rods linked at the centre by a nonlinear spring element as
shown in Fig. 3. The rods were modelled by solid
elements with the same diameter, material property as the
headed studs in the SCS sandwich beam. The spring
element has a physical length of 5 mm with predefined
tension-elongation behaviour of overlapped headed shear
studs obtained from tensile tests. It was also assigned a
much larger linear compression stiffness to make sure the
rods taken the compression and avoid the spring element
failing in compression.

C
M
P

T
T
T
Shear crack in concrete core
C=Compressive forces in the section

T=Tension force of connector

M =Bending moment

P=Tensile forces in the section

=Interfacial shear force in the connector

Figure 2. Functions of the shear connectors in SCS sandwich

structure.

Extensive experimental and analytical studies on the

SCS sandwich composite beams and shells with J-hook
connectors and headed stud connectors have been
reported by Liew and Sohel (2009), Liew et al. (2009),
Liew and Wang (2011), Yan (2012), and Yan et al.
(2014b,c,d, 2015a,b). Though these tests provided
valuable information on understanding the structural
behaviour of these SCS sandwich beams and shells, they
were costing and time consuming and only offered
limited information. The finite element (FE) analysis
provides a convenient tool to simulate the structural
behaviours of these SCS sandwich structures. However,
the presence of headed studs or J-hook connectors
introduces highly complex mechanical interactions
among different materials and creates significant
challenges for a detailed finite element analysis on these
structures, especially in predicting the sequential failure
mechanisms in different materials.
This paper aims to develop the FE models to simulate
the nonlinear behaviour of the SCS sandwich beams,
curved SCS sandwich beams, and SCS sandwich shells
subjected to quasi-static loading. The FE models will: 1)
describe the interaction between the shear studs and the
concrete materials; 2) simulate the damage evolution of
the steel skin under the punching shear mechanism; 3)
and represent the damage conditions in the steel
connectors. The close comparison between the proposed
numerical approaches with the previously reported
experimental investigations confirms the accuracy of the
FE models. Finally, recommended FE models were given
for the analysis of the structural behaviour of the SCS
sandwich structure.

Figure 3. Simulation of the shear connectors in SCS sandwich

structure.

(a) Tensile tests on headed studs and J-hook connectors

30

Tension (kN)

40

20
FE
TU2
TU4

10
0
0

TU1
TU3
TU5

10
20
30
Elongation (mm)

Tension (kN)

Applied Force
Shear connector

T1
T2
T3
Nonlinear
Spring

30
20
10
0
0

Elongation (mm)

12

(b) Validation of J-hook

(c) Validation of headed studs
Figure 4. Tensile tests on headed studs and J-hook and
validations of nonlinear springs in the FE models.

2 FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS ON SCS

SANDWICH BEAMS

Tensile tests were carried out to obtain the

tension-elongation behaviours of the overlapped headed
studs and J hook connectors. And these tension versus
elongation behaviours were then assigned to the spring
element that links the top and bottom connectors in the
structure. The defined tension-elongation behaviour for
the nonlinear spring element was compared with the

The SCS sandwich beams were as shown in Fig. 2.

General finite element (FE) program ABAQUS was used
to model the SCS sandwich structure with overlapped
headed studs (ABAQUS 2009).

87

Yan & Liew

this contact formulation. General contact interaction with

hard contact formulation in normal and frictionless in
tangential direction was used to simulate the interaction
between the concrete core and the connectors.
Symmetric boundary conditions were applied on the
surface along the longitudinal centreline and surface at
the mid-span. The end support was restrained to move in
any direction but can rotate along its centreline.
Displacement controlled loading was applied to the load
cell which transfers the load to the beam.

tensile tests results in Fig. 4. It can be observed that the

spring element can capture the tension-elongation
behaviours of these connectors used in the sandwich
structure.
2.2 Finite element model
Fig. 5 shows the tests on SCS sandwich beams
reported by Yan et al. (2014c).
= 4 mm for B1
= 6 mm for B2, B4-B7A
= 12 mm for B3

A
Beam B1-B5

2.3 Material models

Beam B6

Beam B7

The concrete damage plasticity model in ABAQUS

was chosen for the core materials. This model is defined
by two failure mechanisms of axial compressive crushing
and tensile cracking of the concrete. The uniaxial
compressive stress-strain curve for the concrete was used
in the FE model. For the tension capacity of the core
material, linear elastic tensile behaviour is assumed
before the crack develops. The cracked concrete can be
simulated by the nonlinear stress-strain behaviour or
fracture energy cracking model. The ultimate tensile
strength of the ULCC was obtained through the splitting
tensile tests on the cylinders. For the fracture energy
parameter, it can be calculated by the following equation
in CEB-FIP (1993)

Spreader
Beam

6
6

B
Beam B8

B-B section

A-A section

Spreader Beam

B
Beam B9

Figure 5. Finite element model for SCS sandwich beam

Three-dimensional eight node continuum element

with reduced integration point and hourglass control
(C3D8R) was employed to model the shear connectors,
concrete core and steel face plates (ABAQUS 2009).
Nonlinear spring model was used to connect the two
overlapped connectors. Considering the symmetry of the
SCS sandwich composite beam, only one quarter of the
beam was modelled. Different mesh sizes were used to
make a balance between the FE analysis accuracy and
computing processing time. The FE model with different
mesh sizes for the concrete core, steel plate and
connectors are shown in Fig. 5.

f
G f G f 0 ck
10

0.7

(1)

where Gf = the fracture energy, Nmm/mm2; Gf0 varies as

the coarse aggregate of the concrete changes, Gf0=0.025
Nmm/mm2 for the d=8 mm coarse aggregate, Gf0=0.030
Nmm/mm2 for the d=16 mm, Gf0=0.058 Nmm/mm2 for
the d=32 mm; d is diameter of the coarse aggregate in the
concrete, mm; fck=compressive strength of the concrete
cylinder, MPa.
Elastic-plastic isotropic material model was used for
both the steel face plates and headed shear studs. This
bi-linear material model consists of two parts that define
the elastic and plastic behaviour of the steel material,
respectively. In the elastic part, the elastic Youngs
modulus E and Poissons ratio were defined for the
steel plate and connectors. For the plastic part as shown
in Fig. 6, the ultimate strength as well as the
corresponding strain was defined in this model.

Figure 5. Finite element model for SCS sandwich beam

Different contact pairs were defined for different

interacting components of SCS sandwich composite
beam. General contact was used among different contact
pairs in the FE model. Friction coefficient 0.5 was used in

88

Yan & Liew

Figure 6. stress-strain curve of steel used in the FE model

Figure 8. Comparisons of the FE predicted load-central

deflection curves with the experimental curves

2.4 Validations of the finite element model

Fig. 9 compares the FEA predicted cracks in the

concrete core with those observed in the tests. It can be
seen that the FEA could capture most of the main cracks
developed in the concrete core.

The FE analyses were validated by 9 tests on SCS

sandwich beams with headed studs reported by Yan et al.
(2014c), 11 tests on sandwich beams with J-hook
connectors reported by Liew and Sohel (2009), and 9
tests on SCS sandwich beams with J-hook connectors and
ultra-lightweight cement composite materials (Yan et al.,
2015b). The details of these specimens can be found in
these references.
The ultimate strengths of the finite element analysis
(FEA) are compared with the test results in Fig. 7. From
this figure, it can be seen that reasonably good
agreements of the FEA are exhibited compared with test
results. The errors of the FE predictions were
within 10%. The average FE prediction-to-test ratio of
ultimate strength is 0.99 with a coefficient of variance
(Cov) of 0.06. Moreover, the FEA predicted the exact
failure modes that were observed during the test.
Fig. 8 compares the predicted load-central deflection
curves with the experimental ones. It shows that the
predicted curves resemble well with the test ones.

The load-end slip behaviors between the concrete core

and bottom steel face plate given by the FEA were
compared with the corresponding experimental load-slip
curves in Fig. 10. The proposed FE model offers
reasonable predictions of the load-slip behavior between
the steel face plate and the concrete core when they were
subjected to static loading with acceptable differences.

-10%

200
100

1
0.8
Mean: 0.99
COV: 0.06

0.6
0.4

0
0

100

200

300

Test (kN)

400

500

10

15

20

25

30

Specimen No.

45

125

Load (kN)

75
50
SCS80 Test
SCS80 FE

25
0
0

10

20

30

Deflection (mm)

30

SLCS200 Test
SLCS200 FE
0

60

10

20

30

Deflection (mm)

Load (kN)

Load (kN)

SLCS100 Test
SLCS100 FE

0
0

10

20

30

40

Deflection (mm)

10

Load (kN)

150

15

Deflection (mm)

J6 Test
J6 FE

50
0
0

10

20

30

50

40

Deflection (mm)

20

40

60

J7 FE
J7 Test

0
0

1
2
Slip (mm)

From these above verification works, the proposed FE

model is shown to be capable of predicting the structural
behaviors of the SCS sandwich beams with overlapped
headed stud connectors and J-hook connectors in terms of
the failure mode, ultimate strength, load-deflection
behavior, deformed shapes, interfacial slip between the
steel face plate and concrete core, and crack patterns in
the concrete core.

J7 Test
J7 FE

2
4
Slip (mm)

50

100

100

J6 Test
J6 FE

50

Figure 10. Load-slip behavior between the steel face plate and
concrete

150

200

100

J1 Test
J1 FE

3
6
Slip (mm)

150

50

100

100

SLCS150 Test
SLCS150 FE

1
2
Slip (mm)

150

150

20

B5 FE
B5 Test

200

40

200

40

20

200

40

40

400

15

Load (kN)

100

60

600

Load (kN)

Figure 7. Comparisons of the FE predictions on ultimate

resistances with the test values

Load (kN)

+10%

300

Load (kN)

FE to Test Ratio

FE Prediciton (kN)

400

Load (kN)

(b) Comparisons for B7

Figure 9. Comparisons of the crack patterns

1.2

500

Load (kN)

(a) Comparisons for B6

80

Deflection (mm)

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Yan & Liew

The proposed FE model can be also applied to the

structures with other types of interlocked or overlapped
shear connectors that work in pairs. The key elements are
the simulations on the structural behaviors of the basic
component, i.e., a pair of connectors. The simulated
structural behaviours include longitudinal shear-slip
behaviour and axial tension-elongation behaviours. For
the longitudinal shear-slip behaviour of a pair of
overlapped connectors, the embedding depth and
diameter of the connectors were simulated in the FE
model. For the axial tension-elongation behaviour, tensile
tests need to be carried out to obtain the necessary
information to build the FE model.

Figure 10. FE model for curved SCS sandwich beams

3.2 Material model

The steel skins and connectors adopt the same model
as that used for the SCS sandwich beams in section 2.3 as
shown Fig. 6.
Concrete damage plasticity (CDP) model in
ABAQUS material library is used to model the concrete
core in the curved SCS sandwich beams. Two failure
mechanisms, i.e., compressive crushing and tensile
cracking of the concrete, are assumed in this model. In
CDP model, it needs to specify the compressive and
tensile behaviour in terms of plasticity and damage
parameters.
Finally, the tensile and compressive stress versus
plastic strain as well as damage plasticity versus plastic
strain relationships of the concrete used in the curved
SCS sandwich beam are given in Fig. 11. The other
plasticity parameters including the dilation angles of 36,
flow potential eccentricity of 0.1, and ratio of the
biaxial/uniaxial compressive strength ratio of 1.16 are set
for this CDP model.

3 FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS ON CURVED

SCS SANDWICH BEAMS
3.1 Finite element model
Experimental studies on the curved SCS sandwich
beam have been reported by Yan et al. (2015c). The
details of these specimens can be found in the reference.
Fig. 9 illustrates the curved SCS sandwich beams.

Outer curved
steel plate

Side sealing
steel plate

Headed studs with

overlapped length

Inner curved
steel plate
L
R

tt
hc
tb

St
Sb

R
O

Figure 9. Curved SCS sandwich beams

A pair of interacting stud connectors in curved SCS

sandwich beam has been simplified by two cylindrical
stud connectors linked by a three-dimensional spring
element at the geometry centre as that introduced in
section 2. Three-dimensional eight node continuum
element in the ABAQUS element library with reduced
integration point and hourglass control (C3D8R) is used
to simulate different components in the curved SCS
sandwich beam. The FE model for the curved SCS
sandwich beam is as shown in Fig. 10.

(a) Definition of the

compressive hardening data in
ABAQUS
60

(b) Definition of the

compressive hardening data
in ABAQUS
Damage Variable Dc

1.0

c (MPa)

0.8

40

0.6
0.4

20

0.2

0
0.000

0.002

0.004

0.006

Inelastic Strain

(c) Compressive stress-strain

curve

90

0.0
0

0.01
0.02
0.03
Inelastic Strain

(d) Compression damage

model

0.04

Yan & Liew

1.0

3.0
2.0
1.0
0.0
0.000

0.002

0.004

Inelastic Strain

0.006

0.6
0.4
0.2
0.0
0.000

300

200

100
CB3 Test
CB3 FE

0.004

0.00

Inelastic Strain

10

20

Deflection (mm)

200
100

CB4 Test
CB4 FE

0.002

30

10

15

20

Deflection (mm)

Figure 13. Validations of the load-central deflection curves

(e) Tensile stress-strain curve

(f) Tension damage model
Figure 11. Concrete damage model in ABAQUS and the used
model for curve SCS sandwich beam

Figures 14(a)~(c) shows the comparisons of the

experimentally observed cracks in the concrete core of
the tested curved SCS sandwich beams with those
observed from the FE analyses. The contour plot of the
tensile damage variable, i.e., DAMAGET is used to
represent the tensile cracks in the concrete. These
comparisons of FE predicted cracks with those
experimentally observed cracks in the concrete show that
the FE model can capture the main tensile shear cracks in
the concrete core for the nine tested specimens. Moreover,
the FE model can also predict the buckling of the steel
face plates in curved SCS sandwich beam with partial
composite action as shown in Fig. 14 (b).

3.3 Validations of the finite element model

The FEM developed in this paper is validated by nine
quasi-static tests on curved SCS sandwich beams (Yan et
al., 2015c). The validations include the ultimate load
carrying capacities, load-central deflection curves, cracks
in the concrete core, and failure mode.
Fig. 12 compares the experimental ultimate load
carrying capacities of the nine curved SCS sandwich
beams with the predicted values by the FE analyses. The
average test -to- FE prediction ratio is 1.03 with a
coefficient of variation (COV) of 0.03. This implies the
FE model can predict well the ultimate load carrying
capacities of the curved SCS sandwich beam.
Test-to-prediction Ratio

400

0.8

Load (kN)

4.0

300

Load (kN)

Damage Variable Dt

Tensile Stress (MPa)

5.0

1.2
1
0.8
Mean: 1.03
COV: 0.03

0.6

(a) Comparisons for CB2

0.4
0

10

Specimen No.

Figure 12. Scatter of the test-to-FE prediction ratios

Fig. 13 compares the experimental load-central

deflection curves with those obtained from the FE
analyses. It shows that 1) the numerical load-deflection
curves resemble reasonably well with the experimental
curves; 2) there are still some differences in the elastic
stiffness of the load-deflection behaviours for some cases.
These differences in the load-deflection behaviours
between the numerical analysis and tests are caused by
1) The horizontal movements of the supports.
2) The movements between the support and specimen.

300

400

150

Load (kN)

600

Load (kN)

450

CB1 Test

(b) Comparisons for CB5

200

CB2 Test
CB2 FE

CB1 FE

(c) Comparisons for CB6

Figure 14. Comparisons of the cracks in the core between the

0
0

10

15

Deflection (mm)

20

10

20

30

Deflection (mm)

40

91

Yan & Liew

FE analysis and tests

The above validations prove that the numerical FE

analyses agree well with the test results in terms of
ultimate load carrying capacity, load-central deflection
behaviours, cracks in the core materials, and buckling of
the steel face plates. That implies the developed FE model
can be used to predict the ultimate strength behaviour of
the curved SCS sandwich beam.

(c) Simulation of concrete core with holes

Figure 16. FE model with full geometry simulation of headed
shear studs

4 FINITE ELEMENT MODEL FOR SCS

SANDWICH SHELLS

Continuum mechanics based on isotropic hardening

material model is incapable of simulating material
separation caused by the punching shear in the steel shell
and the shearing mechanism in the connector frequently
observed in the experiments (Yan 2012, Yan et al. 2015d).
This paper, therefore, adopts the continuum damage model
(CDM) in ABAQUS material library. The CDM integrates
a continuum damage variable in the constitutive
relationship of the material, and phenomenologically
describes the damage evolution in a metallic material
caused by the fracture failure under both tension and shear
actions. Fig. 17 shows the calibration of the damage
parameters for the steel shells used in the FE model
through comparing the tensile tests on steel coupons. More
detailed information on this calibration process is reported
by the authors (Yan et al., 2015e), and herein not
presented.

4.1 FE model
Yan (2012) and Yan et al. (2015d) has reported nine
large scale tests on SCS sandwich shell structures. Fig.
15 shows the geometry of these SCS sandwich shells.
Figure 15 shows the FE model that includes the full
details of the headed shear stud connectors in the SCS
sandwich shell. Figure 16 illustrates the simulation of
different components in the FE model, i.e. steel shells,
concrete core, and connectors. Figures 16(a), (b), and (c)
display the detailed FE model, steel shell, and concrete
core, respectively. All these components adopted the
C3D8R continuum solid element in the FE model. The
concrete core adopts the same material model as that used
for the curved SCS sandwich beam in section 3.

Figure 15. Details of SCS sandwich shell

Figure 17. Experimental and numerical tensile test on HSS and

4mm thick steel plate

4.2 Validations
Figure 18 compares the load-central deflection curves
computed from FE analyses with the experimental
measurements. The numerical load-central deflection
curves resemble reasonably well the experimental curves.
The average test-to-prediction ratio for the seven reported
tests (Yan et al., 2012) is 0.99 with a coefficient of
variation (COV) 5.4%.

(a) FE model for SCS sandwich shell

(b) Simulation of steel shell with headed stud

Figure 18. Comparisons of load-central deflection curves

between FE analysis and test

Figure 19 compares the numerically predicted cracks

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Yan & Liew

developed for SCS sandwich beam, curved SCS

sandwich beam, and SCS sandwich shell structure.
The simplified FE models for flat and curved SCS
sandwich beam proved to be capable of providing
simulations on the basic unit in the structure. More
importantly, these two FE models significantly reduced
the number of the elements, simplified the interaction
between the connectors and concrete, and avoided the
elements being distorted. All these advantages increased
the computational efficiency and improved the
convergence of the FE analysis.
The developed FE model for SCS sandwich shells
employed concrete damage plasticity model to simulate
the nonlinear softening behaviour of the concrete and
continuous damage models for the steel materials
including the steel shells and stud connectors. The
continuous damage model for the steel materials was
firstly calibrated by the tensile tests on the steel coupons,
and then used in the FEM for the SCS sandwich shell to
simulate tensile and shear damage of the steel. Through
the validations against seven full scale tests on the SCS
sandwich shells, the FEM demonstrates reasonable
estimations on ultimate strength behaviour of the SCS
sandwich shell.

in the side surfaces of the concrete core with the observed

cracks from the tests.
The FE method forecasts
schematically the occurrence of the concrete cracks in the
specimens shown in Fig. 19. In addition, the FE method
predicts closely the locations of the punching shear
failure in the outer steel shell for different specimens as
reflected in Fig. 20.

(a) SCS sandwich shell SB6

7 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors would like to acknowledge the research
grant R-302-501-002-490 received from the Maritime
and Port Authority of Singapore for conducting parts of
the works reported herein.

(b) SCS sandwich shell SB4

Figure 19. Comparisons of cracks in the concrete core

Test

8 REFERENCES

FE

ABAQUS (2009), User manual Version 6.9, Providence, RI,

USA: DS SIMULIA Corp.
Liew,
J.Y.R.,
Sohel,
K.M.A. 2009.
Lightweight
steel-concrete-steel sandwich system with J-hook
connectors. Engineering Structures 31: 1166-1178.
Liew, J.Y.R., Sohel, K.M.A., Koh, C.G. 2009. Impact tests on
steelconcretesteel sandwich beams with lightweight
concrete core, Engineering Structures 31(9): 2045-2059.
Liew, J.Y.R., Wang, T.Y. 2011. Novel Steel-Concrete-Steel
Sandwich Composite Plates Subject to Impact and Blast
Load, Advances in Structural Engineering 14(4): 673-687.
Yan,
J.B.
2012.
Ultimate
strength
behavior
of
steel-concrete-steel sandwich composite beams and shells.
PhD Dissertation, National University of Singapore.
Yan, J.B., Liew, J.Y.R., Zhang, M.H., Wang, J.Y. 2014a.
Mechanical properties of mild steel and high strength steel
S690 under low temperature relevant to Arctic environment.
Materials & Design 61: 150-159.
Yan, J.B., Liew, J.Y.R., Sohel, K.M.A., Zhang, M.H. 2014b.
Push-out tests on J-hook shear connectors in
steel-concrete-steel sandwich structure. Materials and
Structures 47(10): 1693-1714.
Yan, J.B., Liew, J.Y.R., Zhang, M.H., Wang, J.Y. 2014c.
Ultimate strength behaviour of steel-concrete-steel
sandwich composite structures, Part 1: Experimental and
analytical Study. Steel and Composite Structure, An
International Journal 17(6): 907-927.
Yan, J.B., Liew, J.Y.R., Zhang, M.H. 2014d. Tensile resistance

Figure 20. Punching shear failure of the steel shell by Test and
FE

5 DISCUSSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

The FE model developed for the SCS sandwich beams in
section 2 is more efficient compared with the rest two
models. However, it cannot simulate the damage of the
steel materials and connectors due to tensile and shear.
The FE models for the SCS sandwich shell overcome this
limit and capture the shear failure in the steel shells and
connectors. However, it reduces the computing
efficiency.
6 CONCLUSIONS
This paper summarizes the developments of
numerical analysis on the Steel-Concrete-Steel (SCS)
sandwich structures. Three FE models have been

93

Yan & Liew

of J-hook connectors used in Steel-Concrete-Steel sandwich
structure. Journal of Constructional Steel Research 100:
146-162.
Yan, J.B., Liew, J.Y.R., Zhang, M.H. 2015a. Shear-tension
interaction
strength
of
J-hook
connectors
in
steel-concrete-steel sandwich structure. Advanced Steel
Construction, An International Journal; 11(1): 72-93.
Yan, J.B., Liew, J.Y.R., Zhang, M.H., Sohel K.M.A. 2015b.
Experimental and analytical study on ultimate strength
behaviour of steel-concrete-steel sandwich composite beam
structures. Materials and Structures 48(5): 1523-1544.
Yan, J.B., Liew, J.Y.R., Qian, X., Wang, J.Y. 2015c. Ultimate
strength behavior of curved steelconcretesteel sandwich
composite beams. Journal of Constructional Steel Research
115: 316328.
Yan, J.B., Liew, J.Y.R., Zhang, M.H. 2015d. Punching shear
resistance
of
steel-concrete-steel
shell
structure.
Engnineering structures, under review.
Yan, J.B., Qian, X., Liew, J.Y.R. 2015e. Damage plasticity
based numerical analysis on Steel-Concrete-Steel sandwich
shells used in the Arctic offshore structure. Engineering
Structures, under review.

94

11th International Conference on

Advances in Steel and Concrete Composite Structures
Tsinghua University, Beijing, China, December 3-5, 2015

EXPERIMENTAL STUDY ON THE FLEXURAL PERFORMANCE

OF CAP DECK COMPOSITE SLABS WITH EMBEDDED
PRE-TENSIONED ELEMENTS
S.H. Choia, J.H. Kyungb, D.K. Kimb, K.C. Songc, & S.M. Choia
a

Department of Architectural Engineering, University of Seoul, Seoul, Korea

E-mails: csh592@uos.ac.kr, smc@uos.ac.kr

Jeil Technos CO.,LTD, Seoul, Korea

E-mails: 991150692@hanmail.net, jihco@naver.com

Mokyang Architects & Engineers Co., Seoul, Korea

E-mail: watch48@naver.com
ABSTRACT

Keywords:
Composite Slab; Pre-tension;
Flexural Performance; Cap Deck

Deck plates are widely used at Korean construction sites.

As the construction of large and

high-rise buildings increases, slim floor system is being increasingly employed. However, slim
floor system using deep decks causes the problems of deflection and local buckling when it is
applied to long-span structures of more than 6 meters.

Therefore, temporary supports are

required to solve the problems. This study suggests employing pre-tensioned elements to cap
decks in order to control the deflection of decks in long span structures without supporting
posts.

It also suggests using the pre-tensioned elements as the tension members of cap deck

composite slabs so that they act as steel members after concrete hardens.

Tests were conducted

to observe the flexural performance of the composite slabs in relation to composite effect
induced by deck plates and the application of pre-tension.

1 INTRODUCTION
Deck plates are widely used at Korean construction
sites.
As the construction of large and high-rise
buildings increases, slim floor system is being
increasingly employed. However, slim floor system
using deep decks causes the problems of deflection and
flexural buckling when it is applied to long-span
structures of more than 6 meters. Therefore, temporary
supports are required to solve the problems. This study
suggests employing pre-tensioned elements to deep decks
with bent ends (hereafter cap decks) in order to control
the deflection of decks in long span structures without
supporting posts.
It also suggests using the
pre-tensioned elements as the tension members of cap
deck composite slabs so that they act as steel members
after concrete hardens. Tests were conducted to observe
the flexural performance of the composite slabs in
relation to composite effect induced by deck plates and
the application of pre-tension.

Figure 1. Slim Floor System

2 PRE-TENSIONING METHOD FOR CAP DECK

COMPOSITE SLABS
In this study to suggest cap deck composite slabs
applicable to long-span structures, preload is applied to
tension members fixed to cap decks in order to induce the
camber of cap decks. Unlike existing pre-tensioning
methods, the ends of tension members are not cut off
after concrete hardens and thus compressive force is not
applied to concrete.
Therefore, tension members
maintain stress, which is the equivalent of applied
preload, after concrete hardens and show structural

95

Choi et al.

assumed that a cap deck is composed of a bottom flange,

a top flange and a web and each of the sections is
completely integrated into concrete at its center in order
for the deck plate to act as a tension member. Figure 4
is the graphical description of the sections. Formula 1
was used to estimate flexural strength. Table 2 shows
the estimated flexural strength of the models.

behavior with their initial stress preserved. Thus, the

structural performance of composite slabs after
concrete-hardening should involve the influence of initial
stress. Figure 2 shows the steps to make a cap deck
composite slab with pre-tensioned elements. Figure 3 is
the graphical description of its concept.

Section

Section
Section

a
a
) + Adi Fdi (d di - )
2
2

M n = At ( Fty - Fts )(d At

Fts
a

Figure 4. graphical description of the sections

Figure 2. steps to make a cap deck composite slab with

pre-tensioned elements

Fd

Cross section of
tension element
Initial stress of
tension element
Depth of concrete
stress block
Yield strength of
Cap Deck

(1)

Fty

Yield strength of tension

element

Effective depth

Adi

Cross section of Cap Deck

ddi

Effective depth of cross

section for Cap Deck

Figure 3. graphical description of cap deck composite slab with

pre-tensioned elements

Table 2. estimated flexural strength of the models

No.

3 ESTIMATION OF LOAD CAPACITY

P(kN)

36.9

88.7

73.5

80.2

90.0

64.9

62.2

3.1 List & variables of analysis models

In order to evaluate the structural performance of

pre-tensioned cap deck composite slabs, analysis models
were created. Variables were the composite effect of
deck plates, the application of pre-tension, the type of
tension members and span. Table 1 is the list of the
models.

4 FLEXURAL PERFORMANCE TESTS

4.1 Specimens & Variables
Loading tests were conducted to observe the flexural
performance of the composite slabs in relation to the
composite effect of cap decks and the application of
pre-tension. Specimens fabricated for the tests were
600mm in width, 7.7m and 9.2m in length and 370mm in
height. SD400, SWPR 7B strands, 1.2t cap decks and
concrete (30MPa) were used to make the specimens.
7 specimens were fabricated and the variables were
the composite effect of deck plates, the application of
pre-tension, the type of tension members and span as in
the case of analysis models.

Table 1. List of models

No.
1
2
3
4

Size of
specimens

600mm
x7,700mm

composite
effect of deck
plates
X

5
6
7

600mm
9,200mm

Type of
tension
element

Tensile
Forces
(ton)

Rebar HD19

7
4

SWPR
7B-12.7mm
X
Rebar HD22

4.2 Fabrication of specimens & Test setup

X
7

As shown in Figure 5, the process of fabricating each

specimen was: assembling a deck plate and fixing lateral
distribution trusses to it; placing tension members and
applying tensile force; placing a mold; and casting and

3.2 Assumptions & Formula

The load capacity of the models was estimated on the
assumption of T-shaped simple beams. It was also

96

Choi et al.

curing concrete. The cap deck of specimen 1 was

removed after concrete hardened to observe flexural
performance in relation to the composite effect of the
deck.

The specimens were tested under monotonic loading

from 2 points in order to prevent shearing force at their
centers. The distance between the 2 loading points was
2 meters as shown in Figure 6.

a) Cap Deck assembly & Anchorage welding

Figure 6. Loading Protocols

4.3 Testing & Result

The tests were conducted at KOLAS-accredited
POSCO Global R&D Center in Songdo, Korea using a
10,000kN UTM. Table 3 shows the estimated load
capacity and maximum load capacity of the specimens.
Figure 7 shows the load-displacement relationship of the
specimens.

b) Introduction of Preload

Figure 7. Load-Displacement relationship of the specimens

Table 3. Estimated load capacity and Maximum load capacity of

the specimens

Estimated load

c) Formwork & Rebar

No.

capacity
(E.L, kN)

d) Concrete Placing & Curing

Figure 5. Specimens making photos

97

Maximum load capacity

M.L

(M.L, kN)

/ E.L

36.92

51.78

140%

88.68

109.11

123%

73.52

98.63

134%

80.24

97.4

121%

89.98

97.5

108%

64.88

69.66

107%

62.20

69.66

112%

Choi et al.

5.2 Influence of preloading

Specimen 2 was compared with specimen 3 and
specimen 4 to observe flexural performance in relation to
the influence of preload applied to tension members.
Comparison between specimen 6 and specimen 7 was
made likewise.
The comparison of the three 7.7-meter-long
specimens showed that flexural performance deteriorated
by 9.6% and 10.7% due to preloading. The difference in
the degree of applied preload between specimen 3 and
specimen 4 resulted in only 1.1% difference in the
deterioration of flexural performance. Figure 10 and
Table 5 show the comparison of the specimens.

Figure 8. Experiment views

5 ANALYSIS & COMPARISON

5.1 Influence of cap decks
Specimen 1 and specimen 2 were compared to
observe flexural performance in relation to the composite
effect of cap decks.
Figure 9 shows the
load-displacement relationship of the two specimens and
table 5.1 shows estimated load capacity, maximum load
capacity and initial stiffness. Maximum load capacity
and initial stiffness increased to 210.7% and 167.4%,
respectively.

Figure 10. Load-Displacement relationship of the specimens

(Influence of preloading, 7.7m)

Table 5. Flexural performance in relation to the preloading

(7.7m)

Estimated load
capacity (kN)

Maximum load

Figure 9. Load-Displacement relationship of the specimens

(Composite effect of cap decks)

capacity (kN)

Initial stiffness

Table 4. Flexural performance in relation to the composite

(kN/mm)

effect of cap decks

Maximum
Displacement

S3

S4

/S2

/S2

80.4

82.9%

90.5%

98.6

97.4

90.4%

89.3%

1.50

1.67

1.46

107.9%

97.2%

157.0

221.7

272.7

S2

S3

S4

88.7

73.5

109.1

S1

S2

S2/S1

Estimated load capacity (kN)

36.9

88.7

240.2%

Maximum load capacity (kN)

51.88

109.1

210.7%

Initial stiffness (kN/mm)

0.89

1.50

167.4%

432.9

157.0

Deterioration in flexural performance resulting from

preloading was not observed from the comparison of two
9.2-meter-long specimens.
Initial stiffness and
deformation performance were higher in preloaded
specimen 7.
Figure 11 and Table 6 show the
comparison of the two specimens in relation to
preloading.

(mm)

Maximum Displacement
(mm)

98

Choi et al.

Table 6. Flexural performance in relation to the type of

pre-tensioned elements

S3

S5

S5/S3

Estimated load capacity (kN)

73.52

90.0

81.7%

Maximum load capacity (kN)

98.6

97.5

98.9%

Initial stiffness (kN/mm)

1.62

0.82

50.6%

221.7

212.9

Maximum Displacement

(mm)

Figure 11. Load-Displacement relationship of the specimens

6 CONCLUSION

(Influence of preloading, 9.2m)

In this study to identify the flexural performance of

pre-tensioned cap deck composite slabs, theoretical
estimation and loading tests were conducted. The
conclusion drawn from the analysis of the specimens
structural performance is as follows.
(1) The composite effect of cap decks improved the
flexural performance of the slabs to 210%, meaning that
all of the cross-sections of a cap deck are fully integrated
to act as tension members.
(2) The maximum decline of flexural performance
observed in specimens with pre-tensioned elements was
approximately 10%, meaning that the deterioration in
flexural performance resulting from pre-tension is
minimal.
(3) The composite effect of cap decks improves the
structural performance of slim floor system and
pre-tensioned elements used for deflection control can
also be used as structural members.
(4) The maximum load capacity of the specimens
obtained from the loading tests was similar to or greater
than formula-based estimations.

Table 6. Flexural performance in relation to the preloading

(9.2m)

S6

S7

S7/S6

Estimated load capacity (kN)

64.9

62.2

95.9%

Maximum load capacity (kN)

69.7

69.7

100%

Initial stiffness (kN/mm)

0.85

1.05

122.8%

144.2

263.3

Maximum Displacement
(mm)

5.3 Influence of the type of pre-tensioned elements

The results obtained from specimen 3 and specimen 5
were compared to see the influence of steel bars and PC
strands, which were used as tension members, on the
flexural performance of the composite slabs. Figure 12
shows load-displacement relationship and Table 6 shows
the results obtained from the two specimens.

REFERENCES

AIK. 1998. Composite Deck Slab Standard, Architectural I

nstitute of Korea.
AIK. 2008. Floor Height Reduction Process Design and C
onstruction Guidelines with an Asymmetric H-Beam, Ar
chitectural Institute of Korea
Jeil Technos Co., LTD, 2003. Construction Process and St
ructural Design Guidelines for Slim Floor Slab with D
eep Deck Plate.
Choi, S. H. 2015. Structural Performance of Deep Deck C
omposite Slab Using the Pre-stressing wire, Korean
Society of Steel Construction.
Min, C. S. 2013. Reinforced Concrete Design
Nam, Y. S. 2011. Improvement of Flexural Performance fo
r Deep Deck Plate using Cap Plate, Master Thesis, De
partment of Architectural Engineering, University of Se
oul, Seoul, Korea. (in Korean).
Kang, D. A. 1999. A study on the Behavior of the Compo
site Slabs using the Deck Plate, Doctor Thesis, Depart
ment of Architectural Engineering, University of Seoul,
Seoul, Korea. (in Korean).

Figure 12. Load-Displacement relationship of the specimens

(Influence of the type of pre-tensioned elements)

99

11th International Conference on

Advances in Steel and Concrete Composite Structures
Tsinghua University, Beijing, China, December 3-5, 2015

MECHANICAL BEHAVIOR OF 3D COMPOSITE FLOOR

SYSTEMS UNDER INTERNAL COLUMN LOSS SCENARIOS
Q. N. Fua, K. H. Tana & B. Yangb, c
a

School of Civil & Environmental Engineering, Nanyang Technological University, 50 Nanyang Avenue, Singapore
E-mails: fuqi0002@e.ntu.edu.sg, ckhtan@ntu.edu.sg

Key Laboratory of New Technology for Construction of Cities in Mountain Area(Chongqing University), Ministry of
Education, Chongqing 400045, China
E-mail: yang0206@cqu.edu.cn
c

School of Civil Engineering, Chongqing University, Chongqing, 400045, China

ABSTRACT
Keywords:
Mechanical Behavior;
Progressive Collapse; FEM; 3D
Composite Floor Systems.

Recent research studies point out that slabs play a vital role in enhancing structural capacity to
resist progressive collapse. In this paper, three dimensional (3D) steel frame-composite floor
systems under internal column loss scenarios are simulated by the verified macro-based
models. By conducting parametric studies, the main factors influencing the mechanical
behavior of 3D composite floor systems are identified. Besides, based on the control specimen,
the authors have studied the load-transfer mechanisms of 3D composite floor systems, such as
flexural action, compressive arch action, tensile membrane action and catenary action. Finally,
the fracture sequence of each structural component and the final failure mode are discussed in
detail.

composite steel structure building to investigate the 3D

effects and collapse resistance mechanisms by deleting
one or two columns at different storeys and different
locations. Dinu et al. (2014) compared the ultimate
capacities of bare steel frames and composite floor systems
by finite element simulations. Only very few tests on 3D
floor systems against progressive collapse were completed
(Tan & Astaneh-Asl 2001, Jahromi et al. 2012, Donahue
et al. 2013 & Johnson et al. 2014).
In this paper, 3D steel frame-composite floor systems
under internal column loss scenarios are simulated by
verified macro-based models. By conducting parametric
studies, the main factors influencing the mechanical
behavior of 3D composite floor systems are identified.
Besides, based on the control model, the authors also study
the load-transfer mechanisms of 3D composite floor
systems. Finally, the sequence of failure of each
component and the final failure mode are discussed.

1 INTRODUCTION
Global responses of three dimensional (3D) composite
floor systems under column loss are so complex that the
mechanical behavior cannot be clarified in one step.
Consequently, researchers investigated the structural
behavior from component levels such as beam-column
connections, two dimensional (2D) frames, 3D frames and
3D frames with floor systems.
Recent research works indicate that lab effect, can
influence the load distribution mechanism and enhance
progressive collapse resistance. Thus, current research
trends in this domain have shifted from simplified
cruciform specimens, sub-assemblages and 2D frames to
global 3D floor systems.
Howeverthere are limited anti-progressive collapse
studies for 3D composite floor systems. Alashker and ElTawil (2010) proposed a design-oriented method for
calculating the load-carrying capacities of composite
structures. They proposed to quantify structural capacity
of 3D composite floor systems subject to column loss.
However, their model was only verified by finite element
simulation results rather than experimental test data.
Jahromi et al. (2013) used Izzuddins simplified frame
work (Izzuddin et al. 2008) to assess the robustness of
composite buildings through comparing different
modeling approaches. Li (2013) established a global

2 PARAMETRIC STUDY
The prototype model is extracted from a typical
composite floor building whose plan layout is shown in
Figures 1. Girders in Figure 1 indicate primary beams
which are connected to columns by flush end-plate
connections, while beams in Figure 1 denote secondary
beams which are simply supported by web cleat
connections. The configurations of connections are shown

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Fu et al.

in Figure 2. The slabs and beams are extended by one

quarter of its adjacent span length. The model is vertically
and horizontally restrained at the four surrounding edges
in order to represent the boundary conditions of the
internal bays. Due to symmetry of the structure system and
boundary conditions, only one quarter model is established.
This model will be used to study the influences of aspect
ratio, reinforcement ratio and slab thickness on the
behavior of floor systems. In the control specimen, a
typical bay size (6 m 9 m), profiled steel deck (76 mm
deep, 1.21 mm thick) with concrete topping (64 mm deep),
mesh reinforcement of D7@200, and full composite action
with concrete are selected as the basic parameters for
comparison purpose.

6 m 12 m (1:2) bays. After the failure of bottom

component in beam-column connections, load increases
moderately due to mobilization of TMA and remaining
componentsas shown in Figure 3. This effect is more
notable for 6 m 6 m compared to 6 m 9 m or 6 m 12
m. Therefore, 1:1 aspect ratio is the most effective for
mobilizing TMA. Hence, the influence of aspect ratios is
most remarkable, especially for the development of TMA.

Figure 3. Load carrying capacities of different aspect ratios.

2.2 Influence of slab depth

In Figure 4, the vertical yellow lines correspond to the
failure of the bottom components in girder-column
connections, while the points indicated by arrows reflect
the failure of the bottom components in beam-column
connections. It is easy to conclude from Figure 4 that the
model with a thicker floor has higher stiffness and loadcarrying capacity. But a thicker floor may result in
premature failure for either beam-column or girdercolumn connections. Nevertheless, the floor systems can
still carry a slightly higher load even after the initiation of
connection failure. This should be attributed to the
contribution of TMA and mobilization of the remaining
components.

Figure 1. Structural layout.

(a) Girder to column

(b) Inner beam to

girder

(c) Beam to column

Figure 4. Load-carrying capacities of different slab thicknesses.

Figure 2. Details of connections.

2.3 Influence of reinforcement ratio

2.1 Influence of aspect ratios

Three different reinforcement meshes are used in this

parametric study, i.e. A193, A393 and B785. They are

This section studies three cases with different slab

aspect ratios, viz. 6 m 6 m (1:1), 6 m 9 m (1:1.5), and
101

Fu et al.

made up of rebar with diameter of 7 mm spacing 200 mm

in two directions, diameter of 10 mm spacing 200 mm in
two directions, and diameter of 8 mm spacing 200 at longspan direction and diameter of 10 mm spacing 100 at shortspan direction, respectively. From Figure 5, there is little
difference among them in terms of load-carrying
capacities. There are only slight differences in terms of
maximum displacements corresponding to the connections
failure. Specifically, the connections of the models
reinforced by B785, A393 and A193 fail at 744 mm, 807
mm and 818 mm, respectively, indicating that the lighter
reinforcement will promote greater ductility in the slab. It
should be noted that reinforcement ratio must satisfy the
minimum criteria as specified in EC4-1-1 (2004).

double-span beam/girder until they return to the original

positions. At the last stage, initiation of CAs will pull
Points 1 and 4 inwards from the original positions. Figure
7 shows that CAs of the double-span girder and the doublespan beam are mobilized at the displacements of 487 mm
and 689 mm, respectively.
For the slab, Figure 8 shows the maximum in-plane
principal stress distribution in the reinforcement at a
vertical displacement of 150 mm. The internal tensile zone
(red symbol area) and the external compressive ring (blue
symbol area) prove the presence of TMA. Hence, it can be
confirmed that TMA occurs earlier than CA although the
start of TMA cannot be confirmed explicitly. However, it
should be mentioned that the tensile stress distribution is
generally developed along the Y-direction (short span),
rather than the X-direction (long span).The reason is that
the slab exhibits one-way behavior because of the inner
beam and the aspect ratio of the slab panel.

Figure 5. Load-carrying capacities of different reinforcement

ratio.

3 DISCUSSIONS
3.1 Load-transferring mechanisms

Figure 6. Development of load-transferring mechanisms for

the case with horizontal restraint.

The control specimen is subject to an internal column

loss. Figure 6 shows the load-displacement response of
the 3D floor system, which also demarcates the boundaries
between flexural action and compressive arch action
(CAA) at small deformation, and catenary action (CA) at
large deformation. During flexural and CAA stages, the
floor expands outwards until the commencement of CA. In
this paper, horizontal moments of Points 1 and 4 (refer to
Figure 1) moving inwards mark the start of CAs. However,
the mobilization of CA for double-span beams and girders
are not at the same time due to different stiffnesses and
span-depth ratios. Clearly, the large the span-depth ratio
would lead to greater deflection and greater mobilization
of TMA.
As shown in Figure 7, load-transfer mechanisms of the
double-span beam/girder can be divided into three stages.
At the first stage, increasing vertical displacement would
push the double-span columns (Points 1 and 4) outwards
with increasing compressive force in the double-span
beam/girder up to the largest horizontal deformations,
which correspond to the bottom points in the curves. The
second stage begins with the backward movement of
Points 1 and 4 with decreasing compressive forces in the

Figure 7. Lateral movements of the floor at the center of the

slab edge.

102

Fu et al.

Figure 8. Maximum in-plane principal stress distribution in

the reinforcement at the displacement of 150 mm.

(b) Long-span reinforcement

Figure 10. Stress distributions of reinforcement at the ultimate
state.

3.2 Failure mode

In this section, the discussion will focus on the

behavior of the slab and the composite girders/beams.

In this paper, the authors define failure as the vertical

load and vertical displacement corresponding with the
complete connection failure at the location of removed
column (Central displacement=1032 mm). Complete
failure means that all the joint components linking to the
removed column were severed entirely. The reason about
this definition will be explained in Section 3.2.2.
At the ultimate state, the tensile zone almost expands
throughout the whole slab, as shown in Figure 9. Figure 10
shows the stress distributions of the mesh reinforcement.
The fracture pattern of the steel deck is similar to that of
the reinforcement. Hence, the fracture of the slab takes
place along the interior side of girders and beams.

3.3 Failure of the slab

3.3.1 Failure of the composite girders/beams

Failure of the composite girder/beam components
occurs successively. These components include: (1) the
components of the girder/beam-column joints, and (2)
reinforcement, concrete and steel deck above the center
and the ends of double-span girders/beams, i.e. Points 1, 2,
3, and 4 as shown in Figure 1. The components of joints
are numbered as shown in Figure 11. It should be
mentioned that only the connections above the removedcolumn will be discussed here. The other connections
remain intact throughout the deformation of the slab and
will not be discussed.

Figure 9. Maximum in-plane principal stress distribution in

the reinforcement at the ultimate state.

Figure 11. Numbering of connection components at

removed-column locations.
(a) Short-span reinforcement

3.3.2 The composite girder

Point 4 is under hogging moment, and the concrete at

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Fu et al.

this position cracks in tension at the very beginning with a

central displacement of about 1/10 slab depth (Figure 12
(a)). Close to a displacement of one slab depth the
reinforcement at Point 4 and the steel deck at Point 3 yield
in tension. Therefore, plastic hinges of these two
components form with hardly any increase in stress but
with huge deformation, as shown in Figure 12. After the
flexural stage, reinforcement at Point 4 and steel deck at
Point 3 fracture at a displacement between 1.5 and 2.0
times of slab depth when TMA already exists. At the same
time, concrete at Point 3 experiences crushing failure.
During TMA stage, steel deck at Point 4 yields and fails at
displacements of 227 mm (3.0 times of slab depth) and 255
mm (3.4 times of slab depth) in tension, respectively. Also,
the reinforcement at Point 3 suffers compressive yielding
and failure at displacements of 276 mm (3.6 times of slab
depth) and 834 mm (11.0 times of slab depth), respectively.
On the other hand, the joint components G-1, G-2, G-3 and
G-4 fracture at displacements of 465 mm, 487 mm, 675
mm and 675 mm in sequence, which range from 6.1 to 8.9
times of slab depth, as shown in Figure 13.

(a) Concrete at Point 4

(b) Concrete at Point 3

(c) Rebar at Points 3 and 4

(d) Deck at Points 3 and 4

Figure 12. Stress development of components in the composite

girder.

3.3.3 The composite beam

Similar to the composite girder, concrete,
reinforcement and steel deck above the middle and the
ends of the double-span beam fail successively. On the
other hand, the joint components B-1, B-2, B-3 fracture at
displacements of 689 mm, 927 mm, 1032 mm in sequence, ,
as shown in Figure 13.
In view of the whole fracture process of all components,
the failure mode of the floor system exhibits ductile
characteristics. But after the failure of the last joint
component B-3, the slab along the interior sides of beams
and girders also fractures severely, as shown in Figure 10.
Beyond this point, the system is not stable. Hence, this is
the reason that the authors define total failure of removedcolumn connections as the ultimate state.

Figure 13. Forces development of components at removedcolumn connections.

4 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

This paper has discussed the studies about steel and
composite structures under progressive collapse, and
emphasized the importance of 3D behavior of structures
under this kind of extreme loads. The parametric studies
are also conducted to investigate the effects of parameters
such as slab aspect ratio, reinforcement ratio, and slab
thickness on load-carrying capacities, and several
conclusions can be made:
(1) The influence of aspect ratio is significant especially
for the development of TMA. Square slab is best for
mobilizing TMA.
(2) The model with a thicker slab has higher stiffness and
load-carrying capacity. But the thick slab also results in
premature failure of both beam-column and girder-column
connections. This means that TMA in a thick slab may
not be mobilized to the same extent compared to a thin slab.
(3) The influence of reinforcement ratio is not so critical
for the behavior of 3D composite floor systems under
column loss. But lower reinforcement ratio promotes
greater ductility in the slab.
The control specimen is used to investigate the
development of load transfer mechanisms. It is found that
CA of double-span girders is mobilized earlier than that of
double-span beams and TMA occurs earlier than CA. As a
result, the failure mode exhibits ductile characteristics.
The authors preliminarily define the total failure of
removed-column connections as the ultimate state, which
should be verified by the future experimental tests.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors gratefully acknowledge the financial
support provided by the National Natural Science
Foundation of China (No. 51408077), the Fundamental
Research Funds for the Central Universities (No.
106112015CDJXY200003), the Scientific Research
Foundation for the Returned Overseas Chinese Scholars,
State Education Ministry and the Ministry of Home
Affairs (MHA) in Singapore.
REFERENCE
Alashker, Y. & El-Tawil, S. 2010. A Design-oriented Model for

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Fu et al.
the Collapse Resistance of Composite Floors Subjected to
Column Loss. Journal of Constructional Steel Research
67(1):84-92.
Cashell, K. A. Elghazouli, A. Y., M.ASCE & Izzuddin, B. A.,
M.ASCE 2011. Failure Assessment of Lightly Reinforced
Floor Slabs, I: Experimental Investigation. Journal of
Structural
Engineering
137
SPECIAL
ISSUE:
Commemorating 10 Years of Research since 9/11: 977-988.
Dinu, F., Dubina, D., Petran, I., Ciutina, A. & Kovecsi, T. 2014.
Numerical Simulation of 3D Assembly Models under Large
Deformation Conditions. Eurosteel 2014, Naples, Italy.
Donahue, S., Hadjioannou, M., Williamson, E. B., Engelhardt, M.
D., Izzudin, B.A. & Nethercot, D. 2013. Experimental
Evaluation of Floor Slab Contribution in Mitigating
Progressive Collapse of Steel Structures, WIT Transactions
on The Built Environment 67: 547-555.
Eurocode 4 Part 1-1 (EC4-1-1) (2004). Eurocode 4: Design of
composite steel and concrete structuresPart 1-1: General
rules and rules for buildings. British Standards Institution,
UK.
Faella C., Piluso, V. & Rizzano, G. 2000. Structural Steel
Semirigid Connections: Theory, Design and Software. New
Directions in Civil Engineering. CRC Publishers, Boca
Raton (FL(EEUU)).
Jahromi, H. Z., Izzuddin, B. A. & Nethercot, D. A. 2012.
Robustness Assessment of Building Structures under
Explosion. Buildings 2012 2: 1-21.
Jahromi, H. Z., Vlassis, A.G. & Izzuddin, B.A. 2013. Modelling
Approaches for Robustness Assessment of Multi-Storey
Steel-Composite Buildings. Engineering Structures 51: 278
294.
Johnson, E. S. 2014. Large-Scale Testing of a Steel-Concrete
Composite Floor System under Column Loss Scenarios. MSE.
Thesis, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, USA.
Li, H. H. 2013. Modeling, Behavior & Design of Collapse
Resistant Steel Frame Buildings. Ph.D. Thesis, University of
Michigan, USA.
Taib, M. 2012. The Performance of Steel Framed Structures with
Fin-Plate Connections in Fire. Ph.D. Thesis, The University
of Sheffield.
Yang, B. & Tan, K.H. 2013. Robustness of Steel Angle
Connections against Progressive Collapse: Mechanical
Modelling of Bolted-Angle Connections under Tension.
Engineering Structures 57 (12): 153-168.

105

11th International Conference on

Advances in Steel and Concrete Composite Structures
Tsinghua University, Beijing, China, December 3-5, 2015

EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH ON SHEAR CAPACITY OF

THROUGH-DECK WELDED STUDS USING PROFILED STEEL
SHEETING
Q. L. Sun, M. X. Tao, J. S. Fan* & W. Liu
Department of Civil Engineering, Tsinghua University, Beijing, China
E-mail: sunqili987@sina.com, taomuxuan@tsinghua.edu.cn, fanjsh@tsinghua.edu.cn, 15810392470@126.com
ABSTRACT
Keywords:
Shear studs; Through-deck
welding; Push-out test; Seismic
loading; Reduction factor
*

Corresponding author

Composite floor system with profiled steel sheeting is more and more commonly used in highrise buildings, but the performance of shear studs in this kind of floor systems is not fully
investigated. In this paper, four groups of push-out tests were conducted to study mechanical
behavior of through-deck welded studs in composite beams with profiled sheeting. The
investigated parameters included the type of profiled sheeting, and loading pattern. The results
showed that composite specimen with closed profiled sheeting had higher shear capacity and
better behavior under seismic loading. Also, comparison between tests and worlds main Codes
of Practices was proposed, and it was also found that the shear capacity reduction factor for
closed profiled sheeting is unnecessary.

profiled steel sheeting types have not been completely

figured out.
Furthermore, as to seismic behavior of headed stud,
current research is still deficient, and seldom data can be
found, not to mention the stud in profiled sheeting floor
system of high-rise building, where aseismic problem is
even more outstanding.
In this paper, shear capacity and seismic behavior of
headed studs in different types of profiled steel sheeting
were investigated. Four groups of push-out tests in
symmetry boundary condition were carried out, and each
group contained both monotonous and seismic loading
patterns. Then diverse formulas in worlds main Codes of
Practices were compared based on the results of test, and
then validity of the models behind them were discussed.
Finally, the reduction factor of closed profiled sheeting
case was verified unnecessary by both push-out and beam
tests. The conclusions in this paper are beneficial for
relevant headed stud design in practice.

1 GENERAL INTRODUCTION
With more and more widely application of profiled
steel sheeting in high-rise buildings, the study on shear
capacity and seismic behavior of headed studs in the steelconcrete interface of this floor system is especially
significant. Compared with the solid-concrete-slab-steel
composite beam, studs in composite beam with profiled
sheeting show larger slip. Besides, different sheeting types
have dissimilar effects on mechanical behavior of the stud
connector due to different degree of concrete weakening.
Headed stud is most commonly used in composite
floor, and its bearing capacity and slip behavior can be
studied by push-out test and beam test. The former method
is more familiar because of efficiency and substantivity,
which is recommended in Eurocode 4 to investigate shear
capacity of headed stud.
Recent years, lots of researchers focused on static
analysis method and design formula of stud connector.
Xiao L. 2008 investigated load transfer mechanism using
finite element method; Lam D. & EI-Lobody E. 2005
established a finite element model of push-out specimen
modified by test results, and conducted parameter analysis
about influence of concrete strength and stud diameter on
shear capacity of stud connector. Based on formula of
solid-concrete-steel composite beam, researchers abroad
(Lawson R.M. 1992; Smith A.L. & Couchman G.H. 2010)
proposed a reduction factor to consider the existence of
profiled steel sheeting. Nevertheless, relative test data is
rare, and the distinction and inner mechanism of different

2 PUSH-OUT TEST
2.1 Specimen
In the tests, open, dovetailed and closed profiled
sheeting were adopted, detailed geometry shown in Table
1, all of which were 1-mm-thick. Besides, a solid-concreteslab-steel specimen was added as the control group. The
diameter of headed stud connector was 19mm, with a
height of 100 mm, which was more than four times of the
diameter. During the preparation process, through-deck
welding method was applied and additional welding was

106

Sun et al.
1
2

implemented to those with evident defect or possible

concealed quality problem.
The geometry of push-out test in this paper was
designed according to recommendations in Eurocode 4.
20-mm-thick H-welding-steel was used instead of
HE260B, and its sectional dimension and specimen
geometry are shown in Figure 1. M1-4 specimen
represented conditions with open, dovetailed, closed and
no profiled sheeting. To promote the integrality of concrete
slab, both longitudinal and transverse steel rebars with a
diameter of 10 mm were set at a space of 180 mm forming
two steel fabric layers.

37.0
40.2

30.2
37.4

In the monotonous pattern, preloading was applied

until 30% of the theoretical ultimate capacity. It was
important to judge whether decentration existed according
to the results of displacement meters. If so, corresponding
adjustment was performed forthwith. The initial loading
institution was force control, when evident turning point
arised or the curve tended to be flat, which meant yielding
of the specimen, displacement control loading was adopted
until failure of the specimen. Similarly, preloading and
decentration adjustment were also carried out in seismic
pattern, and then apply the loading by increasing the
amplitude in both force and displacement control patterns,
and the ranges were 30% of the elastic ultimate capacity
estimated according to the result of monotonous test, and
0.1 mm respectively.

Table 1. Detailed geometry of profiled steel sheeting.

Type

M4
M1-3

Shape

Open

Dovetailed

Figure 2. Loading device and specimen.

Closed

3 TEST RESULTS
3.1 Failure mode

Figure 1. Shape of push-out specimen.

2.2 Material property and loading institution

Figure 3. Concrete rib shearing failure (left) and stud bar

rupturing failure (right).

From the results of headed stud pure-tensile tests,

constitutive curve was obtained. The average yield
strength was 412 MPa, while the average ultimate strength
was 529 MPa. The steel plate grade used in the test was
Q345c. The concrete slabs of each side were casted in
sequence to guarantee the concrete flat and uniform, and
the compressive strength of them is shown in Table 2.

The specimens showed three different failure modes,

because of different degree of weakening by profiled steel
sheeting. In open and dovetailed concrete slab, the entire
concrete rib was broken by shear load. The process was
ductile and slow with the developing of crack until the
concrete slab separated from the steel beam. In the second
mode, which happened in closed and no profiled sheeting
condition, the headed stud ruptured, causing bearing
capacity lost instantaneously. The last mode was a

Table 2. Compressive strength of concrete cube (MPa).

Batch

Specimen No.

First side

Second side

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Sun et al.

ultimate capacity, two diagonal cracks formed from two

base corners to the center of the concrete slab. That was
caused by two bearing beams under the specimen, which
were used for support. The seismic pattern showed similar
cracks, except for two diagonal cracks from two top
corners to the center of concrete slab, because of reverse
loading and the constraint beams.

combined one observed in dovetailed profiled sheeting

case under seismic loading. In this case, both concrete rib
breaking and some stud bar rupturing appeared. Figure 3
shows the phenomena of the first two failure modes.

3.2 Stud deformation

After test, remove the concrete part and it was
discovered that among all the specimens tested, the open
profiled sheeting presented most evident weakening effect
because of its large troughs, while the closed type had
least. And it was also found that the stud had different
stress states, and the point of shear force changed with the
type of profiled sheeting. To be specific, the open profiled
sheeting condition applied the shear force at the highest
position among all, resulting to a C-shape deformation.
While the action point in dovetailed case was in the middle
of the stud bar, forming a deformation of S-shape. And
finally in closed profiled sheeting condition, an opposite
C-shape deformation was noticed because of lower shear
force action spot (Fig. 4).

3.4 Load-slip curve

From the measured results of force sensor and
displacement meter set in the test, the load-slip relationship
per stud in each type of profiled steel sheeting condition
was obtained as shown in Figure 6.
It was obvious that the magnitude relation of stud shear
capacity in different profiled sheetings was as follows, noprofiled > closed > dovetailed > open. And the interface
bond was about 0.6 MPa calculated from the turning point
in no-profiled curve, which indicated that the contact
friction value in the interface should be reasonably set in
finite element simulation process.

Table 3. Loading capacity of four groups (kN).

Specimen No.
Monotonous
Seismic

M1 M2 M3
56.5 77.3 130.9
90
108.9 133.0

M4
174.2
123.4

(a) C-shape
(b) S-shape
Figure 4. Headed stud deformation.

200

(c) Opposite C

M4

150

Load (kN)

3.3 Crack

M3
100

M2
M1

50

Slip (mm)

Figure 6. Load-slip curve of four push-out tests.

Typical seismic load-slip relationship was shown in

Figure 7, and the skeleton model was drawn referring to
the research proposed by Salari M.R. et al. 1998. Evident
degradation of shear capacity arised when the slip was
large. In this loading pattern, as is shown in Table 3, the
closed profiled sheeting condition had the highest shear
capacity, while the open case was smallest. During the test
process, the concrete at the foot of headed stud crashed
first, but profiled sheeting showed constraint to it, avoiding
the expanding of destruction zone in concrete. Thus, the
existence of profiled sheeting was benefit to the transfer of
shear force by headed stud in seismic loading condition,
which was verified by the fact that M3 had a bit higher
shear capacity than M4.

Figure 5. Crack developing.

In the monotonous pattern, as is shown in Figure 5,

when the stud began to yield, a vertical splitting crack
arised through the concrete slab. And then a horizon one
was observed during the descending period, which was
resulted from the bending effect of the concrete slab. The
concrete part between two contiguous ribs was weak
relatively, thus the crack tended to occur there under
bending moment. Eventually, when the specimen reached

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Sun et al.

Eurocode 4 and AISC were higher than test value.

Similarly, the Eurocode 4 method also overestimated the
capacity of M2. Nevertheless, as to the remained two
specimens, the specification results were all conservative
and close.

100

Load(kN)

50

Cal/Test
1.4

-50

-100

Test
Skeleton

-4

-2

ACI
PCI
AISC
EC4
GB

1.2
1.0

Slip(mm)

0.8

Figure 7. Load-slip relationship of M1 under seismic loading.

0.6

The basic parameters of the headed stud in seismic

loading are summarized in Table 4, where presented for
the ductility factor, equaling the failure displacement
divided by the displacement of ultimate load point. And
was the pinching factor, calculated by the specific value of
the area of loading cycle in test and result calculated by
ideal elastic-plastic model. From the results, it was found
that the dovetailed condition had the least ductile, and the
solid concrete case had the lowest degree of pinching
effect, because of the friction resulting from direct contact
of steel and concrete.

0.4
M1

M3

M4

Figure 8. Comparison of Codes of Practices and test results.

The failure mode of M1 and M2 was concrete rib

shearing destruction, where the stud was intact and the
concrete appeared conical shearing failure, and it was
different from composite beam without profiled sheeting.
Thus, the prediction method based on shear capacity of
headed stud in regular composite beam is not applicative
for structures with evident profiled sheeting weakening
effect.

Table 4. Seismic parameter of headed stud.

Specimen No.
u1 (mm)
umax (mm)

M2

4.2 Reduction factor

M1
1.0
2.9
2.90
0.362

M2
2.0
4.1
2.05
0.357

M3
2.0
7.0
3.50
0.359

M4
2.0
4.9
2.45
0.379

= ultimate displacement.

From Figure 8, it was noticed that the calculated results

of M4 were much too conservative. Therefore, the
reduction factor used in Codes of Practices for headed stud
in composite system with closed profiled sheeting was
technically discussed in this paper.

Table 5. Reduction factor of Codes of Practices.

where u1 = displacement of ultimate loading capacity point; umax

4 DISCUSS
4.1 Codes of Practices
The shear stud capacity calculation method in worlds
main Codes of Practices generally based on two theories.
In Eurocode 4, AISC and GB50017, the formulas are all
based on the calculation method raised by Ollgaard et al.
1971, and modified by plenty of push-out tests. A
reduction factor is raised to consider the effect of profiled
sheeting. While in ACI 318-08 and PCI, a concrete conical
shearing failure model is adopted to calculate the shear
capacity of embedded connector. In the latter case, the
weakening effect is taken into consideration through the
concept of effective failure area.
The comparison of different Codes of Practices is
shown in Figure 8. For M1, the results calculated by

Codes of
Practices

Vu

Vu

Eurocode 4
ACI
PCI
AISC
GB50017

112
132
72.97
150
104

0.7
0.51
1

78.4
132
72.97
76.5
104

Vu
Vtest
0.85
1.00
0.55
1.14
0.79

Vu
Vtest
0.59
1.00
0.55
0.58
0.79

where Vu = value calculated according to main Codes of Practices;

= reduction factor; Vtest = test result.

As is shown in table 4, it was discovered that the

reduction factor was unnecessary in Eurocode 4 and AISC.
As to ACI and PCI, they both are based on conical shearing
failure and treat headed stud as embedded connector,
where reduction effect is just concerned in multi-stud

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Sun et al.

(3) Worlds main Codes of Practices were to some

extent inapplicable for calculating shear capacity of
headed stud in composite floor system with profiled steel
sheeting. In conditions with evident weakening effect,
Eurocode 4 and AISC results were underestimation.
Meanwhile, the reduction factor for closed sheeting case is
much too conservative, and may be unnecessary.

condition. The results showed that ACI was more

accuracy, while PCI was relatively conservative.
In GB50017, since the height of stud in the test was
larger compared with studs generally used in practice, the
value of h/hp in this condition was much bigger than 1
(where h = height of stud; hp = height of the concrete
trough), leading to the reduction factor equaling 1. But
considering the strong constraint of closed profiled
sheeting, the reduction factor must be likewise
conservative in common situation. A series of test results
of closed profiled sheeting beam were analyzed to inspect
the validity of reduction factor in GB50017, and the
calculation results are shown in Table 6.

6 REFERENCES
ACI Committee 318. 2008. Building code requirements for
structural concrete (ACI 318-08) and commentary.
American Concrete Institute.
American Institute of Steel Construction (AISC). 2005.
Specification for Structural Steel Buildings. ANSI/AISC
360-05, Chicago, III.
Eurocode 4. 2004. Design of composite and concrete structures
Part 1-1: General rules and rules for buildings. European
Committee for Standardization.
GB 50017. 2003. Code for design of steel structures. Ministry of
Housing and UrbanRural Development (MOHURD),
Beijing (in Chinese).

Table 6. Composite beam reduction results

Specimen
No.

CSCB-4
CSCB-5
CSCB-6

0.35
0.25
0.35

where Mu1 = result

M u2
Mu
348.9 0.97 0.79
372.1 1.03 0.78
358.9 0.95 0.77
without reduction; Mu2 = result considering

M u1

M u2

(kNm)
339.2
383.9
339.4

(kNm)
275.3
291.8
275.3

Mu

M u1
Mu

Lam, D., El-Lobody, E. 2005. Behavior of headed stud

shear connectors in composite beam. Journal of
Structural Engineering 131(1): 96-107.
Lawson, R.M. 1992. Shear connection in composite beams. Steel
Construction Today 7:l7l-176.
Ollgaard, J.G. 1971. Shear strength of stud connectors in
lightweight and normal-weight concrete. Engineering
Journal American Institute of Steel Construction Inc 8(2):55.
Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute (PCI). 2004. PCI Design
Handbook, Precast and Prestressed Concrete, MNL-120-04,
6th Edition, PCI, Chicago, IL.
Salari, M.R., Spacone, E., Shing, P.B. 1998. Nonlinear analysis
of composite beams with deformable shear connectors.
Journal of Structural Engineering 124(10):1148-1158.
Smith, A.L., Couchman G.H. 2010. Strength and ductility of
headed stud shear connectors in profiled steel sheeting.
Journal of Constructional Steel Research 2010;66:748-754.
Xiao, L. 2008. Research and model test of shear connector
in the steel-concrete composite structure. Department of Civil
Engineering, Southwest Jiaotong University (in Chinese).

reduction; Mu = test result.

The height of studs was only 70 mm in these composite

beams, leading to a smaller reduction factor. From Table
6, it was evident that the reduction factor was much too
conservative, while the results without reduction highly
corresponded to the test results.

5 CONCLUSION
In this paper, four groups of push-out tests with
different types of profiled steel sheeting were conducted
containing both monotonous and seismic patterns, and the
mechanical behavior of headed studs in them was
discussed. The main conclusions are summarized as
follows.
(1) Different types of profiled steel sheeting had
dissimilar degree of weakening effect on the concrete.
Among them the open and dovetailed cases were
prominent, and directly influenced the shear capacity of
headed stud in them.
(2) Three failure modes were observed in the test. The
first mode was concrete rib shearing failure mostly
existing in open and dovetailed specimen, while the second
one was stud bar rupturing existing in closed and noprofiled sheeting case. And the combined failure was also
observed in seismic loading of dovetailed condition.
(3) Profiled steel sheeting had a strong constraint to
concrete in composite floor system under seismic loading,
further enhancing the shear capacity of headed stud. But
the dissipation of energy was slightly weaker compared to
solid concrete slab case, in that the friction between the
profiled steel sheeting and concrete was small.

110

11th International Conference on

Advances in Steel and Concrete Composite Structures
Tsinghua University, Beijing, China, December 3-5, 2015

AN INNOVATIVE APPROACH OF GEOPOLYMER CONCRETE

PROFILED FLANGE ON COMPOSITE BEAM SUBJECTED TO
COMBINED NEGATIVE BENDING AND HIGH AXIAL TENSION
Ma Bavana*, S. B. Baharoma, M. Serajib
a

Department of Civil and Structural Engineering, National University of Malaysia, Malaysia.

E-mails: mmbavan@yahoo.com, shah@eng.ukm.my
b

Department of Civil Engineering, Bushehr Branch, Islamic Azad University, Bushehr, Iran.
E-mail: mahmud_seraji@yahoo.com
ABSTRACT
Keywords:
Steel-concrete
composite
beam; Geopolymer concrete
profiled
flange;
Combined
negative bending and axial
tension; Failure behaviour, FE
modelling

The study of composite beam with Plain Concrete Profiled Flange (PCPF) subjected to
combined negative bending and axial tension was failed earlier than Plain Concrete Solid Flange
(PCSF), which was found as worse scenario due to the narrow concrete section and in such case,
it is important to study the strengthening of formed insufficient concrete section in order to
avoid such failure criteria under combined loads. This paper discusses the usage of Geopolymer
Concrete Profiled Flange (GCPF) in the composite beam subjected to combined negative
bending and axial tension in terms of innovative material component as geopolymer concrete
possesses very similar mechanical behaviour with ordinary cement concrete. Finite element (FE)
models of a composite beam with PCSF subjected to negative bending and axial tension,
composite beam with PCPF subjected to bending and a reinforced geopolymer concrete beam
subjected to bending were validated against the existing experimental programs. The stressstrain responses, interface slip behaviour in between the concrete-steel components, failure
behaviours of material components, and load carrying capacity were examined throughout the
simulation of every FE model. All three validated models were then assessed together in this
study by organising a composite beam with GCPF subjected to combined negative bending and
axial tension. A significant behaviour was predicted in the initial cracking load of the concrete,
which was postponed in the GCPF reasonably than PCPF while GCPF gave a development in
the ultimate limit strength, which could be considered as a strengthening method. The
comparison in between PCPF and GCPF such as crack pattern, applied loads, failure modes and
stiffness in each converged load step brings that GCPF is one of implementation in terms of new
materials and techniques in the case of a composite beam subjected to combined negative
bending and axial tension.

the comparative study was made by Yoda et al. (2013)

and Mirza et al. (2009) in the application of the steel
fibres in the concrete flange of the composite beam and
brought that the use of steel fibres can improve the
performance of composite beam. In addition, the
effects of the profiled concrete flange of the composite
beam subjected to combined negative bending and
axial compression were studied by Bavan et al (2015)
and the conclusion was made that the strengthening is
necessary due to the fractures by formed narrow
concrete section and induced axial tension. Associated
with these works, a comparative study was made in
between PCPF and GCPF of the steel-concrete
composite beam in terms of induced axial tension and
stiffness, concrete crack formation and propagation,
induced slip development, and ultimate vertical and

1 INTRODUCTION
The steel-concrete composite beam has multiple
dissimilar material components and various materials
were considered in recent research studies in terms of
increasing strength, aesthetics, service limit state and
environmental sustainability. The recent experimental
investigation by Vasdravellis et al. (2012) brought that
the composite beam with Plain Concrete Solid Flange
(PCSF) subjected to combined negative bending and
axial tension was failed early rather than the subjection
of monotonic loads. The use of steel fibres in the
concrete flange of the composite beam subjected to
hogging moment as strengthening method was studied
by Lin et al. (2014) and found that the initial cracking
load has been relatively large in the composite beam
with steel fibres reinforced concrete flange. Moreover,
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axial load carrying capacities are discussed in this

paper.
2 REVIEWS OF
THE
INVESTIGATIONS

order to develop the material models such as concrete,

steel beam, shear studs and reinforcing bars in the
finite element model, the results of relevant material
tests done by Vasdravellis et al. (2012) were used.
Besides, the concrete material model was specifically
considered by the material test done in the same day of
experimental program.
In the experimental analysis carried out by Nie et al.
(2005), five simply supported steel-concrete composite
beam with profiled plain concrete flange labelled as
SB1 to SB5 were tested to ultimate limit state by being
subjected to positive bending owing to the applied line
loads at two locations symmetrically on the mid-span
of the slab with a distance of 600 mm. The investigated
parameters were; the orientation of the profiled steel
sheet either upward direction or downward direction
and the arrangements of shear studs in the rib of the
profiled steel sheet. Each specimen was a structural
steel beam of 120a with 3900 mm x 800 mm x 90 mm
concrete slab reinforced by steel bars in longitudinal
and transversal directions. Moreover, 16mm in
diameter and 90 mm in height welded studs were
provided in 200 mm spacing on the rib of 1mm
thickness YX60-200-600 profiled steel sheet. The
typical geometry and design details of test specimen
are indicated in the Figure 3. In terms of the global
behaviour, the ultimate moment-deflection responses
throughout the loading steps and in terms of the local
behaviour beam end slip-deflection responses
throughout the loading steps were presented in the
results. The specimen labelled as SB1, which included
the profiled sheet in downward direction and the shear
stud in a single line along the centre of steel beam
flange is taken in this research study. As well, the tests
of the materials included in the specimen, which were
presented, were brought to use in this study for
material modelling of the FE model.
A series of tests has been done by Uma et al. (2012)
for reinforced geopolymer concrete beam, which was
the geometry, loadings and supports were similar in all
specimens as shown in the Figure 4 and Figure 5.
There were two parameters investigated such as four
different proportions of constituent materials and two
different reinforcement ratio such that eight specimens
labelled as B1 to B4 and RB1 to RB4 were used.
Accordingly, different proportions of constituent
materials gave different grade of mixes such as 20, 25,
30 and 35 and each similar proportions was maintained
in two specimens such that there were four sets of
beams in different proportions. Meanwhile, the
differences in between the series of B and RB were
reinforcement ratio such as 0.87 % and 1.75 %. All
beams were 2000 mm in length with a cross section of

EXPERIMENTAL

The experimental analyses done by Vasdravellis et

al. (2012) for a composite beam with solid plain
concrete flange, the experimental analyses done by Nie
et al. (2005) for a composite beam with profiled plain
concrete flange and the experimental analyses done by
Uma et al. (2012) in the reinforced geopolymer
concrete beams are reviewed in this paper.
In the experimental programme of Vasdravellis et
al. (2012), six overturned vertically and axially
supported steel-concrete composite beams with solid
plain concrete flange were employed and tested to
ultimate state by being subjected to combined negative
bending and axial tension owing to the applied loads
on the mid-span of the steel beam for inducing an
negative bending region and edge of the steel beam for
developing an axial tension. The parameter
investigated was the effects of axial tension in the
negative bending region of the composite beam, totally
six specimens were included, which were labelled as
CB1, CB2, CB3, CB4, CB5 and CB6, where CB1 and
CB6 were to simulate the ultimate limit state in the
occurrences of composite beam subjected to monotonic
vertical load and monotonic axial load, respectively,
and rest of four specimens were with individual
parameter of different levels of axial tension subjected
to combined negative bending and axial tension. Each
specimen was constructed by a structural steel beam of
200UB29.8 with 4500 mm x 600 mm x 120 mm
concrete slab reinforced by 12 mm diameter steel bars
in longitudinal and transversal directions. Further, all
specimens consisted a span of 4000 mm with 19 mm
diameter and 95 mm long of similar feature welded
shear connectors in a single line at the centre of the
beam in a spacing of 400 mm. The typical geometry
and design details of test specimen are indicated in the
Figure 1. Figure 2(a) and Figure 2(b) show the
application of the vertical and axial loads applied on
the specimen, respectively.
In the results presented, the specimen CB1, which
was included with pure negative bending was failed in
buckling of compressive flange with a vertical load of
157 kN and 157 kNm of moment while the specimen
CB6, which was included with axial tension only was
failed in shear with an axial load of 1497 kN and 2
kNm of moment. The specimen CB5, which was
represented the analysis in combined negative bending
and high axial load in a coefficient of 0.94 of ultimate
axial load, was reviewed and used in this study. In

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200 mm X 100 mm including reinforcing steel bars and

the load was applied as line load at two points of midspan in a distance of 670 mm symmetrically with
simply supported in a distance of 1500 mm. The load
and deflection responses were presented in the results
and four beams labelled as B1 to B4 were taken in this
study.

Figure 2. Experimental programme (a) Vertical load

application on specimen (b) Axial load application on
specimen, Vasdravellis et al. (2012)

Figure 1. Typical geometry and design details of test

specimen done by Vasdravellis et al. (2012)

Figure 3. Typical geometry and design details of test specimen done by Nie et al. (2005)

Figure 4. Typical geometry and design details of test

specimen done by Uma et al. (2012)

Figure 5. Load applications and supports provided in the

experimental programme of Uma et al. (2012)

3 DETAILS OF FE MODEL DEVELOPED

In the first verification, the selected 3D elements
were continuum, 3D, 8-node reduced integration
element (C3D8R) for the material component of
concrete slab and steel shear studs while steel beam
was incorporated with continuum, 3D, 8-node
incompatible mode element (C3D8I) with considering
the induced high concentrated force on steel beam by
high axial tension. The truss, 3D, 2 node elements
T3D2 element was applied to reinforcing bars, which
was economical and it could be verified that the
differences of the results were negligible. The
applications and symmetries of specimen, loads and
supports of the experimental programme and were
studied and followed in the FE model as exactly the
same used in the experiments such that vertical and

Based on the three specimens taken from three

different experimental programs, there were three
verifications such as composite beam with PCSF
subjected to combined negative bending and axial
tension, composite beam with PCPF subjected to
bending and reinforced geopolymer concrete beam
subjected to bending. In order to predict the failure
criteria for the determination of limit state, the
visualization was wanted such that three dimensional
Finite Element (FE) models were developed in all three
verification by the commercial software ABAQUS
explicit solver with the prediction of quasi static
solution. The typical description of feature of elements
used is shown in Figure 6.

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axial loads were applied to the surfaces of the steel

beam in the middle bottom flange and edge of the steel
beam, respectively as indicated in Figure 7, while the
vertical and axial supports were determined on the steel
beam in a span length of 4000 mm and on the edge
surface, respectively. Moreover, the uniform slow
nodal-displacement control was selected in both load
applications with the concerns of the load application
rates similar to the experiment as the load control will
create the sudden drop, which will lead to dynamic
behaviour. In addition, as specified in Figure 4, a

symmetry boundary condition was applied along the

axis of Z for an economical solution such that the
translational moments in the X axis and rotational
moments in the Y and Z axes were restricted.
In the verification 2, the C3D8R elements were
applied to the material components of concrete slab,
steel beam and shear studs and T3D2 elements were
applied to the steel bars. The profiled steel sheet was
included with Shell, 4-node, Reduced integration S4R
elements. The quarter model was developed by
considering its symmetries in the X and Z axes to save

Figure 6. Description of elements

Figure 9. Verification 3 - Development of the FE model for a

reinforced geopolymer concrete beam

Figure 7. Verification 1- Development of the FE model for a Composite beam with PCSF

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Bavan et al.

Figure 8. Verification 2 - Development of the FE model for a Composite beam with PCPF

surfaces of concrete slab with profiled steel sheet,

profiled steel sheet with steel beam and shear
connectors with concrete slab by tangential and normal
behaviours, while the shear connectors and steel beam
were formed as one part by considering its welded
connections. The embedded constraint was selected to
the reinforcing bars with concrete slab in the
verification 2 and verification 3. The typical contact
surfaces and used algorithm of the steel-concrete
composite beam are described in Figure 10.
All the models of the material components were
developed by using suggested derives in the open
literature by adopting the respective material tests done
by Vasdravellis et al (2012), Nie et al. (2005) and Uma
et al. (2012). Specifically, the compressive and tensile
behaviours of the concrete material component were
determined by cylinder test and indirect tensile
splitting test, respectively on the same day of the
experimental analysis. As presented in Figure 11(a)
and Figure 11(b), the uniaxial stress strain responses in
compression and tension of the concrete material
component were developed by proposed derives of
Desay & Krishnan (1964) and Eurocode (1994),
respectively. The parameters in terms of biaxial
material strength hypothesis of concrete material
component were determined by derives of Kmiecik and
Kaminski (2011). In terms of the geopolymer concrete
material model, the tension damaged was determined
as per the Equation 1 suggested by Lubliner et al
(1989), while using elastic behaviour developed by
exponential function, which was a most convenient
function for appropriate results after cracking in the
fracture energy concept. Further, the compression
damage was not determined as the plastic strain will be
taken by way of inelastic strain due to the absence of
compression damage variables.

Figure 10: Description of contact surfaces

computational time. The slow nodal displacement was

applied on the slab located 300 mm from mid-span
similarly to the experimental program while the
support was applied on the bottom flange of the steel
beam in a distance of 3900 mm. Figure 8 shows the
description of the FE model developed in the
verification 2.
In the verification 3, the geopolymer concrete
component and steel bars were adopted by applying the
C3D8R and T3D2 elements, respectively. While slow
nodal displacement was applied to the beam in the
respective area similar to the experiment, the beam was
simply supported as shown in Figure 9.
The available complex contact interactions and
non-linear material behaviours with post failure
analysis were studied extensively in order to predict
adequate results. The contacts between material
components were identified and defined to avoid the
penetration of the nodes and to determine the
perceptions of slip and separation. Taking account of
these perceptions, in the verification 1, the surfacesurface contact algorithm was applied in the surfaces of
concrete slab with steel beam and concrete slab with
shear connectors where the areas were in touch, with
defining the tangential and normal behaviours. The
shear connectors and steel beam were formed as one
part by considering its welded connections. The
reinforcing bars were set inclusively in the concrete
slab by embedded constraint. In the verification 2, the
surface-surface contact algorithm was applied in the

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Gattesco (1999) as shown in Figure 12(a), which gives

better non-linear behaviour to the structural steel beam,
was used. In order to develop the steel reinforcing bars,
bilinear stress strain characteristic responses as
indicated in Figure 12(b) was used. As presented in
Figure 12(c), the simplified linear characteristic
responses were used for the material components of
profiled steel sheet and shear connectors.

Where t is Tensile stress, cr is strain at concrete

cracking and t is tensile strain. In the development of
steel components, coupon test was performed in
determining the yield stress, ultimate stress and the
percentage of elongation of flange and web of the steel
beam, profiled steel sheet and reinforcing bars, while
ultimate strength of the shear studs was determined by
push test. The elemental formulation proposed by

Figure 11. Concrete material property (a) Compressive behaviour (b) Tensile behaviour

Figure 12. Stress-strain responses of (a) Structural steel beam (b) Reinforcing bars (c) Shear connectors

4 VALIDATION OF FE MODELS

Figure 13. Verification 1 - Cracking location in the slab of the FE model and cracking location in the slab in the experiment. Source:
Vasdravellis et al. (2012)

Figure 14. Verification 1 (a) Vertical load-deflection responses of FE models (b) Axial load-axial displacement responses of FE
model (c) Comparison of FE model and experiment at ultimate limit state

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Figure 15. Verification 2 -Validation of FE model of composite beam with PCPF (a) Moment-deflection responses (b) MomentBeam end slip

Initially, mesh configurations were carefully

studied in every material component of each
verifications with course, medium and fine meshes as it
was observed that mesh discretizations are a sensitivity
issue due to biaxial deformation with non-linear
material components including complicated contacts.
Geopolymer concrete is a brittle material component,
which will behave enormously in a small deformation
and thus, distortion of elements was monitored
throughout every simulation in order to minimizing. As
the axial tension will create an excess slip in between
the components of concrete slab and steel beam, the
local behaviours of load-strain responses and
deflection-slip responses were compared at particular
locations of FE model and experiment.
Because of failure of the material components,
sudden drops of the load carrying capacity will
increase the kinetic energy of the system enormously.
In addition, the kinetic energy will be suddenly
increased at the ramp up and down criteria during
loading of the FE model specifically at the initial stage.
According to that, the smooth amplitude function was
selected in the load applications in order to control the
enormous increases by slow nodal displacement in
both directions. The comparative study was made in
between the internal and kinetic energies in each
simulation such that the quasi static solution was

confirmed. Besides, the applied loads and support

reaction forces were compared to each other to confirm
the static state analysis. In all three verifications,
several models were analysed with various parameters
available with experimental studies to clarify the
accuracy of every simulation.
In the verification 1, the failure behaviour of the
material components were analysed throughout the
analysis such that the reinforcement fracture was
predicted in the experiment as failure mode of the
specimen labelled as CB5 in the combination of
vertical and axial loads of 371 kN and 1418 kN.
Correspondingly, the FE model was studied such that
the reinforcement fracture was predicted as presented
in Figure 13. Besides, vertical load-deflection
responses and axial load-axial displacement responses
were employed as shown in Figure 14(a) and Figure
14(b), respectively, and the interaction between axial
and vertical loads were predicted as shown in Figure
14(c). The vertical load and axial load were obtained at
the ultimate limit state of the FE model as 390 kN and
1463 kN, respectively, with the corresponding
coefficients of variations of 5% and 3%. Accordingly,
the FE model of composite beam with PCSF subjected
to combined negative bending and axial tension was
capable for the parametric studies.

Figure 16. Verification 3 Comparative study in between experiment and FE model of reinforced geopolymer concrete beams

In the verification 2, the global and the local

behaviours of the FE model of composite beam with
PCPF subjected to positive bending were studied
throughout the analysis with load increments. The
comparative study was done in between the experiment
and FE model such that moment deflection responses
were considered as global behaviours and beam end

slip deflection responses were considered as local

behaviours. As presented the global behaviour and
local behaviour in the Figure 15(a) and 15(b), the
developed FE model was capable, which do bring the
negligible differences throughout the analysis in the
global and local responses, such that it was reliable for
parametric studies.

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In the verification 3, the development of reinforced

geopolymer concrete beam of four specimens labelled
as B1 to B4 was employed to study geopolymer
concrete behaviour in order to fundamentally
understand the modelling techniques. The aim was in
such geopolymer concrete beams considered that two
material components without complicated contacts
were only included in this case. Four numbers of beam
were taken with different proportion of mixing of
concrete such that it could have been concluded
undoubtedly, the significant effects predicted in the FE
model with mixing of geopolymer were because of
different mixing of geopolymer. The FE models of all
four specimens in various parameters were within a
range of small deviation against those respective
experiments such that the modelling techniques of
geopolymer concrete were capable of predicting the
structural responses. The comparison in between
experiment and FE model of reinforced geopolymer
concrete beams and predicted typical failure mode in
the FE model are exposed in Figure 16 and Figure 17,
respectively.

with convergence studies by different size of meshes

and examined the element distortion in all material
components adopted in the composite beam,
specifically geopolymer concrete component due to the
inappropriate loading parameters throughout the
analysis. It was brought that the fine mesh was selected
in all material components with slow nodal
displacement adopted with smooth amplitude function.

Figure 17. Verification 3 Typical failure prediction at the

FE model reinforced geopolymer concrete beam

6 EVALUATION OF THE INFLUENCES OF

CRACKING RESPONSE OF POLYMER
CONCRETE FLANGE
In the comparative study, both concrete flanges
such as plain concrete profiled flange and geopolymer
concrete profiled flange were brought with a
visualization of fractures of material components
throughout the analysis. In addition, the nodal
displacements and stress distribution in certain planes
at several locations were analysed extensively. Due to
high stiffness relatively in geopolymer concrete, the
actual deflections of the beams with PCPF were found
to be slightly high with comparing GCPF. The possible
failure criteria of the composite beam were concrete
crushing and cracking, buckling of the steel beam,
shear stud failure, excess yielding and buckling of steel
beam and separation of the profiled steel sheet. In
every simulation, the failure criteria was determined
based on the fractures predicted in the material
components and accordingly, the ultimate limit state
was determined at the state where failure criteria were
determined.

5 DEVELOPMENT OF FE MODEL WITH

GEOPOLYMER CONCRETE PROFILED
FLANGE
The FE model of a composite beam with GCPF
subjected to combined negative bending and axial
tension was assembled together by these three
verifications such that the material properties of the
concrete were replaced by the material properties of the
geopolymer concrete as shown in Figure 18. An initial
analysis was executed to verify the rate of slow nodal
displacements in both ways and the composite beam
subjected to monotonic loads was studied in terms of
failure behaviour of material components. The quasi
static solution was confirmed again by studying the
variations in between the kinetic -internal energies and
applied loads -support reactions. In order to determine
the reliable material fracture, the analysis was included

Figure 18. Development of FE model of composite beam with GCPF subjected to combined negative bending and axial tension for
parametric studies

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Figure 19. Comparison of FE models of composite beam subjected to combined negative bending and axial tension (a) Plain concrete
profiled flange (b) Geopolymer concrete profiled flange

the flanges of GCPF and PCPF such that it was not

predicted or very less in locations due to the interlock
action as the shear displacement.
The stress distribution was analysed at various
location by nodes in terms of several planes, it was
relatively developed in the GCPF as plain concrete is
unreinforced in several planes so that GCPF is able to
govern the tensile strength. The fractures occurred in
the PCPF were not occurred in the GCPF as the nodes
were in active to carry the stresses at same level of
vertical and axial loads as flexural capacity is now
governed by geopolymer concrete strength. In addition,
an improved stiffness was predicted at the elastic and
plastic zones in the GCPF due to its crack controlling
by its high tensile behaviour. In the comparison of slip
in between the components of concrete and profiled
sheet, sliding action was less in the composite beam
with GCPF due to the characteristic behaviour of
bottom of GCPF component. In the comparison of
buckling and yielding of profiled steel sheet, the
composite beam with GCPF was relatively advanced
with composite beam with PCPF.
Even the profiled steel sheet was resisted a certain
strength, it was also a worse failure scenario in terms
of creating narrow concrete sections. In such case, it
was found that the GCPF is a good strengthening
method where strengthening is not possible by
reinforcing bars in the narrow section of concrete
profiled flange as it will improve the tensile behaviour
tri-axially. Particularly, the concrete failure, which was
occurred due to the induced high axial loads in the
location of narrow area section of concrete near studs,
may be postponed practically that the structure can be
resisted until the dowel strength of studs to be achieved.

In the experimental analysis of composite beam

with PCSF subjected to monotonic vertical and axial
loads, ductile failure and shear connection failure were
predicted, respectively, and the composite beam with
PCPF subjected to monotonic vertical and axial loads
was shown a 146 kN vertical load with concrete
cracking in the middle along the trough of the flange
and a 1074 kN axial load with shear stud failure as a
ultimate limit state in its respective criteria. Conversely,
an improved ultimate limit state was predicted in the
composite beam with GCPF subjected to monotonic
vertical and axial loads by postponing the failure
criteria, which the ultimate vertical and axial load
capacities were 158 kN and 1092 kN, respectively. It
was the failure mode of separation of the profiled steel
sheet with concrete flange in every case, which was
very less and delayed in terms of numbers of the
locations due to the increased frictional capacity in
GCPF.
In the composite beam subjected to combined
negative bending and axial tension, the fractures of the
material components in the comparisons of PCPF and
GCPF are presented in Figure 19. The crack initiation
and propagation were relatively postponed in the
GCPF such that the cracks formed in the GCPF were
very less or it was just an initiation while it was
propagation stage in the PCPF with comparing the
similar loads step configuration. The composite beam
with GCPF was able to carry the loads in the dropping
zone of composite beam with PCPF cracked section in
the similar loading steps. Indeed, the failure of steel
reinforcing bars where was predicted in the composite
beam with PCSF, was not predicted in the
determination of composite beam with Geopolymer
Concrete Solid Flange (GCSF) as GCSF was able to
govern a certain level of tensile strength. The
separation behaviour in between the concrete and
profile steel sheet was also significant with comparing

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7 CONCLUSIONS AND FURTHER RESEARCH

STUDY

REFERENCES

Vasdravellis, G., Uy, B., Tan, E.L. & Kirkland, B.

2012. The effects of axial tension on the Hogging
moment region of composite beams, J Constr Steel
Res 68: 20-33.
Lin, w., Yoda, T., Taniguchi, N. Application of SFRC
in steel-concrete composite beam subjected to
hogging moment, Journal of Construction steel
research (2014) 175-183.
Yoda, T., Lin, W., TaniguchiN. Kasano, H., Heang, L.,
Ge, H. Comparative study on continuous steelconcrete composite beams with normal and steel
fibre reinforced concrete slab. Proceedings of the
thirteenth east Asia-Pacific conference on
structural engineering and construction, Sapporo,
Japan, 2013.
Mirza, O., Uy, B., Effects of steel fibre reinforcement
on the behaviour of headed stud shear connectors
for composite steel-concrete beams. Advanced steel
construction (2009) 72-95.
Bavan, M., Baharom, S., Osman, S. A., The Negative
Influences of Profiled Steel Sheet in Steel-Concrete
Composite Beam subjected to Combined Negative
Bending and Axial Compression, Proceeding of 7th
Asia Pacific Young Researchers and Graduates
Symposium (YRGS 2015), University of Malaya,
Malaysia.
Nie, J., Cai, C.S. & Wang, T. 2005. Stiffness and
capacity of steel-concrete composite beams with
profiled sheeting, Engineering Structures 27: 10741085.
Uma, K., Anuradha, R., Venkatasubramani, R.
Experimental investigation and analytical modeling
of reinforced Geopolymer concrete beam,
International Journal of Civil and Structural
Engineering (2012) 817-827.
BS EN 1994-1-1, Euro code 4, 2004. Design of
composite steel and concrete structure; Part 1.1;
general rules and rules for buildings, London (UK);
British Standards Institution.
Lubliner, J., Oliver, J., Oller, S. & Onate, E. 1989. A
plastic-damage model for concrete. International
Journal of Solids and Structures 25: 299-329.
Kmiecik, P. & Kaminski, M. 2011. Proceedings of
conference on modelling of reinforced concrete
structures and composite structures with concrete
strength degradation taken into consideration in
Archives of Civil and Mechanical Engineering VI,
Wroclaw, Poland. 2011.
Desayi, P. & Krishnan, S. 1964. Equation for the
stress-strain curve of concrete. ACIJ Proceed.
61(22): 345-350.
Gattesco, N. 1999. Analytical modelling of nonlinear
behaviour of composite beams with deformable
connection. J Constr Steel Res 52:195-218.
ABAQUS user's manual, version 6.11, Dassault
Systmes Simulia Corp., Providence, RI, USA

A comparative study was performed in the

composite beam with plain concrete profiled flange
and geopolymer concrete profiled flange subjected to
combined negative bending and axial tension, in terms
of strengthening of concrete flange, which has not been
reported yet, and due to the formed narrow concrete
section such worse failure scenario may not be ignored
in many design approaches. The FE modelling based
on the nonlinear material laws, complicated contacts
and biaxial loadings with three dimensional material
components was presented in this paper. Further, it
could be obviously found that the development in the
strength was observed throughout the analysis with the
stress distributions, slip between steel beam and
concrete and deflection brought that the geopolymer
was a good strengthening method in the scenario of
adopting profile concrete flange under combined loads.
Moreover, it could be concluded such that;
Even the similar failure of shear connection failure
was observed in the simulations of composite beam
with GCPF and composite beam with PCPF, which
were included with axial load only, and a
significant development was observed in the
ultimate limit strength of composite beam with
GCPF.
The interface slip behaviour of the shear studs in
the concrete component was monitored throughout
every simulations by relative nodal displacements
in the components of concrete and steel beam such
that the interface slip was reduced in the composite
beam with GCPF rather than composite beam with
PCPF due to the development of high frictional
characteristic behaviour of concrete and it was a
major effect of high resist in the shank and head of
the shear connector.
The fracture in the several locations of the
reinforcing bars in the concrete component due to
combined axial loads was monitored through the
maximum principal stress contour of the
simulations and it was a benefit of postponing the
fracture in terms of the improved tensile behaviour
of geopolymer profiled concrete component as it
was resisted in the composite beam GCPF.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors gratefully acknowledge and wish to thank
the Department of Civil and Structural Engineering,
National University of Malaysia for their financial
assistance of this research referred as UKM-GGPMNBT-029-2011 and UKM-GUP-2011-067.

120

11th International Conference on

Advances in Steel and Concrete Composite Structures
Tsinghua University, Beijing, China, December 3-5, 2015

NEGATIVE INFLUENCES OF PROFILED STEEL SHEET ON

STEEL-CONCRETE COMPOSITE BEAM SUBJECTED TO
COMBINED NEGATIVE BENDING AND AXIAL TENSION
Ma Bavana*, S. B. Baharoma, S. A. Osmana & M. Serajib
a

Department of Civil and Structural Engineering, National University of Malaysia, Malaysia.

E-mails: mmbavan@yahoo.com, shah@eng.ukm.my, saminah@vlsi.eng.ukm.my
b

Department of Civil Engineering, Bushehr Branch, Islamic Azad University, Bushehr, Iran.
E-mail: mahmud_seraji@yahoo.com
ABSTRACT
Keywords:
Steel-concrete
composite
beam; Profiled steel sheet;
Combined negative bending and
axial tension; Failure behaviour,
FE modelling

This paper develops an innovative concept in the negative influences of profiled steel sheet
applied on steel-concrete composite beam subjected to combined negative bending and axial
tension. Most of the composite beams in bridges and buildings are designed as full-interaction
because of the complexities of partial-interaction analysis techniques and this simplification
may not be warranted as it is often necessary to apply not only variation in transferring vertical
stresses through studs but also due to the excessive slip induced by axial tension. While the
ultimate strength of the composite beam subjected to combined negative bending and axial
tension was studied recently, the failure behaviour in the narrow area due to the application of
profiled steel sheet subjected to combined negative bending and axial tension is not covered
yet. This has been found as hypothesis such that this analysis was done using Finite Element
(FE) analysis, which needs to be truly understood the behaviour of the structure. A three
dimensional FE model for a steel-concrete composite beam was developed with non-linear
material components and validated against the experimental analysis in terms of the fracture
behaviour. Continuously, the parametric study of various levels of axial tension with the effect
of profiled steel sheet on steel-concrete composite beam subjected to combined negative
bending and axial tension has been studied and discussed in this paper such that this will allow
engineers to develop more accurate actions for determining the fracture behaviour and ultimate
strength of the composite beam with profiled concrete flange

steel sheet in the composite beam subjected to combined

negative bending and axial tension could be either too
conservative or insufficient knowledge in its
performances. A finite element (FE) approach is
performed in order to study such behaviours of
composite beam with profiled concrete flange and it is
discussed in this paper excessively.

1. INTRODUCTION
The profiled concrete flanges available in the
composite construction are popular nowadays in the
industrial and residential buildings. In some cases, the
axial tension will be generated on composite beam
depending on the location of the composite beam
particularly the area affected by windward load, which
is also highlighted in this research study. It may
significantly affect the bearing capacity and rigidity of
the composite beam due to the stress concentration in
the narrow area of the concrete flange. A total of six
specimens were tested by Vasdravellis et al. (2012) in
the determination of influences due to the axial tension
on the negative bending region of the composite beam
with solid concrete flange. Conversely, there is not
existed any design model in the current design
procedures of composite beam with profiled concrete
flange subjected to combined negative bending and
axial tension and thus, the application of the profiled

2. DESCRIPTION
OF
EXPERIMENTAL
SPECIMEN CHARACTERISTICS, ANALYSIS
AND RESULTS
The experimental programme undertaken by
Vasdravellis et al. (2012) is reviewed in this study for
analyzing the behaviour of the composite beam in terms
of utilizing profiled concrete flange with the effects of
combined negative bending and axial tension. It consists
a set of six specimens of steel-concrete composite beam
with solid concrete flange and they have been labelled
by two capital letters of CB and a number from 1 to 6
demonstrated in its individual parameter of various

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Figure 1. Experimental set-up composite beam with solid concrete flange (a) Boundary conditions (b) Cross section of the specimen

Figure 2. Experimental programme (a) Vertical load application on specimen (b) Axial load application on specimen, Source:
Vasdravellis et al. (2012)

Figure 3. Experimental set-up composite beam with profiled concrete flange (a) Boundary conditions (b) Cross section of the specimen

flange of the steel beam and in an end of steel beam with

plastic centroid, respectively. In order to determine the
ultimate load carrying capacity, the specimens CB1 and
CB6 were designed to represent the monotonic vertical
load induced a negative bending region and monotonic
axial load on the edge of the steel beam of the composite
beam, respectively. The rest of the four specimens
labelled as CB2 to CB5 were designed to determine the
ultimate limit state of the composite beam subjected to
combined negative bending and axial tension with
various levels of axial tension by predicting the failure
criteria in the material components involved in the
composite beam. Based on this study, the failure modes
such as buckling of the compressive flange, ductile
failure and reinforcement fracture were observed with
the parameter of various levels of axial tension, and
accordingly the moment-axial tension interaction
diagram was presented in the results.

levels of axial tension on a steel section of composite

beam. A standard steel section of 200UB29.8 with a 600
mm-wide and 120 mm thick concrete flange reinforced
by 4450mm-length, 12 mm-diameter bars in
longitudinal direction and 550 mm-length, 12 mmdiameter bars in transversal direction had been
encompassed on all six specimens. Further the
composite beam lengthen 4500 mm had been involved,
which is consisted of exactly a span of 4000 mm with
shear connectors of 19 mm diameter and 95 mm long
welded in a single line at the center of the beam in a
spacing of 400 mm as per design of full shear connection
by providing sufficient numbers of shear connectors.
The boundary conditions used in the experimental
set-up and cross section of the specimen are indicated in
the Figure 1(a) and Figure 1(b), respectively. Figure 2(a)
and Figure 2(b) demonstrated the location of the vertical
and axial loads, which were at the center of the bottom

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Figure 4. Description of FE model: Boundary conditions, used elements, type of contacts and load applications of composite beam
with solid concrete flange

components such that concrete flange and steel shear

studs were included with the continuum, 3D, 8-node
reduced integration element (C3D8R) and continuum,
3D, 8-node incompatible mode element (C3D8I) was
applied to steel beam due to the induced high
concentrated force on steel beam by axial tension. By
considering the computational cost, the reinforcing bars
and profiled steel sheet were not considered to apply
solid elements and truss, 3D, 2 node elements T3D2
element and Shell, 4-node, Reduced integration S4R
element were used, respectively.
The contacts between different material components
is the next factor to be considered, which were identified
and defined to avoid the penetration of the nodes and to
determine the slip and separation as shown in Figure 4.
This was applied by surface-surface contact algorithm
in the surfaces of concrete flange with steel beam and
shear connectors where the areas were in touch, by
defining the tangential and normal behaviours.
Considering the welded connections, the shear
connectors and steel beam were formed as one part and
the reinforcing bars were set against the concrete flange
by embedded constraint. In the FE model consisted with
profiled concrete flange, the contacts adopted by
profiled sheet with concrete flange, steel beam and shear
stud were employed as indicated in Figure 5. The
boundary conditions that represent the applications of
loads, supports and symmetries were implemented in
both FE models in terms of limiting the translation and
rotation as exactly the same as those in the experiments
with an acceptable manner as illustrated in Figure 4 and
Figure 5. Moreover, the uniform slow nodaldisplacement control was selected in both load
applications with the concerns of the load application
rates similar to the experiments.

The authors also used the experimental analysis

carried out by Nie et al. (2005), which was a modified
composite beam with profiled concrete flange
developed to examine the stiffness and capacity. A total
of five specimens labelled as SB1 to SB5 was tested as
shown in Figure 3 and those were exposed to different
parameters in the orientation of the profiled sheet, and
the numbers and position of shear connectors. As
indicated in the Figure 3(b), all such specimens have the
same cross section, which were fabricated with a 120a
steel beam section and a concrete flange in 3900 mmlength, 800 mm-width and 90mm-height connected
together by welded studs of 16mm in diameter and 90
mm in height with a 200 mm spacing on the rib of 1mm
thickness YX60-200-600 profiled steel sheet. As
reviewed in the Figure 3, the load was applied by a load
cell at two points of the concrete flange symmetrically
with a spacing of 600 mm and all specimens were
simply-supported. The observations of the material
behaviour, and predicted moment-deflection and slip
moment-beam end slip were presented in the results.
3. DESCRIPTION OF CALIBRATION
VALIDATION OF THE FE MODEL

AND

A three dimensional Finite Element (FE) model was

proposed herein, which addresses the subject of
combined negative bending and axial tension on the
numerical study by finite element package ABAQUS.
The explicit solver with the prediction of quasi static
solution by considering available complex contacts and
non-linear material behaviours with post failure analysis
was selected such that all components were considered
to be deformable excessively. As shown in Figure 4 and
Figure 5, 3D elements were selected to all material

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Figure 5. Description of FE model: Boundary conditions, used elements and type of contacts of composite beam with profiled concrete
flange

Figure 6. Concrete material property (a) Compressive behaviour (b) Tensile behaviour

Figure 7. Stress-strain responses of (a) Structural steel beam (b) Reinforcing bars (c) Shear connectors and profiled steel sheet

structural steel beam, reinforcing bars, shear connectors

and profiled sheet were presented in Figure 7. According
to Figure 7(a), the material model proposed by Gattesco
(1999), gives better outcomes in the non-linear state
under uni-axial loading condition was used to the
structural steel beam. As presented in Figure 7(b), the
material model of reinforcing bars was developed
bilinear stress strain curve while the material models of
shear stud and profiled sheet were developed as linear
stress-strain curve until those plastic states as presented
in Figure 7(c). It was included the elliptical failure
surface under bi-axial loading of the steel components.

All the measured mechanical properties of the material

components adopted in the same experiments and tested
by the researchers were incorporated in both FE models.
The concrete material model was adopted by non-linear
stress-strain curves in uniaxial loading conditions and it
was defined by the compressive and tension behaviours
proposed by Desay & Krishnan (1964) and Eurocode
(1994) with tension stiffening as shown in Figure 6(a)
and Figure 6(b), respectively. It was further adopted in
bi-axial loading condition by the criterion of Kmiecik
and Kaminski (2011) by means of hardening variables
suggested by Lubliner et al (1989). The application of
non-linear material models of steel components such as

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Figure 8. Validation of FE model (a) Vertical load-deflection responses of FE models (b) Axial load-axial displacement responses of
FE model (c) Comparison of FE model and experiment at ultimate limit state

Figure 9. Cracking location in the slab of the FE model and cracking location in the slab in the experiment. Source: Vasdravellis et al.
(2012)

Figure 10. Validation of FE model of composite beam with profiled concrete flange (a) Moment-deflection responses (b) MomentBeam end slip

respectively, by means of the corresponding coefficients

of variations of 3% and 5%. It is noted that the ultimate
limit state was predicted in the deforming shape of the
material components in the FE model by studying the
local stresses by the stress contour throughout the
analysis and the failure mode of reinforcement fracture
was observed in the experiment. In the same way, the
cracking locations of the concrete flange were predicted
in the FE model as shown in Figure 9. Thus, these
material fractures and the capacities in the axial and
vertical loads in both experimental and FE model studies
prove that the FE model was capable in predicting the
behaviours. In the case of composite beam with profiled
concrete flange, the mid-span moment-deflection curve,

The analyses in both cases were in such a way that

the load carrying capacities and failure modes were in
good correlation with experimental analysis. Figure 8
illustrates the load carrying capacity of the FE model in
the case of composite beam subjected to combined
negative bending and axial tension, and as shown in
Figure 8(a) and Figure 8(b), the vertical load-deflection
responses and axial load-axial displacement responses
were analysed throughout the analysis such that the
interaction in terms of axial and vertical load carrying
capacities at ultimate limit state was predicted as shown
in Figure 8(c). Whilst the axial load and vertical load
carrying capacities obtained from the FE model as 1463
kN and 390 kN, respectively, those were predicted in the
experimental analysis as 1418 kN and 371 kN,

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Figure 11. Full scale composite beam with profiled concrete flange subjected to combined negative bending and axial tension

Figure 12. Quarter FE model developed for a composite beam with profiled concrete flange subjected to combined negative bending
and axial tension

the axial tension. The sudden drop in the concrete

material component, material failures at an early stage
of loading and element distortion in all material
components adopted in the composite beam due to the
inappropriate loading parameters, were examined
throughout the analysis and the FE model assessable
criteria was determined in such manner. As depicted in
Figure 11 and Figure 12, the quarter model specifically
with considering its symmetry in both axes was also
developed. In terms of the global and local behaviours,
moment- deflection and beam end slip-deflection were
compared and very close agreement was observed
between simulations and experiment in both full and
quarter models and it could be observed that
considerable simulation time was served in quarter
model with comparing its full scale model. In addition,
those were then compared with each other to analyse the
capability in the prediction of structural behaviour of the
composite beam subjected to combined negative
bending and axial load such that the load carrying
capacities of both vertical and axial criteria were
examined with time intervals throughout the analysis by
means of those relevant material failure behaviours, and
the quarter model was agreed well with full model in
such responses accordingly.

which proves the global behaviour of the FE model

in validation and beam end slip-deflection, which
proves the local behaviour of the FE model in validation
were predicted against the results of experiment such
that it was appeared that the FE model has been agreed
well with experimental programme throughout the
analysis as presented in Figure 10(a) and Figure 10(b),
respectively.
4. PARAMETRIC STUDY AND DISCUSSIONS
A fundamental understanding in the modelling
approach for a composite beam with profiled concrete
flange subjected to combined negative bending and
axial tension was gained initially by an effort developing
a full scale FE model for a composite beam with profiled
concrete flange labelled as SB1, which was
experimentally carried out by Nie et al (2005), and
applied the combined loads according to the predicted
loading rates in the FE model of composite beam with
solid concrete flange. This preliminary analysis was
aimed to understand the contact parameters and material
failure behaviours such as initiation of concrete cracking
in tension and crushing in compression, slip distribution
and buckling and excess yielding of steel beam due to

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Figure 13. Deformation of the Profiled steel sheet in the FE model

to be occurred. Nevertheless in this case, the cracking in

the narrow section of the concrete flange due to the
profiled steel sheet and excessive slip of shear studs and
excess yielding of steel beam due to the axial tension
were examined in each numerical algorithm as different
deformation characteristics. It was able to present the
load carrying capacity of the composite beam with
profiled concrete flange by predicting the time
increment level in the FE model where the failure modes
occurred.
As a result, the FE model based upon only the axial
load application that the shear connection failure
occurred at 1074 kN axial load capacity and it was
determined as the ultimate axial load carrying capacity
of the composite beam with profiled concrete flange.
Subsequently, the ultimate vertical load carrying
capacity was determined for a composite beam with
profiled concrete flange by failure modes in applying the
various levels of axial tension. In the FE model, when
30 % of axial load was applied, the vertical load carrying

In this present case, the various levels of axial

tension were chosen based on the earlier studies on
composite beam with solid concrete flange subjected to
combined negative bending and axial tension, which
were the levels base on the similar correlation of the
previous studies. The profile sheeting was modelled
with linking by embossment in order to predict the
reliable separation behaviour such that it was simulated
by introducing the contact parameters and modes from
the push tests in the open literature. As it could be
capable of predicting the progressive material behaviour
by ABAQUS up to the end of the beam with analysing
the material failure behaviour throughout the analysis in
all the material components involved, the several failure
modes were able to predict in terms of full range of
structural behaviour of the composite beam with
profiled concrete flange. In general, the failure modes in
the composite beam such as concrete crushing and
cracking, buckling of the steel beam, shear stud failure
and separation of the profiled steel sheet were possible
127

Bavan et al.
to combined negative bending and axial tension reveals
the negative influence of the profiled steel sheet that will
not be neglected in the future. Moreover, it is obvious
that the data are relatively slight evidence up to the
present and rational development of design method
should be developed for a composite beam with profiled
concrete flange under co-existing axial tension.

capacity was slightly increased with the failure mode of

concrete cracking. At the same time, the axial loads
were 50%, 70% and 90% of its ultimate axial load, the
vertical load carrying capacity was gradually decreased
and both concrete and shear studs were reached those
individual maximum stresses such that the failure modes
were governed by both concrete cracking and shear
connection failure. Figure 13 illustrates that the early
separation and deformation in the profiled steel sheet,
which was commonly observed as a first failure mode
with concrete cracking in the narrow area while
buckling in the web and flange of the steel beam were
occurred continuously after the failure modes of
concrete cracking and shear studs failure.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors gratefully acknowledge the financial
support provided by the Department of Civil
Engineering, National University of Malaysia under the
grants of UKM-GGPM-NBT-029-2011 and UKMGUP-2011-067.

5. CONCLUSIONS AND FURTHER RESEARCH

REFERENCES

A Numerical investigation for study of influences of

profiled steel sheet on steel-concrete composite beam
with profiled concrete flange subjected to combined
negative bending and axial tension has been presented.
The FE models were deeply analysed against the data
available and a FE model for analysing such case was
carefully calibrated. Based on the investigations, it
could be found that;
The FE models are tallied with experimental
analysis of composite beam with solid concrete
flange subjected to combined negative bending and
axial tension and composite beam with profiled
concrete flange for simulating the structural
behaviour, and such prediction lead that progressive
non-linear behaviour and the post failure analysis are
able to predict in an accurate manner.
Not only, owing to the narrow area of concrete
flange formed by profiled steel sheet, the function of
the shear studs is less effective because of lacking
space in the trough, but also, due to the excessive slip
generated by axial tension, narrow area of the
concrete flange initiates the early concrete cracking
such that the composite action is less effective,
which creates a negative influence on the composite
beam by profiled steel sheet.
Moreover, a particular determination in terms of
practical structural quantity is concrete cracking as a
failure limit state, even the applied vertical load
carrying capacity is improved after concrete
cracking due to the axial load on the steel beam.
Composite beam with profiled concrete flange
indicates that the low level of axial tension was
advantage by increasing its vertical loading capacity
while high level of axial tension was dominated by
decreasing its vertical loading capacity.
This close examination of the FE analysis in the
composite beam with profiled concrete flange subjected

Vasdravellis, G., Uy, B., Tan, E.L. & Kirkland, B. 2012. The
effects of axial tension on the Hogging moment region of
composite beams, J Constr Steel Res 68: 20-33.
Nie, J., Cai, C.S. & Wang, T. 2005. Stiffness and capacity of
steel-concrete composite beams with profiled sheeting,
Engineering Structures 27: 1074-1085.
Bavan, M., Baharom, S. & Suyanthiran, A. 2013. Improved
3D-nonlinear FEM model to simulate continuous steelconcrete composite beams with steel metal-ribbed decking.
The Pacific Structural Steel Conference (PSSC 2013.
Singapore.
Bavan, M., Baharom, S., Osman, S. A., The Negative
Influences of Profiled Steel Sheet in Steel-Concrete
Composite Beam subjected to Combined Negative
Bending and Axial Compression, Proceeding of 7th Asia
Pacific Young Researchers and Graduates Symposium
(YRGS 2015), University of Malaya, Malaysia.
BS EN 1994-1-1, Euro code 4, 2004. Design of composite
steel and concrete structure; Part 1.1; general rules and
rules for buildings, London (UK); British Standards
Institution.
Lubliner, J., Oliver, J., Oller, S. & Onate, E. 1989. A plasticdamage model for concrete. International Journal of
Solids and Structures 25: 299-329.
Kmiecik, P. & Kaminski, M. 2011. Proceedings of conference
on modelling of reinforced concrete structures and
composite structures with concrete strength degradation
taken into consideration in Archives of Civil and
Mechanical Engineering VI, Wroclaw, Poland. 2011.
Desayi, P. & Krishnan, S. 1964. Equation for the stress-strain
curve of concrete. ACIJ Proceed. 61(22): 345-350.
Gattesco, N. 1999. Analytical modelling of nonlinear behavior
of composite beams with deformable connection. J Constr
Steel Res 52:195-218.
ABAQUS user's manual, version 6.11, Dassault Systmes
Simulia Corp., Providence, RI, USA

128

11th International Conference on

Advances in Steel and Concrete Composite Structures
Tsinghua University, Beijing, China, December 3-5, 2015

PRE-CAMBERED CAP DECKS FOR 7.5M SPAN STRUCTURES

WITHOUT SUPPORTS
S. Leea, J. Songb, Y. Parka, Y. Wonb & S. Choia
a

Department of Architectural Engineering, University of Seoul, Korea

E-mails: altair1739@uos.ac.kr, aawons@naver.com, smc@uos.ac.kr

Mokyang Architects&Engineers Co, Korea

E-mail: sjw@myeng.co.kr
ABSTRACT
Keywords:
Pre-camber; Non-Support;
Cap Deck; Deflection;Preload

Cap decks used in slim floor system for reducing floor height act as molds for forming floor
slabs in structures with a span of up to 6m without temporary supports. When deep decks are
employed in a structure with a span of more than 6m, the problem of defection occurs. This
study suggests placing tendons at the ends of cap decks in order to create cambers and control
defection when preload is applied. Uniformly distributed load was applied by an UTM to the
two L/4 points of specimens to observe the deflection of preloaded cap decks. For the test,
three 7.5m specimens were fabricated. One of them was a plain cap deck specimen and the
others were those with tendons (PC strands or steel bars).

The purpose of this study is to solve the problem of

deflection which occurs upon pouring concrete into cap
decks and to realize structures with a span of 7.5m
without supports by using cap decks as molds. It is
suggested that pre-cambers be formed by PC strands or
steel bars and tendon-anchoring devices applicable to cap
decks be developed.

1 INTRODUCTION
In Korea, decks are commonly employed instead of
plywood molds in producing slabs in order to reduce
labor and time and enhance constructional convenience.
75mm deep mold-type or structural decks, 150mm deep
truss decks where trusses and steel bars are welded into
each other and cap decks which are more than 200mm in
depth are used.
Made of galvanized steel plates, cap decks which are
600mm in bottom width, 250mm in depth and
1.0~1.4mm in thickness are used in the floor slabs of
structures with a span of up to 6m without temporary
supports, in which case small beams are not necessary.
However, the problem of excessive deflection occurs
when cap decks are used in the floor slabs of a structure
having a span of more than 6m, in which case temporary
posts are required.

2 CAP DECKS FOR LONG SPAN STRUCTURE

WITHOUT SUPPORTS

2.1 Outline
Tendons are placed at cap decks and preload is
applied to the tendons to form pre-cambers. Absolute
deflection is decreased by as much as the height of
cambers because deflection of cap decks is caused by
construction load after the cambers are formed. and
in figure 2 show preload and construction load,
respectively.

(a) Cap Deck Section

Figure 1. Shape of Cap Deck

Figure 2 Cap Decks for long Span Structure without Supports

(b) Cap Deck Ends

129

Lee et al.

2.2 Formation of pre-cambers in production process

2.5 Tendon-anchoring devices and connectors

Cap decks which are 1.0mm, 1.2mm, 1.4mm or

1.6mm in thickness are produced with cambers. The
height of cambers is L/600~L/500 in 1.0~1.2mm thick
cap decks and L/250 in 1.4~1.6mm thick ones. In this
study, 1.2mm thick cap decks with L/600 cambers were
used.

Figure 5 shows the anchoring devices for tendons.

Used to arrange and fix tendons in the form of a
non-straight line, channel steel was fixed to the sloped
planes of deck ends with screws. L-shaped steel was
used to fix tendons in the form of a straight line.
Developed to fix steel bars to deck ends, L-shaped
steel devices were placed at the sloped planes of deck
ends to fix the tendons in a straight line. Since the
contact surfaces between the L-shaped anchoring devices
and the sloped planes were small, deck webs were
reinforced with L-shaped steel before the anchoring
devices were placed to prevent dents in deck ends.
Connectors were placed between deck webs and used
along with the anchoring devices in order to transfer
normal component force to decks upon the application of
preload to tendons arranged in a non-straight line.

2.3 Formation of pre-cambers by preloading

The distance between the center of a cap deck and
preloading point has an influence on the height of
pre-cambers. Since the cambers are formed during the
production of cap decks, the height of the pre-cambers
should be taken into consideration when deciding the
height of cambers to be formed by preloading. Figure 3
shows the eccentric distance.

Figure 3 Cap Deck Eccentric Distance

2.4 Arrangement of tendons

Figure 4 shows the arrangement of tendons.
Non-straight arrangement was chosen to apply preload to
PC strands to form cambers using normal component
force. Straight arrangement was chosen to use not only
PC strands but also slab main bars as tendons.

(a) Non-straight Anchorage

(a) Non-straight Arrangement

(b) Straight Anchorage

(b) Straight Arrangement

Figure 4. Arrangement of tendons

(c) Connector
Figure 5. anchoring devices for tendons

130

Lee et al.

2.6 Devices to incorporate tendons into cap decks

1.0mm thick one. However, the limit was exceeded in

all of the decks having a span of 7.5~9.0m. Although
deck thickness of more than 1.6mm was needed to meet
the deflection requirement, tendons were placed at 1.2mm
thick decks in order to control deflection with the
minimum amount of steel.

Preload was applied to cap decks to form cambers

before concrete-casting so that the absolute deflection of
the decks could be minimized. In an attempt to improve
deflection control under construction load, the idea of
incorporating tendons into cap decks was suggested to
improve sectional efficiency. Figure 6 shows devices to
incorporate tendons and cap decks.
The incorporating devices were placed at deck centers
and L/4 points after preloading and before
concrete-casting. For constructional convenience, they
were screw-connected to cap decks.

Table 1. Deflection due to the length and thickness

1.0mm

1.2mm

1.4mm

1.6mm

6.0m

31.87

26.55

22.76

19.92

7.5m

69.93

59.50

49.95

43.71

9.0m

153.07

153.07

131.20

114.80

3.2 Cambers induced by preload s

Deflection during construction is influenced by
concrete weight (2.4kN/m3) and work load (1.5kN/m2).
The difference between deflection limit and deflection
during construction was set as the target height of
cambers. Preload to be applied to tendons to induce the
target height was estimated by formula 2 and formula 3.
The former was applied to non-straight arrangement of
tendons and the latter was to straight arrangement.

(a) Concept

In the formulas,
P = Preload (kN)
e = Distance between deck centers and anchoring
devices (mm)
l = Span (mm)
E = Modulus of elasticity (N/mm2)
I = Second moment of area (mm4)
Table 2 shows preload needed to control the excessive
deflection of cap decks having a span of 7.5m without
tendon-incorporating devices.

(b) Installation Shape

Figure 6. Devices to Incorporate Tendons into Cap Deck

3 THEORETHICAL ANALYSIS OF SUGGESTED

IDEA

3.1 Deflection of cap deck

The thickness of concrete slabs where cap decks are
employed is 120mm when the span is 7.5m and 180mm
when it is 9.0m. With concrete weight and workload
(1.5kN/m2) taken into consideration, the deflection in the
cap decks during construction was found using formula 1.

Table 2 Preload for the deflection control

(1)

Where,
C = Deflection coefficient (1.2)
K = Estimation coefficient for simple beams
(5L4/384)
WDL = Concrete weight (kN/m)
WLL = Workload (kN/m)
Table 1 shows the estimations. When the span was
6.0m, deflection limit allowed during construction
(L/180, 30mm) was satisfied in all of the decks except for

Non-straight

Construction Deflection

44.50mm

Allow Deflection

30mm

Excess Deflection

14.50mm

Preload

51kN

Straight

45kN

The deflection of cap decks with a span of 7.5m

caused by construction load was 44.50m, which yielded
the excessive deflection of 14.50mm. Preload needed to
control the excessive deflection and to realize a 7.5m
span structure without supports was 51kN for the cap
131

Lee et al.

1.2mm thick decks to minimize steel amount and

improve economic efficiency in construction.
(2) It is deduced that preload of 51kN and 45kN is
required to control the excessive deflection of 14.50mm
and render the cap decks applicable to a long span
structure without supports.
(3) The sectional stress of preloaded cap decks was
-170.45MPa in upper part and 187.59MPa in lower part,
which implies that they can be employed in 7.5m span
structures.

decks with non-straight arrangement of tendons (PT-1)

and 45kN for the one with straight arrangement (PT-2).

3.3 Sectional stress of cap decks with a span of 7.5m

When construction load is applied to a cap deck, its
lower part and upper part are subject to tension and
compression, respectively. The eccentric load applied to
tendons in preloading process puts the lower part and
upper part of the deck under compression and tension,
respectively, which provides it a favorable position in
terms of sectional stress. However, excessive preload
can cause decks to rupture. For this reason, the
sectional stress of 7.5m decks was evaluated. Table 3
shows the result.

4 EXPERIMENTAL VERIFICTION OF CAP

DECK CAMBERS

4.1 Preliminary test

Preliminary test was conducted to identify appropriate
preload to be applied to cap decks and observe local
buckling. Variables in the test were the location of
tendon-anchoring devices and the arrangement of
tendons.
PC strands were used as tendons for
preloading. Preload was applied by an actuator (20t) to
three tendons simultaneously.

Table 3. Section stress of the construction phase

Preload

Table 3. Preliminary specimens lists

Specimens

Anchorage location(H: Depth)

PT-1

Center (connector setup)

PT-2

h/4(connection uninstalled)

Size
specimens
7,330mm
X

Construct
ion load

2,400mm

Preload+
Construct
ion load

(a) Experimental views

Figure 7. Preliminary test

(b)

Preloading

The stress of the lower part of a 1.2mm thick cap deck

was 290.71MPa, which was similar to yield strength,
when it was under construction load only. The stress of
the upper part and lower part of the deck would be
-170.45MPa and 187.59MPa upon preloading, making a
7.5m span feasible.

Figure 8 and table 4 show the result of the test.

Figure 9 shows the failure modes of the specimens. The
target camber height of 14.50mm was reached at 46kN
and 50kN, respectively. The ends of decks were dented
at 77.46kN and 78kN, respectively.
Given the
observation of the dents in deck ends, it was deduced that
preload below 70kN should be applied to cap decks.
Connectors were placed between the decks of the
specimen with non-straight tendon-arrangement, which
presented inconveniences due to the small width between
decks. It was deduced from the specimen with straight
tendon-arrangement that the lower steel bars used in
existing slim floor system could be used as tendons for
forming the cambers of cap decks.

3.4 Sub-conclusion
The conclusion drawn from the theoretical analysis of
cap decks for a long-span structure without supports is as
follows.
(1) Although more than 1.6mm in thickness was
found necessary for cap decks to be applicable to a 7.5m
span structure, this study verified the performance of

132

Lee et al.

Table 5. Loading Specimens List

Production

100

Specimens

PT-1
PT-2

Tendons

Camber

Load(kN)

80

60

MT-2

40

MT-3

20

10

15

20

25

30

Displacement(mm)

-21mm

7B-12.7mm
HD 19

70kN

-19mm

Preload applied to PC strands was measured by the

load of hydraulic pump applied to the actuator. Preload
to steel bars was measured by the strain gauges installed
at the centers and L/3 points of the bars.

0
0

SWPR

Preload

Figure 8. Preliminary test Preload-Deflection Graph

Table 4. Preliminary test Result

Specimens

Preload

Camber

PT-1

77.46kN

-24.70mm

PT-2

78kN

-25.40mm

(a) Experimental views

(b) Re-bar Preloading

Figure 10. Cap Deck Loading test

Load applied to the specimens was 68.5kN and

51.2kN, respectively and the height of cambers formed
under the load condition was 18.70mm and 13.80mm,
respectively. Given the cambers formed in production
process, those formed by preload and deflection caused
by construction load, ultimate deflection of the specimens
was 15.98mm and 22.8mm, both of which satisfied the
deflection limit of L/180 or 30mm.

Figure 9. Cap Deck Failure Mode

70

4.2 Loading test

MT-2
MT-3
Calculation

60

Loading test was conducted to observe the deflection

of cap decks under preload. Specimens for the test were
fabricated as shown in table 5. Straight arrangement of
tendons was chosen due to the convenience of not
installing connectors as experienced in the preliminary
test. Steel bars were chosen as tendons in order to use
upper steel bars in slim floor system as tendons to form
the cambers of cap decks. Two steel bars were placed at
each of the gullies between decks so that they could act as
structural members as well.
Preloading to PC strands was made by an actuator as
in the case of preliminary test. Preload was applied to
steel bars by nut rotation.

Load(kN)

50

40

30

20

10

0
0

10

15

20

Displacement(mm)

Figure 11. Loading test Preload-Deflection Graph

4.3 Comparison between analysis and test

Figure 11 and table 6 show preload-displacement
relationships. Since similar patterns were observed
among the relationships derived from theoretical analysis
and test, it was deduced that formula 2 and formula 3
could be used to estimate the camber height of cap deck.
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Lee et al.

5 FLEXURAL PERFORMANCE TEST

Table 6. Camber compared with preload

Preload

Camber

(kN)

(mm)

MT-2

68.50

18.70

MT-3

51.20

13.80

Calculation

70.00

17.10

Specimens

5.1 Outline
Test was conducted to evaluate the flexural
performance of preloaded cap deck specimens. In
addition to two specimens identical to those used in
loading test, a specimen without preloading was included
in the flexural performance test. Table 7 shows the list
of the specimens.
Monotonic load was applied to the specimens by a
UTM having a capacity of 1,000 tons at the Steel
Structure Lab of POSCO Global R&D Center. Since it
was difficult to realize uniformly distributed load under
simple support condition, load was applied to two L/4
points from specimen ends, the points of inflection, as
shown in figure 13. Loading was applied at 0.1/sec.
under displacement control condition.

4.4 L-shaped tendon-anchoring devices

Table 6 shows preload applied to specimens MT-2
and MT-3 and camber height observed in loading test.
While the preload of 70kN was originally planned to be
applied, it was not established due to the deformation of
the lower parts of anchoring devices. Since loading
points were located in the parts, load concentration was
deemed to cause the deformation.

Table 7. Flexural Performance Specimens List

(a) Preload action

Specimens

Tendons

MT-1

(b) Anchorage Buckling

MT-2

Figure 12. Preload action and Buckling

SWPR
7B-12.7mm

Production
Camber
-16mm

MT-3

HD 19

-21mm
70kN

It is suggested that tendon-anchoring steel be

reinforced
with
vertical
stiffeners
and
tendon-incorporating devices be reinforced with
additional plates in order to improve sectional efficiency
and thus to fully apply the target load.

Preload

-19mm

4.5 Sub-conclusion
The conclusion derived from the experimental
analysis of the cap deck specimens is as follows.
(1) The ends of decks were dented at 77.46kN in the
specimen with non-straight tendon-arrangement and at
78kN in the specimen with straight arrangement, showing
that preload applied to decks should be limited to 70kN.
(2) The height of the camber formed in the specimen
with PC strands was 21mm and that in the specimen with
steel bars was 19mm. Since the absolute deflection of
the specimens was 23.50mm and 25.50mm, the idea of
realizing long-span structures satisfying deflection limit
is deemed feasible.
(3) The deformation of L-shaped anchoring devices
was observed because preload was applied from the
lower parts of the devices creating a cantilever.
Suggestion for this problem is placing stiffeners inside
the L-shaped angles to improve sectional efficiency and
apply target preload.

Figure 13. Load Pressing

Three LVDTs were installed at the center and L/3

points of each specimen to measure displacement.
Strain gauges were installed at the centers and L/3 points
of decks to measure deformation caused by tension and
compression.

5.2 Result & failure mode

Test was terminated when load dropped to 70% of
maximum load capacity. The displacement of the
specimens was measured without interruption until the
termination of test. The load-displacement relationships
of the specimens are shown in figure 14.

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Lee et al.

Figure 15 shows the failure modes of the specimens.

Specimen MT-1 which was not preloaded experienced
buckling failure at L/4 points. The others underwent
buckling failure at the centers of upper plates.

Table 8. Flexural Performance Test Result

MT-1
MT-2
MT-3

80

Load

Deflection

flexural rigidity

(kN)

(mm)

(kN/mm)

MT-1

77.67

56.37

1.38

MT-2

89.39

60.85

1.46

MT-3

90.62

65.36

1.39

Specimens

Load(kN)

60

5.4 Sectional stress

Load-stress relationships of the specimens were
plotted on the graphs shown in figure 16 to identify the
sectional stress of decks in relation to preloading. As to
specimen MT-1 which was not preloaded, the stress at the
upper and lower parts of decks upon loading were
plotted. Stress was -162Mpa and 245Mpa at the upper
part and lower part, respectively, which were similar to
-175.17Mpa and 290.71Mpa observed in Section 3.3.
Preloaded specimens MT-2 and MT-3 received the stress
of -100Mpa upon preloading. In specimen MT-2 with
PC strands, stress was -412Mpa at upper part and
202Mpa at lower part. In specimen MT-3 with steel bars,
stress was -452Mpa at upper part and 220Mpa at lower
part. Stress at the upper parts of the two specimens
exceeded the yield strength of 290Mpa and the buckling
failure at the upper plates of cap deck was observed.
Stress at the tensile sides of the specimens decreased by
10~18%. It was deduced that the load capacity of
preloaded specimens would be 12% higher when
compared with the specimen without preloading.

40

20

0
0

10

15

20

25

30

35

40

45

50

55

60

65

70

75

80

85

Displacement(mm)

Figure 14. Load-Deflection Graph

(a) MT-1

(b) MT-2

(c) MT-3
Figure 15. Failure Mode

5.3 Incorporating devices

Devices designed to incorporate the tendons and the
sections of cap decks upon preloading were installed at
centers and L/4 points so as to improve deflection
control. The flexural rigidity of specimen MT-1 which
was not preloaded was 1.38. The flexural rigidity of the
specimen with PC strands was 1.46 and that of the
specimens with steel bars was 1.39. The flexural
rigidity of the specimens with the incorporating devices
was merely 1~1.6% higher than that of specimen MT-1,
seemingly because the devices did not realize
incorporation due to the slip between them and the
tendons.

(a) MT-1

(b) MT-2

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Lee et al.

7 REFERENCES
Architectural Institute of Korea. 1998. Composite Deck Slab
Standard (Proposal) Architectural Institute of Korea (In
Korea)
Park, K.Y., Nam, Y.S., Choi, Y.H., Kim Y.H. & Choi. S.M.
2013. Improvement of Flexural Performance for Deep-Deck
Plate using Cap Plate. Journal of Korean Society of Steel
Construction(KSSC) 25(5): 555-567
Korea Society of Steel Construction. 2009. Steel Structure
Design. Goomibooks(In Korea)
Shin, T.S. 2003. An Investigation into differences between
codes for the Moment Strength of Deck Plates, Journal of
Korea Society of Steel Construction. 15(1): 25-31
Jeon, S.H., Kyung, J.H., Kim, Y.H., Choi, S.M. & Yang, I.S.
2015. Deflection Evaluation of the Constructing0load
Carrying Capacity for Deep Decking Floor System
Reinforced with Both Ends Cap Plates. Journal of Korean
Society of Steel Construction 27(2):155-167
Shin, T.S. 2003, Load Carrying Capacities for the Interaction
between Web Crippling and Moment at the Intermediate
Support of Deck Plate, Architectural Institute of Korea
19(12): 15-24
Heo, B.W., Kwak, M.K., Bae, K.W. & Jung, S.M. 2007,
Flexural Capacity of the Profiled Steel Composite Beams,
Journal of Korean Society of Steel Construction, KSSC,
19(3): 247-258
Jeon, S.H., Park, K.Y., Lee, S.H., Kim Y.H. & Choi, S.M. 2011.
An Experimental Analysis on the Flexural Strength of Deep
Deck Strengthening with Cap Plates, Architectural Institute
of Korea, AIK 31(2): 227-228
Park, K.Y., Lee, S.H., Kim, Y.H. & Choi, S.M. 2011. Field
Instrumentation for Safety Assessment under Construction
of Deep Deck Plate, Architectural Institute of Korea, AIK
31(2): 223-224
Shin, H.M. 2008. Prestressed Concrete, DongMyungSa(In
Korea)
Tang, D.S., Lim, S.H.and Park, S.K. 2002. Flexural Behavior of
External Prestressed H-Beam, Journal of Korean Society of
Steel Construction, KSSC 14(1):79-85

(c) MT-3
Figure 16. Section Stress

6 CONCLUSION
In this study, full-size cap deck specimens were
fabricated for preloading and loading tests in order to
evaluate deflection during construction in relation to
pre-cambers (L/500) formed in production process and
those formed by preload and analyze if the idea of
long-span structures without supports would be feasible.
The conclusion drawn from the tests and analysis is as
follows.
(1) Total deflection in cap deck specimens MT-1,
MT-2 and MT-3 was 56.37mm, 61.85mm and 66.36mm,
respectively.
Absolute deflection in preloaded
specimens (MT-2 and MT-3) was reduced to 29.65mm
and 39.06mm thanks to the cambers formed in production
process and the pre-cambers formed by preload, which
verified deflection control enabled by preload and the
feasibility of long-span structures without supports.
(2) Preload needed to control the excessive deflection
of 14.50mm in 1.2mm thick decks was 70kN and 60kN.
Given the preload and construction load applied to the
decks, the sectional stress would be 170.45Mpa at the
upper part and 187.59Mpa at the lower part, which would
render the realization of structures having a span of 7.5m
without supports feasible.
(3) Preliminary test with 7.5m cap deck specimens
(PT-1 and PT-2) found that preload should be limited to
70kN to avoid dents in deck ends. The height of
cambers in specimen MT-2 and specimen MT-3 in
loading test was 21mm and 19mm, respectively. The
test found that the absolute deflection of the specimens,
with construction load taken into consideration, would be
23.50mm and 25.50mm, which satisfied deflection limit
during construction and implied the feasibility of
long-span structures without support.
(4) When compared with specimen MT-1 which was
not preloaded, the tensile strength of preloaded specimens
(MT-2 and MT-3) dropped by 10~18%, indicating that
the load capacity of cap decks increased upon deflection
caused by concrete-casting.

136

11th International Conference on

Advances in Steel and Concrete Composite Structures
Tsinghua University, Beijing, China, December 3-5, 2015

BEHAVIOUR OF CIRCULAR CONCRETE FILLED DOUBLE SKIN STEEL TUBULAR (CFDST) STUB COLUMNS
D. Lama, X.H. Daia, T. Sheehana & M. Pagoulatoua
a

School of Engineering, Faculty of Engineering and Informatics, University of Bradford, Bradford, UK

E-mails: d.lam1@bradford.ac.uk, x.dai@bradford.ac.uk, t.sheehan@bradford.ac.uk, marianna_pag@hotmail.com
ABSTRACT

Keywords:
Concrete filled; Double-skin;
Composite columns; Eurocode 4;
CFDST.

This paper presents the behaviour of circular concrete-filled double-skin steel tubular (CFDST)
stub columns subjected to concentric axial compression. To predict the performance of this form
of concrete-filled composite columns, finite element analyses were conducted. The applied
methodology is validated through comparisons of the results obtained from the finite element
analyses with those from past experiments. A total of twenty-five models were created to
conduct the parametric study aiming to examine the effect of various diameter-to-thickness (D/t)
ratios, concrete cube strengths and steel yield strengths on the overall behaviour and ultimate
resistance of the double-skin columns, In addition, four circular concrete-filled steel tubes
(CFST) are included to check the dissimilarities, in terms of their behaviour and weight ratio,
when compared with identical double-skin tubes. A new formula based on the Eurocode 4
methodology is proposed to evaluate the strength of the double-skin composite columns. Based
on the comparison between the results derived from the analyses, the proposed formula for the
concrete filled double-skin would appear to be satisfactory.

eight specimens with circular outer and square inner skins

and Zhao et al. (2002) tested six specimens with circular
outer and inner skins. From their results, it was found that
the buckling of both the outer and inner tubes were due to
the failure of concrete. In addition, sections with large
slenderness values appeared to be more ductile than those
with small slenderness values. Similar tests were
conducted by Tao et al. (2004) who examined fourteen
stub columns having both outer and inner circular hollow
sections. The primary aspects under consideration in his
study were the diameter-to-thickness ratio (D/t) and the
hollow section ratio (a parameter relating the diameter of
the inner hollow tube to the diameter of the outer tube).
The analysis proved that the failure mode of the inner
tube highly depends upon its D/t ratio, as opposed to that
of the outer tube which was the same for various D/t
ratios. Furthermore, the double-skin specimens did not
appear to be influenced by the hollow section ratio. Zhao
et al. (2010) performed tests on a series of short columns
subjected to static and cyclic loads. It seemed that the
latter loading condition can significantly influence the
load-deformation curve, especially for specimens with
large diameter to thickness ratios. Hu and Su (2011)
recommended three equations in order to best evaluate
the lateral confining pressure f1 and one design
specification for the material degradation parameter k3,
which are needed for the modelling of the confined
concrete in ABAQUS. Out of the three obtained values,
the minimum value of f1 was found to be the most

1 INTRODUCTION
Concrete-filled double-skin steel tubes (CFDST)
columns consist of two concentric inner and outer steel
tubes, with concrete sandwiched between them and a void
at their centre. The inner and outer tubes can either have
the same or different sectional shape, i.e. circularcircular, circular-square, etc. CFDST columns belong to
the family of composite columns and therefore combine
the best material qualities of both steel and concrete.
These columns have similar behaviour to the single-skin
columns, but with a lesser weight and greater stiffness.
Researchers in recent years have carried out
experiments and finite element analyses to investigate the
behaviour of concrete-filled double-skin stub members
tested against compressive forces. Huang et al. (2010)
created fourteen FE models identical to those tested by
Tao et al. (2004) and Lin and Tsai (2001), aiming to
investigate the accuracy of modelling using ABAQUS.
From the analysis of the stress-strain curves it was
concluded that sections with a greater confinement factor
() demonstrated strain-hardening behaviour, whilst
strain-softening behaviour was shown for smaller
values. Yu et al. (2010) focused on the parameters that
affect the performance of concrete within a new kind of
hybrid double-skin column. A new and simple
stress-strain model was suggested for concrete in this
type of cross-section. Elchalakani et al. (2002) tested

137

Lam et al.

suitable to be adopted for engineering purposes. Research

by Uenaka et al. (2010) based on twelve specimens
observed that as Di / Do increased, the performance of the
double-skin columns reduced. It was noted that tensile
stresses occurred in the outer tube, whereas compressive
stresses occurred in the inner tube. The load bearing
capacity of the specimens was found to be considerably
influenced by the degree of confinement offered by the
outer tube.
In this study, the aim is to examine the overall
behaviour of double-skin columns under axial
compressive load. In order to achieve this, finite-element
models were generated using commercially available
software, ABAQUS (2009). Past experimental tests on
double-skin columns conducted by Tao et al. (2004) and
Zhao et al. (2002) are utilized to validate the model. An
extensive parametric study was carried out, where the
parameters investigated were the outer diameter-tothickness ratio (Do/to), the inner diameter-to-thickness
ratio (Di/ti), the cube strength of the concrete infill (fcu)
and the yield strength of both outer and inner steel tubes
(fyo, fyi). From the results of the parametric studies, a new
formula based on the Eurocode 4 (2009) was proposed to
calculate the axial capacity of this form of composite
columns, owing to the fact that the current European
Codes do not yet include any equation to evaluate the
capacity of the double-skin columns.

where k1 and k2 are fixed constraints equal to 4.1 and

20.5 as recommended in the study of Richart et al.
(1928). The term fc stands for the unconfined cylinder
strength of concrete, which is the equivalent to 0.8 times
its cube strength, whereas c represents the corresponding
unconfined strain, which herein is set as 0.003.

2 FINITE ELEMENT MODELLING

0.00246 ( o) ( i ) 0.00550 (

Figure 1. Stress-strain curves for both confined and unconfined

concrete

The factor, f1, is the dual lateral confining pressure

caused by the steel tubes that concrete undergoes. Hu and
Su (2011) has proposed three new equations, Eqs. (3) to
(5), in order to calculate the value of the pressure, with
respect to the influence of both tubes, as follows:

2.1 General information

fl

Finite element software, ABAQUS is used to simulate

the behaviour of circular concrete-filled double-skin steel
tubes. The aim is to create models that would accurately
predict the behaviour of this form of composite columns.
Therefore, sectional properties, materials with their
characteristic stress-strain curves along with their
interactions, the loading and boundary conditions and
mesh sizes will need to de defined.

fyi

fc

ti

to

Di

to

ti

ti

) 0

(3)

to

ti

= 0.01844 0.00055 ( o) 0.00040 ( i ) + 0.00001

to

to

ti

ti

fl
fyo

(4)

to

ti

to

= 0.01791 0.00036 ( o) 0.00013 ( i ) + 0.00001( o)

D

to

ti

ti

+ 0.00001 ( o) ( i ) 0.00002 ( i )

(5)

in which Do is the diameter of the outer tube and to is its

thickness, while Di is the diameter of the inner steel tube
and ti is its thickness. Similarly, fyi and fyo are the yield
strengths of the inner and outer tube, respectively.
In order to estimate the last point of the descending
region in the concrete stress-strain curve, the expression
rk3fcc was used. This term considers the final stress value
prior to failure and corresponds to a strain value of about
11cc. Constituting a coefficient for the degradation of
confined concrete, directly related to the diameter- tothickness ratio of both tubes, Eq. (6) is used to calculate
k3 as follows:

As the outer and inner tubes of concrete-filled

double-skin composite columns restrained the
sandwiched concrete, therefore the concrete can be
considered as confined. Fig. 1 shows the stress-strain
curve of the confined concrete, which is adopted, as well
as that of the unconfined concrete. Eqs. (1) and (2)
suggested by Mander et al. (1988) for the confined stress
and strain, symbolized as fcc and cc respectively, which
originally referred to concrete-filled steel tubes can be
applied:

cc = c (1 + k2 l )

to

( o)+ 0.00001 ( o) ( i ) 0.00002 ( i )

2.2 Concrete material

fcc = fc + k1f1 (MPa)

f1 =8.525 0.166 ( o) 0.00897 ( i ) + 0.00125 ( o)+

(1)

to

ti

to

k3 =1.73916 0.00862 ( o) 0.04731 ( i ) 0.00036 ( o)

(2)

138

Lam et al.

to

ti

ti

+ 0.00134 ( o) ( i ) 0.00058 ( i ) 0

surfaces of each pair whereas the term tangential

behaviour describes the extent of friction and the
occurrence of slippage between the two surfaces, caused
by high shear stresses. Herein, the hard contact was
selected to represent the normal behaviour, while the
rough friction was used for the plate-concrete and
plate-steel interactions and the penalty friction for the
core-tube interaction with a coefficient of friction equal
to 0.3.

(6)

In this study, the above formula is assumed to be valid

only when accompanied by the reduction factor r, which
can be assumed as 1.0 for concrete cube strengths up to
30 MPa and 0.5 for concrete cube strengths greater or
equal to 100 MPa, as validated by Giakoumelis & Lam
(2004). The reduction factor, r can be linear interpolated
of all the strengths in between.

2.5 Loading condition and FE meshes

2.3 Steel material

The loading conditions were applied using the

boundary conditions of each cross-section. The bottom
endplate was fixed against all degrees of freedom. On the
other hand, the node in the centre of the top endplate was
fixed against all types of rotation and against lateral
displacements (x and y directions). The top plate for all
specimens was able to deform along the longitudinal (z)
axis, along which the compressive loads were to be
applied.
The load was applied by specifying a
displacement at this end equivalent to one sixth of the
columns total length in the boundary conditions. The
nodes in the endplates and along the columns are free to
rotate or displace in any direction.
All the parts composing the double-skin composite
columns, apart from the endplates, were modelled with a
similar mesh size. Occasionally, the concrete component
needed slightly fewer elements than the steel tubes, and
the inner steel tube needed fewer elements than the outer
one. Generally, the average mesh size used was 25 mm
for the concrete, 21 mm for the outer steel tube, 19 mm
for the inner steel tube and 14 mm for both endplates.
Figure 3 shows the meshing and loading arrangement of
the CFDST columns

The bi-linear stress-strain curve to model of steels

behavior is shown in Figure 2. Steel in ABAQUS is
treated as elastic up to its yield strength and as plastic
from that point to the final strain under consideration to
about 3%.

E1 = 0.01Es

fs

Es

esy

Figure 2. Stress-strain curve for both outer and inner steel tubes

2.4 Interfaces
To achieve an equal shortening of the entire section,
end plates were included in the model. Five individual
components were used in total for each specimen: the
outer and inner tubes, the concrete infill and the top and
bottom endplates. The interactions between these
components were defined by using surfaces, where one
surface acted as the master surface and the other as the
slave surface. The difference between a master and a
slave surface is that the former can penetrate the latter,
but the reverse cannot take place. The steel tubes were
chosen to be the master surfaces during their interaction
with the concrete, but were treated as slave surfaces when
in contact with the endplates. The concrete was also
treated slave surface during its interaction with both
endplates. Eight pairs of surfaces were created for each
double-skin specimen. In ABAQUS, the term normal
behaviour refers to the pressure developed between the

Inner tube

Concrete core Outer tube

Concrete-filled double

Figure 4 Load arrangement and meshes of the CFDST columns

3 VALIDATION OF THE FE MODEL

3.1 Experimental studies
To verify the FE Model described in this study,
experimental studies conducted by other researchers on
circular concrete-filled double-skin columns were

139

Lam et al.

selected and modelled using ABAQUS. A total of six

specimens were adopted for this purpose, three from Tao
et al. (2004) and another three from Zhao et al. (2002).
Table 1 summarises the dimensions and material
properties of the chosen columns.
Table 1. Dimensions and material properties of the experiments
Material properties
Tested
Ref.

Do

to

Di

ti

fcu

fyo

fyi

(mm)

(mm)

(mm)

(mm)

(MPa)

(MPa)

(MPa)

cc2a

180

3.0

48

3.0

47.4

275.9

396.1

Tao

cc3a

180

3.0

88

3.0

47.4

275.9

370.2

et al.

cc6a

240

3.0

114

3.0

47.4

275.9

294.5

(2004)

C1C7

114.5

5.9

48.4

2.8

63.4

454.0

425.0

Zhao

C2C7

114.6

4.7

48.4

2.8

63.4

416.0

425.0

et al.

C5C8

165.1

3.5

101.8

3.1

63.4

433.0

410.0

(2002)

by

(a) Experimental

(b) FE analysis

Figure 7. Experiments vs. FE analysis of specimen cc3a

3.2 Experimental studies vs. FE analysis

The comparison of the experimental observations
with the modelled results was drawn using three
parameters: the ultimate capacities, the axial load-strain
curves and the final deformations of the specimens. Table
2 shows the recorded maximum strengths of the test
specimens together with the attained ultimate resistances
of the specimens modelled in ABAQUS. Good agreement
was noted, with the test / finite element model strength
ratios being close to unity.

(a) Experimental

(b) FE analysis

Figure 8. Experiments vs. FE analysis of specimen C5C8

4 PARAMETRIC STUDY
Table 2. Experimental results vs. finite element analysis

Specimen

Ptest (kN)

Panalysis (kN)

Ptest
Panalysis

cc2a

1790

1823.67

0.98

cc3a

1648

1609.83

1.02

cc6a

2421

2724.09

0.89

C1C7

1415

1686.39

0.84

C2C7

1380

1466.88

0.95

C5C8

1705

1905.51

0.89

Average value

4.1 Test parameters

For this study, a total of 25 columns were considered
to analyse the effect of the dimensions and material
properties on the overall behaviour of the double-skin
columns. Table 3 summarises the characteristics of the
specimens adopted and modelled in ABAQUS. In order
to distinguish between the investigated parameters, the
columns were divided into six groups. The nominal
length of all the specimens chosen under this parametric
study was 400 mm. The first group, namely OS-D,
consisted of four specimens having outer steel diameters
ranging from 70 mm to 145 mm with a uniform thickness
of 2.5 mm. The diameter-to-thickness ratio of these
columns was between 28 and 58, covering the first three
classes of tubular cross-section according to Eurocode 4.
The second group, namely OS-T, comprised four
specimens with the same outer diameter (Do) set as 145
mm, but various outer tube thicknesses equal to 1.5 mm,
3.5 mm, 4.5 mm and 5.5 mm. The ratio Do/to covered a
greater range of values between 26.36 and 96.67. These
two groups, OS-D and OS-T, had the exact same inner
tube dimensions with a diameter of 58 mm and a
thickness of 2.5 mm. Next group, IS-D examined the

0.93

The deformed shapes of the tested columns were

compared with those of the models to verify the level of
this studys accuracy. Figure 7 presents the failure shape
vs. FE model for column cc3a prior to failure. The
specimen buckled mostly around the mid-height in the
form of outward folding. Figure 8 presents the failure
shape of column C5C8, which displayed two outward
folds, one near each end of the column.

140

Lam et al.

impact of the inner tube diameter variations and therefore

the specimens considered under this collection had
different diameters ranging from 60 mm to 125 mm. On
the other hand, the IS-T group inspected the effect of
inner tube thickness on the columns capacity. As the
result, a set of thicknesses between 1.5 mm and 5.5 mm
was chosen. Both IS-D and IS-T groups shared the same
outer tube dimensions with a diameter of 145 mm and a
thickness of 2.5 mm. Additionally, a concrete cube
strength, fcu of 60 MPa and steel yield strength, for both
the outer and inner tubes, of 355 N/mm2 were applied to
all components in groups OS-D, OS-T, IS-D and IS-T.
The fifth group of specimens, named CF, contained
four double-skin columns of normal and high-strength
concrete, with the cube strengths, fcu of 40, 80, 100 and
120 MPa. These columns had outer and inner tube
diameters of 120 mm and 90 mm, respectively, outer and
inner tube thicknesses of 2.5 mm, together with the same
outer and inner steel tube strength of 355 N/mm2. Finally,
the last group of specimens, namely SS, focused on
combinations of steel strengths for the tubes of each
column. Outer-inner tube strengths of 275-275 N/mm2,
355-420 N/mm2, 275-460 N/mm2, 420-355 N/mm2 and
460-275 N/mm2 were examined, whilst the dimensions
and the concrete strength of all five columns in this group
remains unchanged.

Table 3. Dimensions and properties of the specimens

Dimensions
Group

Ref.

Material properties

Do

to

Di

ti

fcu

fyo

fyi

mm

mm

mm

mm

MPa

MPa

MPa

OS-D1

70

2.5

58

2.5

60

355

355

OS-D2

87.5

2.5

58

2.5

60

355

355

OS-D

OS-D3

112.5

2.5

58

2.5

60

355

355

OS-D4

145

2.5

58

2.5

60

355

355

OS-T1

145

1.5

58

2.5

60

355

355

OS-T2

145

3.5

58

2.5

60

355

355

OS-T

OS-T3

145

4.5

58

2.5

60

355

355

OS-T4

145

5.5

58

2.5

60

355

355

IS-D1

145

2.5

60

2.5

60

355

355

IS-D2

145

2.5

77

2.5

60

355

355

IS-D

IS-D3

145

2.5

105

2.5

60

355

355

IS-D4

145

2.5

125

2.5

60

355

355

IS-T1

145

2.5

110

1.5

60

355

355

IS-T2

145

2.5

110

3.5

60

355

355

IS-T

IS-T3

145

2.5

110

4.5

60

355

355

IS-T4

145

2.5

110

5.5

60

355

355

CF1

120

2.5

90

2.5

40

355

355

CF2

120

2.5

90

2.5

80

355

355

CF

CF3

120

2.5

90

2.5

100

355

355

CF4

120

2.5

90

2.5

120

355

355

SS1

175

4.5

130

3.5

60

275

275

SS2

175

4.5

130

3.5

60

355

420

SS3

175

4.5

130

3.5

60

275

460

SS4

175

4.5

130

3.5

60

420

355

SS5

175

4.5

130

3.5

60

460

275

6
SS

4.2 Axial capacity

The ultimate resistance of the circular concrete-filled
double-skin steel tubes obtained from ABAQUS was one
of the main results of interest. Table 4 shows the strengths
derived after the finite element analysis on the columns
under investigation. Starting from the first group of
columns, namely OS-D, where the parameter under
investigation was the cross-sectional size of the outer
steel tube, it became obvious that for a constantly
increasing outer diameter the strength of the specimens
was also steadily enhanced. From the second group of
columns, i.e. OS-T, it is shown that the increment in the
thickness of the outer tube benefited the capacity of the
specimens; nonetheless the improvement noted was less
significant than that offered by the increase in diameter.
Similar to the first two groups, the IS-D and IS-T groups
aimed to examine the influence of the cross-sectional size
as well as thickness of the inner tube on the resistance of

141

Lam et al.

the members. It is concluded that as opposed to the

enlargement of the outer diameter, specimens with wide
inner diameter tubes demonstrated a reduction in terms of
their maximum capacities. By maintaining the same outer
steel tube diameter, the increase in size of the inner steel
tube diameter results in decreasing the area of the
concrete, which provides a vital contribution in resisting
the compressive loads acting on the column. On the other
hand, the increment in the thickness of the inner tube
exhibited a similar behaviour to that of the outer tube.
The fifth group, namely CF, which investigated various
concrete strengths, indicated that the ultimate resistance
of the columns appeared to rise with the increase in the
load bearing capacity of the concrete infill. From the
sixth group of columns, it can be seen that the members
with higher outer than inner steel yield strengths, such as
SS4 and SS5, outperformed the columns with the exact
opposite steel strength properties, i.e. SS2 and SS3. This
is probably due to the fact that the outer tube has a larger
cross-sectional size compared to the inner tube, which
allows it to resist a higher load.

Figure 10. Axial load vs. displacement curves for various inner
tube diameters of group 3 (IS-D).
2000
1800

Axial Load (kN)

1600

Axial Load (kN)

1000
800
Do=145.0mm

Do=112.5 mm
400
Do=87.5 mm
Do=70.0mm

0
30
40
Displacement (mm)

50

60

Figure 9. Axial load vs. displacement curves for various outer

tube diameters of group 1 (OS-D).
1400
1200

400

Outer S275 MPa & Inner S460 MPa

200

Outer & Inner S275 MPa

10

15
20
Displacement (mm)

25

30

5 EUROCODE 4

1000

Axial Load (kN)

Outer S460 MPa & Inner S275 MPa

It can be seen that as the outer diameter increases, the

load bearing capacity of the specimens increases.
Moreover, it was observed that big outer steel
cross-sections enhanced the ductility of the specimens,
whilst it has a noticeable reduction in the capacity after
the maximum strength was attained. As opposed to the
effect of increases in the outer steel cross-sections, the
increases in the inner steel cross-sections were proved to
result in the reduction of the resistance of the double-skin
columns. Specifically, it was noted that the smaller the
inner steel tube diameter, the greater the capacity
achieved. Better ductility levels were also maintained by
the columns with small inner tube cross-sectional sizes.
Nevertheless, it was these members that demonstrated the
most considerable decrease in terms of their load bearing
capacity after reaching the maximum load. Examining the
curves of specimens with the same steel yield strength for
both tubes, greater inner than outer steel yield strength
and vice versa indicated a few interesting results. It
became clear that when the same steel properties were
applied to both skins, the capacity and ductility obtained
were less than in any other case. Furthermore, the
resistance of columns with more enhanced outer than
inner steel tubes was found to be significantly greater
when compared against specimens with stronger inner
than outer steel tubes.

1200

20

600

and inner tube properties of group 6 (SS).

1400

10

800

Figure 11. Axial load vs. displacement curves for various outer

1600

1000

The axial load-displacement curves of the double-skin

specimens were plotted and discussed accordingly in
groups. Figures 9, 10 and 11 demonstrate the curves
obtained from ABAQUS of groups 1 (OS-D), 3 (IS-D)
and 6 (SS), respectively.

200

1200

4.3 Axial load - Displacement curve

600

1400

800

In this study, the approach of Eurocode 4 was adopted

to estimate the ultimate compressive strengths of the
concrete-filled double-skin steel tubular columns. This
code accounts for the confinement effect of concrete by
using a reduction factor na, due to the steel contribution
and an enhancement factor nc for the concrete
contribution, both of which are determined using the
non-dimensional global slenderness of the member and

600
Di=60 mm
400

Di=77 mm
Di=105 mm

200

Di=125 mm
0

10

15
20
Displacement (mm)

25

30

35

142

Lam et al.

the eccentricity of applied loading. Eurocode 4 does not

however consider the double-skin columns and therefore
to overcome this issue, the original equation proposed by
Eurocode 4 for the single-skin columns was modified to
take into account the effect of both steel tubes and the
concrete enhancement by both tubes through separate
enhancement (nco and nci) and reduction (nao and nai)
factors for each tube. The results shown that the inner
tube of these types of columns provides little confinement
to the sandwiched concrete, therefore the reduction factor
for the inner steel tube and the concretes confinement
factor are removed. The equation obtained is as follows:

N u na Aa , o f y , o Aa , i f y , i

Table 4. Analysis results vs. proposed Eurocode 4 equation

NFE

NEC4 (kN)

(kN)

[Eq. 7]

OS-D1

398.70

363.53

1.10

OS-D2

570.73

552.79

1.03

OS-D

OS-D3

856.15

869.18

0.99

OS-D4

1336.27

1354.10

0.99

OS-T1

1389.01

1147.02

1.21

OS-T2

1451.58

1552.49

0.94

OS-T

OS-T3

1609.63

1742.26

0.92

OS-T4

1731.18

1923.51

0.90

IS-D1

1322.15

1346.93

0.98

IS-D2

1200.57

1268.40

0.95

IS-D

IS-D3

1052.16

1069.16

0.98

IS-D4

899.83

872.72

1.03

IS-T1

1029.17

906.88

1.13

IS-T2

1131.26

1139.60

0.99

IS-T

IS-T3

1291.38

1252.77

1.03

IS-T4

1440.14

1363.78

1.06

CF1

696.80

732.85

0.95

CF2

819.62

860.08

0.95

CF

CF3

887.46

923.71

0.96

CF4

949.93

987.35

0.96

SS1

1454.74

1529.38

0.95

SS2

1807.15

1941.67

0.93

SS3

1669.16

1783.37

0.94

SS4

1888.56

2025.27

0.93

SS5

1892.50

2021.96

0.94

Mean

0.990

S.D.

0.073

COV

0.074

Group

A f
t f y , o (7)

c ck 1 nc o
Do f ck
c

The calculated results using the above equation with

c set as 1.0 are shown in Table 4. It can be seen that the

ratio of the analysed over the predicted strengths of all

the specimens under examination are closed to unity.
Looking at the second group of columns, it can be
inferred that Eq. (7) tends to be conservative for columns
with large Do/to ratio for the outer tube. The equation
also provided superior estimation for double-skin
composite columns in which the outer tubes have
different yield strength values to that of the inner tubes.
With a coefficient of variation of 7.4%, it was concluded
that the proposed equation achieved a good degree of
accuracy in general.

6
SS

Specimen

NFE/NEC4

6 CONCLUSIONS
A finite element analysis was conducted in order to
examine the cross-sectional capacity and behaviour of the
recently introduced composite double-skin columns
subjected to concentric loading. Separate stress-strain
curves were used for each of the materials in the model.
Past experimental results were used to verify that the
accuracy of the utilised method was sufficient. This was
implemented by comparing the compressive resistance,
axial load-strain curves and failure modes of the columns
in the analysis to the test results obtained by the related
researchers. When a good correlation achieved between
the test and analysis specimens, the same procedure was
then employed for the parametric study. A total of

143

Lam et al.
Zhao XL, Grzebieta R, Elchalakani M, 2002. Tests on concrete
filled double-skin CHS composite stub columns. Steel and
Composite Structures; 2(2): 129-146.
Zhao XL, Tong LW, Wang XY, 2010. CFDST stub columns
subjected to large deformation axial loading. Engineering
Structures; 32(3): 692-703.

twenty-five concrete-filled double-skin steel tubular

columns and four concrete-filled steel tubular columns
were adopted under this study and modelled in ABAQUS.
The parameters investigated were the diameter of the
outer and inner steel tube, the thickness of the outer and
inner steel tube, the strength of the concrete used as an
infill between the steel tubes, as well as the yield strength
of both steel tubes. The capacities of the double-skin
specimens were also evaluated using Eurocode 4. Owing
to the fact that this code does not provide any specific
rules related to double-skin columns, a new formula was
proposed and verified against the analysis results. The
proposed equation is valid for the determination of the
ultimate compressive strength of the CFDST columns; it
is generally found that the suggested equation is
satisfactory.
REFERENCES
ABAQUS, 2009. Analysis users manuals and example
problems manuals, version 6.9. Providence, Rhode Island:
Abaqus, Inc.
Eurocode 4, 2009. Design of composite steel and concrete
structures. Part 1.1, General rules and rules for buildings,
Incorporating corrigendum, BS EN1994-1-1, British
Standards Institution, London, UK.
Elchalakani M, Zhao XL, Grzebieta R, 2002. Tests on concrete
filled double-skin (CHS outer and SHS inner) composite
short columns under axial compression. Thin-Walled
Structures; 40(1): 415-441.
Giakoumelis G, Lam D, 2004. Axial capacity of circular
concrete-filled tube columns. Journal of Constructional
Steel Research; 60(7):1049-1068.
Hu HT, Su FC, 2011. Nonlinear analysis of short concrete-filled
double-skin tube columns subjected to axial compressive
forces. Marine Structures; 24(5): 319-337.
Huang H, Han LH, Tao Z, Zhao XL, 2010. Analytical
behaviour of concrete-filled double skin steel tubular
(CFDST) stub columns. Journal of Constructional Steel
Research; 66(9): 542-555.
Lin ML, Tsai KC, 2001. Behavior of double-skinned composite
steel tubular columns subjected to combine axial and
flexural loads. In: Proceedings of the first international
conference on steel & composite structures; 1145-1152.
Mander JB, Priestley MJN, Park R, 1988. Theoretical
stress-strain model for confined concrete. Journal of
Structural Engineering, ASCE; 114(8): 1804-1826.
Richart FE, Brandzaeg A, Brown RL, 1928. A study of the
failure of concrete under combined compressive stresses.
Bull. 185. Champaign (IL, USA): University of Illinois
Engineering Experimental Station.
Tao Z, Han LH, Zhao XL, 2004. Behaviour of concrete-filled
double skin (CHS inner and CHS outer) steel tubular stub
columns and beam-columns. Journal of Constructional
Steel Research; 60(11): 1129-1158.
Uenaka K, Kitoh H, Sonoda K, 2010. Concrete filled double
skin circular stub columns under compression. Thin-Walled
Structures; 48(8): 19-24.
Yu T, Teng JG, Wong YL, 2010. Stress-Strain Behavior of
Concrete in Hybrid FRP-Concrete-Steel Double-Skin
Tubular Columns. Journal of Structural Engineering;
136(4): 379-389.

144

11th International Conference on

Advances in Steel and Concrete Composite Structures
Tsinghua University, Beijing, China, December 3-5, 2015

A NEW CODIFIED DESIGN THEORY OF SECOND-ORDER

DIRECT
ANALYSIS
FOR
STEEL AND
COMPOSITE
STRUCTURES FROM RESEARCH TO PRACTICE
S.L. Chan, Y.P. Liu and S.W. Liu
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hong Kong, China
E-mail: ceslchan@polyu.edu.hk, yp.liu@polyu.edu.hk, siwei.liu@connect.polyu.edu
ABSTRACT
Keywords:
Second-order direct analysis;
Buckling; Nonlinear.

The terms Second-order Analysis and Direct Analysis appear in many modern design codes
but many engineers consider this as a method for checking only the second-order sway effect,
nonlinear sway moment or a tool for academic research. This perception is incorrect in modern
structural design and in fact this old approach is defined only as the second-order indirect
analysis or P--only analysis. When used properly, the full second-order P-- analysis method
of design provides a reliable and proficient tool for practical design. Their underlying principle
also carries a very different philosophy to the conventional design approach. This paper outlines
the differences between the two design concepts, namely the first-order linear effective length
method (ELM) and the second-order direct elastic or plastic analysis (SODEA and SODPA).
The era for re-thinking our design and analysis philosophy seems to have arrived. In this paper,
the experience and theory on using the new design concept and method are described with
worked example given on their uses.

researchers. Recent work related to practical applications

include works by Liew et al. (1994, 2000), Izzuddin and
Smith (1996), Chen and Chan (1995) and White and
Hajjar (1997). The works have also been summarised and
reported in detail by Yang and Kuo (1994) and Chan and
Chui (2000). Applications to special structures like
transmission towers are also demonstrated by Albermani
and Kitipornchai (2003) and Chan and Cho (2005) and
performance of various nonlinear numerical methods is
also studied by Clarke and Hancock (1990). The
theoretical works have been extensively studied with
encouraging results reported, but the proposed methods
by these researchers are not easy to apply directly to
design of real engineering structures. For example, most
codes require consideration of member imperfection in
buckling strength determination but the straight cubic
beam-column element used in most research and
computer programs for structural analysis does not
consider member initial curvature and imperfection in its
formulations, which exists in practical members and
mandatory in codes. Modelling of a member by several
elements is not only inconvenient, but also hinders
engineers to visualize the member behavior from a batch
of finite element which is not in line with their training of
structural analysis and design in their courses of studies.
Practicing engineers most commonly use the elastic
second-order indirect analysis for finding of P- sway
moment which in fact has limited contribution to an

1 INTRODUCTION
In the last century, design of steel structures relies on
the effective length method (ELM) in conjunction with
the first-order linear analysis. This conventional design
constitutes the major design exercise since one needs to
first determine the safety and stability of a structure under
imposed, permanent, wind and seismic loads in ultimate
limit state design. This traditional design approach using
the first-order linear analysis in conjunction with the
effective length method (ELM) is not based on a rational
theory and it assumes every member buckles
simultaneously with its own effective length at its
undeformed position. This method is a member-based
design and it is, strictly speaking, incompatible with the
computer analysis for a frame system. Because of this
assumption of drastic buckling in ELM, deflections and
stresses cannot be calculated from elastic buckling
analysis or the ELM but they are approximated separately
from the first-order linear analysis. In practice, this mode
of buckling at undeformed position is unrealistic and
valid only for non-existent perfect structures since
imperfections due to material and geometry activate the
load vs. deflection behavior of all practical structures.
An alternative, better and more rational design is to
simulate the response of a structure directly using a
nonlinear analysis. In the past century, theories of
nonlinear analysis of structures were studied by numerous

145

Chan et al.

notional horizontal deflection of the upper storey relative

to the lower storey due to the notional horizontal force
FN .
For different ranges of elastic buckling load factor,
cr, the structure is classified as sway and non-sway
frames and codes recommend varied charts to determine
the effective length factor (see, for example, Appendix E
in BS5950 [2000]).
In the Hong Kong Code (2011), an amplification
factor as defined in Equation (2) is further required to
ensure the moment amplified along a member is properly
accounted for.

improved design in terms of safety, economy and design

efficiency because it considers only partly the nonlinear
and buckling effects.
In modern design codes, the requirements for seismic
design and progressive collapse normally go beyond the
elastic limit. In many steel codes, the second-order direct
analysis (SODA) or the direct analysis (DA) has been
more widely coded as a preferred method. The new
Eurocode-3 (2005), LRFD (2010) and Code of practice
for the structural uses of steel Hong Kong (2011) further
indicate the presence of the three methods as
second-order direct analysis, second order indirect
analysis and the first-order linear analysis (note : different
codes use varied names and the above terminology is
adopted from the HK Steel Code 2011).
This paper introduces the theory and development of
the new second order direct analysis method of design
and employs three examples to demonstrate its
applicability and outlines the advantages of this new
method. The detailed element formulation can be found
in a two-part paper by Chan and Zhou (2004).

cr

M amp

(2)

cr

cr 1

ML

(3)

Once we know the effective length, we can determine

the slenderness ratio (Le/r) and then we can use the charts,
tables or formulae in a code to find the buckling strength
pc and buckling resistance Pc as,

Second-order buckling effects exist whenever a

structure is in compression or when it deforms. The
effects are more important for slender structures and vice
versa. The effective length method to reduce the buckling
resistance is to account for this effect. Fairly speaking,
this approach is indispensable in the pre-computer age,
but becomes more difficult to handle design of
contemporary structures of irregular geometry under
various scenarios.
In the first-order linear analysis used with the
effective length (ELM) method, the critical problem will
be on the assessment of the buckling strength and the
assumption of effective length. Also the linear analysis is
inaccurate near the ultimate limit state that its bending
moment and force distribution are insufficiently accurate.
The member-based ELM design is only for member
design under isolation so its use with a frame analysis
software is incompatible. To account for system or frame
stiffness, some design codes like the Eurocode-3 (2005)
use the classification method of limiting the application
of the method to structures with elastic critical factor (cr
or cr ) less than 10 or 15 for validity of the first-order
linear analysis.
A building frame is classified as non-sway, sway
sensitive and sway-ultra-sensitive frames, according to
the value of elastic critical load factor, cr, as,
FN h
FV N

Fc L2e

where Le is the effective length, EI is the flexural constant

and Fc is the member compression force due to design
loads.
Selecting a smaller cr from Equations (1) and (2),
the amplified moment, Mamp, is calculated as,

2 THE EFFECTIVE LENGTH METHOD (ELM)

cr

2 EI

Pc pc A

(4)

where A is the cross sectional area.

The ELM above is, strictly speaking, suitable for
design of isolated members since it needs to assume an
effective length for each member and they are assumed to
buckle simultaneously and independently which is far
from the actual behaviour. Further, it is not applicable for
design of slender frames because effective length is
based on undeformed geometry and the end nodes of
columns in general move with the loads and the structure
is deforming as illustrated in Figure 1. For argument sake,
if the structure does not deform, it has no displacement,
no strain, no stress and no resistance against external
loads and therefore the assumption of using the original
geometry for checking is not logical. The stiffness or
sway sensitivity of a frame is then used for assessment of
the effective length factor (Le/r) and amplified moment in
Equation (3), but the actual amplification for bending
moment is linked to the deflection of the frame in a
nonlinear manner and therefore the method is limited to
rather stocky and regular structures which may not be the
case in practice.
The underlying principle for the effective length
method is to reduce the resistance of a structure and this
is conceptually unacceptable since buckling is due to
external load and deflection. The mixed use of reducing
buckling resistance pc of a member in Equation (4) and

(1)

in which FV is the factored dead plus live loads on

and above the floor considered, FN is the notional
horizontal force taken typically as 0.5% of FV for
building frames, h is the storey height and N is the
146

Chan et al.

amplifying the moment in Equation (3) is another

inconsistency.

modelling. Naturally, a more simple method gives a less

accurate solution and leaving the part of safety check to
the manual design part which contains assumption and
assessment with lesser theoretical verification.
Load factor

cr=2.2

effective length

Elastic critical load=

First-order
Linear Analysis

Second-order P

EI/L
2

cr

cr

Pcr

only elastic analysis

Second-order P elastic analysis

p=1.2

increasing buckling length

with lateral deflection

U=0.85

y=0.76

Rigid plastic load=p S=

y

Design resistance or collapse load by

Second-order Plastic Analysis
4m where P=1000kN

Design resistance by
"First-plastic-hinge"

4m
4m
3m

Braced & hori. members 152x152x37

Others : 203x203x60
Yield stress : 355MPa

Deflection

Figure 3. Types of structural analysis.

Figure 1. Effective length is taken as the buckling length before

4 IMPERFECTIONS

deformation.

A valid second-order analysis must consider

imperfections at both element and frame levels. Ignoring
either one of them will provide an under-designed
solution to a design exercise. To this, the following two
aspects of imperfections are required for consideration in
an analysis and design software to code requirement.

An important message from the simple portal frame

in Figure 1 is the fact that the second-order moment is
related to the lateral deflection and the axial force as the
P-delta moment, the simplified use of effective length
takes no account of the moment induced by lateral force
which varies continuously with the lateral drift. Therefore
the basic assumption with ELM of no pre-buckling
deformation until it suddenly buckles cannot reflect
correctly the second-order effects.
As can be seen in Figure 2, the stiffness of one bay
increases significantly the buckling strength of the
complete frame and the buckling resistance of all vertical
columns is affected by the system stiffness that the
design of individual columns should not be assessed in
isolation.

4.1 Global P- imperfection

Linear analysis uses the moment amplification to
enlarge the linear moment for sway effect, which can be
due to wind load or notional force normally taken as
0.5% for permanent structures and 1% for temporary
structures.
In second-order analysis, wind load or notional force
can still be used, but an alternative and more reliable and
convenient method is to use the elastic buckling mode as
the imperfection mode with amplitude set equal to the
out-of-plumbness normally taken as one-200th of the
building height for permanent structures or other justified
values. Other imperfection mode assumption such as use
of post-buckling shape can be used. When designing a
structure of unconventional shape, the second method of
using elastic buckling mode as imperfection mode is
more rational since the locations and direction of
application of notional force become difficult or
controversial to determine. There have been arguments on
which buckling mode should be used and, in general, the
actual imperfection mode is random and unknown. Using
the elastic buckling mode in the plane of buckling
recommended in Eurocode-3 (2005) as imperfection
mode is adequate in general and studies by the authors
show that the difference is small and much less than
assuming an incorrect effective length. To this, the
program NIDA (2015) contains options of using a
selected elastic buckling mode and using the
displacement mode as imperfection mode.

Figure 2. Cross braces affect the buckling resistance of all

columns which should NOT be designed in isolation.

3 TYPE OF ANALYSIS
An over view of design and analysis method is shown
graphically in Figure 3. Various types of buckling loads
and analysis represent different levels of accuracy in

147

Chan et al.

4.2 Member P- imperfection

Equation (5) is used again for checking and insertion of

plastic hinge in a member. Nowhere along a member is
allowed to have a sectional capacity factor greater than 1
in Equation (5) as strain hardening is not considered.
The use of one-element per member with a smooth
extension of elastic to plastic analysis represents a
consistent design procedure from the first-order linear
elastic analysis to second-order plastic analysis since the
analysis model using one element per member is
unchanged. The consistent design philosophy allows
engineers to compare the results by the new and the old
method, which allows a simpler evaluation of the
advantages of the new approach.

Linear analysis uses various buckling curves to

represent different values of member imperfections and
this leads to the production of different design tables in
various notional codes, with the exception of the LRFD
(1986) which uses only one buckling curve.
In a second-order or P-- elastic analysis, the initial
curvature can be pre-set to the code values which can be
calibrated from the buckling curves. The member
curvature can be varied with an increasing axial force
such that the P- effect can be considered
correspondingly (see example 1 of this paper).

4.3 Structural resistance check

6 EXAMPLES

In the codified linear analysis and design, a member

is required for checking against member buckling and
sectional strength. In the second-order analysis for design,
only the section capacity check is required and checking
can be conducted in the following expression.

Many structural analysis programs claim their

capability to do a second-order direct analysis. Examples
are provided below to confirm their validity for this sort
of analysis. Its application could also be used in
conjunction with the section capacity of composite
columns (An and Han, 2004).

( M y P y P y ) ( M z P z P z )
P

1
py A
M Cy
M Cz

6.1 Example 1 Verification example for testing of

(5)

element and software

The first example is to demonstrate the performance
of an element to determine the buckling strength and
behaviour of a column under compression. The success of
the element in capturing the buckling behaviour of a
column implies a consistent extension on the use of a
structural model from linear analysis to second-order
direct analysis. Modeling of a member by several
elements to simulate initial imperfection results not only
in unnecessary requirement of longer computer time, but
also in a complication in modelling and an inconsistency
in linear and nonlinear computer models for structural
analysis.
This example is a column of cross section
CHS88.9x3.2, length of 5 m and under an axial force.
The analytical Eulers buckling load and design
resistance from the code BS5950 (2000) are respectively
131 kN and 109 kN, compared well with the solutions for
buckling and design resistance by the proposed method
and program NIDA (2015) of 131 kN and 108 kN using
only one element in the model. In the design by the
present method, no effective length has been assumed and
it gives a similar solution as ELM assuming an accurate
effective length factor which is only possible for single
columns but not for complex and practical frames. For
complex structures, the assumption of effective length is
unreliable whereas the Second-order Direct Analysis
(SODA) is still applicable as it is free from effective
length assumption.

in which py is the design strength, A is the cross

sectional area, My Mz MCy and MCz are respectively the
design moment and moment capacity about the principal
axes, P is the axial force, P- and P- are the
second-order delta moments and is the section capacity
factor.
In dealing with members with possibility of lateral
torsional buckling, the minor axis moment can include
the component of the major axis moment (Trahair and
Chan, 2003) and the twist angle.

5 FIRST-PLASTIC HINGE AND PLASTIC

ANALYSIS (SODEA AND SODPA)
In the first plastic hinge design approach (or the
Second-order Direct Elastic Analysis SODEA) where the
design load is limited to the load causing the formation of
the first plastic hinge, the checking of Equation (5) is
carried out for all members and the design resistance for
the complete structure is then checked and monitored.
The design load should be taken as the load causing the
formation of the first plastic hinge in a member of the
structure. When using the Second-order Direct Plastic
Analysis (SODPA), the analysis is continued even after
the first plastic hinge and the design load is limited only
by the load causing the complete structure to collapse as
indicated as a limit point or a peak in the geometry and
material nonlinear load vs. deflection plot, which may
occur after formation of a series of plastic hinges.

148

Chan et al.

Methods

Eulers

NIDA
Analytical
EI/(0.7L)
2

From design table, the buckling strength pc=327.9

Design Load

N/mm2, Pc=327.9x17800/103= 5837 kN.

buckling

Capacity

load (kN)

(kN)

The amplified moment at joint B and C due to P

effect is obtained as follows.

131

111.5

cr smaller of

130.8

and 26.9, use 6.49

BS5950

M M
-

114.6

FN h
2 EI = smaller of 6.49
and
FV N
Fc L2E

cr
6.49
500
591kN m
cr 1
6.49 1

Fc mx M x m y M y 1000 0.6 591

0.397
M cx
M cy
5837
1573
Pc

Figure 4. Design and analysis of a pin-fix column.

6.2 Example 2 Calibration for design of a simple

<1, O.K.

By second-order direct elastic analysis or

portal

P--

elastic analysis
This example is to check the structural adequacy of
the portal shown in Figure 5. The section is 686x254x140
UB of grade S355 steel. The frame is restrained
out-of-plane, rigid-jointed and pin-supported with
dimensions shown in Figure 5 below. The frame is
designed by the linear, the second-order direct analysis
for comparison on their efficiency and accuracy.

The section capacity factor is 0.544. This is close to

the value for using Le/L=2.9 above, showing the present
design is more economical and the design is more
efficient. Here, the elastic analysis is referred to the
first-plastic-hinge design using plastic sectional modulus
in member, but not moment re-distribution after yielding.
By second-order direct plastic analysis or P--
plastic analysis
The complete load vs. deflection plot of the portal is
shown in Figure 6 below. It can be seen that the collapse
load factor is about 1.54. This method of design, when
applied to a larger structure, normally requires longer
computing time as the load steps are required to be
smaller. But this computer time is justifiable in modern
computers. Here, the factor of safety is 1.54 which
indicates the portal is structurally adequate with similar
findings by methods above.

1000kN
100kN

10m

30m

Figure 5. The portal designed by different methods.

By Effective Length Method (ELM)

The maximum bending moment at top of column is
500 kN-m.
The section capacity check in a linear analysis is
carried out as follows.
Fc M x M y
1000 10 3
500

0.476 <1, O.K.

Py M cx M cy 355 17800 1573

The member check using the effective length method.

mx M x m y M y 1000 0.6 500 0.548 <1, O.K.

Fc

Pc
M cx
M cy

2800

1573

Member buckling check to non-sway mode effective

length under amplified moment.
Fc mx M x m y M y

1
M cx
M cy
Pc

For

Figure 6. The load vs. deflection plot in plastic analysis.

Pc , effective length factor (Le/L) =1, Le=10m

Le
1.0;
L

Le 10000

36.1
r
277
149

Chan et al.

6.3 Example 3 Design of a practical irregular steel

section capacity greater than 1 and if this happens, the

member size needs to be increased. The utilization ratio is
also shown below with every spot representing the
section capacity factor for a member in a particular
combined load case. When some section types are
under-utilized, their size or thickness can be reduced for
material weight saving. Although the section capacity
check is also available in software using ELM, the
checking becomes meaningless because of the gross error
associated with the error of assumed effective length.

frame
The structure shown in Figure 7 is designed against
imposed, permanent, wind and seismic loads as well as
temperature loads. As can be seen in the design process,
the checking was completed by a fraction of time
required for a manual design with accuracy improved and
weight reduced. If one uses the ELM, the material weight
could be increased by 23% with some critical members
under designed due to error in assuming an effective
length.

Figure 7. The structure under construction.

Figure 9. Utilization plot for all members.

The computer model and the load vs. deflection plot

are shown in Figure 8 below. Totally 32 combined load
cases have been considered with 35 section types used in
the structure. The plastic hinges and the load vs.
deflection plots are indicated for the permanent and
imposed load combined load case in the plot diagram
inside Figure 8 below. The collapse load factor is about
2.05 under this particular load case.
This can be seen that the SODPA (second-order direct
plastic design) can be done in a very convenient manner
using the same model for the first-order linear and
second-order direct elastic analysis (SODEA) because
refinement of finite element model of using several
elements per member is not needed.

6.4 Example 4 Design of composite columns and

composite truss
The same concept can be applied to analysis and
design of composite frames. However, the yield and
failure surfaces for a composite section are more
complicated and allowance must be made for weak
tension stress in concrete. The following is typical yield
and failure surfaces of a composite column used to
control the formation of plastic hinges.

Figure 8. The load vs deflection plot allowing for plastic hinge

My

Mz

and buckling effects with red spots representing plastic hinges.

Figure 10. The concrete crushing, yield and failure.

For practical design for this frame, the checking for

section capacity factor was done at design load factor
equal to 1. For SODEA, no member should have a

The results using the proposed method agree well

with test, see Figure 11. Below is a typical load deflection

150

Chan et al.

plot of a composite concrete infilled square column and

the full set of comparison is reported by Liu, Liu and
Chan (2012). The application was further carried out in
the design of a 4 level composite truss at Tamar
Government Headquarters in Hong Kong with significant
saving of material, see Figure 12.

of China, accumulated extensive practical and theoretical

experience that it could assist to design safer, more
economical and sustainable structures as illustrated in the
examples in this paper.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The authors are grateful to the financial support by
the Research Grant Council of the Hong Kong SAR
Government on the project Advanced and Second-order
Analysis for Long-span Steel Structures (PolyU
5166/12E), by the Construction Industry Institute for the
project Innovative Design Technique for Steel-concrete
Composite Structures in Hong Kong and by the
Innovative Technology Fund for the project Advanced
design of flexible barrier systems by large deflection
theory (ITS/032/14).
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Albermani, F.G.A. and Kitipornchai, S. (2003),
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An, Y.F. and Han, L.H. (2004), Behaviour of
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BSI (2000). Structural use of steelwork in building Part 1:
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Chan, S.L. and Chui, P.P.T. (2000),"Non-linear Static and
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Science, pp.336.
Chan, S.L. and Zhou, Z.H. (2004), Elastoplastic and large
deflection analysis of steel frames by one element per
member. Parts 1 and 2, Journal of Structural
Engineering, ASCE, April, vol. 130, No.4,
pp.538-553.
Chan, S.L. and Cho, S.H. (2005), Second-order P-delta
analysis and design of angle trusses allowing for
imperfections
and
semi-rigid
connections,
International Journal of Advanced Steel Construction,
1(1), pp. 157-172.
Chen, W.F. and Chan, S.L. (1995), Second Order Inelastic
Analysis of Steel Frames using Element with
Mid-span and End Springs, March, Vol.121, No.3,
Journal of Structural Engineering, ASCE, pp. 530-541.
Code of practice for structural uses of steel 2011,
Buildings Department, Hong Kong SAR Government.
Clarke, M.J. and Hancock, G.J. (1990), A study of
incremental-iterative strategies for nonlinear analysis,
International Journal for Numerical Methods in
Engineering, 29, pp.1365-1391.
CEN, Eurocode 3-1-1 (2005), Design of steel structures,
European Standard.

Figure 11. The load vs deflection plot of a composite column

with validation with experiment by Bridge(1976).

Figure 12. The computer model and completed structure with

the top 4 level composite truss designed by SODEA.

7 CONCLUSIONS
To date, the second-order direct analysis (SODA) is a
tool for direct design of steel and composite structures
without assumption of effective length. However, most
engineers only use the P--only type of second-order
analysis for finding of the sway P- moment which is
only the primitive P--only analysis named by
ASIC-LFRD (2010) and Hong Kong Steel Code (2011).
This paper presents an introduction to this new and better
design method with its advantages illustrated. It is
evidenced that the key issues for the practicality of the
design method lie on (1) acceptable accuracy of using one
element per member with initial curvature set equal to
initial imperfection of a member specified in various
codes to model a member and (2) automatic use of
buckling mode as initial imperfection mode. Both of
these considerations have been allowed for in various
steel design codes. Our design software NIDA, which has
been used for a decade in Hong Kong and Macau region

151

Chan et al.

Izzuddin, B.A. and Smith, D.L. (1996), Large

displacement analysis of elso-plastic thin-walled
frames Parts 1 and 2, Journal of Structural Engineering,
ASCE, 122(8), pp.905-925.
Liew, J.Y.R. and Chen, W.F. (1994), Implications of
using refined plastic hinge analysis for load and
resistance factor design, Thin-walled Structures, 20
(1-4), pp.17-47.
Liew, J.Y.R., Chen, W.F. and Chen, H. (2000), Advanced
inelastic analysis of frame structures, Journal of
Constructional Steel Research, 55(1-3), pp. 245-265
Liu, S.W., Liu, Y.P. and Chan, S.L. (2012), Advanced
analysis of hybrid steel and concrete frames, Part 2:
Refined plastic hinge and advanced analysis, Journal
of Constructional Steel Research, Volume 70, March
2012, pp. 337-349.
NIDA (2015). Non-linear Integrated Design and Analysis
users manual, NAF-NIDA series, Version 9,
(http://www.nidacse.com).
Trahair, N.S. and Chan, S.L (2003)., Out-of-plane
advanced analysis of steel structures, 25, Engineering
Structures, pp.1627-1637.
White, D.W. and Hajjar, J.F. (1997). Design of Steel
Frames Without Consideration of Effective Length,
Engineering Structures, 19(10), 797-810.
Yang, Y,B. and Kuo, S.R., (1994), Theory and analysis of
nonlinear framed structures, Prentice Hall, N.Y.

152

11th International Conference on

Advances in Steel and Concrete Composite Structures
Tsinghua University, Beijing, China, December 3-5, 2015

BEHAVIOUR OF CONCRETE-FILLED
COLUMNS IN FIRE

STAINLESS

STEEL

Z. Taoa, M. Ghannama, T. Y. Songa & L. H. Hanb

a

Institute for Infrastructure Engineering, University of Western Sydney, Penrith, Australia

E-mails: z.tao@uws.edu.au, ghannam83@yahoo.com, t.song@uws.edu.au
b

Department of Civil Engineering, Tsinghua University, Beijing, China

E-mail: lhhan@tsinghua.edu.cn
ABSTRACT
Keywords:
Concrete-filled steel tubes;
Stainless steel; Fire resistance;
Post-fire; FE analysis.

This paper presents an investigation on concrete-filled stainless steel tubular (CFSST) columns
in fire and after fire exposure. A total of 12 specimens were tested, including 6 CFSST columns
exposed to fire and another 6 CFSST columns subjected to sequential ambient temperature
loading, fire exposure with constant applied load and post-fire loading phases. A
photogrammetric method was employed during the test to capture the initial imperfections of the
CFSST columns and strain developments of the stainless steel tubes in fire. The main variables
explored in the test program include: (a) cross-section type (circular, square); (b) axial load level
(0.280.48); and (c) presence of reinforcement or not. A three-dimensional finite element (FE)
model was developed by introducing the measured initial imperfections and load eccentricities.
To further simplify the FE analysis, the initial geometric imperfection of a column may be
simulated in the model as the first buckling mode shape of the column multiplied by an
amplification factor. The simplified model was verified by comparison with test results.

composite columns. Furthermore, composite columns

have a good chance to survive a fire compared with pure
steel columns. Therefore, there is a need to study the
post-fire performance of CFSST columns for repairing
purposes; but no research has been conducted in this area.
This paper presents new test data concerning CFSST
columns in fire and after fire exposure. A
photogrammetric method was adopted to measure the
initial imperfections of the test specimens and strain
developments of the steel tubes in fire. A FE model was
then developed to simulate the behaviour of the tested
columns. To consider the initial geometric imperfection
of a CFSST column, the paper also recommends an
amplification factor when the first buckling mode shape
is used.

1 INTRODUCTION
Concrete-filled steel tubular (CFST) columns using
carbon steel material have been studied and applied in
engineering practice for over one century. Compared to
traditional carbon steel, stainless steel is extremely
durable and easily maintained; it also has greater
corrosion resistance, ductility and improved fire
resistance. Therefore, by replacing carbon steel with
stainless steel, concrete-filled stainless steel tubular
(CFSST) columns can provide a viable alternative to
engineers and architects; thus this type of column has
great potential for structural applications.
Existing studies have mainly focused on the
behaviour of CFSST columns at ambient temperature (Uy
et al., 2011). Little research has been devoted to
investigating the fire resistance of CFSST columns (Han
et al., 2013). Fire performance of slender columns under
axial compression is very sensitive to initial geometric
imperfections and accidental load eccentricities.
Although Han et al. (2013) tested five axially-loaded
CFSST columns in fire, no efforts were made to measure
the initial geometric imperfections and load eccentricities.
Meanwhile, the specimens tested by Han et al. (2013)
were fabricated without any internal reinforcement. In
contrast, internal reinforcement is often used in
engineering practice to improve the fire resistance of

2 EXPERIMENTAL PROGRAM
2.1 Specimen preparation
A total of 12 CFSST columns with circular or square
cross-section were fabricated and tested. The grade of the
austenitic stainless steel was type 304. The section sizes
(Dts) for the circular and square tubes were 196.6
mm2.95 mm and 200.5 mm4 mm, respectively, where
D is the overall diameter of the circular section or width
of the square section; ts is the thickness of the steel tube.
All specimens had a same length (L) of 1870 mm. Figure

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Tao et al.

1 shows the detailed dimensions of the test specimens. A

total of 14 reference points, as shown in Figure 1, were
marked on the outer surface of the steel tube by inserting
2 mm diameter ceramic rods into pre-drilled holes. These
reference points were used in the photogrammetry
process for monitoring the deformation of the steel tube
in fire. Three thermocouples were used for each specimen
to monitor the temperature development, and the
locations of the thermocouples in the cross-section are
shown in Figure 1.
280

Table 1. Details of CFSST specimens.

20

Top endplate

longitudinal bars were determined by tensile tests at

ambient temperature. Four tensile coupons for each type
of steel were tested. The measured yield strengths for the
circular tubes, square tubes and longitudinal bars are
292.9 MPa, 307.9 MPa and 586.7 MPa, respectively.
Portland cement and limestone coarse aggregate were
used for the core concrete. The measured cylinder
compressive strength (fc') of concrete on the testing day
for each specimen is listed in Table 1.

Section type

ts

Circular

545

3
D

10mm vent hole

Circular column
1
2

Square

ts

3
1870

A
780

A
Reference points

Tie

tR or tH
(min)
197
174
122
143
100
90
60
70
154
155
75
75

Nup
(kN)

1805
2041
2049
2062

1626
1788

2.3 Test procedures and apparatus

2.3.1 Fire resistance tests

1
2

Fire resistance tests were carried out on the six

specimens CT01CT04, ST01 and ST02. The following
test procedure and apparatus were used:
(1) Ambient temperature loading phase. Prior to the
fire exposure, the column specimen was installed in the
furnace and the predetermined axial compression load (No)
was applied to it. The furnace chamber has a floor area of
640 mm in width and 630 mm in depth, and the height is
880 mm. The column specimen passed through the
furnace chamber, and was heated in the middle part.
Pin-to-pin end boundary conditions were applied to the
column specimen via two cylindrical hinges, and a
loading jack located at the top of the furnace was used to
load the column. The effective length from the centre of
the upper hinge to the centre of the lower hinge was 2010
mm.
(2) Temperature rise phase. Keeping the applied load
constant, the furnace temperature was increased to a
target temperature of 800 C at an average heating rate of
40 C/min.
(3) Constant temperature phase. After the furnace
temperature reached 800 C, it was maintained constant
until the column failed to support the applied axial load.
The elapsed time from the beginning of the temperature
rise phase to the time of failure was defined as the fire
resistance (tR) of the column specimen.

ts

3
545
20

Bottom endplate

No
fc
n
(kN) f (MPa)
498 0.31 41.4
510 0.28 41.7
771 0.48 42.3
770 0.42 42.3
549 0.32 44.3
553 0.28 44.8
834 0.48 44.8
833 0.43 45.5
770 0.31 43.5
1170 0.46 44.1
814 0.31 46.4
1198 0.45 46.6

D
Square column

10mm vent hole

Specimen
label
Fire resistance CT01
CT02
CT03
CT04
Post-fire
CT05
CT06
CT07
CT08
Fire resistance
ST01
ST02
Post-fire
ST03
ST04
Test type

D
Circular column with
reinforcement
Section A-A

Figure 1. Test specimen design (unit: mm).

The effects of the following parameters were

investigated in the test: (1) Cross-section type: circular
section and square section; (2) Load level (nf): 0.280.48.
nf is defined as No/Nu, where No is the applied axial
compression load to the column; Nu is the ultimate
load-bearing capacity of the column at ambient
temperature, which was calculated in accordance with
Eurocode 4 (2005); (3) Presence of steel reinforcement:
Four circular specimens (CT02, CT04, CT06 and CT08)
were longitudinally reinforced with four 12 mm diameter
deformed reinforcement and 10 mm diameter plain
transverse reinforcement spaced at 200 mm centres. The
clear cover to the longitudinal reinforcement was 45 mm;
and (4) Test type: Fire resistance test and post-fire test
with initial load.
The applied axial compression load (No) and the load
level (nf) corresponding to each specimen are shown in
Table 1, where CT and ST in the specimen labels
denote circular and square columns, respectively.

2.3.2 Post-fire tests with initial load

2.2 Material properties

The post-fire test specimens were CT05CT08, ST03

and ST04, which are corresponding to the fire test

The material properties of the stainless steel tubes and

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Tao et al.

specimens CT01CT04, ST01 and ST02, respectively.

The following test procedure and apparatus were adopted:
(1) Ambient temperature loading and temperature rise
phases. The test procedure and apparatus used in these
two phases were the same as for the fire resistance test.
(2) Constant temperature phase. After the furnace
temperature reached 800 C, it was kept constant until the
predetermined fire duration time (tH) was reached. tH
included the total elapsed time during the temperature
rise and constant temperature phases. For each post-fire
test specimen tH was taken as about half of the
fire-resistance time (tR) of its reference specimen.
(3) Cooling phase. After the predetermined fire
duration time had reached, the furnace was switched off
and the specimen was allowed to cool down with the
furnace door closed. In the cooling phase, the applied
axial load was kept constant.
(4) Post-fire loading phase. After the specimen had
cooled to ambient temperature, the axial compression
load was increased until the specimen failed to support
the load. The peak load obtained in the post-fire test is
defined as the residual ultimate strength (Nup) of the
column.

eccentricities at the top and bottom ends ranged from

0.05 mm to 1.85 mm.

2.4.2 Steel strain measurement in fire

During the fire exposure, two Nikon D300 DSLR
cameras were used to take photos of the two reference
point areas through two observation windows on the
furnace wall at an interval of 3 min. After the test, images
taken by the cameras were analysed by using GeoPIV
software (White & Take, 2002) to determine the changed
coordinates of each reference point. Afterwards, the
changed longitudinal distance between any two reference
points could be calculated and converted to nominal axial
strains.

3 TEST RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

3.1 Failure modes
The experimental results indicate that similar failure
modes were observed for both the fire-resistance test
specimens and post-fire test specimens. Circular columns
generally failed due to the overall buckling
accompanying by local buckling of the steel tube near the
mid-height of the specimen. Local buckling initiated at
around 20 min after fire exposure. In contrast, square
columns developed almost evenly distributed local
buckling along the length of the steel tube inside the
furnace and local buckling was observed at around 15
min after fire exposure. The square columns also
demonstrated obvious overall buckling.
After fire exposure, the post-fire test specimens
generally developed a residual lateral deflection ranging
from 1 mm to 3 mm at the mid-height. Compared with
the residual lateral deflection, the local buckling of the
steel tube was generally more obvious after fire exposure.
The maximum bulge heights were 7.2 mm, 1.4 mm, 4.2
mm and 8.0 mm for circular columns CT05, CT06, CT07
and CT08, respectively; whereas the values were 13.0
mm and 9.8 mm for square columns ST03 and ST04,
respectively.

2.4 Application of photogrammetric technique

2.4.1 Initial imperfection measurements
Initial imperfections of specimens were measured by
using the photogrammetric method before conducting the
fire tests. Retro-reflective dots were first marked on the
surface of the steel tube at a spacing of 125 mm, and then
a Nikon D300 DSLR camera was used to take photos of
the steel tube, coded targets and scale bar from different
positions. The 3D coordinates corresponding to each
retro-reflective dot could be obtained from these photos
by using the software package Australis. From the 3D
coordinates of the retro-reflective dots, initial
imperfections of the specimen could be determined.
In general, the maximum initial imperfection in the
bending plane ranged from 0.16 mm (L/11700) to 1.37
mm (L/1365). Only specimen CT06 had a much larger
maximum initial imperfection of 2.23 mm (L/839) over
other specimens. For about half of specimens such as
CT01, a sinusoid reasonably represents the distribution of
the initial imperfection; but for the remaining specimens
(e.g. CT02), the initial imperfections distributed
somewhat randomly in the longitudinal direction, which
are far from sinusoidal.
Despite the specimens were intended to be axially
loaded, small load eccentricities still existed. A Vernier
caliper was used to measure the dimensions of the
loading plates of the testing machine and the end plates of
the columns, and the centroid of each plate was found.
The difference between the positions of the centroids of
the loading plate and the end plate at each end was taken
as the initial load eccentricity. The measured initial load

3.2 Temperature versus time curves

Figure 2 shows the measured temperature (T) versus
time (t) curves for typical CFSST columns. The average
furnace temperature developed for a column is also
indicated in the figure. In general, the surface temperature
of the steel tube was lower than the furnace temperature
in the heating phase. But after 120 min fire exposure, the
difference between them was less than 70 C. Meanwhile,
the temperature at the centre of the concreter core (point
3) also reached around 400 C at that moment.
For post-fire test specimens, it is not surprising that it
took a long time for the concrete temperature to drop to
ambient temperature in the cooling phase as a result of
the low thermal conductivity of concrete. Since the
temperature of the outer part of concrete was higher than

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Tao et al.

that of the inner part during the heating phase, the

temperatures of the inner concrete reached peak values
long after the furnace had switched off. Take specimen
CT05 as an example, the furnace temperature started to
decrease at around 100 min in the beginning of the
cooling phase, and the temperature of point 1 started to
decrease at the same time; whereas the temperature of
point 3 located at the centre of the core concrete
continued to rise until 150 min, and the concrete
temperature became higher than the steel tube
temperature at that moment.

Axial deformation (mm)

3
Plain concrete,
nf =0.31

0
Buckling
(t = 21 min)

-3
-6

Test
Detailed FE
Simplified FE

-9
-12
0

40

80
120
Time t (min)

2
3

600
3

400
2

Furnace
Test
Predicted

200
0
0

40

80 120 160
Time t (min)

200

240

Temperature T (C)

Furnace
Test
Predicted

800

0
Buckling
(t = 12 min)

-3
-6

Test
Detailed FE
Simplified FE

-9

40

80
120
Time t (min)

160

200

(b) Square specimen ST01

Figure 3. Axial deformation () versus time (t) curves for
typical fire-resistance test specimens.

1
2
3

Plain concrete,
nf =0.31

-12

(a) Specimen CT04

1000

200

(a) Circular specimen CT01

800

Axial deformation (mm)

Temperature T (C)

1000

160

600

3.4 Fire resistance and post-fire residual strength

400

The measured fire resistance (tR) or residual ultimate

strength (Nup) for each specimen is presented in Table 1.
The effects of load level, presence of steel reinforcement
and section type on the measured tR or Nup are discussed
as follows.

200
3

100

200 300 400

Time t (min)

500

600

3.4.1 Fire resistance

(b) Specimen CT05

The test specimens obtained very high fire resistance

(tR) ranging from 122 min to 197 min. Figure 4(a) shows
the effect of axial load level (nf) on tR of CFSST columns.
For circular CFSST columns, tR decreased with an
increase in nf. However, the influence of nf on tR is very
minor for the square columns. This can be explained by
two
reasons:
(a)
ST01
(nf=0.3)
had
more severe imperfections than ST02 with a larger nf of
0.45. The maximum measured imperfections for
specimens ST01 and ST02 were 0.36 mm and 0.16 mm,
respectively; and (b) Although the target furnace
temperature had been set to 800 C, there were some
deviations from the target temperature. In general, the
furnace temperature was controlled reasonably well. But
ST01 happened to be exposed to a higher temperature,
whilst ST02 exposed to a lower temperature. At the time
of failure, the average furnace temperature was 860 C
for ST01 and 760 C for ST02. Therefore, compared with

Figure 2. Typical temperature (T) versus time (t) curves of

CFSST columns.

3.3 Axial deformation development

Typical axial deformation () versus time (t) curves of
the fire-resistance test columns are shown in Figure 3. A
t curve can be generally divided into three stages. In
the initial stage, the column started to expand as a result
of the thermal expansion of the stainless steel and
concrete. And then, after the axial expansion reached the
peak point, the column started to contract gradually due
to the degradation of material properties at high
temperature. Finally, as the fire duration time increased,
the axial contraction deformation of the column increased
sharply, and the column failed when it could no longer
support the applied axial load.

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Tao et al.

ST02, specimen ST01 should have had higher fire

resistance if the two specimens had had same initial
imperfections and furnace temperature.

columns with different sizes and under different fire

scenarios.
The influence of section type on tR is shown in Figure
6(a). No clear relationship is found between tR and the
section type. This may be explained by the fact that the
strength contribution from the steel tube reduced
significantly when reaching the fire resistance; thus the
columns were less directly affected by the section type
than other factors.

Fire resistance tR (min)

250
200

CT01

150

CT03

nf=0.3
nf=0.3 nnf=0.45
f=0.45
CT02
ST01 ST02
CT04

100
50

Fire resistance tR (min)

250

0
Circular
column

Circlur column Square column

with
reinforcement

(a) Fire resistance

2400
1800

CT07
CT05

CT01
CT02

Without reinforcement
With reinforcement
CT04

150

CT03

100
50

nf=0.3
nf=0.45
nf=0.3 nf=0.45
CT06 CT08
ST04
ST03

nf=0.31,
nf=0.30.28

nf=0.48,
0.42
nf=0.45

(a) Fire resistance

1200

3000
Without reinforcement

600

Peak load Nup (kN)

Peak load Nup (kN)

3000

200

0
Circular
column

Circlur column Square column

with
reinforcement

(b) Post-fire residual strength

Figure 4. Effect of load level on the fire resistance and post-fire
residual strength.

2400
1800

With reinforcement

CT06

CT07 CT08

CT05

1200
600
0
nf=0.30.28
nf=0.32,

The presence of steel reinforcement had no significant

influence on tR, as shown in Figure 5(a). Specimen CT02
with reinforcement had a fire resistance of 174 min,
which was even lower than the fire resistance of 197 min
for specimen CT01 without reinforcement. The
reinforcement ratio of the current specimens was 1.6%,
which was slightly higher than the minimum
reinforcement ratio of 1.5% recommended in Eurocode 4
(2005). After 174 min fire exposure, the temperature of
the reinforcement in CT02 was 625 C based on the FE
prediction described in Section 4. At this moment, the
strength loss for the reinforcement was as high as 59%
according to Eurocode 2 (2005). This analysis explains
the moderate contribution of the reinforcement to the fire
resistance of columns subjected to a long-duration fire
exposure. Furthermore, the load eccentricities and initial
imperfections located at different sides of specimen CT02.
Therefore, the influence of the initial imperfections was
greatly amplified. But this was not the case for specimen
CT01. According to the measurements, the equivalent
maximum imperfection for CT02 was 1.36 mm; but the
value for CT01 was only 0.37 mm. Obviously, the
moderate beneficial influence of reinforcement in CT02
was outweighed by the much higher combined influence
of imperfection and load eccentricity for this specimen.
Further research is required to find out the best
reinforcement ratio and thickness of concrete cover for

nfnf=0.45
=0.48, 0.43

(b) Post-fire residual strength

Figure 5. Effect of load level on the fire resistance and post-fire

residual strength.
Fire resistance tR (min)

250
200

Circular section
Square section

CT01
ST01

ST02

150

CT03

100
50
0

nf=0.31, 0.31

nf=0.48, 0.46

(a) Fire resistance

Peak load Nup (min)

3000
Circular section
2400
1800

Square section
CT07

CT05

ST04

ST03

1200
600
0

nf=0.32, 0.31

nf=0.48, 0.45

(b) Post-fire residual strength

Figure 6. Effect of section type on the fire resistance and

post-fire residual strength.

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Tao et al.

3.4.2 Post-fire residual strength

3.5 Strain development in fire

Figure 4(b) demonstrates the effect of load level on

the post-fire residual strength (Nup). When compared with
the reference specimens with a nominal load level of 0.3,
Nup of specimens with a nominal load level of 0.45
increased by up to 13.5%. The beneficial effect of nf on
Nup can be explained by two reasons: (a) The fire duration
time for a specimen with a larger nf was normally chosen
to be smaller than that of its counterpart with a smaller nf.
Thus the specimen with a larger nf suffered less fire
damage; (b) Heating concrete under load can improve the
residual strength, and the influence increases with
increasing load level, provided that the load level is not
too high (Khoury et al., 1986). This can be clearly seen
by comparing ST04 with ST03, since both specimens
were heated for 75 min before cooling down.
The influence of reinforcement on Nup is depicted in
Figure 5(b). An increase in Nup is observed for specimens
with reinforcement. The strength increase was 13.1% for
CT06 with reinforcement compared with the unreinforced
specimen CT05. Regardless of the presence or not of the
reinforcement, both specimens CT07 and CT08 had very
close residual strength. This is because the furnace
temperature was only held at about 700 C in the constant
temperature phase for the unreinforced specimen CT07,
which was lower than the target temperature of 800 C
achieved by other post-fire specimens. Therefore, the
influence of reinforcement would have been more
significant if the furnace temperature for CT07 had
achieved the target temperature.
Figure 6(b) demonstrates the effect of section type on
Nup. Although square columns had a higher
cross-sectional area and tube thickness than circular
columns, the square columns had lower Nup-values. The
room temperature load-carrying capacities Nuc of the test
specimens were predicted using the detailed FE model
described in Section 4. It is found that the measured Nup
is quite close to the predicted Nuc for the four circular
post-fire specimens. It indicates that the current circular
specimens were not sensitive to fire exposure, and the
strength loss was within 4%. The strength losses,
however, were 36% and 29% for the two square post-fire
specimens ST03 and ST04, respectively. This may be
attributed to the severe local buckling of the square tube
during fire exposure, which reduced the residual strength
of the steel tube and also affected the integrity of the core
concrete during the fire exposure. In contrast, local
buckling occurred only in a smaller area and less severe
for the circular specimens, thus the circular tube could
still provide confinement to the concrete during the
post-fire loading. Other factors contributed to the high
retention of strength for circular CFSST columns might
include the high post-fire strength of stainless steel
(Wang et al., 2014) and the existence of the initial load
during fire exposure.

Except at locations of severe local buckling, the axial

strains () obtained from different pairs of reference
points agreed with each other very well. In general, t
curves follow the same trend as the corresponding t
curves since the columns were under axial compression.
But -value is normally much smaller than the nominal
strain calculated from divided by the fire-exposed
length (880 mm). This is mainly due to the localised
deformation at the locations of local buckling.

4 FINITE ELEMENT MODELLING

Finite element models were developed to simulate the
CFSST columns in fire. The sequentially coupled
thermal-stress analysis was conducted using ABAQUS
software. A thermal analysis model was established first
to obtain the temperature distribution in the CFSST
column, and then the temperature data were imported into
the stress analysis model to simulate the fire performance
of CFSST columns.

4.1 Thermal analysis

Tao and Ghannam (2013) proposed a FE model to
simulate the heat transfer of CFSST columns, and the
accuracy of the FE model was verified by temperature
test data of 121 tested columns. A model to calculate the
moisture content of concrete inside a steel tube was
recommended. Meanwhile, models were proposed to
predict the thermal conductivity of sealed concrete and
the thermal contact conductance at the steel
tubeconcrete interface. Improved agreement was
achieved between the predicted and measured
temperatures throughout the cross-section when the
proposed models were used to replace constitutive
models given in Eurocode 4. In this paper, the FE model
developed by Tao and Ghannam (2013) was adopted to
predict the temperature distribution in CFSST columns.

4.2 Stress analysis

4.2.1 Material properties
The elevated temperature stressstrain models given
in Eurocode 3 (2005) and Eurocode 2 (2005) are adopted
for stainless steel and reinforcement, respectively. For the
concrete, the concrete damaged plasticity model in
ABAQUS was employed. In this model, the dilation
angle () affects the predicted t curves significantly.
The predicted fire resistance increases with increasing .
A similar trend is found in CFSST stub columns or even
plain concrete columns. To indentify the most suitable
for the analysis, different -values varying from 0.01to
50were used to simulate all CFSST columns tested in
fire. It was found that a value of 40 gives the best
prediction for fire resistance of CFSST columns. By
simulating 32 circular and 26 square carbon steel CFST

158

Tao et al.

columns tested in fire, Ghannam (2015) also found that

reasonably accurate predictions can be achieved for
carbon steel CFST columns if a value of 40is used for .
Based on the sensitivity analysis, is taken as 40in the
following analysis.
For concrete under compression, the stressstrain
model proposed in Eurocode 2 (2005) was adopted. The
tensile strength of concrete (ft) at ambient temperature
was determined by Eq. (1) proposed in the CEB-FIP
Model Code 1990 (FIP, 1993). To consider the influence
of temperature on the tensile strength of concrete, the
high-temperature reduction factors for tensile strength in
Eurocode 2 (2005) were used.
2/3
(1)
f t 1.4 f c ' / 10

4.2.2 Interface between steel and concrete

The surface-to-surface contact in ABAQUS was
adopted to simulate the interaction between the stainless
steel tube and concrete core. Hard contact in the normal
and Coulomb friction in the tangential directions were
defined in the surface-to-surface contact. For the
Coulomb friction model, a friction coefficient of 0.25 was
adopted in this paper. For columns with reinforcing bars,
tie constraint was assumed between the reinforcing bars
and the concrete core.

predicted temperature (T) versus time (t) curves of typical

CFSST columns. In general, the FE predictions are in
reasonably good agreement with the test results. The
predicted axial deformation () versus time (t) curves are
compared with the measured curves in Figure 3 for
typical fire-resistance specimens, in which the detailed
FE refers to the FE prediction incorporated into the
measured initial imperfections and eccentricities. In
general, the predicted t curves agree with the test
curves very well. The predicted axial deformation,
however, is generally smaller than the measured
deformation in the contraction phase. This may be
attributed to the discrepancy between the real
thermal expansion coefficients of stainless steel and
concrete materials and the values provided in Eurocode 3
(2005) and Eurocode 2 (2005). Despite this, the predicted
fire resistance is reasonably accurate.

5 SIMPLIFIED SIMULATION OF INITIAL

IMPERFECTIONS
In a FE analysis, it is favourable to include the real
initial imperfections and load eccentricities in the
simulation. But it is very time-consuming to measure
these values. Plus, in the design stage, the initial
imperfections and load eccentricities of a CFSST column
will not be known beforehand. More than often, the load
eccentricities are ignored and imperfections in form of
the lowest global elastic buckling model are included in
the FE simulation of a slender column under axial
compression (Han et al., 2013). However, the
imperfection amplitude should be chosen very carefully.
The above simplified method was used to consider the
combined influence of the initial imperfections and load
eccentricities on the current CFSST test specimens. A
buckling analysis was conducted first for a pinned-pinned
column subjected to axial compression. The first buckling
mode shape was then imported into the stress model as
the initial geometrical shape from which to run the
analysis. During this process, an amplification factor was
required, which was the maximum imperfection specified
at the mid-height of the column.
A sensitivity analysis was conducted to investigate the
influence of initial imperfections on the predicted t
curves, and the results for a typical specimen ST01 are
shown in Figure 7. The predicted fire resistance decreases
with increasing initial imperfections. For specimen ST01,
the predicted fire resistance is 187 min when no initial
imperfections are specified; and the predicted values
decrease to 167 min, 158 min, 153 min and 144 min
when the imperfection amplitudes are taken as L/10000,
L/5000, L/1500 and L/1000, respectively. Due to the
random nature of initial imperfections and load
eccentricities, different imperfection amplitudes are
required for different specimens to achieve the closest
predictions to the test results. In general, for specimens

4.2.3 Element divisions and boundary conditions

In the stress analysis model, the same element
meshing as the thermal analysis model was adopted.
Solid elements (C3D8R) were used for the concrete,
discrete rigid elements (R3D4) were used for the top
loading plate, shell elements (S4R) were used for the
stainless steel tube and truss elements (T3D2) were used
for the reinforcement. Two reference points were created
on the centroids of the top loading plate and the bottom
end of the column, and the Coupling constraints were
applied between the reference points and the top or
bottom ends to make them have the same deformations.
The boundary conditions of pin-pin ends were applied on
the FE model by assigning the translation and rotation
constraints on the reference points directly. The initial
load (No) was applied on the top reference point.
To consider the influence of initial imperfections, the
actual imperfections measured by the photogrammetric
method were included in the FE model. This was
conducted by importing the point coordinates from
Australis to represent the steel surface and concrete
surface. Meanwhile, the coordinates of the top and
bottom reference points in the FE model were adjusted
according to the initial measured load eccentricities.

4.3 Verification of FE models

The test data reported in this paper were used to
verify the accuracy of the established FE model. Figure 2
indicates the comparison between the measured and

159

Tao et al.

CT02, ST01 and ST02, the simplified FE model with an

imperfection amplitude of L/1500 gives close predictions
to those predicted by the detailed model described in
Section 4, as shown in Figure 3. But for specimens CT01,
CT03 and CT04, conservative predictions are obtained
when the simplified FE model is used. This is because
these specimens were less affected by the initial
imperfections and load eccentricities. From this analysis,
it is suggested that a value of L/1500 is used as the
imperfection amplitude for CFSST columns. This
amplitude is also often used for the global buckling
analysis of steel columns by other researchers. The
simplified FE model is further used to simulate the tested
CFSST columns presented by Han et al. (2013), and
generally conservative predictions are obtained. Similar
results were obtained for normal CFST columns, and
details can be found in Ghannam (2015). For the post-fire
test specimens, only the heating phase was simulated. No
significant difference was found when different
imperfection amplitudes were used. Therefore, a value of
L/1500 is also appropriate in simulating the response of
those specimens in the heating phase.

that circular CFSST specimens were not sensitive to

fire exposure, whilst a strength loss up to 36% was
observed for square specimens.
(4) FE models incorporated into the measured initial
imperfections and load eccentricities were developed to
simulate the fire-resistance test columns. In general, the
predictions agree with the test results very well. To
simplify the FE analysis, the initial geometric
imperfection of a column can be simulated in the model
as the first buckling mode shape of the column, and the
imperfection amplitude can be taken as L/1500. The
accuracy of the simplified FE model is acceptable, and it
generally gives conservative predictions.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This work is supported by the Australian Research
Council (ARC) under its Future Fellowships scheme
(Project No: FT0991433). It has also been partially
supported by the ARC Discovery Project (Grant No:
DP120100971). The financial support is gratefully
acknowledged.
REFERENCES

Axial deformation (mm)

European committee for standardization. 2005. Design of

concrete structuresPart 1-2: General rulesstructural fire
design. Eurocode 2, Brussels, Belgium.
European committee for standardization. 2005. Design of steel
structuresPart 1-2: General rulesstructural fire design.
Eurocode 3, Brussels, Belgium.
European committee for standardization. 2005. Design of
composite steel and concrete structuresPart 1-1: General
rules and rules for buildings. Eurocode 4, Brussels,
Belgium.
FIP. 1993. CEB-FIP Model Code 1990. London: Thomas
Telford Ltd.
Ghannam, M. 2015. Behaviour of concrete-filled stainless steel
columns under fire conditions. PhD thesis, Institute for
Infrastructure Engineering, University of Western Sydney.
Han, L.H., Chen, F., Liao, F.Y., Tao, Z. & Uy, B. 2013. Fire
performance of concrete filled stainless steel tubular
columns. Engineering Structures 56: 165-181.
Khoury, G.A., Grainger, B.N. & Sullivan, P.J. 1986. Strain of
concrete during first cooling from 600 C under
load. Magazine of Concrete Research 38(134): 3-12.
Tao, Z. & Ghannam, M. 2013. Heat transfer in concrete-filled
carbon and stainless steel tubes exposed to fire. Fire Safety
Journal 61: 1-11.
Uy, B., Tao, Z. & Han, L.H. 2011. Behaviour of short and
slender concrete-filled stainless steel tubular columns.
Journal Constructional Steel Research 67(3): 360-378.
Wang, X.Q., Tao, Z., Song, T.Y., & Han, L.H. 2014.
Stressstrain model of austenitic stainless steel after
exposure
to
elevated
temperatures. Journal
of
Constructional Steel Research 99: 129-139.
White, D.J. & Take, W.A. 2002. GeoPIV: Particle image
velocimetry (PIV) software for use in geotechnical testing.
University
of
Cambridge
technical
report
CUED/D-SOILS/TR322, Cambridge, UK.

0
-3

Test
L/1000
L/1000
L/1500
L/1500
L/5000
L/5000
L/10000
L/10000
No imperfections

-6
-9
-12
0

40

80
120
Time t (min)

160

200

Figure 7. Comparison of predicted t curves using different

initial imperfections (specimen ST01).

6 CONCLUSIONS
Based on the experimental and numerical analysis
results, the following conclusions can be drawn:
(1) The fire tests on the CFSST columns indicate that the
composite columns with stainless steel have excellent
fire resistance. Exposed to a target temperature of
800 C, the fire resistance of the test specimens
ranged from 122 min to 197 min.
(2) The presence of steel reinforcement had no significant
influence on the fire resistance of the test specimens.
Further research is required to find out the best
reinforcement ratio and thickness of concrete cover
for columns with different sizes and under different
fire scenarios.
(3) Applying a higher load level or providing internal
reinforcement had some beneficial influence on the
post-fire residual strength. Meanwhile, it is found

160

11th International Conference on

Advances in Steel and Concrete Composite Structures
Tsinghua University, Beijing, China, December 3-5, 2015

INFLUENCE OF ULTRA-HIGH STRENGTH CONCRETE ON

CIRCULAR CONCRETE-FILLED DUAL STEEL COLUMNS
M. L. Romeroa, J.M. Portolsb, A. Espinsa, D. Ponsa, V. Alberoa
a

ICITECH, Universitat Politcnica de Valncia, Valencia, Spain

E-mails: mromero@mes.upv.es, aespinos@mes.upv.es, dpons@upv.es, vialga@upvnet.upv.es
b

Department of Mechanical Engineering and Construction, Universitat Jaume I, Castelln, Spain

E-mail: jportole@emc.uji.es
ABSTRACT
Keywords:
Concrete-filled steel column;
numerical model; ultra-high
strength concrete; innovative
cross-section

This paper presents a numerical model validated against an experimental campaign where the
buckling resistance of twelve double-tube and double-skin concrete-filled steel tubular (CFST)
columns was obtained. While there are some papers in the literature which have investigated
concentrically loaded stub columns of such typology, no investigations on slender columns
were found. The effects of two parameters were analyzed in the paper, through the experimental
tests and the numerical model developed: strength of concrete (normal strength and ultra-high
strength concrete) and the ratio between the thicknesses of the outer and inner steel tubes. The
accurate fitting of the numerical model was proved, showing and average error ratio value of
1.02, which lies on the safe side. Specific material models from the literature were used,
selecting the ones which showed the best behaviour.

double-tube and double-skin sections, which present

an inner circular hollow section (CHS), being possible to
employ different concrete grades in the inner core as well
as in the outer concrete ring (Fig. 1).
Up to now, the main work on this topic has been
performed by the groups of Prof L.H. Han, Prof X.L Zhao
and co-workers, publishing several papers at room
temperature and in the fire situation on double-skin CFST
columns, where the inner CHS is empty (Zhao & Han
2006, Elchalakani et al. 2002, Lu et al. 2010, Zhao et al.
2010, Lu et al. 2010b, Huang et al. 2010, Tao et al. 2004,
Tao & Han 2006).
In addition, Liew & Xiong (2011) have recently tested
a new typology called double-tube where the inner tube is
also filled with concrete.
Other authors have proposed to embed massive steel
sections inside the core (Neuenschwander et al. 2010,
Schaumann & Kleibmer 2014) maintaining a high axial
capacity.
While some of these papers have investigated
concentrically loaded stub columns of such typology, no
investigations on slender columns have been found up to
date. Therefore, in this paper a numerical model for slender
columns of novel cross-sections (double-tube and doubleskin) is presented, subjected to axial compression and at
room temperature. This model is also validated against the
initial results of an experimental program carried out,
where both double-tube and double-skin were tested (12
tests).

1 INTRODUCTION
The use of concrete-filled steel tubular (CFST)
columns has increased worldwide as a composite
structural typology. Besides, the use of materials like high
strength concrete (HSC) and even ultra-high strength
concrete (UHSC) for these columns is becoming popular
as these high performance materials present advantages for
members subjected to high compressive axial forces, as it
occurs in columns of high-rise buildings. However, the use
of this high-strength materials reduces their cross-section
while increasing their slenderness, with the consequent
buckling problems. As a result, new innovative crosssections have been developed in order to solve these issues
for CFST columns.

Figure 1. New innovative solutions for CFST columns: a)

double-tube; b) double-skin.

This paper tries to reach a deeper understanding on

some of these innovative cross-sections, specifically

161

Romero et al.

2 NUMERICAL MODEL

produced accurate results for previous room temperature

CFST simulations carried out by the authors.

2.1 General

2.2 Materials

A three-dimensional numerical model for simulating

the behaviour of double-tube and double-skin CFST
columns was developed employing the general purpose
nonlinear finite element analysis package ABAQUS
(2013). The main parameters of the model were the
column length (L), the outer and inner diameter (D1), (D2),
the outer and inner steel tube thickness (t1), (t2) and the
material properties. The model consists of five parts: two
steel tubes and concrete rings as well as the loading plate.
In the case of double-skin specimens, the inner concrete
ring is not considered (Fig. 2).

2.2.1 Steel
For the steel tubes, an isotropic multi-axial plasticity
model with the Von Misses yield surface was employed.
The Poisson ratio used was 0.3 and the elastic modulus was
210 GPa. In this development and validation process of the
model, each experimental test used, which will be
described later on, was characterized by its yield stress and
ultimate stress. With these measured values, different
uniaxial stress-strain relationships were built. Specifically,
an elastic-plastic model and a softened relationship from
Giuffre-Menegotto-Pinto (Menegotto & Pinto 1973) were
used. Figure 3 shows both models for a nominal steel grade
of 275 MPa. After performing a sensitivity analysis,
Giuffre-Menegotto-Pinto model was selected, showing the
most accurate numerical response, as can be seen in Figure
4 for one of the cases analysed (NR01).
450
400
350
300

(MPa)

Figure 2. Three-dimensional finite element model for doubleskin CFST column.

250
200
Guiffre-Menegotto-Pinto
150

Due to symmetry on both the geometry and the

boundary conditions, only a quarter of the column was
modelled, therefore for each specimen pinned-pinned or
fixed-fixed end conditions can be considered.
The model was meshed with three-dimensional eightnode solid elements for both steel tubes and concrete rings.
The mesh density was controlled to have a maximum
element size of 2 cm, what proved to be sufficient from
previous works on numerical modelling of CFST columns
from the authors (Espinos et al. 2010).
In this case, for slender columns, the model developed
takes into account the initial imperfection of the column
specimens due to manufacturing process which makes
them not to be perfectly straight. This initial imperfection
was simulated through the first buckling mode deformed
shape, multiplied by an amplification factor of L/1000. For
this purpose, a previous eigenvalue analysis of the model
was conducted, importing the amplified first buckling
mode shape as the starting geometry to the mechanical
model.
The mechanical interaction between the steel tubes and
concrete rings was modelled using a hard point normal
contact formulation, which allows any pressure value
when the surfaces are in contact and transmits no pressure
value when the surfaces do not contact. Regarding the
tangent behavior, the Coulomb friction model with a
constant friction coefficient of 0.3 was used, which had

Elastic-Plastic

100

50
0
0,0%

0,5%

1,0%

1,5%

2,0%

Figure 3. Steel uniaxial stress-strain models assessed.

2000

Axial Load (kN)

1500

1000

NR01-EXP

500

NR01-NUM(Guiffre)
NR01-NUM(E-P)

0
0

10

20
30
40
50
60
Horizontal displacement @0,5L (mm)

70

80

Figure 4. Sensitivity analysis for steel models.

2.2.2 Concrete
Because the concrete in CFST columns under axial
compression is usually subjected to tri-axial compressive
stresses, the failure of concrete is dominated by the
162

Romero et al.

3 EXPERIMENTAL PROGRAM

compressive failure surface. The concrete core expands

laterally and is confined by the steel tube, hence this
confinement can increase the ductility of the concrete for
CFST slender columns. Therefore, different concrete
models developed for CFST columns were tested for these
new innovative cross-sections (Hajjar & Gourley 1996;
Han et al. 2007; Tao et al. 2013). Figure 5 compares the
stress-strain uniaxial relationship under compression for
these models, applied to a C30 grade concrete filling a 200
mm diameter CHS with a 3 mm wall thickness. In Figure
6, the results of a sensitivity analysis with different
concrete models, carried out for NR12 specimen, is shown.

In order to validate the developed numerical model,

some series of tests carried out by the authors were used.
Specifically, twelve experiments were used (two series of
six specimens) where the effect of the strength of concrete
and the ratio between thicknesses of the steel tubes was
investigated (Figs 7-8). Series 1 was designed using
different combinations where ultra-high strength concrete
(C150) was placed only in the inner concrete core. In turn,
series 2 was developed always using UHSC in the outer
concrete ring.

35
Hajjar-96
30

Han-07
Tao-13

(MPa)

25
20
15
10
5
0
0,0%

0,5%

1,0%

1,5%

2,0%

2,5%

Figure 5. Concrete uniaxial stress-strain models assessed.

Figure 7. Cross-sections Series 1.
3500
3000

Axial Load (kN)

2500
2000
NR12-EXP

1500

NR12-NUM(Tao)
1000

NR12-NUM(Han)
NR12-NUM(Hajjar)

500
0
0

10

20
30
40
50
Horizontal displacement @0,5L (mm)

60

Figure 6. Sensitivity analysis for concrete models.

Figure 8. Cross-sections Series 2.Nominal plain C30
grade concrete and steel S355 was also used, although the
measured strengths obtained from material tests were
applied in the model, see Table 1.

Through the results of this sensitivity analysis, the

concrete model from Tao et al. (2013) showed the most
accurate fitting (Fig. 6). Due to its higher ductility, as can
be seen in Figure 5, the model from Tao et al. (2013)
produced more accurate results, mainly for specimens
filled with UHSC. Therefore, this model was selected.
The FE modelling package allows different options to
model brittle materials such as concrete, amongst which,
in this work, an extended Drucker-Prager yield criterion
was used.

Table 1. Test specimen details.

ID
Series 1
NR1
NR2
NR3

163

D1

t1

fy1

fc1

D2

t2

fy2

fc2

200
200
200

3
3
3

300
332
272

36
45
43

114
114
114

8
8
8

377
403
414

00
42
134

Romero et al.
407
377
386

35
44
43

114
114
114

3
3
3

343
329
343

00
40
123

300
332
272
407
377
386

138
139
139
137
139
140

114
114
114
114
114
114

8
8
8
3
3
3

377
403
414
343
329
343

00
44
141
00
45
140

3500

3000

2500

Axial Load (kN)

NR4
200 6
NR5
200 6
NR6
200 6
Series 2
NR7
200 3
NR8
200 3
NR9
200 3
NR10
200 6
NR11
200 6
NR12
200 6
Values in mm and MPa.

2000

1500
NR07-EXP

NR08-EXP

1000

NR09-EXP
NR10-EXP

500

NR11-EXP
NR12-EXP

0
0

Four of these specimens were tested without concrete

filling the inner steel tube, therefore double-skin crosssection was also considered.
All specimens were manufactured at Universitat
Politcnica de Valncia (Spain) and tested later at
Universitat Jaume I in Castelln (Spain) as a part of an
extensive experimental campaign (28 tests). The buckling
length of the columns was 3315 mm, and were subjected
to pinned-pinned (P-P) end conditions. All the specimens
were tested in a 5000 kN testing frame in a horizontal
position. A displacement control test was carried out in
order to measure the post-peak behaviour. Linear variable
displacement transducers (LVDTs) were used to measure
the deflection at five points along the columns (0.25L,
0.375L, 0.5L, 0.625L and 0.75L). More details of the test
setup can be found in Portols et al. (2011) from previous
experimental campaigns on CFST columns at room
temperature.
The experimental results of both series are plotted in
Figures 9-10.

20
30
40
50
Horizontal displacement @0,5L (mm)

60

70

Figure 10. Series 2, experimental results.

From the results obtained for Series 1 (Fig. 9), it was

found that for double-tube columns filled with normal
strength concrete, when the thicker tube is located in the
outer part of the section, the maximum load increases. This
is due to the increase of the moment of inertia of the total
section. Besides, it is worth noting the reduced effect of
using UHSC in the inner core.
Regarding to the results of Series 2 (Fig. 10), where the
outer ring is always filled with UHSC, a null effect is
observed if the thicknesses of the inner and outer tubes are
swapped. It can be observed that the result from NR7 is
similar to NR10, while NR8 = NR11 and NR9 = NR12
respectively. Moreover, as was expected, the higher
ultimate load was reached filling with UHSC both the
inner and outer tube.

4 VALIDATION OF THE NUMERICAL MODEL

2500

The described numerical model was validated against

the series of tests described in the previous section. The
values of the ultimate load obtained in the tests and the
numerical simulations are summarized in Table 2.

2000

Axial Load (kN)

10

1500

Table 2. Measured and predicted ultimate loads.

1000

NR01-EXP

ID
Series 1
NR1
NR2
NR3
NR4
NR5
NR6
Series 2
NR7
NR8
NR9
NR10
NR11
NR12

NR02-EXP
NR03-EXP

500

NR04-EXP
NR05-EXP

NR06-EXP

10

20
30
40
50
Horizontal displacement @0,5L (mm)

60

70

Figure 9. Series 1, experimental results.

164

Nexp (kN)

Nnum (kN)

1418
1627
1774
1644
1964
2076

1404
1708
1767
1586
1862
2122

1.01
0.95
1.00
1.04
1.05
0.98

2571
2862
3077
2612
2793
3093

2481
2653
2791
2586
2732
3084
Avg.
Std.

1.04
1.08
1.10
1.01
1.02
1.00
1.02
0.04

Romero et al.

The error ratio of the numerical model prediction was

measured as follows:
N
(1)
exp
N num

A numerical model for new innovative CFST crosssections was developed and validated against a starting
series of experimental tests from an extensive
experimental campaign performed by the authors.
Specifically, the model was developed for double-tube and
double-skin axially loaded slender columns.
The accuracy of the model was proved by comparison
with this series of experiments, obtaining an average error
ratio of 1.02, which lies on the safe side. In order to build
the FE model, the Giuffre-Menegotto-Pinto (1973) steel
model for the steel tubes and the Tao et al. (2013) concrete
model for CFST columns were used, showing the best
results.
Through the experimental tests and the developed
numerical model, it was found that when using normal
strength concrete, locating the thicker tube in the outer part
of the section shows an increase on the maximum loadbearing capacity. However, when the section is filled with
UHSC, null effect is observed if the thicknesses of the
inner and outer tubes are swapped. As expected, the
specimen which presented the higher capacity was that
filled with UHSC in both the inner and outer tube.

where Nexp = ultimate test load ; Nnum = ultimate numerical

load.
Values of this error ratio above one mean safe
predictions, while values lower than unity stand for unsafe
estimations. The accuracy of the developed model can be
observed in Table 2, with an average error ratio of 1.02
(safe) and a 0.04 standard deviation. Figure 11 also shows
the accuracy of the predictions obtained through the
numerical model, as compared to the test results.
3500
3000

+15%

UNSAFE

Nexp (kN)

2500
-15%

2000
1500

Series 1
Series 2

1000
500

SAFE

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

0
0

500

1000

1500

2000

2500

3000

3500

The authors would like to express their sincere

gratitude to the Spanish Ministry of Economy and
Competitivity through the project BIA2012-33144 and to
the European Community for the FEDER funds.

Nnum (kN)

Figure 11. Comparison between numerical predictions and test

results.

In Figure 12, the load versus mid-span displacement

curves of NR03 and NR12 specimens are plotted, showing
the accuracy of the developed numerical model, which
reaches a good fitting with the curves obtained from the
experimental tests.

REFERENCES
ABAQUS 2013. Abaqus/ Standard version 6.13 users manual,
vols I III. Pawtucket, Rhode Island: Hibbit, Karlsson &
Sorenson, Inc.
Elchalakani M, Zhao X, Grzebieta R. 2002. Test on concrete
filled double-skin (CHS outer and SHS inner) composite
short columns under axial compression. Thin-walled
structures 40(5):415-441.
Espinos A, Romero M.L, Hospitaler A. 2010. Advanced model
for predicting the fire response of concrete filled tubular
columns. Journal of Constructional Steel Research 66:10301046.
Hajjar F, Gourley B.C. 1996. Representation of concrete-filled
steel tube cross-section strength. Journal of Structural
Engineering 122:1327-1336.
Han L.H, Yao G.H, Tao Z. 2007. Performance of concrete-filled
thin-walled steel tubes under pure torsion. Thin-Walled
Structures 45:24-36.
Huang H, Han L.H, Tao Z, Zhao X. 2010. Analytical behaviour
of concrete-filled double skin steel tubular (CFDST) stub
columns. Journal of Constructional Steel Research
66(4):542-555.
Liew, Xiong D.X. 2011. Experimental investigation on tubular
columns infilled with ultra-high strength concrete. Tubular
Structures XIII Boca Raton: Crc Press-Taylor & Francis
Group: 637-645.
Lu H, Han L.H, Zhao X. 2010. Fire performance of selfconsolidating concrete filled double skin steel tubular
columns: Experiments. Fire safety journal 45(2):106-115.

3500
3000
2500

Axial Load (kN)

CONCLUSIONS

2000
1500
1000

NR03-EXP
NR03-NUM
NR12-EXP
NR12-NUM

500
0

10

20
30
40
50
60
Horizontal displacement @0,5L (mm)

70

80

Figure 12. Load versus mid-span displacement (NR03 & NR12)

165

Romero et al.
Lu H, Han L.H, Zhao X. 2010b. Testing of self-consolidating
concrete-filled double skin tubular stub columns exposed to
fire. Journal of Constructional Steel Research 66(8-9):10691080.
Menegotto M, Pinto P.E. 1973. Method of analysis for cyclically
loaded R.C. pane frames including changes in geometry and
non-elastic behaviour of elements under combined normal
force and bending. Proc. IABSE Symposium on Resistance
and Ultimate Deformability of Structures Acted on by Well
Defined Repeated Load, Lisbon.
Neuenschwander M, Knobloch M, Fontana M. 2010. Fire
behaviour of concrete filled circular hollow section columns
with massive steel core. Proceedings of the International
Colloquium Stability and Ductility of Steel Structures SDSS
September 8-10, 2010, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil.
Portoles J.M, Romero M.L, Bonet J.L, Filippou F. 2011.
Experimental study of high strength concrete-filled circular
tubular columns under eccentric loading. Journal of
Constructional Steel Research 67(4):623-633.
Schaumann P, Kleibmer I. 2014. Experimentelle
Untersuchungen zum Trag und Erwrmingsverhalten von
Verbundsttzen mit massivem Einstellprofil im Brandfall /
Experimental investigations on the structural and thermal
behaviour of composite columns with embedded massive
steel core (In German). 19 DASt-Kolloqium, October 2014
Hannover, Germany
Tao Z, Han L.H, Zhao X. 2004. Behaviour of concrete-filled
double skin (CHS inner and CHS outer) steel tubular stub
columns and beam-columns. Journal of Constructional Steel
Research 60(8):1129-1158.
Tao Z, Han L.H. 2006. Behaviour of concrete-filled double skin
rectangular steel tubular beam-columns. Journal of
Constructional Steel Research 62(7):631-646.
Tao Z, Wang Z.B, Tu Q. 2013. Finite element modelling of
concrete-filled steel stub columns under axial compression.
Journal of Constructional Steel Research 89:212-131.
Zhao X, Han L.H, 2006. Double skin composite construction.
Progress in structural engineering and materials 8(3):93102.
Zhao X, Tong L.W, Wang X.Y. 2010. CFDST stub columns
subjected to large deformation axial loading. Engineering
Structures 32(3):692-703.

166

11th International Conference on

Advances in Steel and Concrete Composite Structures
Tsinghua University, Beijing, China, December 3-5, 2015

NUMERICAL STUDY OF CONCRETE-FILLED ELLIPTICAL

HOLLOW SECTION BEAM-COLUMNS
W. Qiua, F. McCanna & L. Gardnera
a

Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Imperial College London, London, United Kingdom
E-mails: w.qiu13@imperial.ac.uk, finian.mccann@imperial.ac.uk, leroy.gardner@imperial.ac.uk
ABSTRACT
Keywords:
Composite structures;
Experimental testing; Numerical
analysis; Design guidance.

A nonlinear finite element (FE) study of concrete-filled steel elliptical hollow section (EHS)
beam-columns is presented in this paper. First, a summary of experiments conducted on a total
of 27 EHS beam-column specimens with varying lengths and different load eccentricities is
presented. Seven of the tested specimens contained steel reinforcement. These results, together
with other results from the literature, were used to validate a nonlinear finite element model
developed in Abaqus, which incorporated steel material properties obtained from tensile testing
and a confined concrete model calibrated using measured concrete strengths. The numerical
results were found to agree well with those obtained from the experiments when comparing
ultimate loads, loaddeflection behaviour and failure modes. Upon validation of the models, an
extensive parametric study comprising 240 simulations was conducted to investigate the effects
of cross-section slenderness, nondimensional member slenderness, loading eccentricities and
embedded reinforcement. Both the experimental and numerical results have been used as the
basis for developing simplified design rules for EHS beam-columns suitable for inclusion in
codes such as EN 1994-1-1.

section possesses aesthetic qualities along with more

effective bending resistance for cases of loading in one
dominant direction when compared to CHS due to having
different second moments of area about its two principal
axes. Chan and Gardner (2008a,b) have investigated the
structural behaviour of EHS members through
experimental, numerical and analytical studies; a
comprehensive review of design recommendations is
provided by Chan et al (2010). In the context of
concrete-filled elliptical hollow section (CFEHS)
members, previous experimental studies include 33
compression tests on stub columns (Zhao & Packer 2009,
Uenaka 2014) and 44 compression tests on slender
columns (Jamaluddin et al 2013, Espinos et al 2014, Ren
et al 2014). The behaviour of CFEHS columns in fire
conditions was also examined by Espinos et al. (2014).
A
comprehensive
numerical
analysis
of
concrete-filled CHS, SHS and RHS stub columns was
conducted by Tao et al. (2013). Previous finite element
(FE) modelling of CFEHS tubes was performed for short
columns under axial compression (Dai & Lam 2010),
slender columns under axial compression (Dai et al. 2014)
and columns in fire conditions under axial compression
(Espinos et al. 2010) and eccentric compression (Sheehan
et al. 2012, Espinos et al. 2010).
In the present study, tests on a total of 27 CFEHS
specimens were conducted, including stub columns and
slender columns, with some specimens containing steel

1 INTRODUCTION
In recent years, concrete-filled steel tubular (CFST)
columns have been increasingly used in high-rise
building structures, bringing benefits such as greater
load-bearing capacity for the same footprint, greater
stability of slender cross-sections, greater energy
dissipation and fire resistance and no requirement for
temporary formwork (Bergmann et al 1995, Espinos et al
2011). The developments of self-consolidating concrete
(SCC) and more effective and reliable pouring and
pumping techniques have led to greater use of CFST
members globally in the past two decades, particularly in
China (Yang et al 2008). Research topics concerning
CFST elements include the material behaviour of
composite sections (Mander et al 1988, Lie 1994, Lie &
Irwin 1995), testing of stub columns (Yang & Han 2011,
Han 2002, Han et al 2005, Tao et al 2005) and testing of
slender columns (Mursi & Uy 2004, Zeghiche & Chaoui
2005, Portoles et al 2011). A comprehensive review of
practical applications of CFST columns is provided by
Han et al (2014).
These previous investigations into the structural
behaviour of CFST members have mainly focused on
circular, square and rectangular hollow sections (CHS,
SHS and RHS, respectively). Steel elliptical hollow
sections (EHS) are a recent addition to the range of
structural tubular products (CEN 2006). The elliptical

167

Qiu et al.

Table 1. Measured properties of test specimens

Specimen ID
E1:L3-MA-0
E2:L2-MA-0
E3:L1-MA-0
E4:L3-MA-50
E5:L2-MA-50
E6:L1-MA-50
E7:L3-MA-150
E8:L2-MA-150
E9:L1-MA-150
E10:L3-MI-0
E11:L2-MI-0
E12:L1-MI-0
E13:L3-MI-25
E14:L2-MI-25
E15:L1-MI-25
E16:L3-MI-50
E17:L2-MI-50
E18:L1-MI-50
E19:L3-MA-50R
E20:L2-MA-50R
E21:L1-MA-50R
E22:L3-MI-25R
E23:L2-MI-25R
E24:L1-MI-25R
E25:L0.3
E26:L0.3-hollow
E27:L0.3-R

2a
(mm)
148.21
148.45
148.37
148.50
148.96
148.37
150.75
148.71
148.52
149.19
148.95
148.64
148.28
148.58
148.79
148.76
148.99
148.66
149.45
148.19
148.50
149.41
148.59
149.75
149.33
149.32
149.57

2b
(mm)
75.77
0.00
0.00
75.79
76.04
76.00
75.93
75.86
75.87
76.00
0.00
0.00
75.97
75.92
75.92
76.07
75.68
75.95
75.66
75.66
75.99
75.93
76.06
75.45
75.59
75.48
75.71

t
(mm)
6.30
6.30
6.30
6.30
6.30
6.30
6.30
6.30
6.30
6.30
6.30
6.30
6.30
6.30
6.30
6.30
6.30
6.30
6.30
6.30
6.30
6.30
6.30
6.30
6.52
6.43
6.42

ey
(mm)
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
25.0
25.0
25.0
50.0
50.0
50.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
25.0
25.0
25.0
0.0
0.0
0.0

reinforcement. The members were loaded either

concentrically or eccentrically about either the major or
minor axis. The experimental results are used initially to
validate FE models, after which parametric studies were
carried out based on the validated model. Finally, the
results of the experiments and the numerical parametric
study are compared with the provisions of EN 1994-1-1
(2004) for the prediction of ultimate load carrying
capacity.

g
(mm)
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.8
0.3
0.0
1.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.5
0.3
0.2
0.0
0.3
4.0
0.0
0.0
1.5
0.3
0.0
-

ez
(mm)
0.0
0.0
0.0
50.0
50.0
50.0
150.0
150.0
150.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
50.0
50.0
50.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0

Le
(mm)
3154
2154
1154
3154
2154
1154
3154
2154
1154
3154
2154
1154
3154
2154
1154
3154
2154
1154
3154
2154
1154
3154
2154
1154
300
300
300

fck
(N/mm2)
36.0
32.0
33.0
36.5
38.3
28.7
42.7
33.2
36.2
40.6
35.4
36.0
41.8
37.0
32.2
33.0
33.1
28.7
32.6
38.7
35.9
31.8
35.8
36.1
38.1
38.1

Nexp
(kN)
761.5
886.6
1059.3
348.5
359.8
508.6
176.3
199.2
222.7
349.0
664.3
831.3
222.5
337.9
460.3
167.9
245.8
321.6
370.2
482.3
578.6
225.7
353.3
492.7
1176.9
1001.9
1470.4

specimens, as shown in Figure 1, including major and

minor outer diameters (2a and 2b, respectively), tube wall
thickness t, buckling length Le, load eccentricities to the
major and minor axes (ey and ez respectively) and initial
global imperfection g, are summarised in Table 1.
Concrete cylinders cast from the batches used to fill the
column specimens were tested on the day of the full-scale
beam-column member tests to determine the concrete
compressive strengths fck, which are also given in Table 1.
The reinforced-concrete specimens contained four 10 mm
reinforcing bars at the locations shown in Figure 1. The
slender test members were identified using the format of
specimen number: nominal column length in m

2 EXPERIMENTAL STUDY
A programme of experiments was conducted at the
structures laboratory of the Department of Civil and
Environmental Engineering at Imperial College London.
A total of 27 tests were conducted, which included 24
slender beam-column tests and 3 stub column tests. All
27 test specimens were of the same steel material grade
and cross-section grade S355 150756.3 EHS, and
were manufactured by Corus Tubes. End-plates were
welded to both ends of the test specimens. Since access
for compacting and vibrating equipment within the steel
columns was restricted, a self-compacting concrete (SCC)
mix was employed. The structural properties of SCC have
found to be similar to conventional concrete mixes
(Persson 2001, Zhu & Bartos 2003). Detailed information
about the setup and test results is given by McCann et al.
(2015b). Measurements of key properties of the

Position of eccentric loading

b

T10 reinforcements
z

ey

a
y

ez

Figure 1. Cross-sectional geometry of members in bending

about the major axis (left) and minor axis (right)
168

Qiu et al.

buckling axis nominal load eccentricity in mm. The

letter R at the end of the name indicates that the
specimen contained steel reinforcement. Prior to the
member tests, material tensile tests were performed on
steel coupons cut from the EHS tube and on the steel
reinforcing bars to determine their respective mechanical
properties, which are shown in Table 2.

mid-height. Measurements from the various apparatus

were recorded using DATASCAN data acquisition
equipment and DSLOG data recording software.

3 DEVELOPMENT OF NUMERICAL MODEL

Since experimental studies comprising large
numbers of specimens are costly and time-consuming,
extensive parametric studies using numerical models
validated against a set of experimental data are often
conducted in order to investigate the influence of
various properties more comprehensively. In this section,
a numerical model developed using the finite element
modelling software Abaqus to simulate the structural
behaviour of slender CFEHS columns under eccentric
and concentric compressive loads is described.

Table 2. Measured properties of steel materials

Material property
Modulus of elasticity (N/mm2)
Yield strength (N/mm2)
Ultimate strength (N/mm2)
Ultimate strain (%)
Strain at fracture (%)

EHS tubes
205700
369.1
495.0
18.4
37.0

Reinforcements
198300
561.7
667.7
13.2
18.5

The experimental setups for the slender and stub

column tests are shown in Figures 2 and 3, respectively.
For the slender column tests, pin-ended supports at the
column ends were provided through knife-edges. The
knife-edges allowed rotation of the ends of the column
about a particular principal axis of the cross-section,
while restraining rotation about the other axis. For each
test, four strain gauges were attached at the mid-height of
the specimen to record the longitudinal strain. A draw
wire displacement transducer was also installed at the
mid-height of each specimen to record the lateral
displacement.
The stub columns were loaded between fixed, flat and
parallel end-plates. Four linear variable displacement
transducers (LVDTs) were used to determine the end
shortening of the stub columns between the end-plates of
the testing machine. Four linear electrical resistance
strain gauges were affixed to each specimen at

3.1 Geometry and boundary conditions

Three-dimensional 8-node solid elements (C3D8R)
were used for both the steel tube and the concrete core,
which were modelled as separate components with hard
contact interaction in the normal direction and a penalty
friction model in the tangential direction with a
coefficient of friction equal to 0.3.
Rigid plates were modelled at the ends of the
specimen, which were attached to the steel tube using a
tie constraint and had a hard contact interaction with
the concrete core. The end-plates were allowed to freely
rotate around either the major or minor axis to simulate
the knife-edges. Since the test specimens had
doubly-symmetric cross-sections with symmetric end
conditions, a quarter of the full-scale specimen, as
shown Figure 4, was modelled to duplicate the
behaviour of the tests, with symmetry boundary
Centre line

Centre line
Loading jack
Knife-edge
Fillet weld
Inclinometer

Inclinometer
CFEHS
Le

Draw wire
transducer

Draw wire
transducer
Strain gauge

End plate

Figure 2. Test set-up for columns under (left) eccentric load and (right) concentric load
169

Qiu et al.

Concrete core

LVDT 3
End-plate
LVDT 4

LVDT 1

Steel tube
Buckling axis

LVDT 2

Figure 4. Quarter FE model of concrete-filled EHS

column

The following equation, taken from ACI 318 (2011),

was used to calculate the modulus of elasticity of
concrete Ec:

Figure 3. Setup of stub column tests

conditions defined on the appropriate surfaces.

Comparisons were carried out to ensure that the
structural response from the quarter model was identical
to an equivalent full model.
Based on a mesh sensitivity analysis, the upper limit
of the characteristic element size was set to 20 mm (Chan
and Gardner 2008). Furthermore, the aspect ratio of
elements was never greater than 3, and the steel tube was
divided into two layers, each 3.15 mm thick.

Ec 4700 fck

Test results of triaxial concrete strength (fb0) are still

very scarce. Based on test data collected from previous
research, Papanikolaou and Kappos (2007) proposed the
following expression to predict the ratio fb0/fck.
f b0
1.5( f ck )0.075
f ck

3.2 Material models

3.3 Validation and the FE model

The accuracy of the FE models was assessed through
comparison with the experimental results. Measured
initial imperfection amplitudes were used in the models
except in cases where measurements were not made or
were equal to zero; in such cases, an initial imperfection
Le/1000 was used instead. Measured values of material
properties and member geometry were applied in the
models.
A typical comparison between the experimental and
numerical deformed shapes, made for column E6, is
shown in Figure 5. It can be seen that both the
experimental and the numerical failure modes are in good
agreement and may be seen to be dominated by global
instability.
Comparisons of ultimate load between the
experimental results (Nu,exp) and FE models (Nu,FEA) are
given in Table 4. It can be seen that there is good
agreement between the numerical and the test results,
with the numerical results being, on average, marginally
on the safe side.

Table 3. Concrete damaged plasticity model parameters

15

ef
0.1

(2)

A stress-strain model for the compressive behaviour

of confined concrete in hollow sections was introduced
by Han et al. (2007), based on which a more specific
model for slender CFEHS was proposed by Dai et al.
(2014). In this study, both confinement models were
considered and a material sensitivity study was
conducted. The model developed by Dai et al. (2014)
was utilised in this study as more accurate simulation
results were achieved.

The stressstrain behaviour of the steel tube and

steel reinforcement were defined using the measured
data from the tensile coupon tests, and input into Abaqus
as a multi-linear function.
For a CFST column under axial compression, the
concrete core expands laterally but is confined by the
steel tube. This confinement is passive in nature, and can
increase the strength and ductility of concrete. This
mechanism is well understood and is a form of
composite action between the steel tube and concrete
(Han et al. 2007), where the confined concrete is in a
triaxial stress state and the steel is in a biaxial stress state
after interaction between the two components occurs.
A concrete damaged plasticity model was adopted in
the present study to represent the material response of the
concrete. The key model parameters, namely the ratio of
the second stress invariant on the tensile meridian to that
on the compressive meridian (Kc), the dilation angle (),
the flow potential eccentricity (ef), the ratio of the
compressive strength under triaxial loading to uniaxial
compressive strength (fb0/fc) and the viscosity parameter
(), are given in Table 3. The values adopted for the
parameters in the present study are based on Han et al.
(2007) and Tao et al. (2013).

Kc
0.667

(1)

fb0/fck
1.16

170

Qiu et al.
Table 4. Comparison of ultimate loads from experiments and FE
models
Specimen ID
E1:L3-MA-0
E2:L2-MA-0
E3:L1-MA-0
E4:L3-MA-50
E5:L2-MA-50
E6:L1-MA-50
E7:L3-MA-150
E8:L2-MA-150
E9:L1-MA-150
E10:L3-MI-0
E11:L2-MI-0
E12:L1-MI-0
E13:L3-MI-25
E14:L2-MI-25
E15:L1-MI-25
E16:L3-MI-50
E17:L2-MI-50
E18:L1-MI-50
E19:L3-MA-50R
E20:L2-MA-50R
E21:L1-MA-50R
E22:L3-MI-25R
E23:L2-MI-25R
E24:L1-MI-25R
Average
COV

Nu,exp

Nu,FEA

(kN)

(kN)

761.5
886.6
1059.3
348.5
359.8
508.6
176.3
199.2
222.7
349.0
664.3
831.3
222.5
337.9
460.3
167.9
245.8
321.6
370.2
482.3
578.6
225.7
353.3
492.7

797.7
897.9
971.5
323.0
399.1
466.4
164.6
183.7
211.7
353.2
678.1
918.3
207.7
303.2
428.5
160.4
215.9
294.0
361.5
448.8
554.8
225.2
332.3
478.0

were the cross-sectional geometry, material strengths,

reinforcement ratio , cover to reinforcement us, load
eccentricity ey or ez, buckling axis and nondimensional
slenderness which is defined as:

u,exp
u,FEA
0.96
0.99
1.09
1.08
1.06
1.09
1.07
1.09
1.05
0.99
0.98
0.91
1.07
1.12
1.07
1.05
1.14
1.09
1.02
1.08
1.04
1.00
1.06
1.03
1.05
0.05

N pl,Rd
N cr

(3)

The ranges of values assumed by the parameters are

given in Table 5.
Table 5. Parameter ranges of parametric study
2a 2b (mm)
t (mm)

220 110
480 240
6.3; 12.5*
12.5; 14.2
0.2 ; 0.5 ; 0.8 ; 1 ;
0.2; 0.5; 0.8; 1.1

1.2
us (mm)
30
55 ; 65
(%)
0; 2.5; 5
ey/2b or ez/2a
0; 0.25; 0.50
Rotation axis
Major; Minor
fy (N/mm2)
355
fc (N/mm2)
30
fs (N/mm2)
500
Boundary conditions pinned-pinned
*22011012.5 specimens were not modelled with
reinforcement since EN 1992-1-1 requirements regarding
minimum bar spacings cannot be met

The parametric study comprised a total of 240

simulations. The material models used for the parametric
study were similar to those used in the validation study,
but used the nominal material strengths given in Table 5
instead of the measured values. Owing to the absence of
imperfection values, an imperfection of Le/1000 of the
first global buckling mode shape was assumed and
applied in the parametric study models. A comparison of
the numerical ultimate load results with the provisions of
EN 1994-1-1 is presented in Section 4.

The loaddeflection behaviour of the tested

specimens was also accurately replicated by the
numerical models. More detailed reporting of the
experimental and numerical loaddeflection behaviour is
given by McCann et al. (2015a, b).

3.4 Parametric study

After validating the numerical model satisfactorily, a
parametric study was conducted. The parameters
influencing the behaviour of slender CFST columns and
beam-columns that were varied in the parametric study

4 DESIGN TO EUROCODE 4
In this section, the numerical ultimate loads from the
parametric study are compared to values determined
according to the provisions of EN 1994-1-1 (2004) for
members under axial compression and combined
compression and uniaxial bending. Since there are no
specific provisions for elliptical sections, comparison was
made using the provisions for circular and rectangular
sections. It was found by McCann et al. (2015a, b) and
Espinos et al. (2014) that the predictions from these
provisions agreed well with the experimental results.

4.1 Resistance of members in axial compression

For columns in axial compression, it is stated in EN
1994-1-1 (2004) that the nondimensional slenderness of
the composite section is to be used to calculate the
buckling reduction factor from the buckling curves
provided in EN 1993-1-1 (2005). This reduction factor is

Figure 5. Numerical (left) and experimental (right)

deformed shapes for specimen E6

171

Qiu et al.

multiplied by the plastic compressive resistance Npl,Rd of

the cross-section to provide the predicted design resistance
Nu,EC4 of the column. The plastic compressive resistance
Npl,Rd of a concrete-filled hollow section is given in EN
1994-1-1 (2004) as:
(4)
Npl,Rd Aa f y Ac fc As fs

1.2
EN 1993-1-1 curve a
EN 1993-1-1 curve b
1.0

FEA with 3% < 6%

0.8

2 ( EI )eff

Nu / Npl,Rd

where Aa, Ac and As are the cross-sectional areas of the

steel tube, concrete core and steel reinforcement,
respectively, and fy, fc and fs are the strengths of the steel
tube, concrete and steel reinforcement respectively. The
elastic critical buckling load Ncr for a composite member
is:
N cr

L2

0.2

0.0
0.0

but 1.0
2

0.5[1 ( 0.2) ]

0.5

1.0

1.5

2.0

2.5

Slenderness
Figure 6. Normalised ultimate load of concentric loading
members from FE parametric study and experiments

4.2 Resistance of members in combined compression

and uniaxial bending

where is the reduction factor given in EN 1993-1-1 (2005)

in terms of the nondimensional slenderness as:
2

0.6

0.4

in which Ea, Ec and Es are the modulus of elasticity of the

steel tube, concrete and steel reinforcement respectively,
and Ia, Ic and Is are the second moments of area of the steel
section, concrete section and the reinforcement about the
buckling axis in question.
When calculating the design resistance of a composite
member in compression to EN 1994-1-1 (2004), the
member imperfection and buckling effects should be taken
into consideration if 0.2, and the ultimate load Nu,EC4
is given by:
Nu,EC4 Npl,Rd
(7)

Experiments with 3%

(5)

where the effective flexural stiffness of the composite

cross-section (EI)eff is given in EN 1994-1-1 (2004) as:
(6)
( EI )eff Ea I a 0.6Ec I c Es I s

FEA with 3%

(8)

For the design of eccentrically-loaded columns, the

additional effects of uniaxial bending must be considered
along with the compressive load. The first-order moment
MEd arising from the loading eccentricity ey or ez and the
initial global imperfection g is:
M Ed NEd (e g )
(10)
where g is taken as L/300 for members with a
reinforcement ratio 3% and L/200 for 3% < 6%
according to the provisions for CHS and RHS in EN
1994-1-1 (2004). Second-order effects arising from the
lateral deflection of the column are accounted for by
amplifying MEd by a factor k which is defined as:

(9)

where is the imperfection factor given in EN 1993-1-1

(2005). For the ultimate load of the composite members
with 0.2, global buckling effect may be ignored and
may be taken as 1.0.
The ultimate loads from the concentrically-loaded
column tests and FE models have been normalised by
Npl,Rd and plotted against nondimensional slenderness
in Figure 6. It can be seen that the full plastic
cross-section capacity is achieved at low slendernesses,
but that the member capacity diminishes with increasing
nondimensional slenderness. For comparison, flexural
buckling curves a and b of EN 1993-1-1 (2005) are
plotted. According to EN 1994-1-1 (2004), curve a and b
are adopted by specimens of S355 steel grades with
reinforcements ratio ranges of 3% and 3% < 6%
respectively.

1 N Ed / Ncr,eff

(11)

where is an equivalent moment factor set to 1.1 for equal

and opposite end moment loading. The elastic critical
buckling load Ncr,eff is calculated similarly to Ncr in
Equation 5 except substituting (EI)eff with (EI)eff,II where:
( EI )eff,II 0.9( Ea Ia 0.5Ec Ic Es Is )
(12)
Thus, the curve relating the axial load NEd to the
second-order moment MEd is defined. The resistance of the
composite column is then defined using cross-section
momentaxial load interaction curves. In the present study,
the curves were derived using numerical integration to
determine the level of bending moment Mpl,N,Rd that could
be sustained for a given axial load, assuming a fully plastic
distribution of stresses and that the concrete did not act in
172

Qiu et al.

3000

10000

Mpl,Rd
Mpl,Rd

2500

0.9
Mpl,Rd
0.9M
pl,Rd

2000

Loading resistance
curve

1500

6000
Nu,FEA (kN)

Load (kN)

8000

1000
NEd
500
0
0

50

100
Moment (kNm)

150

4000

Parametric
study
-10%

2000

Parity

200

+10%
0

Figure 7. Moment-Load interaction curve

tension. According to EN 1994-1-1 (2004), for grades

S275 and S355 steel, the following inequality must be
satisfied:
M Ed
0.9
M pl,N,Rd

4000
6000
Nu,EC4 (kN)

8000

10000

Figure 8. Comparison of ultimate loads from numerical

analysis and provisions of EN 1994-1-1 (2004)

(13)

Based on the findings presented herein, the following

conclusions can be drawn:
1. The FE model developed in Abaqus can be used to
predict the behaviour of CFEHS columns under
concentric and eccentric compressive loading.
2. Global instability dominates the failure of slender
CFEHS columns, as observed in the experiments
and the extensive parametric study.
3. The current provisions of EN 1994-1-1 (2004) for
the design of concrete-filled CHS and RHS
columns are suitable for the design of CFEHS
columns in both concentric and eccentric
compression.

where Mpl,N,Rd is the plastic moment resistance of the

composite column accounting for the presence of the axial
load. The predicted design resistance Nu,EC4 for the
eccentrically-loaded columns is given by the intersection
of the loading and resistance curves, i.e., by determining
the value of NEd for which MEd = 0.9 Mpl,N,Rd, as shown in
Figure 7.

4.3 Comparison of ultimate loads from parametric

study and Eurocode predictions
The ratios of ultimate loads from the tests and
numerical parametric study to those calculated based on
EN 1994-1-1 (2004) are plotted in Figure 8. It can be
seen in Figure 8 that most of the results (Nu,test or Nu,FEA)
are within 10% of their corresponding predicted design
resistances. In the case of a few major axis bending
specimens and reinforced minor axis bending specimens,
the numerical ultimate loads are more than 10% higher
than the design predictions, but no result is more than 6%
on the unsafe side.

2000

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors would like to express their sincere
gratitude to the European Union for the help provided
through Project RFSR-CT-2012-00025, carried out with a
financial grant from the Research Programme of the
Research Fund for Coal and Steel.
The authors would also like to thank Maria Fligkou
for her considerable input into the research, as well as the
technical staff of the Structures Laboratory at the
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering at
Imperial College London, in particular Stefan Algar,
Gordon Herbert and Leslie Clark, for their expertise,
guidance and assistance in conducting this research.

CONCLUSIONS

A numerical model was developed using the finite

element software Abaqus to investigate the behaviour of
CFEHS columns under concentric and eccentric loading.
A total of 27 experiments were conducted, against which
the FE model was validated by comparing the ultimate
loads, loadaxial displacement curves and failure modes.
After satisfactory agreement was achieved, an extensive
parametric study comprising 240 specimens was
conducted, in which the cross-sectional geometry, column
slenderness, steel reinforcement ratio, load eccentricity
and axis of buckling were varied.

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11th International Conference on

Advances in Steel and Concrete Composite Structures
Tsinghua University, Beijing, China, December 3-5, 2015

NUMERICAL MODELLING OF CONCRETE-FILLED

UNDER COMPRESSION AND BIAXIAL BENDING

EHS

T. Sheehana, T. M. Chanb, X. H. Daia & D. Lama

a

School of Engineering, University of Bradford, United Kingdom

E-mails: t.sheehan@bradford.ac.uk, x.dai@bradford.ac.uk, d.lam1@bradford.ac.uk
b

Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hong Kong
E-mail: tak-ming.chan@polyu.edu.hk
ABSTRACT
Keywords:
Biaxial bending; Composite
structures; Concrete-filled tubes;
Elliptical hollow sections; Finite
element modelling; Interaction
curves. (Max. 6 words)

This paper presents a numerical study on the response of concrete-filled elliptical hollow
section stub columns under combined compression and biaxial bending. Previous research on
concrete-filled tubular columns has demonstrated the influence of the outer tube shape on the
degree of confinement provided to the concrete core. Most research to date has focused on
circular and rectangular concrete-filled tubes, leading to the development of interaction curves
for these shapes under combined compression and uniaxial bending. Limited guidance is
provided for the increasingly popular elliptical hollow section shape, or for concrete-filled tubes
under compression and biaxial bending, a common loading combination for columns. Recent
research on concrete-filled elliptical hollow sections under combined compression and uniaxial
bending has shown the distinct response between major and minor axis bending for this section
shape. Based on these findings, a numerical model was developed in this study using the finite
element software package ABAQUS to explore the effect of biaxial bending. Compressive
loading was applied eccentrically and different material models were proposed depending on
the magnitude and direction of the loading eccentricity. The sensitivity of the results to the
choice of material model was taken into consideration. Results were compared with design
recommendations provided in Eurocode 4, highlighting the need for further research in the area.

response was observed between major and minor axis

bending for concrete-filled EHS with a cross-section
aspect ratio of 2:1. A finite element model was also
developed for concrete-filled EHS by Sheehan et al.
(2012), following from previous numerical modelling for
concrete-filled EHS by Dai and Lam (2010) and on
concrete-filled steel tubes by Han et al. (2007). A good
agreement with experimental results and analytical
predictions was obtained in this study. Further
experimental work has been conducted since then by Ren
et al. (2014) and McCann et al. (2015) for concrete-filled
EHS members subjected to uniaxial bending and
compression.
Less guidance is currently available for concrete-filled
tubes under combined compression and biaxial bending.
EN1994-1-1 (2004) states that composite columns under
biaxial
bending should
simultaneously satisfy
requirements for bending about the major or minor axis,
while imposing an additional condition that the sum of the
bending moments for each axis normalized with respect to
the plastic bending resistances must be less than or equal
to 1.0. Liang (2008) developed a fiber element model for
rectangular sections under compression and biaxial
bending, but to date, no study has been carried out for

1 GENERAL INTRODUCTION
Elliptical hollow section columns (EHS) have become
popular in recent years owing to their visual appeal. The
structural response of these sections lies between that of a
rectangular section and a circular section, combining the
effect of a curved cross-section perimeter with the
presence of both major and minor bending axes. Previous
research by Chan and Gardner (2008a,b) has demonstrated
the response of elliptical hollow sections under
compression and bending respectively. Work has also
been conducted by Gardner et al. (2011) on EHS crosssections under a combination of compression and uniaxial
bending, leading to the development of a finite element
model.
Several researchers have demonstrated the
enhancement provided by the use of concrete infill in
tubular sections, which mitigates or delays the occurrence
of local buckling in the steel tube. Concrete-filled EHS
have been studied by Dai and Lam (2010) under
compression. More recent research by Sheehan et al.
(2012) examined concrete-filled short EHS columns under
combined compression and uniaxial bending. A distinct

175

Sheehan et al.

displacing in any direction but was free to rotate.

Similarly, the top surfaces of the components were
constrained to a second reference point which
corresponded to the point of loading application. The
upper point was allowed to move in the direction parallel
to the columns longitudinal axis but prevented from
moving in other directions.

concrete-filled elliptical hollow sections under this type of

loading combination. Hence, the principle objective of
this research project is to extend the previous knowledge
to study concrete-filled EHS under combined compression
and biaxial bending using the finite element software
package, ABAQUS.

2 FINITE ELEMENT MODELLING

2.1 Geometry and mesh

2.3 Material behavior

Full 3D finite element models were developed in

ABAQUS, in which the elliptical hollow section tube and
concrete core were modelled as separate components.
The modelling was conducted in two phases: an initial
verification process, using the test data for concrete-filled
elliptical hollow section tubes under compression and
uniaxial bending (Sheehan et al., 2012), followed by a
study of specimens under combined compression and
biaxial bending. Details of the specimens used in the
verification are provided in Table 1. All of the specimens
were 150 mm 75 mm concrete-filled elliptical hollow
sections with wall thicknesses of either 5 mm or 6.3 mm
and a height of 300 mm. which was long enough to allow
local buckling to occur without the influence of end
restraints, but short enough to mitigate the occurrence of
global flexural buckling.
The interaction between steel and concrete
components was defined tangentially using a Coulomb
friction model with a coefficient of friction equal to 0.25
and in the normal direction using hard contact, which
prevented the two surfaces from penetrating each other.
4 noded, S4R shell elements were used for the steel tube
and 8-noded C3D8R solid elements were used for the
concrete, with a mesh size of 10 mm for both components.
Refinement of the mesh did not affect the results,
demonstrating that 10 mm was a suitable size.

Sheehan et al. (2012) concluded that for models under

small loading eccentricities where the cross-section was
predominantly under compression, the confined concrete
model proposed by Dai and Lam (2010) was suitable to
capture the response. For specimens under larger loading
eccentricities, the confinement model by Han et al. (2007)
was found to be more reliable. For specimens with an
intermediate loading eccentricity, a combined model was
utilized in which the stress-strain relationship was
obtained by linear interpolation between the values from
the other two models. Limits were proposed in relation
to the loading eccentricity to govern the most suitable
concrete confinement model, with a distinction between
major axis and minor axis eccentricities. These limits are
presented in Table 2 where e was the loading eccentricity
divided by the EHS diameter in the direction of bending.
Table 2. Eccentricity ranges proposed by Sheehan et al. (2012)
for different concrete confinement models
Axis of
bending
major
major
major
minor
minor
minor

Eccentricity range

Concrete model

e< 0.50
0.50 < e 0.83
e 0.83
e< 0.67
0.67 < e1.33
e1.33

Dai and Lam (2010)

Combined
Han et al. (2007)
Dai and Lam (2010)
Combined
Han et al. (2007)

Table 1. Test specimens used in FE model verification.

Specimen ID
MA100-6.3
MA25-6.3
MI75-6.3
MI25-6.3
MA100-5
MA25-5
MI75-5
MI25-5

Tube
thickness
6.3 mm
6.3 mm
6.3 mm
6.3 mm
5 mm
5 mm
5 mm
5 mm

Axis of
eccentricity
major
major
major
major
minor
minor
minor
minor

eccentricity

2.4 Verification

100
25
75
25
100
25
75
25

Comparisons between the experimental and numerical

responses are presented in Figures 1-3 and Table 3 for the
verification process.

2.2 Boundary conditions and loading

Using a CONSTRAINT in ABAQUS, the bottom
surfaces of the steel tube and concrete core were tied to a
reference point located at the desired eccentricity in the
major or minor axis direction, from the centroid of the
section.
The reference point was prevented from
176

Sheehan et al.

increased further, beyond the scope of the test specimens

under consideration. Overall the finite element modeling
approach was deemed to be satisfactory for concrete-filled
elliptical hollow sections under uniaxially eccentric
compression.

Figure 1. Axial load vs displacement relationship for MA25-t5.

Table 3. Comparison between maximum load observed in

experiments and finite element analyses using different concrete
models.
Specimen
Nmax/NFE
Dai and
Han et al.
combined
Lam (2010)
(2007)
MA100-t5
1.03
0.95
0.97
MA25-t5
0.99
0.90
0.92
MI75-t5
0.97
0.94
0.94
MI25-t5
0.94
0.90
0.90
MA100-t6.3
1.06
0.98
1.01
MA25-t6.3
1.02
0.93
0.96
MI75-t6.3
1.03
1.01
1.02
MI25-t6.3
1.01
0.97
0.98

Figure 2. Axial load vs displacement relationship for MI25-t6.3.

2.5 Modelling of EHS under compression and biaxial

bending
Twenty-eight specimens were analysed under
combined compression and biaxial bending, as presented
in Table 4. All specimens had the same cross-section
dimensions and length as the 5 mm thick tube used in the
verification process. Thus the same mesh size, material
properties and boundary conditions were also employed.
A wide range of combinations of major and minor axis
loading eccentricities were considered and the magnitudes
of these are indicated in the naming convention, eg.
specimen MA50-MI45 is loaded at an eccentricity of 50
mm about the major axis and 45 mm about the minor axis.
Loading eccentricities were deliberately chosen to lie close
to the boundaries presented in Table 2. Table 4 also
presents the material model recommended by Sheehan et
al. (2012) if loading was about the major or minor axis
alone. Clearly, new rules would be required for biaxial
bending, but these cannot be confirmed without future
experimental work. For this study, the combined model
was used for all specimens initially, since it was the best
overall fit. Models by Dai and Lam (2010) and Han et al.
(2007) were then explored to assess the sensitivity of the
results to different concrete material models.
The FE models in Table 4 are arranged in 4 groups.
Initially, the minor axis eccentricity was fixed at 45 mm
while the major axis eccentricity was varied from 0 mm to
130 mm. In the second phase, the minor axis eccentricity
was increased to 95 mm while the major axis eccentricity
varied. The third and fourth phases involved fixing the
major axis eccentricity at 70 mm and 120 mm respectively,
while varying the minor axis eccentricity.

Figure 3. Axial load vs displacement relationship for MA100t6.3.

In Figure 1, it is apparent that the Han et al. (2007)

model underestimates the axial load in the specimen,
whereas the Dai and Lam (2010) and combined models
show a closer correlation to the curve obtained in the
experiments. The load-displacement relationships
presented in Figures 2 and 3 for MI25-t6.3 and MA100t6.3 are less sensitive to changes in the concrete properties.
However, the Dai and Lam (2010) model overestimates the
axial load in the case of MA100-t6.3. The ratio between
the maximum axial load measured during the experiments,
Nmax, and the maximum load in the finite element analyses,
NFE is compared for each specimen using the different
proposed concrete material models in Table 3. All results
lie within 10% of the experimental results.
For
eccentricities of 25 mm, the best results were obtained by
using the Dai and Lam (2010) model whereas for larger
eccentricities,, the closest average correlation was
obtained using the combined model. The Han et al.
(2007) model showed a significantly better correlation to
specimens loaded at large eccentricities than to those at
small eccentricities, suggesting that this model would be
suitable in cases where the loading eccentricity was

177

Sheehan et al.
Table 4. FE Specimens and their loading positions.
Specimen ID
Concrete model
Concrete model
for major axis
for minor axis
bending (Sheehan bending (Sheehan
et al.m 2012)
et al.m 2012)
MA0-MI45
Dai and Lam
Dai and Lam
MA25-MI45
Dai and Lam
Dai and Lam
MA50-MI45
Dai and Lam
Dai and Lam
MA70-MI45
Dai and Lam
Dai and Lam
MA80-MI45
combined
Dai and Lam
MA100-MI45
combined
Dai and Lam
MA120-MI45
combined
Dai and Lam
MA130-MI45
Han et al.
Dai and Lam
MA0-MI95
Dai and Lam
combined
MA25-MI95
Dai and Lam
combined
MA50-MI95
Dai and Lam
combined
MA70-MI95
Dai and Lam
combined
MA80-MI95
combined
combined
MA100-MI95
combined
combined
MA120-MI95
combined
combined
MA130-MI95
Han et al.
combined
MA70-MI0
Dai and Lam
Dai and Lam
MA70-MI15
Dai and Lam
Dai and Lam
MA70-MI30
Dai and Lam
Dai and Lam
MA70-MI55
Dai and Lam
combined
MA70-MI75
Dai and Lam
combined
MA70-MI105
Dai and Lam
Han et al.
MA120-MI0
combined
Dai and Lam
MA120-MI15
combined
Dai and Lam
MA120-MI30
combined
Dai and Lam
MA120-MI55
combined
combined
MA120-MI75
combined
combined
MA120-MI105
combined
Han et al.

concrete that is confined by an outer tube.

Figure 4. Loading eccentricities of FE specimens.

3.2 Guidelines for biaxial bending

For composite columns under biaxial bending EN
1994-1-1 (2004) stipulates that the member must satisfy
the requirements for combined compression and bending
about each axis. In addition to this members must satisfy
the expression:

The position of each specimen is presented in Figure 4

in relation to loading eccentricity. One quarter of the
elliptical cross-section is also included in addition to the
eccentricity boundaries specified in Table 2 for each
bending axis.

M y , Ed
dy M pl, y , Rd

M z , Ed
dz M pl, z , Rd

1.0

(1)

where the factors dy and dz are used to take account of

global imperfections for full members .
Since the
specimens in this study are stub columns, these factors will
not be taken into account.

3 DESIGN INTERACTION CURVES

3.1 Previous work for concrete-filled uniaxial EHS
EN 1994-1-1 (2004) recommends the use of a
compression-bending interaction curve based on the
plastic resistance of the cross-section to design concretefilled tubular sections for combined compression and
uniaxial bending.
Sheehan et al. (2012) developed
separate curves for major and minor axis bending of a
concrete-filled EHS section, by varying the position of the
neutral axis through the cross-section depth, and
computing the corresponding axial force and bending
moment.
A plastic stress-distribution was assumed for each
material, the contribution of the concrete in tension was
ignored and a factor of 1.0 was applied to the concrete
stress block (instead of 0.85), as recommended for

4 RESULT AND DISCUSSION

4.1 Load-displacement relationships
The initial results presented in this section are using the
combined concrete model as discussed in Section 2.
Figures 5-8 present the relationship between load and
vertical displacement. As expected, the maximum load
decreased with increasing major and minor axis
eccentricities. Less variation in load is observed in
Figure 6 than in Figure 5, showing that varying the major
axis eccentricity has less of an effect on the response when

178

Sheehan et al.

the EHS is already loaded at a larger minor axis

eccentricity. Figures 7 and 8 suggest that the same trend
also occurs for EHS loaded at larger major axis
eccentricities and a varying minor axis eccentricity.
Varying the minor axis eccentricity also appears to have a
greater impact on the load-displacement behavior overall
than varying the major axis eccentricity, and this can also
be seen in Figures 7 and 8.

Figure 7. Load-displacement relationships for EHS with major

axis eccentricity of 70 mm.

Figure 5. Load-displacement relationships for EHS with minor

axis eccentricity of 45 mm.

Figure 8. Load-displacement relationships for EHS with major

axis eccentricity of 120 mm.

The relationship between major axis eccentricity, ema

and maximum load is presented in Figure 9 for fixed minor
axis eccentricities emi of 45 mm and 95 mm. Similarly,
the relationship between maximum load and emi is shown
in Figure 10 for major axis eccentricities of 70 mm and 120
mm. Figures 7 and 9 show that under low values of ema,
there is a large difference between the maximum load of
specimens with emi values of 45 mm and 95 mm (by a
factor of almost 2). As ema increases, so does the rate of
degradation of maximum load, in particular for the
specimens with the lower minor axis eccentricity. The
influence of emi on response becomes less significant for
large major axis eccentricities.
Similar trends are
observed in Figures 5 and 10 for the relationship between
load and minor axis eccentricity and the effect of major
axis eccentricity on this relationship.

Figure 6. Load-displacement relationships for EHS with minor

axis eccentricity of 95 mm.

179

Sheehan et al.

Figure 9. Relationship between load and major axis eccentricity,

ema.

Figure 11. Interaction curve for axial compression and major axis
bending.

Figure 10. Relationship between load and minor axis eccentricity,

emi.

Figure 12. Interaction curve for axial compression and major axis
bending.

4.2 Comparison with current guidelines

A regression analysis was carried out on the combined
axial loads, major axis and minor axis bending moments
resisted by the finite element models, leading to the
proposal of the following expression for the resistance of
a concrete-filled elliptical hollow section column under
combined compression and biaxial bending with a
coefficient of variation of 0.023.

Figure 11 presents the interaction curve derived for

concrete-filled EHS under combined compression and
major axis bending by Sheehan et al. (2012). Data points
are plotted on this curve representing the maximum axial
load and corresponding bending moment for each FE
specimen, normalized with respect to the plastic capacity
of the section. Almost all of the analysed EHS lie within
the interaction curve. Figure 12 presents the equivalent
data for minor axis bending.

2.6 N Ed / N pl, Rd

+ 0.8 M y , Ed / M pl, y , Rd

+ 1.0 M z , Ed / M pl, z , Rd

(2)

1.0

where NEd, My,Ed and Mz,Ed are the design axial load, major
axis and minor axis moments, and Npl,Rd, Mpl,y,Rd and Mpl,z,Rd
are the corresponding cross-section resistances Table 5
presents the values obtained for each model in relation to
Equation (2)

180

Sheehan et al.
Table 5. FE Specimens combined loads.
Specimen ID
Combined loads using
Equation (2)
MA0-MI45
0.99
MA25-MI45
0.99
MA50-MI45
0.98
MA70-MI45
0.98
MA80-MI45
0.98
MA100-MI45
0.98
MA120-MI45
0.97
MA130-MI45
0.97
MA0-MI95
1.03
MA25-MI95
1.02
MA50-MI95
1.02
MA70-MI95
1.02
MA80-MI95
1.01
MA100-MI95
1.01
MA120-MI95
1.01
MA130-MI95
1.00
MA70-MI0
1.04
MA70-MI15
1.02
MA70-MI30
0.99
MA70-MI55
0.98
MA70-MI75
1.00
MA70-MI105
1.02
MA120-MI0
1.05
MA120-MI15
1.01
MA120-MI30
0.97
MA120-MI55
0.98
MA120-MI75
0.99
MA120-MI105
1.02

Figure 13. Influence of concrete constitutive model on loaddisplacement response of specimen MA25-MI45.

Table 6 compares the maximum axial load NFE

obtained in each model for seven of the specimens with
lower loading eccentricities. The Dai and Lam (2010)
model results in higher loads in all cases, by 5 to 10 kN
(approximately 3%).
Table 6. Maximum axial loads resulting from combined and Dai
and Lam (2010) concrete models.
Specimen
NFE (kN)
NFE (kN)
combined model Dai and Lam
(2010) model
MA0-MI45
314
324
MA25-MI45
306
316
MA50-MI45
283
293
MA70-MI45
260
270
MA80-MI45
248
258
MA0-MI95
176
181
MA25-MI95
174
179

Although no obvious trend can be identified in relation

to major or minor axis eccentricity, a good overall
correlation is seen with combined load ranging from 0.97
to 1.05. This expression only relates to the cross-section
response. Future work will be needed to generate design
equations for the member, taking into account the dy and
dz factors used in Equation (1).

Figure 14 compares the load-displacement

relationships for specimen MA100-MI45 using the
combined concrete model and the Han et al. (2007)
model. The concrete model has a more noticeable
influence on the shape of the curve in this case, with the
Han et al. (2007) model producing a greater degree of load
degradation than the combined model. There is little
difference in the NFE, as shown in Table 7 (approximately
0.5-1.0%). Since the concrete constitutive model has
little influence on the magnitude of NFE, it can be
concluded that the resulting recommendations would not
be significantly altered if a different model were to be
used. It is worth noting that the choice of concrete model
did influence the failure mode of the EHS.
Most
specimens using the combined and Dai and Lam (2010)
concrete models underwent local buckling close to the top
and bottom, as shown in Figure 15(a).
However
specimens with larger loading eccentricities that used the
Han et al. (2007) model buckled at the mid-height (Fig.
15(b)). This accounts for the more rapid load degradation
that resulted from using this model

4.3 Influence of concrete material model

Specimens with low major and minor axis loading
eccentricities were re-analysed using the concrete material
model from Dai and Lam (2010) in order to compare the
response with that from the combined material model.
Figure 13 shows the load-displacement relationship for
specimen MA25-MI45. The shapes of the two curves are
similar at all stages, but the Dai and Lam (2010) model
results in slightly higher axial forces.

181

Sheehan et al.

would be used in design recommendations.

The
specimens selected for this study were loaded under large
eccentricities and reached relatively low axial loads prior
to failure. Further numerical studies are required to
consider lower loading eccentricities to cover the full
range of compression and bending moment combinations
that the EHS may experience.
An expression was
proposed for the combined axial load, major axis and
minor axis bending moment resistance, which showed a
close agreement to the finite element analysis results
(within 5% across all loading eccentricities). Future work
will be needed to develop similar guidelines for concretefilled elliptical hollow section members under combined
compression and biaxial bending.

Figure 14. Influence of concrete constitutive model on loaddisplacement response of specimen MA100-MI45.

REFERENCES

Table 7. Maximum axial loads resulting from combined and

Han et al. (2007) concrete models.
Specimen
NFE (kN)
NFE (kN)
combined model Han et al. (2007)
model
MA80-MI45
248
247
MA100-MI45
225
224
MA120-MI45
204
202
MA130-MI45
195
193
MA0-MI95
176
176
MA25-MI95
174
175
MA50-MI95
169
170
MA70-MI95
164
164
MA80-MI95
161
161

(a)

Chan, T. M. & Gardner, L. 2008a. Compressive resistance of hotrolled elliptical hollow sections. Journal of Constructional
Steel Research 30(2): 522-532.
Chan, T. M. & Gardner, L. 2008b. Bending strength of hot-rolled
elliptical hollow sections. Journal of Constructional Steel
Research 64(9): 971-986.
Dai, X. & Lam, D. 2010. Numerical modelling of the axial
compressive behaviour of short concrete-filled elliptical steel
columns. Journal of Constructional Steel Research 66(7):
931-942.
EN 1994-1-1. 2004. Design of composite steel and concrete
structures. Part 1-1: general rules and rules for buildings.
European Standard, CEN.
Gardner, L., Chan, T. M. & Abela, J. M. 2011. Structural
behaviour of elliptical hollow sections under combined
compression and uniaxial bending. Advanced Steel
Construction 7(1): 86-113.
Han, L. H., Yao, G. H. & Tao, Z. 2007. Performance of concretefilled thin-walled steel tubes under pure torsion. Thin-Walled
Structures 45(1): 24-36.
Liang, Q. Q. 2008. Nonlinear analysis of short concrete-filled
steel tubular beam-columns under axial load and biaxial
loading. Journal of Constructional Steel Research 64(3):
295-304.
McCann, F., Gardner, L. & Qiu, W. 2015. Experimental study of
slender concrete-filled elliptical hollow section beamcolumns. Journal of Constructional Steel Research 113: 185194.
Ren, Q. X., Han, L. H., Lam, D. & Li, W. 2014. Tests on elliptical
concrete filled steel tubular (CFST) beams and columns.
Journal of Constructional Steel Research 99: 149-160.
Sheehan, T., Dai, X. H., Chan, T. M. & Lam, D. 2012. Structural
response of concrete-filled elliptical steel hollow sections
under eccentric compression. Engineering Structures 45:
314-323.

(b)

Figure 15. Deformed shapes of EHS.

5 CONCLUSIONS
This study has explored the response of concrete-filled
elliptical hollow sections under combined compression
and biaxial bending. Although an experimental study
would be required to verify the finite element modeling
technique for this loading combination, it has been
demonstrated that the choice of concrete constitutive
model has a limited influence on the maximum load which

182

11th International Conference on

Advances in Steel and Concrete Composite Structures
Tsinghua University, Beijing, China, December 3-5, 2015

SECOND ORDER PLASTIC HINGE ANALYSIS FOR SEISMIC

AND STATIC DESIGN OF BUILDING STRUCTURES
Y.P. Liu, S.L. Chan and Z.L. Du
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering,
The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hong Kong, China
Emails : yp.liu@polyu.edu.hk, ceslchan@polyu.edu.hk, zuolei.du@gmail.com
ABSTRACT
Keywords:
Second-order direct analysis,
plastic hinge, time history
analysis, performance-based
seismic design.

Strong earthquakes including the recent one on 11th March 2011 in Sendai, Japan and in
different parts of the world led to severe damage of numerous buildings and loss of thousands
of human lives. This paper extends the second-order elastic and plastic analysis used in
numerous projects in Hong Kong since 2005 to push-over and time history analysis, which are
expected to become more popular under the wide acceptance of performance-based seismic
design in meeting multiple performance objectives. A simple and effective plastic hinge method
is introduced in the second-order analysis to account for material yielding. Hence, the proposed
second-order analysis method can be applied to seismic and static design of building structures.
Unlike most software which could not design properly a structure without effective length under
conventional static loads, the proposed computer method has been widely used in conventional
design and therefore its application to seismic design is both consistent and natural since a
structure will not be inconsistently designed by the linear analysis under conventional static
load cases but checked by the nonlinear time history analysis under seismic actions.

member sizing and stability checking. In this computer

age, the traditional tedious member design by hand is
unjustifiable. On the other hand, the uncertainty of
effective length method brings potential dangers in the
design of fashionable and slender structures.
The
modern design codes such as Eurocode3 (2005) and HKSC
(2011) explicitly require the second-order analysis for
structures of high slenderness and irregular shape.
In this paper, a curved ability function element Chan
and Gu (2000) allowing for initial bowing is used to
simulate beam-column element. This element shows
excellent accuracy under large axial force with the
consideration of the interaction between axial force and
bending moments and therefore one element per member
is adequate without loss of accuracy which leads to much
convenience in daily design.
Unlike previous second-order analysis which focuses
only on P- effect and ignores P- effect and initial
imperfections, the proposed second-order analysis
considers all second-order effects as well as initial
imperfections and therefore meets the code requirement
and can be used as a design tool. The proposed method has
been extended to more common building structures with
shear walls and floor slabs but not limit to bare steel frames,
seen Liu and Chan (2009). With the consideration of
member imperfection, the proposed method shows high
accuracy in design of composite and reinforced concrete

1 INTRODUCTION
In the conventional linear analysis and design of
building structures, the linearized response of a structure is
used to construct the bending moment diagram of the
structure from which the strength and stability of each
member is checked and designed. As many practical
columns are of modest to high slenderness that invalidates
the assumption of an analysis considering only material
yielding, the effective length factor, or the K-factor, is
introduced to the design procedure for stability checking.
Unfortunately, the determination of the effective length
factor or the K-factor is based on the initial configuration
under the linear analysis framework which ignores the
change of structure geometry under external actions. This
geometrical change alters the buckling length and thus the
effective length factor assumed at undeformed geometry,
making the effective length method inaccurate. Also, the
contribution of the lateral stiffness from far end columns is
normally ignored and therefore the effective length factor
cannot be reliably determined. In many cases it is
difficult and complicated to find the effective length factor
even under the elastic theory for certain types of structures,
for example, the dome structures and irregular frames.
Second-order analysis has been well researched for
decades and becomes widely used in practical design in
Hong Kong and Macau as a primary design method for

183

Liu and Chan

members with arbitrary shape subjected to axial force and

biaxial bending (Chan et al. 2010).
It is noted that many strong earthquakes occurred in last
two decades, for examples, Sendai Japan on 11th March
2011, USA Northridge 1994, Japan Kobe 1995, Taiwan
Chi-Chi 1999, China Wenchuan 2008, Haiti 2010, Chile
2010 and China Yushu 2010. The development of modern
seismic design codes is to reduce repair cost of building
and to maintain their safety during earthquake. The
traditional seismic design is significantly upgraded to
performance-based seismic design (PBSD) which is
believed to be a general design philosophy in future. The
design criteria will be expressed in terms of performance
objectives such as operational, immediate occupancy, life
safety, collapse prevention associated with seismic hazard
levels like frequent, occasional, rear and very rear
opportunity under the framework of performance-based
design. A performance objective is essentially associated
with an acceptable risk meeting the community and
owners expectations. It is a future trend that the seismic
design should permit multiple performance and hazard
levels according to these expectations.
There are four well-known analysis methods specified
in seismic codes for seismic performance evaluation, i.e.
linear static analysis, modal response spectrum analysis,
nonlinear static (pushover) analysis and nonlinear dynamic
(time history) analysis. The first and second methods are
based on linear theory without consideration of
geometrical and material nonlinearities and therefore
cannot be applied logically to multiple performance
objectives seismic design. The pushover analysis estimates
seismic demands on buildings by monotonically
increasing lateral forces until a target displacement is
reached. The basic assumption behind this method is that
the response of the structure is controlled by its
fundamental mode which is not the case for many
structures. This paper is mainly focused on time history
analysis (THA) which is deemed to be an exact method
in predicting the structural behavior while more details
about pushover analysis can be referred to Liu et al. (2010).
In many codes, time history analysis is compulsively
used for high-rise or important buildings and long-span
bridges. To consider the inelastic behavior in a time history
analysis, a plastic hinge method by inserting two end
section springs into the curved stability function element
Chan and Gu (2000) is adopted for simplicity and fast
convergence. The Newmark (1959) method is utilized for
step-by-step integration of the motion of equation. Due to
the use of same nonlinear theoretical background, the static
second-order analysis and time history analysis can be
carried out in a unified platform. Nonlinear-based software
NIDA (2015) has an inherent advantage for both secondorder nonlinear design for conventional load cases and
nonlinear dynamic seismic design.

184

2 NONLINEAR INTEGRATED DESIGN AND

ANALYSIS

Second-order buckling effects exist whenever a

structure is in compression or when it deforms. The
effects are more important for slender structures and
vice versa. The effective length method to reduce the
buckling resistance is to account for this effect. Fairly
speaking, this approach is indispensable in the precomputer age, but becomes more difficult to handle
design of contemporary structures of irregular geometry
under various scenarios.
The conventional linear design method divides the
whole design procedure into two stages: (1)
determination of the internal forces and moments acting
on each member of the structural system by elastic
linear analysis; (2) assessment of the strength and
stability of each member treated in isolation by plastic
analysis. Compatibility between the isolated member
and the structural system is doubtable. There has been
an increasing awareness for the use of second-order
analysis that simulates directly the behavior of
structural members, connections, and other components
in the determination of overall system response.
The new and advanced nonlinear integrated design
and analysis method is very different from the
conventional linear design since the nonlinear analysis
model contains more factors which may significantly
affect the structural behavior. Also, the interaction
between the structural members and the structural
system can be considered. In other words, the secondorder design method is a system-based holistic
approach, in contrast to the traditional member-based
localized design method.
In the current transition period from the first-order
linear to second-order nonlinear structural analysis and
design, the second-order elastic or first-plastic hinge
analysis, which assumes the design resistance is reached
at the formation of the first plastic hinge, is
recommended for daily non-seismic design. Secondorder elastic or first-plastic hinge analysis means an
analysis allowing for the second-order effects due to the
change of geometry and initial stresses in members but
material yielding is not allowed to be distributed after
the first plastic hinge. If both the P- and P- effects
are included in the analysis, the method is termed as
second-order elastic P-- analysis while only the P effect is considered, the method is termed as secondorder elastic P--only analysis. It should be noted
that the checking of member strength relies on the
application of design formula since this type of methods
does not take material yielding into account. Moreover,
an additional member resistance checking for P- effect
should be conducted separately for the second-order
elastic P--only analysis. On the other hand, for the
second-order elastic P-- analysis, the process of

Liu and Chan

determining the effective length of the member by a

formula in a design code in order to calculate the
second-order moments can be skipped and the accuracy
and saving in routine design effort can be achieved.

member initial curvatures and frame out-of-plumbness

and notional forces. Two types of imperfections
should be included in the nonlinear analysis and design,
i.e., the member and frame imperfections.

2.1 P- and P- effects

Member imperfections

When a structure deforms, the original geometry can

no longer be employed for the formulation of the
transformation matrix simply because the nodal
coordinates have been changed. This effect, named P effect, may become important when the deflection
and/or the conjugate force is large such as the case of a
building under a heavy mass at the roof and a lateral
wind load. An additional moment termed as the P-
moment will be induced due to this effect.
The P- effect is referred to as the second-order
effect due to the deflection along a member and the axial
force. It affects the state of stress as well as the
stiffness of the member. Like the P- effect, an
additional moment named P- moment will be induced
due to the P- effect. Its careful consideration is
important for buckling analysis and design of slender
skeletal structures.
In general, both the P- (frame sidesway) and P-
effects (member curvature) will occur in a structure
under vertical and horizontal external forces. These
effects are shown in Figure 1.
In this paper, the P- effect is automatically
considered in the incremental-iterative procedure while
the P- effect is accounted for by the use of curved
stability functions Chan and Gu (2000) at the element
level.

Member initial imperfections are due to member

initial crookedness or residual stresses. The initial
geometric imperfections of members may be due to one
or several aspects such as cambering, sweeping, twist,
out of straightness and cross-section distortion. The
residual stresses in members may be due to
manufacturing and fabrication processes, erection outof-fit, and construction sequencing.
To exactly
account for all the imperfections rigorously seems
impossible for practical structures. Practically, they
can be simulated in the analysis/design model by the
equivalent initial bow imperfection which may be
slightly different in the national design codes due to the
difference in steel products.
According to HKSC (2011), the equivalent initial
bow imperfections for different sections are specified in
its Table 6.1 associated with Table 8.7 and also listed in
the Table 1 of this paper for clarity. These values may
be used in a second order analysis for the steel members
under compression. For composite column, the
buckling curves and member imperfections are
specified in Table 10.13 of HKSC (2011).
Table 1. Values of member initial bow imperfection
Buckling curves
referenced in Table 8.7
of HKSC (2011)

a0
a
b
c
d

Figure 1.

e0 / L to be used in
Second-order P--
elastic analysis
1/550
1/500
1/400
1/300
1/200

In the proposed second-order analysis, the initial

member imperfection has been formulated in the curved
stability function (see Figure 2) according to the code
requirements. Therefore, its effects have been
considered in the analysis part of the second-order
analysis.

The P- and P- effects

2.2 Initial imperfections

As no structures are perfect and free from defects
due to initial crookedness, residual stress, installation
and erection, imperfections must be considered. One of
the biggest differences between the effective length
method and the second-order analysis is their
consideration of initial imperfections. The effective
length method considers imperfection implicitly in the
use of buckling curves such as the a0, a, b, c and d
curves in Eurocode-3(2005) whereas the second-order
analysis explicitly considers imperfections in use of
185

Liu and Chan

proposed second-order analysis only needs section

check and eliminates the tedious member check.

3 PLASTIC HINGE METHOD

It is necessary to consider inelastic behavior in
second-order plastic analysis, pushover analysis, time
history analysis and progressive collapse analysis. The
plasticity models for tracing nonlinear material
behavior of beamcolumn members have fallen into
two categories: distributed plasticity and concentrated
plasticity. The distributed plasticity (also referred to as
plastic zone) models can monitor the spread of yielding
both along the member length and throughout its crosssection. This method is considered to be exact
solution but rarely adopted in practical engineering as it
consumes huge computer time. The concentrated
plasticity (also referred to as plastic hinge) models
assume that the plasticity is lumped only at the ends of
an element, while the portion within the element is
assumed to remain elastic throughout the analysis. The
plastic hinge method is much simpler and needs less
computational effort with acceptable accuracy,
therefore, it is widely used both in research and
engineering applications.
In this paper, a refined plastic hinge method is
implemented by inserting two end section springs into
the curved stability function element Chan and Gu
(2000). The progressive strength and stiffness
degradation of the structure can be captured by properly
adjusting the stiffness of section spring. Thus, a simple,
accurate and efficient method for determining the
plastic hinge(s) is proposed to account for material
nonlinearity.
The basis of the plastic hinge method is crosssection plastification. Material yielding is accounted for
by zero-length plastic hinges at one or both ends of each
element. Here, two predefined section springs which
are used to simulate plastic hinge, will be set at the two
ends of each curved stability function beam-column
element Chan and Gu (2000) and therefore a new hybrid
element (see Figure 4) is formulated. The internal
degrees of freedom can be eliminated by a standard
static condense procedure, and therefore the bending
equilibrium equations in an incremental form can be
expressed as,

Figure 2 Curved Stability Function with Initial Crookedness

Frame imperfections

The frame imperfections are mainly due to the outof-plumbness of frame and column in the erection
processes and construction stage, see Figure 3. This
type of imperfections may increase the sway effect and
induce P- moments which are specially important
when a structure is subjected to large vertical loads.
Linear analysis uses the moment amplification to
enlarge the linear moment for sway effect. In secondorder analysis, wind load or notional force can be still
used, but an alternative and more reliable and
convenient method is to adopt the elastic buckling mode
as the imperfection mode with amplitude set equal to
the out-of-plumbness normally taken as height/200
according to HKSC (2011) or other justified values.

Figure 3

Frame imperfection

2.3 Section capacity check

In the codified linear design method a member is
required for checking against member buckling and
sectional strength while in the proposed second-order
design method, only the section capacity check in the
following symbolic expression is required.

M s1 Ss1 Ss12 ( K 22 Ss2 ) / s

M
Ss1Ss2 K 21 / s )
s2

M P( y 0 y ) P( y 0 y ) M z P( z 0 z ) P( z 0 z )
P
y

1
py A
M cy
M cz

s1
Ss1Ss2 K12 / s )

Ss2 Ss22 ( K11 Ss1 ) / s s2

(2)
with

(1)
It is noted that as the effective length is used to
account for the P- and P- effects, the above Eq. (1)
including both P- and P- moments will automatically
consider these effects due to buckling. Thus, the

K11 Ss1
K 21

K12
0
K 22 Ss2

(3)

186

Liu and Chan

and, Ssi is the stiffness of section spring, M si is the

incremental nodal, si is the incremental nodal
rotations, K ij is the stiffness coefficients of the curved
stability function element.

The equation of motion Eq. (5) can be finally written

as,

[ Keff ]{t u} [Feff ]

(6)

in which

[ Keff ] c1[M ] c4 [C ] [ K ]
(7)
[ Feff ] {t F} (c2 [M ] c5[C ]){t u} (c3[M ] c6[C ]){t u} (8)

with

Figure 4

1
1
1

c1 (t ) 2 ; c2 t ; c3 2

c ; c ; c ( 1)t
5
6
4 t

Curved element with end springs

(9)

To consider the progressive cross-section yielding,

the section spring stiffness is simply defined
below to approximate the inelastic behavior of the steel
members for design purpose,
(4)

Ss

6 EI M pr M
L M M er

5 EXAMPLES
5.1 Vogel six-story frame
The two-bay six-story frame subjected to distributed
gravity loads and concentrated lateral loads has been
analyzed by Vogel (1985). The frame is assumed to have
an initial out-of-plumb straightness with all the
members assumed to possess the ECCS residual stress
distribution (ECCS 1983). The structural layout and the
applied loads of the frame are shown in Figure 6. This
frame has been widely used to calibrate proposed plastic
hinge methods of analysis.
The structure is analyzed by the proposed secondorder plastic analysis method assuming that the vertical
and horizontal forces are proportionally applied. Eq. (1)
has been used in many design codes as conservative
yield surface of beam-columns but a more economical
yield surface in the paper by Vogel (1985) is adopted
here for direct comparison.

(M er <M <M pr )

where EI is the flexural constant, L is the member

length, M is bending moment due to external forces,
and and are the first yield and plastic
moments respectively.

4 DIRECT INTEGRATION FOR EQUATION OF

MOTION

Many seismic design codes compulsively require a

time history analysis (THA) to evaluate the structural
performance. Unlike modal response spectrum analysis
(MRSA) which only gives best estimates of the peak
response and generally ignores the degradation of
strength and stiffness during an earthquake, THA can
provide much more exact response predictions within
the framework of the reliability and representativeness
of the nonlinear modeling of the structure.
The incremental form of the equation of motion can
be written as,
[M ]{u} [C]{u} [ K ]{u} {F}
(5)
in which {F} is equal to [M]{ }. For simplicity,
the (t) in acceleration (t) , velocity () and
displacement u(t) is omitted.
Noted that the damping matrix [C] is usually
employed as the Rayleigh damping model given by,
[C] = a[M] + []
(6)
in which a is mass proportional coefficient, and b is
stiffness proportional coefficient.
MRSA solves the dynamic equilibrium equation by
mode superposition while THA widely adopts
numerical integration method. In NIDA (2015), the
popular Newmark (1959) method is utilized for step-bystep solution of Eq. (5).

187

Figure 5

Vogel six-story frame

The load-deflection curve of the node at top level is

plotted against the results by Vogel (1985) who used the
plastic zone and plastic methods and shown in Figure 7.
The load factor obtained from the proposed plastic

Liu and Chan

hinge method is 1.09 compared with the maximum load

factor 1.11 and 1.12 obtained by plastic zone and plastic
hinge methods (Vogel 1985) respectively. The predicted
locations of plastic hinges are also same as Vogel (1985).
Thus, it can be seen that the proposed second-order
inelastic analysis is of high accuracy against results by
others.

Figure 6

Load-deflection curve at 6

5.2 Seven-story 2D steel frame

A seven-story 2D steel frame shown in Figure 9 is
used here for demonstration of time history analysis by
NIDA (2015). The details of the 2D frame are given
below.
(a) Geometrical dimensions and section sizes:
shown in Figure 7;
(b) The material properties for all members: Youngs
modulus E=2.034x105 MPa, Poissons ratio v=0.3,
yield strength py=250 MPa;
(c) Applied static loads: shown in Figure 7;
(d) Boundary conditions: all columns are fixed to
foundation and member connections are rigid;
(e) Mass: 85 812.16 kg at each story (node 5, 8, 11,
14, 17, 20 and 23);
(f) Earthquake wave: the N-S component of the El
Centro 1940.
4.1148m4.1148m3.9624m3.9624m3.9624m3.9624m 3.9624m

88.96 kN
66.72 kN
55.60 kN
44.48 kN

33.36 kN

22.24 kN
11.12 kN

9.144m

Figure 7

The displacement Ux of Node 24 calculated from

NIDA (2015) is shown in Figure 8 against those results
from SAP2000 (2009). For easy comparison, the plastic
behaviour does not taken into account in the two sets of
results. Also, as SAP2000 (2009) does not consider
initial imperfections which will also be ignored in this
example so that the comparison between NIDA (2015)
and SAP2000 (2009) could be on the same basis. From
Figure 8, it can be seen that the results from NIDA
(2015) agree well with those from SAP2000 (2009) at
every time step in the elastic time response analysis.
Further, the inelastic time history analysis is
performed by NIDA (2015) for this example. The
plastic hinge model presented in Section 3 will be used
here to capture the plastic behaviour of the beamcolumn elements.
Before activating the inelastic time history analysis,
the PGA of El Centro 1994 is scaled to 2.0 times for
easy observation of plastic hinges. The displacement Ux
of Node 24 calculated from NIDA (2015) are shown in
Figure 9 against those results from SAP2000 (2009).
From the Figure, it can be seen that NIDA (2015) can
produce the same trend as SAP2000 (2009) with slight
difference in some time steps. The maximum
displacement responses over the entire time histories
are almost the same. The discrepancy between two sets
of results is due to the difference in their plastic hinge
models. In this paper, the progressive cross-section
yielding is captured by Eq. (4) while SAP2000 (2009)
does not clearly show the tracing procedure for this
effect.

Figure 8

Building drift (elastic THA)

Figure 9

Building drift (plastic THA)

9.144m

Seven-story 2D steel frame

188

Liu and Chan

6 CONCLUSIONS

HKSC (2011). "Code of Practice for the Structural Use of Steel

2011." Buildings Department, Hong Kong SAR Government.
Liu, S. W., Liu, Y. P. and Chan, S. L. (2010). "Pushover Analysis
by One Element Per Member for Performance-Based Seismic
Design." International Journal of Structural Stability and
Dynamics 10(1): 111-126.
Liu, Y. P. and Chan, S. L. (2009). "Nonlinear Analysis and
Design of Wall-framed Structures." Steel Concrete
Composite and Hybrid Structures: 675-681.
Newmark, N. M. (1959). "A Method of Computation for
Structural Dynamics." ASCE Journal of the Engineering
Mechanics Division 85: 67-94.
NIDA (2015). "User's Manual, Nonlinear Integrated Design and
Analysis." NIDA 9.0 HTML Online Documentation.
(http://www.nidacse.com).
SAP2000 (2009). "CSI Analysis Reference Manual for SAP2000,
ETABS and SAFE." Computers and Structures, Inc.,
Berkeley, California, USA
Savory, E., Parke, G. A. R., Zeinoddini, M., Toy, N. and Disney,
P. (2001). "Modelling of tornado and microburst-induced
wind loading and failure of a lattice transmission tower."
Engineering Structures 23(4): 365-375.
Vogel, U. (1985). "Calibrating frames." Stahlbau 54(October):
295-311.

In this paper, the basic theoretical framework of

second-order analysis for conventional and seismic
structural design is briefly introduced and this method
has been extended to performance-based static and
seismic design with the consideration of frame and
member buckling and material yielding by plastic hinge
approach. The application of the method covers a wide
range of structural forms like steel, steel-concrete
composite, slender trusses dominated by buckling,
reinforced concrete frames controlled by material
crushing and a variety of loading scenarios like statics
and seismic load cases. It can also be used for
investigation of un-conventional scenarios like
progressive collapse due to local failure in a frame or
accidental removal or damage of some members and
structural stability under fire. As the second-order
analysis attempts to model the true structural behavior,
it is less restrictive to the effective length method which
is based on elastic buckling at undeformed geometry.
Finally, engineers should be very cautious on use of
appropriate software as many important parameters like
modeling of member initial crookedness by curved
element and use of buckling modes as imperfection
modes are not considered by many structural analysis
programs, which are then inconsistently used in
nonlinear time-history analysis but not in conventional
linear analysis and design for member sizing.

7 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The authors are grateful to the financial support by
the Research Grant Council of the Hong Kong SAR
Government on the project Advanced and Secondorder Analysis for Long-span Steel Structures (PolyU
5166/12E), by the Construction Industry Institute for
the project Innovative Design Technique for Steelconcrete Composite Structures in Hong Kong and by
the Innovative Technology Fund for the project
Advanced design of flexible barrier systems by large
deflection theory (ITS/032/14).

8 REFERENCES
Chan, S. L. and Gu, J. X. (2000). "Exact tangent stiffness for
imperfect beam-column members." Journal of Structural
Engineering-ASCE 126(9): 1094-1102.
Chan, S. L., Liu, S. W. and Liu, Y. P. (2010). "Advanced
Analysis of Hybrid Frame Structures By Refined PlasticHinge Approach." Proceedings of 4th International
Conference on Steel & Composite Structures, Sydney,
Australia: 21-23 July 2010.
ECCS (1983). "Ultimate Limit State Calculation of Sway Frames
with Rigid Joints." European Convention for Constructional
Steelwork, Technical Working Group 8.2, Systems,
Publication No. 33.
Eurocode3 (2005). "EN 1993-1-1: Design of steel structures General rules and rules for buildings." European Committee
for Standardization.

189

11th International Conference on

Advances in Steel and Concrete Composite Structures
Tsinghua University, Beijing, China, December 3-5, 2015

EXPERIMENTAL STUDY ON STATIC BEHAVIOR OF HIGH

STRENGTH STEEL CONFINED CONCRETE COLUMNS
X. Z. Zhaoa, S. Caoa
a

College of Civil Engineering, Tongji University, Shanghai, China

E-mails: x.zhao@tongji.edu.cn, 1332808@tongji.edu.cn
ABSTRACT
Keywords:
Concrete confinement; High
strength concrete; High strength
steel; Steel confined concrete
column.

Experimental study on 6 axially loaded steel confined concrete columns with high strength steel
and high strength concrete was carried out to investigate the concrete confinement provided by
cruciform steel section. The influencing parameters, including area ratio of steel to confined
concrete, the unconfined dimension of concrete section, and the strength of steel and concrete,
were studied. The mechanism of concrete confinement was investigated by analyzing the
experimental phenomena and load-displacement curves. Experimental results reveal that
cruciform steel section provided efficient confinement to concrete and the confinement could
lead to evident increase of concrete compressive strength and ductility coefficient. The
experimental results can be further used to study the constitutive model of confined high
strength concrete provided by high strength steel.

divided in better accuracy, but the constitutive model of

steel confined concrete requires further study.

1 INTRODUCTION
Steel reinforced concrete (SRC) columns have been
widely used in the construction of tall buildings owing to
its favorable capacity, ductility, as well as fire resistance.
In the past decade, considerable experimental and
numerical studies have been carried out on the
mechanical performance of SRC columns. However, the
steel confined concrete in SRC columns has rarely been
investigated. Existing studies mainly focused on the
confinement provided by lateral ties (Park et al. 1982,
Mander et al. 1988). With no adequate experimental
proof and fully understanding of steel confined concrete,
designers choose to neglect this confinement in the
structural design of SRC columns, which leads to waste
of material strength and a conservative design. In order to
fully utilize the favorable capacity of SRC columns, the
concrete confinement offered by steel should be
considered, which is the focus of this paper.
For steel confined concrete in SRC columns, there are
two prevailing treatments in previous studies: the steel is
assumed to provide the same confinement as lateral ties,
and the steel confined concrete can be represented by
lateral ties confined concrete (Figure 1a) (Ricles &
Paboojian 1994, Lee & Pan 2001); or, the concrete in
SRC columns is divided into 3 types: unconfined
concrete, lateral ties confined concrete and steel confined
concrete (Figure 1b), each with different constitutive
model (Mirza & Skrabek 1992, EI-Tawil & Deierlein
1996, Chen & Lin 2006, Ellobody & Young 2011).
Compared to Figure 1a, the concrete in Figure 1b is

unconfined
concrete
confined
concrete

(a) Type I
unconfined
concrete
lateral ties
confined concrete
steel confined
concrete

(b) Type II
Figure 1.

Different concrete divisions.

Zhao (2014) conducted an experimental study of 20

axially loaded specimens to investigate the mechanism of
concrete confinement offered by steel, as well as the
effects of primary influencing factors, and a constitutive
model of steel confined concrete was given on the basis
of test results and finite element calculation. The research
was restricted to ordinary strength materials. Since the
use of high strength materials is increasing, the concrete
confinement provided by high strength steel in SRC
columns is worth studying.
In this study, 6 specimens subjected to axial load
were tested to investigate the concrete confinement

190

Zhao et al.

offered by high strength steel. Factors including area ratio

of steel to concrete, the confined dimensions of steel
flange, and the strength combination of steel and concrete
were varied to study their effects on the concrete
confinement.

2 EXPERIMENTAL PROGRAM

and the results obtained are listed in Table 2. The

concrete for specimens was mixed in four batches, with
six standard concrete cubes cast from each batch. The
concrete cube strength fcu listed in Table 3 are the average
values obtained from the concrete cube tests, and fck and
fc the concrete axial compressive strength and cylinder
strength, respectively.

2.1 Test specimens

Table 1. Main parameters of specimens.

In order to study the concrete confinement directly,

only steel and concrete core in SRC columns remained
when designing specimens. In addition, the parabolic
boundaries of concrete are simplified to straight lines
(Figure 2). The height of the specimen is 1200mm, the
sectional dimensions are designed to realize the variation
of area ratio of steel to concrete and the confined
dimensions of steel flange, which took the loading
capacity of test machine into consideration as well
(Figure 3). The main parameters used are listed in Table
1.

Grade
Specimen
of
no.
steel
SRC-A-1 Q390

Grade Area of
of
steel As
concrete (mm2)
C60
12500

Area of
concrete
Ac(mm2)
78750

Area
ratio
As/Ac
0.16

lf*
(mm)
75

SRC-A-2 Q460 C70

12500

78750

0.16

75

SRC-B-1

Q390 C60

26000

78750

0.33

75

SRC-B-2

Q460 C70

26000

78750

0.33

75

SRC-B-3

Q460 C60

26000

78750

0.33

75

SRC-C-1 Q390 C60

10500 70000 0.15
* lf is the confined dimension of steel flange.

50

Table 2. Tensile coupon test results.

lc

Grade Plate
Yield Tensile Yield Elongof
thickness strength strength ratio ation Specimens
steel (mm)
fy (MPa) fu (MPa) fy/ fu (%)
SRC-A-1,
Q390 10
437
700
0.62 33
SRC-C-1
Q390 20
457
706
0.65 30
SRC-B-1

lf

steel confined
concrete

tf

tw

bf

steel

75

75

75

75

20

75

75

20

10
100

460

724

0.64 38

SRC-A-2

Q460a 20

508

730

0.70 29

SRC-B-2

Q460b 20

515

738

0.70 25

SRC-B-3

110
330

Specimen Cube strength Axial strength Cylinder strength

no.
fcu(MPa)
fck(MPa)
fc(MPa)
SRC-A-1 60.0
38.5
47.4

100

170
75
20

360

160
330
10

Q460 10

Table 3. Concrete compressive strength.

10

100

10
50 50

330

360

330

100

10

10

75

20

75

10

10

10

75

75

75

10

20

Figure 2. Section of SRC column and core column.

Figure 3. Sectional dimensions of specimens (in mm).

The specimens are named according to their sectional

dimensions and strength combination of steel and
concrete, where the letter A, B, or C refers to that
shown in Figure 3, and the number 1, 2, or 3 to
strength combination of Q390 steel and C60 concrete,
Q460 steel and C70 concrete, and Q460 steel and C60
concrete, respectively. The strength combination was
designed according to their practical use. Specimens
SRC-A-1 and SRC-B-1, SRC-A-2 and SRC-B-2 are
designed to study the effect of area ratio of steel to
concrete. Specimens SRC-A-1 and SRC-C-1 differ
mainly in the confined dimensions of steel flange, and the
influence of strength combination can be obtained by
comparing the results from specimens SRC-B-1,
SRC-B-2 and SRC-B-3 .
Specimens used for tensile coupon tests were cut
from the same steel plates used to fabricate the columns,

SRC-A-2 81.9

51.5

64.7

SRC-B-1

60.0

38.5

47.4

SRC-B-2

81.9

51.5

64.7

SRC-B-3

57.8

37.2

45.7

SRC-C-1

60.0

38.5

47.4

2.2 Test setup

The FCS-30000kN electro-hydraulic servo coordinate
loading system with a capacity of 30000kN load in the
vertical direction and 400mm of maximum displacement
was used for this test. Two 25mm-thick-connective steel
plates were welded to the ends of each specimen (Figure
4), and then fixed to the testing machine pedestals
through the bolt holes in the connective plates.
Axial displacement was applied continuously by a
vertical actuator beneath the lower connective plate, as
shown in Figure 5. The specimens were loaded to failure
through displacement-control method, the loading rate

191

Zhao et al.

was changed from 0.6mm/min to 3mm/min when a

decrease of the monitored axial load had been observed.

N
S55 S11

S54
S9

S13

S8
S10
S6 (S7)S5

S21

S12

S19

E
S18

S16

S20
S52

S15

S14

S17
S3 S4

S1 S2

S53

S30S31S32

D11-D13

D10 D8

600

D13
D12
1

D3

D11

200

3 EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS
3.1 Test phenomenon
All specimens showed similar behavior during the
test. Obvious concrete cracks were observed first at
nearly the middle height of the specimen (Figure 8a), the
cracking area then developed and slight crushing of
concrete occurred with increasing axial load. Due to the
difference distribution of initial imperfection, the
crushing of concrete observed was not observed
simultaneously in four directions, and the crushing area
varied. Severe concrete crash occurred in each direction
as test continued, and obvious local buckling of steel
flange developed where large pieces of failed concrete
had dropped down (Figure 8b). The phenomena kept
developing until the end of test, and the specimen
exhibited overall buckling characteristic eventually
(Figure 8c). In addition, separations between steel flange
and concrete were obtained for several specimens with
large confined dimensions of steel flange (Figure 8d),
such as specimen SRC-A-1. Large contact area of steel
flange and concrete but without efficient bonding was
thought to be the reason for the separation.

D5
D1

(b) External arrangement

Figure 7. Arrangement of strain gauges.

D4

D5-D7

D9

D6
D7

600

D1

S51 S50

S49 S48

200

200

D14 D15 D16

D3

S47 S46

S45 S44

200

The arrangements of displacement transducers are

presented in Figure 6. D1 to D4 were placed in four
directions along the height of the specimens to monitor
the overall deformation. The monitored deformation in
the early stages of loading was used to verify the
concentric applied displacement. D5 to D16 at the middle
height of the specimens were used to measure the
horizontal expansion of steel flange.
In order to obtain the horizontal expansion difference
of steel flange and the strain distribution of steel web,
strain gauges S1 to S9 were arranged in the middle height
of the specimens, as shown in Figure 7a. In addition,
strain gauges S10 to S21 attached on 2 vertical and 6
horizontal aluminum bars were used to monitor the
vertical and lateral deformation of concrete, while the
vertical and lateral deformation of concrete surface were
obtained by strain gauges S52-S55.
The strain gauges on the external surface of
specimens are shown in Figure 7b. 11 strain rosettes were
used to trace the strain distribution of steel flange, the
remaining strain gauges were designed to obtain lateral
and vertical deformation of steel and to make sure that
the applied displacement was concentric by comparing
the deformations measured in four directions.

D2

400

100

2.3 Measurement arrangement

S43 S42 S41

400

100

S27S28S29

Figure 5. Loading system.

S40 S39 S38

400

S36 S34
S37 S35 S33

100

Figure 4. Connective plates.

S23 S25
S22 S24 S26

100

(a) Internal arrangement

D2

3.2 Load-displacement curves

D10 D9 D8

The load-displacement curves for all specimens are

shown in Figure 9, where N is the actual load applied on

Figure 6. Arrangement of displacement transducers.

192

Zhao et al.

(a) Concrete cracks

confinement degradation exceeds that of steel

strengthening, the load-displacement curves kept
declining with a relatively slow rate, e.g., the curves of
specimens SRC-A-1 and SRC-A-2. For the rest of the
specimens, the load-displacement curves showed rising
trend because of the stronger strengthening effect of steel.
The ultimate load Nu for each specimen and the
corresponding displacement u are listed in Table 4. Nu
was the maximum load observed before the steel
strengthen. For all specimens, the ultimate load occurred
before the displacement reached 2 times yield
displacement, and the ratio of ultimate load to yield load
varied from 1.04 to 1.15, with the minimum for specimen
SRC-B-3 and the maximum for specimen SRC-A-1.
When displacement developed to 3 times yield
displacement, sharp decrease of axial load stopped. After
that, the axial load developed slowly with the increasing
displacement, which indicated ductile behavior for all
specimens.

(b) Concrete crush

20000

Load, N(kN)

16000

SRC-A-1
SRC-A-2
SRC-B-1
SRC-B-2
SRC-B-3
SRC-C-1

12000

(c) Overall buckling

(d) Separation of steel and concrete
Figure 8. Test phenomenon in different stages.

the specimen, the axial displacement measured by

displacement transducers. Figure 10 illustrates the
non-dimensional load-displacement curves where Ny is
the yield load which calculated by Ny = fy As+ fck Ac, and
y the yield displacement corresponding to Ny. the values
of Ny and y for each specimen are listed in Table 4. In
general, the development of load-displacement curves can
be divided into four stages:
Elastic stage: both steel and concrete are in elastic at
the early stages of loading with linear load-displacement
curves, no obvious cracking or yielding phenomenon was
observed for specimens.
Elastic-plastic stage: materials in the specimen
exhibited plastic characteristic after the yield load had
been reached, with nonlinear trend occurred in the
load-displacement curves. Small cracks were observed
for several specimens.
Degenerative stage of concrete confinement: cracks
propagated and crushing of concrete occurred after the
ultimate load had been reached, with
horizontal
expansion of steel flange indicating the confinement
degeneration of concrete observed, and consequently, the
load-displacement curves declined rapidly.
Strengthening stage of steel: sharp decline ended for
load-displacement curves owing to the strengthening
characteristic of steel, the development of the curves was
then affected by both concrete confinement degeneration
and steel strengthening: if the effect of concrete

8000
4000
0

20

40
60
80
Displacement, (mm)

100

Figure 9. Test load-displacement curves.

1.2

Load ratio, N/Ny

1
0.8
SRC-A-1
SRC-A-2
SRC-B-1
SRC-B-2
SRC-B-3
SRC-C-1

0.6
0.4
0.2
0
0

6
9 12 15 18
Displacement ratio, /y

21

24

Figure 10. Non-dimensional load-displacement curves.

3.3 Mechanism of concrete confinement

The specimens expanded horizontally under axial
load, and the expansion of steel monitored by the
displacement transducers arranged in the middle height of
the specimens was adopted to analyze the mechanism of
concrete confinement. Figure 11 shows the relationship
between N/Nu and D, where N/Nu is the ratio of actual
load to ultimate load, D is the horizontal expansion

193

Zhao et al.

difference between the average measured value of the 8

sideward displacement transducers (D5, D7, D8, D10,
D11, D13, D14, D16) and that of the 4 middle
displacement transducers (D6, D9, D12, D15). It can be
seen from Figure 10 that horizontal expansion difference
did not occur until the ultimate load was reached, after
that the difference developed quickly.
The concrete confinement was affected by the
Poissons ratios of steel and concrete (Schneider 1998).
Since Poissons ratio of the materials could not been
obtained from the test directly, the absolute ratio of
horizontal strain to vertical strain was adopted to reflect
the change of Poissons ratio. Figure 12a illustrates the
relationship between N/Ny and sh /sv, where sh and
sv represent the horizontal and vertical strain of steel,
respectively. The relationship between N/Ny and ch
/cv is shown in Figure 12b, where ch and cv represent
the horizontal and vertical strain of concrete, respectively.
In general, the Poissons ratio of steel in elastic stage is
close to be 0.3, and for concrete to be approximately 0.2.
Obviously, the absolute ratio of horizontal strain to
vertical strain for either steel or concrete coincide well
with their Poissons ratios in the early stages of loading,
as shown in Figure 12. For steel, Figure 11a shows that
sh /sv did not change until the axial load reached
Ny. However, as shown in Figure 12b, ch /cv of
concrete began to change when the axial load reached
about 0.75 Ny.
Finally, the mechanism of concrete confinement can
be explained as follows: both steel and concrete were in
elastic stage before 0.75 Ny, since the Poisson's ratio is
higher for steel, little confinement was offered by steel;
when the axial load reached 0.75 Ny, thech /cvvalue
of concrete began to change while steel still remained
elastic, the expansion of concrete thus resulted in the
growing of confinement. sh /svof steel started to
change after Ny, however, the horizontal expansion
difference did not appear until the axial load reached Nu,
which means the steel still offered confinement for
concrete in this stage, and the confinement reached
maximum as the load approached Nu. After that, the
concrete confinement degenerated since the horizontal
expansion difference increased quickly, which implied
that the steel flange could no longer provide efficient
confinement to concrete.

1.2

Load ratio, N/Nu

1
0.8
SRC-A-1
SRC-A-2
SRC-B-1
SRC-B-2
SRC-B-3
SRC-C-1

0.6
0.4

0.2
0
-1

0
1
2
3
4
Horizontal expansion difference, D(mm)

Figure 11. Load ratio-horizontal expansion difference curves.

1.2
Load ratio, N/Ny

0.8
SRC-A-1
SRC-A-2
SRC-B-1
SRC-B-2
SRC-B-3
SRC-C-1

0.6
0.4
0.2
0
0

0.2

0.4
0.6
0.8
Strain ratio, sh /sv

(a) Steel
1.2

Load ratio, N/Ny

1
0.8
SRC-A-1
SRC-A-2
SRC-B-1
SRC-B-2
SRC-B-3
SRC-C-1

0.6
0.4

0.2
0
0

0.2

0.4
0.6
0.8
Strain ratio, ch /cv

(b) Concrete
Figure 12. Load ratio-strain ratio curves.

ultimate load. Dividing Nci by the area of concrete, the

improved strength of concrete fci was obtained eventually.
Define the ratio of improved strength to axial strength of
concrete fci /fck as the strength improvement coefficient
Kci, Kci may then be used to reveal the strength
improvement of concrete. Kci values for each specimen
and the load shared by steel and concrete at the moment
when ultimate load was reached are listed in Table 4.
The effects of different influencing factors on
ductility were studied by comparing the ratio of ultimate
displacement to yield displacement u/y. The results of
u/y are listed in Table 4, too.

4 DISCUSSION
The strength and ductility of concrete were improved
when confined by steel, but the improvement could not
be measured from the experiment directly. However, the
load acted on the specimen was carried by both concrete
and steel, when the ultimate load was reached, the load
resisted by steel Ns was computed by the measured yield
strength times the area of steel, and the load carried by
concrete Nci was obtained by subtracting that from the

194

11th International Conference on

Advances in Steel and Concrete Composite Structures
Tsinghua University, Beijing, China, December 3-5, 2015
Table 4. Loads and displacements of specimens at main phases.

SRC-A-1

Yield
load
Ny(kN)
8498

Yield
displacement
y(mm)
2.81

Ultimate
load
Nu(kN)
9741

Ultimate
displacement
u(mm)
4.20

Load
ratio
Nu/Ny
1.15

Displacement
ratio
u/y
1.49

Load of
steel
Ns(kN)
5463

Load of
concrete
Nci(kN)
4279

Coefficient
Kci
1.41

SRC-A-2

9802

3.24

10428

4.33

1.06

1.34

5750

4678

1.15

SRC-B-1

14917

3.63

16997

5.34

1.14

1.47

11882

5115

1.69

SRC-B-2

17260

3.36

18214

4.57

1.06

1.36

13208

5006

1.24

SRC-B-3

16318

4.88

17024

6.16

1.04

1.26

13390

3634

1.24

SRC-C-1

7286

3.25

7698

4.47

1.06

1.38

4589

3109

1.15

that larger confined dimension of steel flange offered

better confinement for concrete.

4.1 Area ratio of steel to concrete

1.8

1.6

1.6

1.4

1.4

Kci

1.2

Kci (Q390-C60)
Kci (Q460-C70)
u/y (Q390-C60)
u/y (Q460-C70)

1.0

0.8
0.15

0.2

0.25

0.3

1.8

1.6

1.6

1.4

1.4

1.2

1.2
Kci
u/y

1.0

1.0

0.8

0.8
40

50

60

70

80

Confined dimension of steel flange

(mm)

Figure 14. Effect of confined dimension of steel flange.

4.3 Strength combination of steel and concrete

The experimental results of specimens SRC-B-1,
SRC-B-2 and SRC-B-3 indicate the effects of strength
combination on Kci and u/y, as plotted in Figure 15. The
strength combination for specimen SRC-B-1 is Q390
steel and C60 concrete, and Q460 steel and C70 concrete
for specimen SRC-B-2. Obviously, both Kci and u/y of
specimen SRC-B-2 are smaller than that of specimen
SRC-B-1. Meanwhile, the experimental results of
specimens SRC-A-1 and SRC-A-2 listed in Table 4 also
indicate that: specimen with the strength combination of
Q390 steel and C60 concrete showed larger Kci and u/y
than specimen with the strength combination of Q460
steel and C70 concrete. Comparing the results of
specimen SRC-B-1 and SRC-B-3, it is clear that Kci and
u/y decreased when the steel strength increased
individually. However, it can be seen from the
comparison of specimen SRC-B-2 and SRC-B-3 that:
individual strength increase of concrete is beneficial for
u/y, but no obvious effect was shown on Kci. Therefore,
it can be concluded that Q390 steel offered better
confinement for concrete than Q460 steel, individual
strength increase has little benefit on concrete
confinement.

u/y

1.8

1.8

Kci

Figure 13 shows the experimental results of

Specimens SRC-A-1, SRC-B-1, SRC-A-2 and SRC-B-2,
which illustrates the effect of area ratio of steel to
concrete on strength improvement coefficient Kci and
ductility u/y. Obviously, Kci increased with the
increasing area ratio of steel to concrete, and the strength
improvement of concrete is more significant for the
strength combination of Q390 steel and C60 concrete.
However, the area ratio of steel to concrete had little
effect on u/y: for the strength combination of Q390
steel and C60 concrete, u/y decreased by 1% when the
area ratio of steel to concrete varied from 0.16 to 0.33,
while 1% increase showed for strength combination of
Q460 steel and C70 concrete. Conclusion can be drawn
from the experimental results of the four specimens that
the area ratio of steel to concrete has positive effect on Kci
while u/y is little affected.

u/y

Specimen
no.

1.2
1.0

0.8
0.35

Area ratio of steel to concrete

Figure 13. Effect of area ratio of steel to concrete.

4.2 Confined dimension of steel flange

The effect of confined dimension of steel flange on
Kci and u/y is illustrated in Figure 14. Comparison of
experimental results for Specimens SRC-A-1 and
SRC-C-1 showed that both Kci and u/y were improved
when the confined dimension of steel flange increased
from 50mm to 75mm, specifically, Kci increased by 23%
and only 8% for u/y. Within the variation of confined
dimension of steel studied in this paper, it is thus evident

195

Zhao et al.

1.6

1.6

1.4

1.4

1.2

1.2

1.0

Kci
u/y

0.8

Park, R., Priestley, M.J.N. & Gill, W.D. 1982. Ductility of

Square-Confined Concrete Columns. Journal of the
Structural Division 108(4): 929-950.
Ricles, J.M. & Paboojian, S.D. 1994. Seismic performance of
steel-encased composite columns. Journal of Structural
Engineering, ASCE 120(8): 2474-2494.
Schneider, S.P. 1998. Axially loaded concrete-filled steel tubes.
Journal of Structural Engineering, ASCE 124(10):
1125-1138.
Sheng, H.T. & Guo, Y.L. 2008. Load-carry ing capacity of high
steel ratio SRC columns used in New CCTV Building.
Journal of Building Structures 29(03): 40-46 (in Chinese).
Shi, G., Ban, H.Y., Shi, Y.J. & Wang, Y.Q. 2013. Overview of
research progress for high strength steel structures. Journal
of Engineering Mechanics (01):1-13 (in Chinese).
YB9082-2006. 2006. Technical specification of steelreinforced concrete structures. Beijing: Metallurgical
Industry Press (in Chinese).
Zhao, H.T. 2001. Steel and concrete composite structure.
Beijing: China Science Press (in Chinese).
Zhao, X.Z., Qin, H. & Chen, Y.Y. 2014. Experimental study on
constitutive model of steel confined concrete in SRC
columns with cruciform steel section. Journal of Building
Structures 35(04): 268-279 (in Chinese).

u/y

1.8

Kci

1.8

1.0
0.8

SRC-B-1
SRC-B-2
SRC-B-3
1
2
3
4
(Q390-C60) (Q460-C70) (Q460-C60)

Specimen number
Figure 15. Effect of strength combination.

5 CONCLUSIONS
(1) The experimental study in this paper demonstrates
the existence of concrete confinement offered by high
strength steel. Significant confinement is not present until
the axial load reaches 75% of the yield load of specimens,
the horizontal expansion difference of steel indicates that
the confinement reaches maximum when ultimate load is
reached, after that the concrete confinement degenerates.
(2) Larger area ratio of steel to concrete provides
increase in concrete strength, but little effect is shown on
the ductility of specimen.
(3) With the increasing of confined dimension of steel
flange, the strength improvement of concrete and
ductility are increased significantly, thus larger confined
dimension of steel flange in SRC columns is suggested to
achieve better concrete confinement.
(4) Compared to Q390 steel, Q460 steel does not offer
better confinement for concrete. Furthermore, individual
strength increase has little benefit on concrete
confinement.
REFERRENCES
Chen, C.C. & Lin, N.J. 2006. Analytical model for predicting
axial capacity and behavior of concrete encased steel
composite stub columns. Journal of Constructional Steel
Research 62(5): 424-433.
Ellobody, E. & Young, B. 2011. Numerical simulation of
concrete encased steel composite columns. Journal of
Constructional Steel Research 67(2): 211-222.
JGJ138-2001. 2001. Technical specification for steel reinforced
concrete composite structures. Beijing: China Architecture
& Building Press (in Chinese).
Lee, T. & Pan, A.D.E. 2001. Analysis of composite
beam-columns under lateral cyclic loading. Journal of
Structural Engineering, ASCE 127(2): 186-193.
Mander, J.B., Priestley, M.J.N. & Park, R. 1988. Theoretical
stress-strain model for confined concrete. Journal of
Structural Engineering, ASCE 114(8): 1804-1826.
Mirza, S.A. & Skrabek, B.W. 1992. Statistical Analysis of
Slender Composite Beam-Column Strength. Journal of
Structural Engineering, ASCE 118(5): 1312-1332.

196

11th International Conference on

Advances in Steel and Concrete Composite Structures
Tsinghua University, Beijing, China, December 3-5, 2015

CYCLIC BEHAVIOUR OF CONCRETE FILLED STAINLESS

STEEL TUBULAR BEAM-COLUMNS
F. Y. Liaoa, L. H. Hanb, Z. Taoc & K.J.R Rasmussen d
a

College of Transportation and Civil Engineering, Fujian Agriculture and Forestry University, Fuzhou, Fujian, China
E-mail: feiyu.liao@fafu.edu.cn
b

Department of Civil Engineering, Tsinghua University, Beijing, 100084, China

E-mail: lhhan@tsinghua.edu.cn
c

Institute for Infrastructure Engineering, Western Sydney University, Penrith, NSW 2751, Australia
E-mail: z.tao@westernsydney.edu.au

School of Civil Engineering, University of Sydney, Australia

E-mail: kim.rasmussen@sydney.edu.au

ABSTRACT
Keywords:
Concrete filled tubes; Stainless
steel; Beam-columns; Cyclic
loading; Ductility; Energy
dissipation.

Concrete filled stainless steel tubular (CFSST) columns have attracted increasing research
interests in recent years; however the behaviour of this type of innovative column under cyclic
loading has not been addressed so far. This paper reports test results of ten CFSST
beam-columns under constant axial load and cyclically increasing flexural loading. The main
parameters varied in the experiments were axial load level, cross-sectional type, and concrete
type. The influences of these parameters on strength, ductility, stiffness and energy dissipation
were investigated. It was found that CFSST beam-columns exhibited excellent energy
dissipation and ductility, even when the specimens were subjected to high axial loads. The
hysteretic behaviour of the tested CFSST beam-columns was compared to that of the carbon
steel composite counterparts reported in the literature, and it was found that the CFSST
beam-columns exhibit higher deformation ability and ductility under cyclic loading.

Stainless steel
tube

1 INTRODUCTION
In recent times, the use of stainless steel in
construction has attracted considerable interest from both
researchers and engineers (Gardner, 2005; Uy et al.,
2011). Compared with conventional carbon steel,
stainless steel has several advantages, such as extremely
high durability, excellent corrosion resistance, easiness of
maintenance and improved fire resistance. However, the
utilisation of stainless steel in real structures has still been
limited by its relatively high initial cost. One of the
solutions to reduce the economic disadvantage of
stainless steel is using stainless steel and concrete
composite structures in which the high cost of stainless
steel is expected to be partly offset by the cheaper
concrete, such as filling concrete into stainless steel tubes
to form concrete filled stainless steel tubes (CFSST), as
shown in Figure 1. Indeed, this type of innovative
composite construction has been used in some real
projects, such as the Hearst tower in New York and
Stonecutters bridge in Hong Kong.

Concrete

D
(a) Circular cross-section
Stainless steel
tube

Concrete

B
(b) Square cross-section
Figure 1. Cross-sections of CFSST

197

Liao et al.

2 EXPERIMENTAL PROGRAM

As shown in Figure 2, the stressstrain behaviour of

stainless steel is quite different from that of carbon steel.
Whereas carbon steel normally exhibit a sharp yield point
followed by a flat yield plateau, stainless steel shows a
rounded stressstrain relation without sharp yield point
and demonstrates considerable strain hardening capacity
and high ductility (Gardner, 2005; Rasmussen, 2003;
Quach et al., 2008). The different material properties may
induce different structural behaviours between stainless
steel and conventional carbon steel CFST columns. This
was confirmed by various studies on CFSST columns,
such as stub column tests by Lam and Gardner (2008)
and Young and Ellobody (2006), short and slender
column tests by Uy et al. (2011), finite element analysis
of square CFSST stub columns by Tao et al. (2011), and
fire tests by Han et al. (2013). In general, these research
results demonstrated that CFSST columns possess
excellent performance and ductility under static loading.

2.1 Specimen preparation

Ten CFSST beam-column specimens were tested.
Test parameters were the sectional type (circular and
square), axial load level (n=0.02, 0.3 and 0.6) and
in-filled concrete type (recycled aggregate concrete
(RAC) and normal concrete). The axial load level (n) is
defined as:
n

Stainless steel

Carbon steel

0.2%

(1)

where N0 is the axial load applied to the composite

column, and Nu is the axial compressive capacity of the
column. The value of Nu was determined by using the
finite element (FE) model developed previously by Han
et al. (2013), where the measured material properties in
the current tests were used in the calculations.
Table 1 summarises the detailed information of the
test specimens, where D and B are the overall diameter
of a circular section and width of a square section,
respectively; and t is the wall thickness of the steel tube.
The specimen labels listed in Table 1 were designated by
using the following rules:

The initial character C or S means a circular or

square section;

The following character N or R denotes that the

in-filled concrete was normal or recycled aggregate
concrete;

The last number 0, 3 or 6 stands for the axial

load level n= 0.02, 0.3 or 0.6.

fy or
0.2

N0
Nu

Figure 2. Indicative stainless steel and carbon steel - relations

Table 1. Specimen information

In the past several decades, carbon steel CFST

columns have also been widely used in seismic regions
due to their excellent earthquake-resisting properties
(Han and Yang 2005; Han et al. 2003; Varma et al. 2002;
Han et al. 2006; Elremaily and Azizinamini 2002).
Considering the behavioural difference between stainless
steel and carbon steel, there is a need to understand the
seismic behaviour of CFSST columns before they can be
safely used in earthquake-prone zones. However,
research on CFSST columns under cyclic lateral loading
is still missing, which indicates a need for further
research in this area. Consequently, this paper presents
tests on ten CFSST beam-columns conducted by
cyclically increasing the flexural loading while keeping
the axial load constant. The tests aimed to investigate the
influence of axial load level, cross-sectional type and
infilled concrete type on the seismic behaviour of CFSST
columns, and to compare the hysteretic performance of
stainless steel composite specimens with that of
conventional carbon steel counterparts.

Section
type

Circular

Square

Specimen
label
CN-0
CN-3
CR-3
CN-6
CR-6
SN-0
SN-3
SR-3
SN-6
SR-6

Concrete
type
Normal
Normal
RAC
Normal
RAC
Normal
Normal
RAC
Normal
RAC

N0
(kN)

Pue
(kN)

16.1
241.7
230.7
483.3
461.4
27.6
414.4
398.2
829.0
796.5

0.02
0.3
0.6
0.3
0.6
0.02
0.3
0.6
0.3
0.6

61.5
61.1
62.4
54.3
52.7
140.1
130.7
132.5
88.4
91.9

> 8.95
5.28
7.04
4.58
4.69
> 6.09
3.03
3.59
2.44
2.11

Due to the limitation of the test setup, only small

scale specimen could be tested. Therefore, the diameter D
and width B of the cross-section were selected as 120 mm
and the thickness was 4.0 mm for all specimens. Further
research is required to clarify any size effect on the
beam-column behaviour.
All CFSST beam-columns were designed to have the
same length. In preparing the specimens, stainless steel
tubes were cut and machined to the required nominal
length of 1,500 mm, and then welded to a 16 mm thick
steel base plate at one end. Subsequently,

198

Liao et al.

self-consolidating concrete (SCC) was poured into the

steel tube in layers without any vibration. Finally, another
16 mm thick steel base plate was welded to the top of the
stainless steel tube.

axial load and cyclically increasing flexural load. The

measured total length of the specimens was 1,532 mm
including the two steel base plates. Prior to testing, the
steel base plates of the specimen were attached to
cylindrical bearings. This allowed the specimen to freely
rotate in-plane, thus simulating pin-pin end conditions.
The clear distance between the two pins, namely the
effective length (L) of the beam-column, was 1,862 mm.
The axial load (N0) was applied and maintained constant
by a hydraulic jack of 1,000 kN capacity. The lateral load
was applied by an MTS hydraulic actuator at the
mid-span of the specimen.
The tests were performed under cyclic loading and
terminated when the applied lateral load decreased to a
value smaller than 85% of the peak load. The axial
compressive load (N0) was applied at the beginning of the
test, and was kept constant during the whole process of
testing. The cyclic lateral load (P) was applied to the
mid-span of the beam-column according to ATC-24 code
(1992), where the loading history of P consists of a force
control stage and a displacement control stage, as shown
in Fig. 4. The force control stage was performed at the
load levels of 0.25Pu, 0.5Pu and 0.7Pu, respectively,
where Pu is the estimated lateral load capacity. Two
cycles were imposed at each load level in this stage.
During the displacement control stage, the loading was
applied as increments in displacement at the levels of 1y,
1.5y, 2y, 3y, 5y, 7y, and 8y, where y (= 0.7Pu/Ksec,
Ksec is the secant stiffness corresponding to a load of
0.7Pu) is the estimated yield displacement. Three cycles
were imposed at the displacement levels of 1y, 1.5y
and 2y, and two cycles were imposed at each of the
higher displacement levels.

2.2 Material properties

Grade AISI 304 austenitic stainless steel was used to
fabricate the CFSST specimens. A series of tensile
coupon tests was conducted to obtain the material
properties of the stainless steel. The results indicated that
the stainless steel showed obvious non-linear stressstrain
characteristics. The three basic RambergOsgood
parameters, i.e., the initial elastic modulus E0, the 0.2%
proof stress 0.2 and the strain-hardening exponent n0, as
well as the measured Poissons ratio and ultimate tensile
strength (u) from the coupon tests, are given in Table 2.
Table 2. Material properties of stainless steel

0.2

Section
type

E0
(GPa)

(MPa)

Circular

202.1

Square

198.3

Poissons
ratio

(MPa)

362.1 3.997

0.265

721.7

385.1 2.770

0.306

715.0

n0

Two types of SCC concrete were prepared to fill the

steel tubes, namely normal concrete and recycled
aggregate concrete (RAC). For RAC, 50% by weight of
natural coarse aggregate was replaced by recycled coarse
aggregate which was obtained by crushing waste concrete
taken from previously tested CFST specimens. Carbonate
aggregate was chosen as the natural coarse aggregate
with a size range of 5-20 mm. Three aggregate grades,
i.e., 5-10 mm, 10-20 mm, and 20-30 mm, were made for
the recycled coarse aggregate. The physical properties of
the natural coarse aggregate are: unit weight 2605 kg/m3,
bulk density 1405 kg/m3, crushing value 15.4% and water
absorption 0.56%; whilst those for the recycled coarse
aggregate are: unit weight 2394 kg/m3, bulk density 1120
kg/m3, crushing value 16.2% and water absorption 3.04%.
Obviously, the recycled coarse aggregate had lower
density and higher absorption than the natural aggregate
due to the presence of residual mortar attached to the
recycled concrete particles.
For each batch of concrete mixture, three 150 mm
cubes were cast and cured in conditions similar to the
CFSST test specimens. The average cube compressive
strengths (fcu) of the normal concrete and RAC at the time
of testing were 65.4 MPa and 64.9 MPa respectively, and
the measured Youngs moduli were 29,500 MPa and
30,800 MPa respectively. These results indicate that the
replacement of 50% natural coarse aggregate by recycled
concrete aggregate had no obvious influence on the
mechanical properties of the concrete.

3 EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

3.1 Experimental observations
All test specimens behaved in a ductile manner and
testing proceeded in a smooth and controlled way. For the
circular sections, when the imposed lateral displacement
attained 3-5y, it was observed that the stainless steel
tube developed slight outward buckling near the mid-span
where the lateral load was applied. At the incremental
displacement of 6-7y, local buckling became significant
and a pronounced outward bulge had formed close to the
mid-span. Upon further loading, the bulge grew rapidly
until a complete ring-formed outward buckle had
developed on the stainless steel tube. For the square
specimens, local buckling of the steel section appeared
earlier than in the circular counterpart test. Buckling was
first observed at the incremental displacement of 1.5-2y,
and an outward buckle in all four component plates had
formed near the mid-span as the displacement attained
3-4y. Most of the square specimens failed when steel
fracture occurred at the corners near the mid-span where

2.3 Test setup and load history

The specimens were tested under combined constant

199

Liao et al.

large outward local buckles had formed. Generally, the

failure mode of RAC infilled specimens was very similar
to that of the specimens with normal core concrete.
Compared with conventional carbon steel CFST
specimens tested by Han and Yang (2005) and Han et al.
(2006), it seems that there is no obvious difference in
terms of test observations and failure modes.

around 7% and 37%, whereas Pue of the circular CFSST

beam-columns decreased by around 1% and 12%.
Regarding the different type of concrete, infilling RAC or
normal concrete has a negligible impact on Pue.
150

P (kN)

75

3.2 Lateral load (P) versus lateral deflection ()

curves

-75

The recorded lateral load (P) versus mid-span lateral

displacement () hysteretic curves for all specimens are
shown in Figure 3. The hysteretic loops of the P- curves
of CFSST beam-columns are very plump under cyclic
loading and no obvious pinching effect is seen even for
specimens under a relatively small axial load level.
Compared with the square section, a circular steel tube
tends to offer better confinement to its concrete core. For
this reason, the circular CFSST beam-columns have
plumper hysteretic loops than the square ones. The axial
load level has significant influence on the shape of the
hysteretic curves, particularly in the unloading stage. As
the axial load level increases, the slope of the post-peak
curve becomes much steeper and the energy dissipation
capacity decreases significantly. In general, the features
of CFSST beam-columns under constant axial load and
cyclically increasing flexural loading are quite similar to
those of conventional CFST beam-columns (Han and
Yang, 2005; Han et al., 2006), except that CFSST
beam-columns seem to show higher deformation ability
whether the axial load level is low or high.
The lateral load (P) versus lateral displacement ()
envelope curves of all specimens are shown in Figure 4,
where the curves were obtained by connecting the peak
point of each loading increment on the hysteretic curves.
Table 1 gives the ultimate lateral loads (Pue) obtained in
all tests, calculated as the average values of the positive
and negative maximum lateral loads obtained from the
P- responses. It should be noted that, for some
specimens such as CN-0, the lateral load P kept
increasing without any descending stage on its P-
envelope curve. In this case, the ultimate strength (Pue)
was determined as the lateral load corresponding to the
time that the maximum tensile strain of the steel tube
attained 10000 (Han, 2007).
It was found from Figure 4 that both the ultimate
strength and ductility of the tested CFSST beam-columns
decreased with the increase of axial load level (n). Such
trend has been well documented for conventional CFST
beam-columns under cyclic lateral loading (Han and
Yang, 2005). From Table 1, it can be seen that the axial
load level tended to impose a more significant influence
on Pue for square sections than for circular sections.
When n was increased from 0.02 to 0.3 and then to 0.6,
Pue of the square CFSST beam-columns decreased by

-150
-200 -100

(mm)

100 200

(a) CN-0

75

75

P (kN)

150

P (kN)

150

-75

-75

-150

-150

-200 -100

(mm)

-200 -100

100 200

(b) CN-3

75

75
P (kN)

150

P (kN)

150

(mm)

100 200

(d) CN-6

-200 -100

100 200

(mm)

(e) CR-6

(1) Circular section

200
100
P (kN)

-150

-200 -100

-100
-200

(a) SN-0

100 200

-75

-150

-150 -75

(mm)

(c) CR-3

-75

200

(mm)

75

150

200

200

100

100

P (kN)

P (kN)

Liao et al.

-100

-100

-200

-200
-150 -75

affects the ductility of specimens under cyclic lateral

loading. The circular stainless steel tube tends to provide
better confinement to its core concrete, and
correspondingly the circular CFSSTs have higher
ductility coefficients () than their square counterparts.

(mm)

75

-150 -75

150

(mm)

75

150

150

CN-0
CN-3
CR-3
CN-6
CR-6

75

200

100

100

-75

-100

-200

-200
0

(mm)

75

-150 -75

150

-100

-150 -75

P (kN)

200

P (kN)

(c) SR-3

P (kN)

(b) SN-3

-150
-200
0

(mm)

75

-100

150

100

200

75

150

(mm)

(a) Circular section

(d) SN-6

(e) SR-6

200

(2) Square section

Figure 3. Lateral load (P) versus lateral displacement ()

SN-0
SN-3
SR-3
SN-6
SR-6

100

P (kN)

hysteretic curves

3.3 Ductility
For convenience of analysis, the ductility coefficient
() is defined to quantify the ductility of CFST
beam-columns subjected to constant axial load and
cyclically increasing flexural loading. It is expressed as
(Han, 2007):

u
y

-100

-200
-150

(2)

-75

(mm)

(b) Square section

Figure 4. P envelop curves

where y is the yielding displacement, and u is the

displacement corresponding to when the axial load falls
to 85% of the ultimate strength (Pue). It should be noted
that the lateral load (P) of the specimens with n=0.02
(CN-0 and SN-0) kept increasing during the loading
process (see Figure 4). Therefore, in the calculation of
ductility coefficient () for these two specimens, the
lateral displacement at the end of loading was adopted to
replace the failure displacement (u) in Eq. (2).
The ductility coefficients thus determined are
presented in Table 1 for all tested CFSST beam-columns.
The coefficient () is taken as the average of the values
obtained for the positive side and the negative side. It is
not surprising to see that the ductility coefficient ()
decreases with the increase in axial load level (n). The
-values for CN-3 with normal concrete and CR-3 with
RAC are 5.28 and 7.04, respectively. Apart from these
two specimens, other specimens with RAC generally
have close -values compared with their counterpart
specimens with normal concrete. The sectional type also

3.4 Dissipated energy

Energy dissipation ability is another important index
to evaluate for the seismic performance of a member or
structure. In this paper, the cumulative energy (E) was
calculated from the P- hysteretic curve as the area
enclosed by the hysteretic hoops. The cumulative energy
(E) versus relative lateral displacement () curves are
given in Figure 5. In general, the maximum dissipated
energy of a circular specimen is higher than that of the
square counterpart. The reason is attributed to the fact
that local buckling occurred earlier for the square
beam-columns, thus reducing their deformation capacity
when compared with the circular beam-columns. It was
also found that the maximum energy dissipated for a
CFSST specimen tends to decrease with the increase of
the axial load level due to reduced deformation capacity
and/or reduced load-carrying capacity. Compared with

201

Liao et al.

the specimens made with normal concrete, the maximum

dissipated energy for the specimens made with RAC
decreases by 7.8-17.0%. This may be attributed to the
lower quality of RAC. Despite this, RAC can still be
considered as an alternative choice to replace normal
concrete in infilling stainless steel tube without causing
obvious strength and ductility loss for the CFSST
beam-columns. The combined use of RAC and the
stainless steel tube produces a very environmentally
friendly type of composite construction.

care should be taken to select suitable test specimens,

which is described as follows.
A confinement factor () was presented by Han (2007)
to describe the passive confinement of carbon steel tubes
on concrete. The expression of is as follows:

CN-0
CN-3
CR-3
CN-6
CR-6

E (kN.m)

30
15
0
0

30

60

90

120

150

180

(mm)

(a) Circular section

40
SN-0
SN-3
SR-3
SN-6
SR-6

E (kN.m)

30
20
10
0
0

30

60

90

(3)

where As and Ac are the cross-sectional areas of the steel

and concrete, respectively; fy is the yield stress of the
carbon steel; and fck is the characteristic strength of the
concrete. The value of fck is determined using 67% of the
compressive cube strength (fcu) for normal strength
concrete. It was found that the core concrete tends to
exhibit more ductile behaviour as increases. Hence, to
some extent, represents the composite action between
the steel tube and concrete. It was found that can also be
used to gauge the confinement effect in CFSST columns
(Tao et al., 2011). Therefore, to make a meaningful
comparison, a selected carbon steel CFST beam-column
should have a confinement factor () close to that of the
corresponding CFSST specimen.
Since the applied axial load level (n) also has a
significant impact on the cyclic behaviour of
beam-columns, n-values should also be kept the same or
very close. Based on the above considerations, two
circular carbon steel specimens SC2-1 and SC2-4
reported by Han and Yang (2005) were chosen to
compare with the current circular stainless steel
specimens CN-0 and CN-6. The parameters for SC2-1
and SC2-4 are: D t = 114 3 mm, fy = 308 MPa, fcu =
38.9 MPa, steel modulus of elasticity Es = 200,000 MPa.
The value of for both SC2-1 and SC2-4 is 1.31, whereas
the CFSST specimens CN-0 and CN-6 have a slightly
smaller -value of 1.23; (the 0.2% proof stress 0.2 for
stainless steel is used to replace fy in Eq. (3) to calculate
). The length of the CFST specimens SC2-1 and SC2-4
is 1,532 mm, which is the same as that of the CFSST
counterparts. Additionally, the SC2-1 and SC2-4
specimens were also tested under constant axial load and
increasing cyclic lateral loading using similar test setup
and loading protocol as those used in the current tests.
The specimen SC2-1 with an axial load level of 0.02 will
be compared with the CFSST counterpart CN-0 (n= 0.02),
whilst SC2-4 with a high axial load level of 0.6 will be
compared with CN-6 (n= 0.6).
Figures 6(a) and (b) compare the P- hysteretic
responses of the two types of specimens using different
steels. To make the comparison more meaningful, the
lateral load P and lateral deflection are normalised as
P/Pmax and /y, respectively. It can be seen that both
CFSST and CFST beam-columns exhibit very favorable
seismic behaviour without obvious pinching effect
observed in their hysteretic responses. Compared with the
CFST counterparts, the CFSST specimens generally

60
45

As f y

Ac f ck

120

(mm)

(b) Square section

Figure 5. Dissipated energy (E) versus lateral deflection ()
relations

4 COMPARISON BETWEEN CFSST AND CFST

BEAM-COLUMNS
As shown in Figure 2, the stressstrain behaviour of
stainless steel is different from that of carbon steel, and
stainless steel displays much higher ductility than carbon
steel. Such material property differences might lead to
different structural behaviour of stainless steel and carbon
steel CFST beam-columns under constant axial load and
cyclic lateral loading. To investigate possible differences
in behaviour between CFSST and conventional CFST
beam-columns, the P curves of two typical CFST
specimens available in the literature were selected and
compared to those of the CFSST specimens of the current
test series. To obtain a meaningful comparison, particular

202

Liao et al.

display plumper hysteretic hoops, which might indicate

that the stainless steel composite members have better
energy dissipation ability under cyclic loading.

1.5

CFSST (CN-0)
CFST (SC2-1)

P /P max (kN)

to a large axial compressive load, the core concrete rather

than the steel dominantly affects the performance of
composite members. This explains the minor influence of
steel type on the beam-column performance when n is 0.6.
However, in the case of n=0.02, only a small part of the
concrete cross-section at the mid-span is under
compression due to the flexural bending. Therefore, the
CFSST specimen CN-0 demonstrates obvious
strain-hardening effect.

0.5
0

5 CONCLUSIONS

-0.5

Based on the limited research reported in the paper, the

following conclusions can be drawn:
(1)
CFSST beam-columns exhibit excellent energy
dissipation and ductility. Generally, the energy
dissipation ability of the beam-columns decreases
with increasing axial load level. The cyclic
behaviour of specimens infilled with recycled
aggregate concrete (RAC) is generally very
similar to that of the specimens with normal
concrete. Compared with square sections, circular
CFSST sections exhibit better hysteretic
performance, higher ductility and superior energy
absorption capacity.
(2)
Compared with carbon steel counterparts, CFSST
beam-columns have higher ductility, higher
deformation ability and higher residual strength
under cyclic loading, due to the considerable
strain hardening capacity and high ductility of
stainless steel.
(3)
The excellent seismic performance of CFSST
columns makes them very favourable to be
adopted as structural columns in building
structures in earthquake-prone zones.

-1
-1.5
-10

-5

/ y (mm)

10

10

(a) n=0.02
1.5
CFSST (CN-6)
CFST (SC2-4)

P /P max (kN)

1
0.5
0

-0.5
-1
-1.5
-10

-5

/ y (mm)

(b) n=0.6
Figure 6. Comparisons of P/Pmax /y hysteretic curves of
CFSST and CFST beam-columns

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Under a high axial load level of 0.6, the P-
hysteretic curves of CFST and CFSST specimens are
generally similar, as shown in Figure 6(b), whereas some
difference is identified when the axial load is very small,
as shown in Figure 6(a). The CFST beam-column (SC2-1)
reaches its peak load earlier due to the smaller strain
hardening capacity of ordinary steel. After reaching the
peak load, the lateral load (P/Pmax) of the CFST
counterpart (SC2-1) tends to decrease gradually, whereas
the P/Pmax curve of the CFSST specimen (CN-0)
experiences significant hardening even under large lateral
deformation (see Figure 6(a)). At a late loading stage,
slight pinching effect is observed for the CFST
beam-column, but not for the CFSST beam-column CN-0.
This is mainly due to the considerable strain hardening of
the stainless steel after yielding. For a specimen subjected

203

The study of this paper is financially supported by

the Distinguished Young Scholars scheme from the
Education Department of Fujian Province (JA12090) and
the Provincial Natural Science Foundation of Fujian
(2012J01192). This financial support is greatly
appreciated.
REFERENCES
ATC-24. 1992. Guidelines for cyclic seismic testing of
components of steel structures, Redwood City (CA): Applied
Technology Council.
Elremaily, A., Azizinamini, A. 2002. Behavior and strength of
circular concrete-filled tube columns. Journal of
Constructional Steel Research 58 (12): 1567-1591.
Gardner L. 2005. The use of stainless steel in structures.
Progress in Structural Engineering and Materials 7(2): 4555.

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Han, L.H., Yang, Y.F., Tao, Z. 2003. Concrete-filled thin
walled steel RHS beam-columns subjected to cyclic loading.
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Han, L.H., Yang, Y.F. 2005. Cyclic performance of
concrete-filled steel CHS columns under flexural loading.
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Han, L.H., Huang, H., Tao, Z., Zhao, X.L. 2006. Concrete-filled
double skin steel tubular (CFDST) beamcolumns subjected to
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Han, L.H. 2007. Concrete-filled steel tubular structures - theory
and practice (2nd ed.). Beijing: China Science Press (in
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Han, L.H., Chen, F., Liao, F.Y., Tao, Z., Uy, B. 2013.
Performance of Concrete Filled Stainless Steel Tubular
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Lam, D., Gardner, L. 2008. Structural design of stainless steel
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Quach, W.M., Teng, J.G., Chung, K.F. 2008. Three-stage
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stainless steel alloys. Journal of Constructional Steel Research
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Varma, A.H., Ricles, J.M., Sause, R., Lu, L.W. 2002. Seismic
behavior and modeling of high-strength composite
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204

11th International Conference on

Advances in Steel and Concrete Composite Structures
Tsinghua University, Beijing, China, December 3-5, 2015

FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS ON AXIAL COMPRESSIVE

BEHAVIOR OF CIRCULAR CONCRETE FILLED BIMETAL
TUBULAR SHORT COLUMNS
Y. Yea, L. H. Hana & T. Sheehanb
a

Department of Civil Engineering, Tsinghua University, Beijing, China

E-mails: qzyeyong@126.com, lhhan@tsinghua.edu.cn

School of Engineering, University of Bradford, Bradford, United Kingdom

E-mail: t.sheehan@bradford.ac.uk
ABSTRACT
Keywords:
Bimetal; Concrete filled
bimetal tube; Stainless steel;
Gap; Axial compression; FE
modeling

This paper presents the finite element (FE) analysis on axial compressive behavior of innovative
concrete filled bimetal tubular (CFBT) columns. The cross section of the bimetal tube is
composed of an outer layer made of stainless steel and an inner layer made of carbon steel.
Three dimensional FE models for circular CFBT short columns subjected to axial compression
were established using the FE software ABAQUS. After being verified with existing
experimental data of concrete filled steel tubular (CFST) columns, the FE models were used to
study the failure mode, load versus deformation relationship, axial strength, and efficiency of the
CFBT columns. Analytical results show that the composite action between the concrete core and
the bimetal tube in a CFBT column is as effective as that in a CFST column. The gap between
the two layers of the bimetal tube has an obvious influence on the failure mode and axial
strength of CFBT columns. When the gap ratio is larger than 0.5%, the corresponding CFBT
column exhibits a strength reduction of more than 5%. The effect of coefficient of friction
between the stainless steel and the carbon steel on the axial compressive behavior of circular
CFBT short columns is negligible.

the high cost. The cost of stainless steel is still several

times that of mild carbon steel, so more efforts should be
made to make better use of the stainless steel at this stage.
With the purpose of further utilizing the advantages of
stainless steel and compensating for its high cost, an
innovative concrete filled bimetal tube (CFBT) is
proposed in this paper. Fig. 1 shows a schematic of the
CFBT, which is composed of a bimetal tube and the
concrete core. The cross section of the bimetal tube
comprises an outer layer made of stainless steel and an
inner layer made of carbon steel. It is expected that a
CFBT column will ideally combine the advantages of
both stainless steel and conventional concrete filled steel
tubes.
So far, a great number of investigations have been
carried out on the structural behavior of carbon steel
CFST members (Zhao et al., 2010), and the research on
CFSST members is also increasing (Hassanein et al.,
2013). To the authors knowledge, there has no literature
available on the research of CFBT yet. Therefore, this
paper is devoted to conducting a finite element (FE)
analysis on the structural behavior of circular CFBT short
columns, which are subjected to axial compression.

1 INTRODUCTION
Concrete filled steel tubular (CFST) structures have
been used more and more widely in structural
engineering (Han et al., 2014). The successful application
of CFST is due to its mechanical and constructional
advantages such as high strength and easy installation.
Nowadays, carbon steel is still the most common material
that used in the steel tube of a CFST member. When
exposed to humidity and air, carbon steel always suffers
from corrosion due to its natural characteristics. In order
to deal with the problem of corrosion, additional
measures, such as painting and plating, are necessary to
insure the durability of the carbon steel tube.
In recent times, the use of stainless steel has attracted
an accelerating interest around the world (Gardner, 2005).
Stainless steel is known to be extremely durable,
corrosion resistant, and easily maintained. One of the
promising methods to fully utilize the mechanical
behavior of stainless steel in structures is to use hollow
sections filled with concrete, otherwise known as
concrete filled stainless steel tubes (CFSST). However,
compared with mild carbon steel, the structural use of
stainless steel is still in its infancy, mainly inhibited by
205

Ye et al.

elastic modulus of the core concrete were 51 MPa and

3.65104 N/mm2. The 0.2% proof stress, ultimate
strength, initial elastic modulus, nonlinearity index, and
the Poissons ratio of the stainless steel were 420 MPa,
600 MPa, 2.00105 N/mm2, 5, and 0.30, respectively. The
coefficient of friction between the carbon steel tube and
core concrete was taken as 0.4.
A summary of the specimen information is listed in
Table 1, in which, the thickness ratio of stainless steel
tube (s) varied from 0.20 to 0.40 for the specimen group
C1 (C1-1~C1-5), the gap ratio () varied from 0.125% to
1.000% for the specimen group C2 (C2-1~C2-6), and
coefficient of friction (s-s) varied from 0 to 0.1 for the
specimen group C3 (C3-1~C3-3).

Concrete

Inner layer of
bimetal tube

Outer layer of
bimetal tube

Figuer 1. Schematic of CFBT column

2 FE MODEL AND VERIFICATION

2.2 Finite element type and mesh

2.1 Research parameters

ABAQUS software was used for the FE analysis of

circular CFBT/CFST short columns subjected to axial
compression. All the components of the specimen, i.e.,
the stainless steel tube, carbon steel tube, core concrete,
and the two endplates, were modeled with 8-node brick
elements (C3D8R). A mesh with approximate global size
of 30mm was used in the current modeling, as shown in
Fig. 3(a).

A total of fourteen circular CFBT short columns and

one CFST column were simulated under axial
compression. The research parameters considered
included the thickness ratio of stainless steel tube (s,
=to/tt, to and tt represent the wall thickness of stainless
steel tube and the total wall thickness of the bimetal tube,
respectively) and coefficient of friction between the two
layers of the bimetal tube (s-s).
In practice to manufacture the bimetal tube, a stainless
steel tube and a carbon steel tube can be fabricated
respectively, and then the carbon steel tube is put into the
stainless steel tube along the longitudinal axial to form
the bimetal cross section. The inner diameter of the
stainless steel tube should be equal or larger than the
outer diameter of the carbon steel tube. There may
possibly be a gap existing between the stainless steel tube
and the carbon steel tube, as shown in Fig. 2. As a result,
the gap ratio (=2g/D, g is the magnitude of
circumferential gap between the stainless steel tube and
carbon steel tube, D is the outer diameter of the stainless
steel tube) was also taken as a research parameter in this
research.

(a) FE mesh
Loaded level of
the cap
Partition line

to

Lower bond of
the CFBT

Stainless steel tube

Concrete

Gap
Carbon steel tube
g

ti

(b) Boundary condition and load application

Figure 3. Typical finite element model

Figure 2. Schematic of test cross section

A surface-based interaction with hard contact in the

normal direction and a Coulomb friction model in the
tangential direction to the interface was used to simulate
the interfacial behavior between the carbon steel tube and
core concrete as well as the stainless steel tube and
carbon steel tube. The hard contact property allows

The length of all the specimens was 1200 mm, and the
diameter of the concrete core was 380 mm. The carbon
steel had an elastic modulus of 2.06105 N/mm2, a yield
strength of 360 MPa and a Poissons ratio of 0.30,
respectively. The cylinder compressive strength and

206

Ye et al.

Table 1 Summary of test information

Specimen
label

D
(mm)

to
(mm)

ti
(mm)

g
(mm)

(%)

s-s

Pu
(kN)

u
(mm)

Pu,a
(kN)

C0

400

10.0

11527

6.953

8872

1.299

C1-1

400

2.0

8.0

0.20

0.15

11916

7.553

9060

1.315

C1-2

400

2.5

7.5

0.25

0.15

12014

7.553

9106

1.319

C1-3

400

3.0

7.0

0.30

0.15

12120

7.563

9153

1.324

C1-4

400

3.5

6.5

0.35

0.15

12216

7.853

9199

1.328

C1-5

400

4.0

6.0

0.40

0.15

12320

7.853

9245

1.333

C2-1
C2-2
C2-3
C2-4
C2-5
C2-6
C3-1
C3-2

400.5
401
401.5
402
403
404
400
400

3.0
3.0
3.0
3.0
3.0
3.0
3.0
3.0

7.0
7.0
7.0
7.0
7.0
7.0
7.0
7.0

0.25
0.50
0.75
1.00
1.50
2.00
0
0

0.125
0.250
0.375
0.500
0.750
1.000
0
0

0.15
0.15
0.15
0.15
0.15
0.15
0
0.05

12155
12086
11870
11596
11181
10920
12116
12117

8.772
9.726
12.972
14.182
8.763
10.863
7.553
7.553

9155
9157
9159
9161
9165
9169
9153
9153

1.328
1.320
1.296
1.266
1.220
1.191
1.324
1.324

C3-3

400

3.0

7.0

0.30
0.30
0.30
0.30
0.30
0.30
0.30
0.30
0.30

0.10

12118

7.553

9153

1.324

pressure to be transmitted between the contacting

surfaces and separation of the two contacting surfaces.

for 0.2
E 0.002( )
0
0.2

0.2 ( 0.2 ) m for
u
0.2
0.2
E0.2
u 0.2

2.3 Boundary conditions and load application

(2)

The CFST/CFBT models established herein had fixed

ends but axial displacement was allowed at the loaded
end. A displacement-controlled mode was adopted to
apply the axial load at the top of the upper endplate, as
shown in Fig. 3(b). The nonlinear geometry parameter
(*NLGEOM) was included in dealing with the large
displacement analysis.

where u is the ultimate strain of the stainless steel; u is

the ultimate tensile strength of the stainless steel; E0.2 is
the tangent modulus of the - curve at the 0.2% proof
stress; m=1+3.50.2/u; and 0.2 is the strain corresponding
to 0.2.

2.4 Material models

2.4.2 Carbon steel

2.4.1 Stainless steel

A constitutive model proposed by Han et al. (2001)

was adopted to express the stress-strain relationships of
the carbon steel. The Von Mises yield function with
associated plastic flow was adopted in the multiaxial
stress states, and the carbon steel was assumed to behave
in an isotropic hardening manner.

The stainless steel material was modeled as Von

Mises material with isotropic hardening. The non-linear
stress-strain relationships for the stainless steel can be
expressed by the Ramberg-Osgood model (Ramberg and
Osgood, 1943) as:

n
)
0.002(
E0
0.2

2.4.3 Concrete
(1)

where is the strain; is the stress; E0 is the initial elastic

modulus of the stainless steel; 0.2 is the 0.2% proof stress;
and n is the nonlinearity index.
Eq. (1) is known to provide good agreement with
experimental stress-strain data up to the 0.2% proof stress
(0.2s), whilst the formula generally overestimates the
stresses for higher strains. Therefore, a two-stage
constitutive model proposed by Rasmussen (Rasmussen,
2003) was adopted to express the full range of
stress-strain behavior of the stainless steel material, as
follows:

207

The concrete-damaged plasticity model in ABAQUS

was used to simulate the concrete in CFBT/CFST
columns. It is known that the compressive strength of
concrete can be enhanced under hydrostatic pressure. The
concrete-damaged plasticity model is capable to consider
the enhancement effect under low confining pressure.
Since the steel tube in CFST members can provide strong
confinement to the core concrete, the effect should be
taken into account in the constitutive model of the
concrete. The uniaxial compressive stress-strain
relationship proposed by Han et al. (2007) was used for
the analysis of concrete herein. The equations for this
stress-strain relationship are given in the following:

Ye et al.

2 x x 2

y
x
( x 1) 2 x
0

for x 1
for x 1

well with the experimental results, especially for the

ultimate strength and initial stiffness.

(3)

3 SIMULATIVE RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

where x=/0; y=/0; =Asfy/Acfck; 0=fc (MPa);

7
0=c+8000.210-6; 0=(2.3610-5) [ 0.25( 0.5) ] (fc)0.50.5
0.12; c=(1300+12.5fc)10-6; fy is the yield strength of
the steel; fc is the cylinder compressive strength of the
concrete; Ac and As represent the cross sectional area of
the concrete and steel, respectively; fck is the
characteristic concrete strength, fck=0.67fcu.

The failure mode, axial load versus axial deformation

responses, ultimate strength, and the efficiency factors are
discussed in the following sections.

3.1 Failure mode

2.5 Verification of FE model

The accuracy of the established FE model was
verified with existing experimental data. The
comparisons of axial load (P) versus axial deformation ()
responses between the predicted values and Liao et al.s
(2011) experimental results are presented in Fig. 4.

The CFST column (C0) exhibited outward local

buckling near the two endplates, accompanied by obvious
expansion at mid-span. The CFBT columns with or
without gaps between the carbon steel tube and stainless
steel tube failed in different manners. The typical failure
modes of CFBT columns subjected to axial compression
are shown in Fig. 5, in which specimen C1-3 representing
the CFBT columns without gaps and specimen C2-6
representing the CFBT columns with gaps are included.

2500
Test (Liao et al., 2011)

P (kN)

2000

FE

1500

Local
buckling

D=180mm; t=3.85mm;
L=630mm; fy=360MPa;
fcu=64.1MPa

1000
500
0
0

10

15 20
(mm)

25

30

Stainless steel tube

(a) cn-1

Carbon steel tube Core concrete

(a) C1-3

2000
Test (Liao et al., 2011)
FE

P (kN)

1500
1000

Local
buckling

D=180mm; t=3.85mm;
L=630mm; fy=360MPa;
fcu=64.1MPa, =1.1%

500
0
0

10

20
(mm)

30

40

(b) cc1-2

Stainless steel tube

2500

(b) C2-6

Test (Liao et al., 2011)

P (kN)

2000

Carbon steel tube Core concrete

FE

Figure 5. Typical failure modes of CFBT columns

1500
1000

It can be seen that, the stainless steel tube of CFST

columns with gaps (Fig. 5(b)) is significantly different
from that of CFST columns without gaps (Fig. 5(a)). The
carbon steel tube of both CFBT columns with or without
gaps behaved in a similar manner, local buckling was
observed near the two endplates. The stainless steel tube
had a similar deformed shape to the carbon steel tube for
the CFBT columns without gaps, while elephant-foot
buckling occurred at many positions of the stainless steel
tube for the CFBT columns with gaps.
Fig. 6 shows the deformed shapes of stainless steel
tubes in CFBT columns with different gaps. It is
interesting to note that, as the gap ratio () increases, the
elephant-foot buckling is getting more and more severe.

D=180mm; t=3.85mm;
L=630mm; fy=360MPa;
fcu=64.1MPa, =2.2%

500
0
0

10

20
(mm)

30

40

(c) cc2-1

Figure 4. Comparisons of numerical and experimental

axial load-deformation curves for CFST columns
Liao et al.s (2011) experiments contained circular
CFST short columns with or without gaps subjected to
axial compression, the gap was a type of circumferential
gap between the outer steel tube and the core concrete. It
can be seen that, the predicted curves agree reasonably

208

Ye et al.

the peak value in the P- curve. The experimental values

of Pu for all the specimens are listed in Table 1, where u
is the axial deformation corresponding to Pu.

This is mainly due to the fact that as the applied load

increases, the carbon steel tube, along with the core
concrete dilates transversely at the middle part of the
column. The stainless steel tube then gets in contact with
the carbon steel tube, and the support provided by the
carbon steel tube and core concrete prevents the stainless
steel tube from local buckling at the middle part. The
dilation of the carbon steel tube and core concrete near
the ends is relatively small, so the local buckling near the
ends is inevitable. Meanwhile, for the CFBT columns
with a larger gap ratio (), the stainless steel tube does not
contact the carbon steel tube before the local buckling
already occurs.

15000

P (kN)

12000
9000

C1-5
C1-4
C1-3
C1-2
C1-1
C0

6000
3000
0
0

10

20

30
40
(mm)

50

60

50

60

50

60

(a) C1 group
15000

P (kN)

12000

C1-3
C3-1
C3-2
C3-3

9000
6000
3000

(a) C2-1 (=0.125%)

(b) C2-4 (=0.500%)

(c) C2-6 (=1.000%)

0
0

10

20

Figure 6. Failure mode of stainless steel tubes

30
40
(mm)

(b) C3 group
15000

The axial load (P) versus axial deformation () curves

of the specimens are shown in Fig. 7. In order to
distinguish between the influences of different parameters
on the P- response, four individual subfigures are
included in Fig. 7.
It can be seen from Fig. 7(a) that, the P- curves of
both the CFST column (C0) and the CFBT columns
exhibit ductile characteristics. The stainless steel ratio
(s) has no significantly effect on the shape of P- curves
or the initial stiffness, which is defined as the slope of the
P- curve before it experiences an obvious change. As s
increases from 0.2 (C1-1) to 0.4 (C1-5), the P- curve
shows a gradually higher plateau.
Fig. 7(b) illustrates the influence of coefficients of
friction (s-s) on the P- curves. It is clear that, within the
parameter range herein (0s-s0.15), the influence of s-s
on the overall structural behavior of circular CFBT short
columns can be ignored.
Fig. 7(c) and (d) demonstrate the effect of gap ratio
() on the P- responses. It can be seen that, when
0.5%, the specimens with gaps (C2-1 and C2-2) have a
P- curve close to the specimen without gaps (C1-3). As
increases to be larger than 0.5%, the ascending branch
in the P- curve prior to the peak point shows an obvious
reduced slope.

12000

P (kN)

3.2 Axial load versus axial deformation responses

C1-3
C2-1
C2-2
C2-3
C2-4
C2-5
C2-6

9000
6000
3000
0
0

10

20

30
40
(mm)

(c) C2 group (Overall view)

12500

C2-1

C2-2

P (kN)

C1-3

C2-3

11500

10500

C2-4

C2-5

C2-6

9500
0

10

15
20
(mm)

25

30

(d) C2 group (Local view)

Figure 7. Axial load versus deformation curves

The influence of stainless steel ratio (s) on Pu is
presented in Fig. 8. It is clear that, Pu tends to increase
almost linearly with s. It should be mentioned that, the
material strength of stainless steel tubes is greater than

3.3 Axial strength

The axial strength (Pu) of the specimens is taken as

209

Ye et al.

expressed as =Pu/Pu,a, Pu,a=Ascfyc+Assfys+Acfck, Asc and Ass

are the cross-sectional areas of the carbon steel tube and
stainless steel tube, fyc is the yield strength of the carbon
steel, fys is taken as the 0.2% proof stress of the stainless
steel.
Table 1 compares the calculated efficiency factors ()
for all the specimens. It can be seen that is always
greater than 1.00, indicating effective composite action
between the bimetal tube and the core concrete. The
CFBT columns without gaps have a greater than the
CFST column (C0), mainly due to the higher strength of
the stainless steel. However, it can also be indicated that
the stainless steel tube has an effective composition with
the carbon steel tube. As the stainless steel ratio (s)
increases, increases accordingly. When the gap ratio ()
increases from 0.125% to 1.000%, decreases from 1.328
to 1.191. It is interesting to note that, even with a
relatively large gap ratio (), the efficiency factor () is
still greater than 1.00. This is due to the fact that although
the stainless steel tube and carbon steel tube work
separately, the confinement effect of core concrete
provided by the carbon steel tube is still capable of
increasing the strength of CFBT columns. On the other
hand, the coefficient of friction (s-s) almost has no effect
on the efficiency factor () of circular CFBT short
columns.

that of carbon steel tubes herein, if not, the Pu-s response

could show an opposite trend. As a result, it may be
necessary to conduct research on different stainless steel
and carbon steel combinations in the future.
12500
C1-5

P u (kN)

12300
12100

C1-4
C1-3

11900

C1-2
C1-1

11700
11500
0.1

0.2

0.3
as

0.4

0.5

Figure 8. Effect of stainless steel ratio on axial strength

In order to study the effect of gap ratio () on Pu, a
strength reduction factor (Rs) is defined as Rs=Pu/Pu,C1-3,
where Pu,C1-3 is axial strength of specimen C1-3. Fig. 9
presents the relationships between the Rs and for CFBT
columns with gaps. It can be seen that when 0.25%, Rs
is approximately equal to 1.00, indicating no strength
reduction for the CFBT columns. As increases beyond
0.25%, Rs experiences an almost linear decrease from
0.997 at =0.25% (C2-2) to 0.901 at =1.00%. Besides,
when <0.50%, the corresponding Rs is greater than 0.95,
indicating a strength reduction of the CFBT column
within 5%.

4 COMPARISONS WITH DESIGN STRENGTHS

In this section, a comparison of the ultimate axial
strength of CFBT columns calculated with the FE models
and predicted by ACI-318 (2002), Eurocode 4 (2004),
and DBJ/T13-51-2010 (2010) is provided. The aim of the
comparison is to verify the possibility of predicting the
ultimate axial strength of CFBT using current design
codes. It should be noted that in the calculation of the
design strength, the material partial safety factors were
neglected.

1.05
C2-1

1.00
Rs

C1-3

C2-2
C2-3
C2-4

0.95

4.1 ACI 318

C2-5

Rs=0.95

The equation in ACI-318 (2002) for ultimate axial

strength (PACI) of a CFST column ignores the composite
action between the core concrete and outer steel tube, and
the equation for circular CFST columns is given as:

0.90
C2-6

0.85
0.00

0.25

0.50

0.75

1.00

1.25

PACI As f y 0.85 Ac f c'

Figure 9. Effect of gap ratio on axial strength reduction

(4)

where As and Ac are the cross sectional areas of the outer

steel tube and the core concrete, respectively; fy is the
yield strength of the steel tube; fc is the compressive
strength of the unconfined concrete.

3.4 Efficiency factors

The efficiency factor () is defined as ratio of the axial
strength (Pu) to the resistance of the three components
(neglecting the composite actions between them), and is

210

Ye et al.

While using Eq. (4) to calculate the strength of CFBT

columns, Asfy was replaced with Ascfyc+Assfys.

Table 2 Comparison of axial strengths determined by FEM

and design codes

4.2 Eurocode 4
The EC 4 (2004) takes into account the confinement
effect of the core concrete provided by the outer steel
tube. The EC4 equation for the axial strength (PEC4) of a
CFST is given as:

PEC4 a As f y Ac f c' (1 c

t fy
)
D fc

(5)

where a=0.25(3+2 )1.0, c=4.9-18.5 +17 2 0,

2 =(Npl,Rk/Ncr)0.5, Npl,Rk can be calculated using Eq. (4),
Ncr=(EI)eff/L2, (EI)eff=EscIsc+EssIss+0.6EcIc, in which
Npl,Rk is the characteristic value of the plastic resistance to
compression; Ncr is the elastic critical normal force for
the relevant buckling mode; Isc, Iss, and Ic are the second
moments of area of the carbon steel section, the stainless
steel section and the concrete section; Esc, Ess, and Ec are
the modulus of elasticity of the carbon steel, the stainless
steel and the concrete.
When Eq. (5) was used to calculate the strength of
CFBT columns, t=to+ti, Asfy=Ascfyc+Assfys, fy=(Ascfyc+
Assfys)/(Asc+Ass).

4.3 DBJ/T13-51-2010

PACI

Pu,FE /

PEC4

Pu,FE /

PDBJ

Pu,FE /

label

(kN)

PACI

(kN)

PEC4

(kN)

PDBJ

C0

9139

1.261 11140 1.035 10645

1.083

C1-1

9326

1.278 11372 1.048 10857

1.098

C1-2

9373

1.282 11423 1.052 10910

1.101

C1-3

9419

1.287 11474 1.056 10962

1.106

C1-4

9466

1.291 11525 1.060

11015

1.109

C1-5

9512

1.295 11575 1.064

11067

1.113

C2-1

9421

1.290 11477 1.059

9188

1.323

C2-2

9423

1.283 11479 1.053

9188

1.315

C2-3

9425

1.259 11482 1.034

9188

1.292

C2-4

9427

1.230 11484 1.010

9189

1.262

C2-5

9431

1.186 11490 0.973

9189

1.217

C2-6

9435

1.157 11495 0.950

9190

1.188

C3-1

9419

1.286 11474 1.056 10962

1.105

C3-2

9419

1.286 11474 1.056 10962

1.105

C3-3

9419

1.287 11474 1.056 10962

1.105

1.264

1.037

1.168

0.0016

0.0011

0.0074

Mean

The DBJ/T13-51-2010 (2010) also considers the

enhancement of concrete strength due to the confinement
effect by the outer tube. Following the DBJ/T13-51-2010
code, the axial strength (PDBJ) of circular CFST columns
is given as:
PDBJ fsc At

Specimen

Coefficient of
variation

5 CONCLUSIONS

(6)

This paper presents the analytical investigation of the

axial compressive behavior of circular concrete filled
bimetal tubular (CFBT) short columns. A CFBT column
comprises the core concrete and the bimetal tube, which
is composed of inner carbon steel tube and outer stainless
steel tube. Three dimensional finite element (FE) models
for CFBT subjected to axial compression were developed
using the FE software ABAQUS. The possible gap
between the stainless steel tube and carbon steel tube in
practical manufacturing was also taken into account. The
accuracy of the FE model was first verified with relevant
experimental results on CFST columns with and without
gaps. Based on the results of the current study, the
following conclusions can be drawn:
(1) The inner carbon steel tube and the outer stainless
steel tube can work well together when subjected to axial
compression when there is no gap between the two tubes.
(2) Similar to the outer steel tube in a CFST column,
the bimetal tube can provide favorable confinement to the
concrete core.
(3) The ACI code and DBJ/T13-51-2010 provide
conservative predictions of the axial strengths of CFBT
columns. Within the parameter range, the design model in

where fsc=(1.14+1.02)fck, =Asfy/Acfck, s=As/Ac; At is the

cross sectional area of the CFST column.
For the CFBT columns without gaps, confinement
effects of both the carbon steel tube and the stainless steel
tube were taken into account, and it led to
=(Ascfyc+Assfys)/Acfck. For the CFBT columns with gaps,
the confinement effect of the stainless steel tube was
neglected, and it led to =Ascfyc/Acfck.
The accuracy of the above design models was
examined herein by the FE results. A comparison of the
simulated and predicted axial strengths of CFBT columns
is given in Table 2, where Pu,FE, PACI, PEC4, and PDBJ is
the strength predicted by FE models, ACI code, EC4, and
DBJ/T13-51-2010, respectively. It can be noted that, the
strengths predicted by the ACI code and
DBJ/T13-51-2010 are conservative compared to FE
results. The EC4 provides the best predictions of the axial
strengths of CFBT columns. The mean value of Pu,FE/PEC4
is 1.037 with a coefficient of variation of 0.0011.
Meanwhile, the EC4 gives unconservative predictions for
specimens C2-5 and C2-6, which are CFBT columns with
gaps, and the gap ratios () are 1.50% and 2.00%,
respectively.
211

Ye et al.
Gardner, L. 2005. The use of stainless steel in structures.
Progress in Structural Engineering and Materials 7(2):
45-55.
Han, L.H., Li, W. & Bjorhovde, R. 2014. Developments and
advanced applications of concrete-filled steel tubular
(CFST) structures: Members. Journal of Constructional
Steel Research 100: 211-228.
Han, L.H., Yao, G.H. & Tao, Z. 2007. Performance of
concrete-filled thin-walled steel tubes under pure torsion.
Thin-Walled Structures 45(1): 24-36.
Han, L.H., Zhao, X.L. & Tao, Z. 2001. Tests and mechanics
model for concrete-filled SHS stub columns. Steel and
Composite Structures 1(1): 51-74.
Hassanein, M.F., Kharoob, O.F. & Liang, Q.Q. 2013. Behaviour
of circular concrete-filled lean duplex stainless steel tubular
short columns. Thin-Walled Structures 68: 113-123.
Liao, F.Y., Han, L.H. & He, S.H. 2011. Behavior of CFST short
column and beam with initial concrete imperfection:
Experiments. Journal of Constructional Steel Research
67(12): 1922-1935.
Ramberg, W. & Osgood, W.R. 1943. Description of
stress-strain curves by three parameters. NACA Technical
Note no.902.
Rasmussen, K.J.R. 2003. Full range stress-strain curves for
stainless steel alloys. Journal of Constructional Steel
Research 59: 47-61.
Zhao, X.L., Han, L.H. & Lu, H. 2010. Concrete-filled tubular
members and connections. London: Spon Press.

EC4 yields the best predictions of the axial strengths of

CFBT columns.
(4) For a circular CFBT short column with a
circumferential gap between the stainless steel tube and
the carbon steel tube, when the gap ratio is smaller than
0.5%, the corresponding strength reduction of the
member is within 5%.
(5) The coefficient of friction between the stainless
steel tube and the carbon steel tube has no obvious effect
on the structural behavior of CFBT columns.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The research presented in this paper is supported by
the Project Funded by China Postdoctoral Science
Foundation (Grant No. 2015M571044), the support is
greatly appreciated.
REFERENCES
ACI-318. 2002. Building code requirements for reinforced
concrete. Detroit(MI): American Concrete Institute.
DBJ/T13-51-2010. 2010. Technical specification for
concrete-filled steel tubular structures. Fuzhou (China): The
Construction Department of Fujian Province (In Chinese).
Eurocode 4. 2004. Design of composite steel and concrete
structures. Part 1-1: general rules and rules for building.
Brussels: EN 1994-1-1:2004. European Committee for
Standardization.

212

11th International Conference on

Advances in Steel and Concrete Composite Structures
Tsinghua University, Beijing, China, December 3-5, 2015

COMPARISONS OF FIRE RESISTANCE BETWEEN STCRC

COLUMNS AND CFST COLUMNS
F. Q. Liua,b, H. Yanga,b & Y. C. Panc
a

Key Lab of Structures Dynamic Behavior and Control (Harbin Institute of Technology), Ministry of Education,
Heilongjiang, Harbin, 150090, PR China
b

School of Civil Engineering, Harbin Institute of Technology, Heilongjiang, Harbin, 150090, PR China
E-mails: fqliu@hit.edu.cn, yanghua@hit.edu.cn
c Tianjin Fire Research Institute of the Ministry of Public Security, Tianjin 300381, PR China
E-mail: panyanchong@tfri.com.cn
ABSTRACT
Keywords:
CFST column; Fire
resistance; STCRC column;
Temperatures.

The behaviours of the steel tube confined reinforced concrete (STCRC) columns at ambient
temperatures have been well studied and this kind of member has been applied in practice.
However, few researches have been conducted on the behaviours of the STCRC columns related
to high temperatures. A finite element (FE) model was developed in this paper to analyse the
behaviours of the STCRC columns subjected to the ISO 834 standard fire condition. And
parametric studies were carried out to identify the differences of fire resistance between the
STCRC columns and concrete-filled steel tubular (CFST) columns. It was found that the
STCRC columns possesses much higher fire resistance than the CFST columns when the load
ratio is lower than 0.6. However, their fire resistances are very close when the load ratio exceeds
0.6.

similar to CFST columns in form. Nevertheless, the

STCRC columns have much lower steel tube to concrete
area ratio (ranging from 2% to 4%) and higher
reinforcement ratio (around 4%) than the CFST columns,
which means that most of the steel is embedded in the
concrete as reinforcement. The fire performance of
STCRC columns may differ from that of CFST columns.
Hence, the fire behaviour of the STCRC columns was
studied and compared with that of the CFST columns
herein. A finite element (FE) model, adopting
sequentially coupled thermal-stress analysis, was
developed using the program ABAQUS and validated
against test results. After that, the FE model was
employed to identify the differences of fire performance
between the STCRC columns and the CFST columns.

1 INTRODUCTION
The steel tube confined reinforced concrete (STCRC)
column is a composite member with outer steel tube
mainly working as hoop reinforcement. The steel tube in
STCRC columns is terminated at beam to column
connections (Figure 1), therefore no load is directly
applied on the steel tube and the possibility of local
buckling in steel tube is reduced, compared with
concrete-filled steel tubular (CFST) columns. And the
confinement effect in STCRC columns begins from the
onset of loading and can be maximized, which
significantly enhances the concrete strength and ductility.
Owing to the discontinuity of the steel tube, the STCRC
column to reinforced concrete beam connections can be
designed and constructed following methods for
conventional reinforced concrete structures, avoiding
complexities of CFST columns to reinforced concrete
beams.
To date, some studies have been conducted on the
behaviours of STCRC columns at ambient temperature
(Tommi et al. 1985a, b, Han et al. 2009, Liu & Zhou
2010a, b, Liu et al. 2015). The authors are conducting a
project focusing on the behaviours of STCRC columns
under and after fire exposure (Liu et al. 2014, Yang et al.
2015, Liu 2015). The STCRC columns are seemed to be

2 FE MODEL
A FE model, adopting the sequentially coupled
thermal-stress analysis method, was developed using the
program ABAQUS. The thermal analysis was firstly
conducted to obtain the temperatures. After that,
temperatures were imported into the subsequent stress
analysis to get the fire resistance.

213

Liu et al.

2.2 Stress analysis

RC beam

After getting the temperatures, the stress analysis was

conducted to study the fire resistance. The concrete
damaged plasticity model in ABAQUS program was
employed for the concrete, which needs to define the
uniaxial compressive and tensile stress-strain relationship.
The compressive model recommended by Lie (1994) and
the tensile model recommended by Hong & Varma (2009)
were employed. The transient strain model proposed by
Anderberg & Thelandersson (1976) was used to take
account for the transient strain of concrete at elevated
temperatures. And the thermal expansion coefficient of
concrete was defined to be a constant value of 6 10-6
(Hong & Varma 2009).
The classic metal plasticity model, with the Von
Mises yield surface and associated plastic flow, was
adopted for the structural steel and reinforcing bars. The
stress-strain relationship recommended by EN1993-1-2
(2005) was used for both the steel tube and reinforcing
bars. The thermal expansion coefficient of steel was
defined according to the EN1993-1-2 (2005).
The interactive behaviour between the steel tube and
concrete was defined to be hard contact in the normal
direction and penalty friction in the tangential direction.
The friction coefficient was taken to be 0.3. The
reinforcing bars were embedded in the concrete.
In the stress analysis model, the steel tube, concrete
and reinforcing bars were modelled with S4R shell
element, C3D8R solid element and T3D2 truss element,
respectively.

steel tube

STCRC column

Figure 1. A schematic view of the STCRC column.

2.1 Thermal analysis

The thermal properties of steel and concrete,
including thermal conductivity, specific heat and density,
need to be defined. The thermal properties recommended
by Lie (1994) were adopted for steel and concrete in this
study, which were successfully used to analyse
temperatures of CFST columns and STCRC columns
(Yang et al. 2013a, b, Liu et al. 2014, Yang et al. 2015).
The evaporation of moisture in concrete absorbs energy
and affects the temperature. In this study, the influence of
moisture evaporation was considered by change the
specific heat (Lu et al. 2007).
For both the STCRC columns and CFST columns
subjected to fire, the heat was transmitted from fire to the
outer steel tube by convection and radiation, and then into
the columns by conduction. The convective coefficient
and resultant emissivity were defined to be 25 W/(m2K)
and 0.5, respectively. The thermal resistance between the
steel tube and concrete was considered and taken as 100
W/(m2K) (Lv et al. 2011). The air temperature was
increased following the ISO 834 standard fire curve (ISO
834-1: 1999), as shown in Figure 2.

2.3 Validation of the FE model

The thermal analysis model has been validated against
STCRC columns after fire (Liu et al. 2014, Yang et al.
2015) and CFST columns subjected to fire (Yang et al.
2013a, b). Therefore this part focuses on the validation of
the stress analysis model. The STCRC columns (Liu
2015), reinforced concrete-filled steel tubular columns
(Chabot & Lie 1992) and CFST columns (Lie & Chabot
1992) subjected to fire were predicted with the FE model.
The typical comparisons between calculated and tested
results are shown in Figure 3, where D is the
cross-section diameter, ts is the wall thickness of steel
tube, L is the length of the column, Nf is the load applied
on the column. Though there are some discrepancies, the
FE model can predict the deformation and fire resistance
of STCRC columns and CFST columns reasonably.

1200

Temperature / C

1000
800
600
400
200

ISO 834

0
0

20

40
60
80
Time / min

100

120

Figure 2. ISO 834 standard fire curve.

In the thermal analysis model, the outer steel tube,
in-filled concrete and reinforcing bars were modelled
with DS4 shell element, DC3D8 solid element and
DC1D2 truss element, respectively.

214

Liu et al.

3 COMPARISONS BETWEEM STCRC

10
Axial displacement / mm

COLUMNS AND CFST COLUMNS

0

The fire performance of the CFST columns has been

studied for years through experimental testing and
numerical simulation. By now, the comprehensive
understanding of the fire behaviour of the CFST column
has been achieved. Herein, the fire resistance of STCRC
column was compared with that of the CFST column,
which may help to further understand the behaviour of
the STCRC column subjected to fire.
The geometrical dimensions, strengths of materials
and load level remain the same for the STCRC columns
and CFST columns. The STCRC columns consume the
same amount of steel as the CFST columns, in the form
of steel tube and reinforcing bars. Detailed parameters of
the STCRC column are as follows: D=400-1500mm,
=20-60, n=0.3-0.6, s=3%, b=4%, fc=40N/mm2,
fy=345N/mm2, fb=335N/mm2. And the corresponding
details of the CFST column are as follows: D=
400-1500mm, =20-60, n=0.3-0.6, s=7%, fc=40N/mm2,
fy=345N/mm2.
The predicted fire resistance of STCRC columns and
CFST columns are compared in Figure 4. As observed,
the fire resistance decreases significantly with the
increase of load ratio, for both the STCRC columns and
CFST columns. And the fire resistance increases
noticeably with the increase of cross-section diameter, for
both of these columns. If the load ratio is below 0.6, the
STCRC column possesses much higher fire resistance
than the CFST column. However, if the load ratio
exceeds 0.6, their fire resistances are very close. This
may be explained by the contribution of the reinforcing
bars. For the STCRC columns, the temperatures of the
reinforcing bars are comparatively low due to the low
thermal conductivity of the concrete cover. For columns
with low load ratio, the fire resistance is high, and then
the differences of the cross-section temperature between
the STCRC column and the CFST column, and the
contribution of reinforcing bars are more significant.

-10
-20

D=300mm, ts=2.53mm,

-30

L=3.81m, 820,
Nf=1800kN

test
FE

-40
0

20

40
60
Time / min

80

100

(a) STCRC-2 (by Liu 2015)

Axial displacement / mm

10
0
-10
-20
D=300mm, ts=2.53mm
L=3.81m, 820,
Nf=2240kN

-30

test
FE

-40
0

10

20
30
40
Time / min

50

60

(b) STCRC-3 (by Liu 2015)

Axial displacement / mm

20
test
FE

10
0
-10
-20

D=273.1mm, ts=6.35mm,

-30

L=3.81m, 419.5,
Nf=1900kN

-40
-50
0

20

40
60
Time / min

80

100

(c) C49 (by Chabot & Lie 1992)

test
FE

20

240

0
-10
D=141.3mm, ts=6.55mm,

-20

L=3.81m, Nf=131kN

-30
-40
0

10

20
30
40
Time / min

50

STCRC
CFST

210

10

Fire resistance / min

Axial displacement / mm

30

60

180
150
120
90
60
30
0
0.2

(d) C-04 (by Lie & Chabot 1992)

0.3

0.4 0.5 0.6

Load ratio(n)

(a) D=400mm

Figure 3. Comparisons between calculated and tested

axial displacement versus time curves of columns.

215

0.7

0.8

Liu et al.

240

240
STCRC
CFST

180
150
120
90
60

180
150
120
90
60
30

30
0
0.2

0.3

0.4 0.5 0.6

Load ratio(n)

0.7

0
0.2

0.8

(b) D=600mm
STCRC
CFST

Fire resistance / min

180
150
120
90
60

0.3

0.4 0.5 0.6

Load ratio(n)

0.7

Fire resistance / min

STCRC
CFST

210
180

STCRC
CFST

210

240

150
120

180
150
120
90
60
30
0
0.2

90

0.3

60

0.4 0.5 0.6

Load ratio(n)

30

(a) =20
0.3

0.4 0.5 0.6

Load ratio(n)

0.7

Fire resistance / min

STCRC
CFST

180
150
120

180
150
120
90
60
30
0
0.2

90

0.3

60

0.4 0.5 0.6

Load ratio(n)

30

(b) =30
0.3

0.4 0.5 0.6

Load ratio(n)

0.7

0.8

STCRC
CFST

210

240
210

0.7

240

0.8

(d) D=1000mm

0
0.2

0.8

240

0.8

(c) D=800mm

0
0.2

0.7

STCRC columns and CFST columns (=30).

For both STCRC columns and CFST columns, the
fire resistance decreases obviously with the increase of
slenderness ratio, as shown in Figure 5. And the STCRC
column possesses much higher fire resistance than the
CFST column when the load ratio is below 0.6,
confirming that the slenderness ratio has no obvious
influence on this phenomenon.

30

Fire resistance / min

0.4 0.5 0.6

Load ratio(n)

(f) D=1500mm

210

Fire resistance / min

0.3

Figure 4. Comparisons of the fire resistance between the

240

0
0.2

STCRC
CFST

210
Fire resistance / min

Fire resistance / min

210

0.8

(e) D=1200mm

216

0.7

0.8

Liu et al.

4 CONCLUSIONS

240
STCRC
CFST

Fire resistance / min

210

A finite element model was developed and validated

for analysing the fire resistance of the STCRC columns
and CFST columns. After that, parametric studies were
conducted to identify the differences of fire resistance
between the STCRC columns and CFST columns. Based
on the study, the following conclusions can be obtained:
(1) The developed FE model can predict the
temperatures and fire resistance of STCRC columns and
CFST columns reasonably.
(2) The fire resistance decreases significantly with the
increase of load ratio and slenderness ratio, whereas it
increases with the increase of cross-section dimension,
for both the STCRC columns and CFST columns.
(3) The STCRC columns possess much higher fire
resistance than the CFST columns when the load ratio is
below 0.6. However, their fire resistances are very close
when the load ratio exceeds 0.6. This phenomenon is
independent of cross-section dimension and slenderness
ratio.
(4) Though the fire resistance of STCRC columns is
generally higher than that of CFST columns, due to the
low load ratio in practice (maybe 0.5 or lower). Fire
protection maybe applied or the load ratio maybe
restricted to guarantee the fire safety of the STCRC
columns.

180
150
120
90
60
30
0
0.2

0.3

0.4 0.5 0.6

Load ratio(n)

0.7

0.8

(c) =40
240
STCRC
CFST

Fire resistance / min

210
180
150
120
90
60
30
0
0.2

0.3

0.4 0.5 0.6

Load ratio(n)

0.7

0.8

(d) =50
240

Fire resistance / min

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

STCRC
CFST

210

The research presented in this paper was sponsored by

the National Natural Science Foundation (No. 51278153)
and Excellent Young Talents Program of Harbin Institute
of Technology; their financial support is highly
appreciated.

180
150
120
90
60
30
0
0.2

REFERENCES
0.3

0.4 0.5 0.6

Load ratio(n)

0.7

Tomii, M., Sakino, K., Watanabe, K. & Xiao, Y. 1985a. Lateral

Load Capacity of Reinforced Concrete Short Columns
Confined by Steel Tube. In: Proceedings of the
International Speciality Conference on Concrete Filled
Steel Tubular Structures, August 12-15, 1985. China.
Tomii, M., Sakino, K., Xiao, Y. & Watanabe, K. 1985b.
Earthquake Resisting Hysteretic Behavior of Reinforced
Concrete Short Columns Confined by Steel Tube. In:
Proceedings of the International Speciality Conference on
Concrete Filled Steel Tubular Structures, August 12-15,
1985. China.
Han, L.H., Qu, H., Tao, Z. & Wang Z.F. 2009. Experimental
behaviour of thin-walled steel tube confined concrete
column to RC beam joints under cyclic loading. Thin-walled
Structures 47: 847-57.
Liu, J.P. & Zhou, X.H. 2010a. Behavior and strength of tubed
RC stub columns under axial compression. Journal of
Constructional Steel Research 66: 28-36.
Zhou, X.H. & Liu, J.P. 2010b. Seismic behavior and shear
strength of tubed RC short columns. Journal of
Constructional Steel Research 66: 385-397.
Liu, J.P., Wang, X.D. & Zhang, S.M. 2015. Behavior of square
tubed reinforced-concrete short columns subjected to

0.8

(e) =60
Figure 5. Comparisons of the fire resistance between the
STCRC columns and CFST columns (D=600mm).
For the columns exposed to fire, the applied load is
much lower than the design load for normal temperature
conditions. The load ratio may be 0.5 or less at most
times (Buchanan 2001). Therefore the STCRC columns
generally have higher fire resistance than the CFST
columns in practice. The load ratio, cross-section
dimension and slenderness ratio have significant
influence on the fire resistance. The fire resistance of the
unprotected STCRC column may reach 3 hours for some
conditions. But, in practice, fire protections may be
applied or the load ratio may be restricted to guarantee
the safety of the column in fire.

217

Liu et al.
eccentric compression. Thin-Walled Structures 91: 108-115.
Liu, F.Q., Gardner, L. & Yang, H. 2014. Post-fire behaviour of
reinforced concrete stub columns confined by circular steel
tubes. Journal of Constructional Steel Research 102:
82-103.
Yang, H., Liu F.Q. & Gardner, L. 2015. Post-fire behaviour of
slender reinforced concrete columns confined by circular
steel tubes. Thin-Walled Structures 87: 12-29.
Liu F.Q. 2015. Fire and post-fire behaviours of circular steel
tube confined reinforced concrete columns. PhDs
dissertation, Harbin Institute of Technology. (in Chinese)
Lie T.T. 1994. Fire resistance of circular steel columns filled
with bar-reinforced concrete. Journal of Structural
Engineering 120: 1489-1509.
Yang H., Liu F.Q., Zhang S.M. & Lv X.T. 2013a. Experimental
investigation of concrete-filled square hollow section
columns subjected to non-uniform exposure. Engineering
Structures 48: 292-312.
Yang, H., Liu, F.Q., & Gardner, L. 2013b. Performance of
concrete-filled RHS columns exposed to fire on 3 sides.
Engineering Structures 56: 1986-2004.
Lu, H., Zhao, X.L. & Han, L.H. 2007. Finite element analysis of
temperatures in concrete filled double skin steel tubes
exposed to fires. In: 4th International structural engineering
and construction conference, September 26-28, 2007.
Melbourne, Australia.
Lv, X.T., Yang, H., Zhang, S.M. 2011. Effect of contact thermal
resistance on temperature distributions of concrete-filled
steel tubes in fire. Journal of Harbin Institute of Technology
18(1): 81-88.
ISO 834-1. Fire resistance tests - elements of building
construction - part 1: General requirements. Switzerland:
International Organization for Standardization; 1999.
Hong, S. & Varma, A.H. 2009. Analytical modeling of the
standard fire behavior of loaded CFT columns. Journal of
Constructional Steel Research 65(1): 54-69.
Anderberg, Y, Thelandersson, S. 1976. Stress and deformation
characteristics of concrete at high temperatures: 2
experimental investigation and material behaviour model.
Bulletin of Division of Structural Mechanics and Concrete
Construction, Bulletin 54.
BS EN 1993-1-2. 2005. Design of steel structures-part 1-2,
general rules - structural fire design. British Standards
Institution, 2005.
Chabot, M., Lie, T.T. 1992. Experimental Studies on the Fire
Resistance of Hollow Steel Columns Filled with
Bar-Reinforced Concrete. NRC-CNRC Internal Report,
No.628.
Lie, T.T., Chabot, M. 1992. Experimental Studies on the Fire
Resistance of Hollow Steel Columns Filled with Plain
Concrete. NRC-CNRC Internal Report, No.611.
Buchanan, A. H. 2001. Structural Design for Fire Safety.
England: John Wiley & Sons, LTD.

218

11th International Conference on

Advances in Steel and Concrete Composite Structures
Tsinghua University, Beijing, China, December 3-5, 2015

EXPERIMENTAL STUDY AND FIRE RESISTANT DESIGN OF

CONCRETE FILLED STEEL TUBULAR COLUMNS WITH HIGH
STRENGTH MATERIALS
M. X. Xionga, J. Y. R. Liewa,b & Y. Dub
a

Department of Civil Engineering, National University of Singapore, Singapore

E-mails: ceexm@nus.edu.cn, ceeljy@nus.edu.cn

School of Civil Engineering, Nanjing Tech University, Nanjing, China

E-mail: yongdu_mail@njtech.edu.cn
ABSTRACT
Keywords:
Experimental study; Fire
performance; CFST column;
Design method; High strength
materials.

This paper presented experimental study on fire performance of concrete filled steel tubular
columns with ultra-high strength concrete and high strength steel. A total of 22 columns were
tested in accordance with ISO-834 fire. The compressive strength of the concrete and yield
strength of the steel reached 180MPa and 800MPa, respectively. The design methods, which
were based on the Eurocode 4 simple calculation model (SCM) and the proposed moment-axial
force interaction model (MNIM), for determining the fire resistance of the composite columns
were presented. The temperature profiles of columns were calculated using heat transfer analysis
based on the finite difference method, whereas the effective length of a column under fire testing
was derived based on the 4th-order differential equation of the lateral displacement of the
column. Finally, the fire resistance of ultra high strength composite columns can be calculated
from the proposed MNIM and the design procedure was implemented via MATLAB.

designed to handle large amounts of stress or need a good

strength-to-weight ratio.
UHSC and HSS have not been used in building
structures. Because there are some concerns relating to
the use of HSS, such as fire-safety requirements,
corrosion protection, long term durability and
maintenance issues which have significant impacts on
sustainability (Liew et al., 2014). Also, there are concerns
on the brittleness and spalling behavior of UHSC. These
concerns lead to current steel-concrete composite
building design codes restricting the use of steel with a
grade not higher than S460 and concrete strength only up
to C50/C60 (EN 1994-1-1, 2004). The motivation of this
research is to extend the Eurocode 4 design code to the
application of UHSC and HSS for columns in high-rise
construction.

1 GENERAL INTRODUCTION
The need for sustainable construction is hastened
around the world aiming to reduce the consumptions of
construction materials. Especially in Singapore, the
situation is to reduce concrete consumption by 50% in a
5-years timeframe according to Ministry of National
Development after the ban on Indonesias export of sand
in recent years. Some ways to achieve this is to replace
the conventional concrete with more sustainable
non-concrete alternatives such as steel, or to use higher
strength concrete (Liew and Xiong, 2012). The
production of ultra-high strength concrete (UHSC) with
compressive strength higher than 140MPa becomes
possible with the development of concrete technology
and availability of a variety of materials such as silica
fume and high-range water-reducing admixtures.
However, its application has been currently limited to
special applications such as offshore and marine
structures, industrial floors, pavements, and security
barriers. In terms of steel, the production of high strength
steel (HSS) with tensile strength around 800MPa
becomes possible with the development of metallurgical
technology and availability of a variety of alloy elements.
However, HSS are mostly used in cars, trucks, cranes,
bridges, roller coasters and other structures that are

2 EXPERIMENTAL STUDY
The details of CFST columns for fire tests are shown
in Table 1. The investigated parameters were the shape of
cross-section, single-tube, double-tube, cross-sectional
size, thickness of steel tube, strength of steel, load levels,
boundary condition, eccentricity of load and thickness of
fire protection (FP) material. The hot-rolled steel S355
was used for all circular columns. All square column
sections were pre-fabricated by welding four HSS plates

219

Xiong et al.

at the corners, except for column LS-2-1 with

hot-finished S355 steel plates. The interior height of the
furnace for the fire tests was about 3.0 meter. In order to
make sure the column is loaded and supported outside the
furnace, all columns were designed to be 3.81m including
the thickness of end plates. In addition, the
cross-sectional sizes of all columns were around
200mm~300mm. The size of column could not be larger
since the strengths of concrete and steel were high and
the capacity of load machine was only 600tons.

column height and four sides of the column. Eight

circular steaming holes with diameter of 10mm were
provided on each column to release the vapor inside the
concrete during heating.
The standard fire tests were conducted based on EN
1365-4 (1999). The columns were exposed to the
standard ISO-834 (EN 1991-1-2, 2002). The column was
heated on all faces. The test was terminated when the
vertical displacement reaches 0.01Lex (exposed length,
mm) (ISO-834, 1999).

Table 1. Details of CFST column specimens for fire tests.

3 HEAT TRANSFER ANALYSIS

Heat transfer focuses on the study of the transition of
thermal energy from hotter object to cooler object due to
temperature difference. There are three ways of heat
transfer which are heat conduction, heat convection and
heat radiation. Heat conduction is the transfer of heat
energy by direct contact of particles of material. Heat
convection is the transfer of heat energy when nearby
liquid or gas passes through a solid surface. Heat
radiation is the transfer of heat energy by electromagnetic
wave. In order to get the temperature field of any object,
the partial differential equation of heat transfer can be
used. The following equation is derived according to the
law of Fouriers and law of conservation of energy:
T T T T
(1)
c

t x x y y z z
, , c are the thermal conductivity, density and
specific heat, respectively.
Finite difference method (FDM) provides a powerful
and efficient technique for the solution of heat transfer
problems. There are two ways of introducing the finite
difference method (Croft and Lilley, 1977). The formal
consists of replacing the space and time derivatives in the
equations of heat condition by finite difference quotients.
This method is favored by the mathematician who is
interested not only in problem solving, but also in such
questions as truncation error and convergence. Engineers
usually prefer to formulate the finite difference procedure
by writing energy conservation equations for each
volume element, assuming that for a short period
quasi-steady-state conditions prevail. To clarify this basic
theme of FDM, consider the partial differential equation
of heat transfer of a 2-dimensional problem.
2T 2T c T
(2)

x 2 y 2
t

Notes: 1,

LC
2,

LSH

LDC

LDSH

FP is fire protection material; Ecc. is eccentricity of

load; BC. is boundary condition; Nf,20 is axial load
capacity at ambient temperature based on EN 1994-1-1.
Nf,fire is the applied axial load in fire test; Tt is the
tested maximum fire resistance time.

All columns were cast with UHSC which was made

from a commercial pre-blended mixture comprising
cementitious material superplasticizer and fine aggregates
with maximum sizes less than 4.75mm. This type of ultra
high strength concrete is prone to spall under high
temperatures. To prevent the spalling of concrete in
fire, 0.1% polypropylene fiber (length 13mm) by volume
was added into the UHSC. Its effectiveness was verified
before the columns were cast. The UHSC was cast by
pumping at bottom of columns, and the addition of
polypropylene fiber did not affect the pumpability of
UHSC.
The fire protection material was a mixture of Portland
cement (40%), perlite (25%), vermiculite (20%) and
water (15%). The thickness of fire protection was
determined based on the averaged measurements taken
from 16 points which were uniformly located along the

Eq.(2) can be approximated by Taylor series

expansion at node (m, n, i) as Eq.(3), in which m, n stands
for locations in space and i is in time domain.
Tmi ,n1 2Tmi ,n Tmi ,n 1 Tmi 1,n 2Tmi ,n Tmi 1,n c Tmi ,n1 Tmi ,n (3)

2
2

t
x
y

If x = y = L and = /c, then the Eq.(3) can be

rearranged as:

220

Xiong et al.

i 1
m,n

5 MOMEMT-AXIAL FORCE INTERACTION

4t i
t i

T
Tmi 1,n Tmi ,n 1 Tmi ,n 1 1
Tm,n (4)
2 m 1, n
2

MODEL (MNIM)
The interaction curves of a composite column
cross-section are assumed to be polygonal diagrams as
shown in Figure 1. The selected points on the curves are
derived based on plastic analysis. In Figure 1, Nfi,pm,Rd is
the plastic resistance of the concrete in the whole
cross-section in a fire situation. Mfi,pl,Rd and Mfi,max,Rd are
the plastic moment resistances of the composite section in
a fire situation. Nfi,pl,Rd, Nfi,pm,Rd, Mfi,pl,Rd and Mfi,max,Rd
can be calculated based on plastic stress block diagrams.
The confinement effect of concrete under fire is not taken
into account for slender columns. However, the
second-order effect is captured by multiplying the
greatest first-order design moment by a factor of kfi which
is calculated as follow:

(12)
k fi
, 1.0
1 N fi , Ed N fi ,cr

th

The temperature of a node at (i+1) time step can be

calculated from the temperatures at adjacent nodes at ith
time step explicitly. The thermal properties of steel and
concrete can be taken from EN 1993-1-2 (2005) and EN
1994-1-2 (2005).

4 SIMPLE CALCULATION METHOD

ACCORDING TO EUROCODE 4
The simple calculation models (SCM) are valid for
CFST composite columns exposed to all-around fire
according to the standard temperature-time curve. The
design value of resistance in axial compression (buckling
load) should be obtained from:
N fi , Rd N fi , pl , Rd

(5)

Nfi,Ed is the applied load under fire and Nfi,cr is the

elastic critical load, is the equivalent moment factor
which is related to the distribution of the first-order
bending moment within the column length. It should be
noted that there are two first-order bending moments for
columns with an eccentric axial load. One is induced by
the eccentricity of the load and the other is caused by
initial geometric imperfections of column. For first-order
bending moment from eccentricity, is taken as 1.1. For
first-order moment from imperfection, is equal to 1.0.
The member initial geometric imperfection is taken as
L/150 which corresponds to buckling curve c as
recommended in EN 1994-1-2 (2005).

In which is the reduction coefficient which depends on

the buckling curve c. Assuming the cross section of a
composite column is divided into various parts, and they
are denoted a for steel profile, s for the reinforcing
bars and c for the concrete, then the design value of the
plastic resistance to axial compression in fire situation is
given by:
A f
A f
A f
N fi , pl , Rd s a , ay , c , c , s , sy ,

M , fi ,c
M , fi ,s
j M , fi , a

(6)

Ai, is the area of each element of the cross-section to

which is attributed a certain temperature . s and are
the reduction factors considering the eccentricity of load.
The reduction coefficient is given by:
1
(7)

2
2

where:
0.5 1 0.49 0.2 2 ,

N fi ,cr

N fi , pl , R
N fi ,cr

2 EI fi ,eff

(8)

(10)

EI fi,eff a, Ea, I a, c, Ec, Ic, s, Es, I s, (11)

j

The reduction factors of mechanical properties of

normal strength steel and concrete under high
temperatures were taken from EN 1993-1-2 (2005) and
EN 1994-1-2 (2005). Their counterparts for HSS and
UHSC were obtained from tests (Xiong, 2013; Xiong and
Liew, 2015). The buckling length of column under
standard fire test L was determined by Xiong and Yan
(2015) where the effects of unexposed and exposed
lengths of column in test furnace were taken into account.

Figure 1. M-N interaction curve and corresponding stress

distributions in fire situation.

221

Xiong et al.

tests, MNIM presents slightly higher average value but

were less scattered than the SCM values. This could be
related with the boundary conditions which are discussed
below.
It is noted that the fire resistance time calculated by
SCM is generally higher than those by MNIM for
fixed-fixed columns. However for pinned-pinned
columns, the fire resistance time calculated by SCM is of
lower value. The calculations from SCM do not seem to
be consistent. The difference between SCM and MNIM is
mainly due to the consideration of the second-order
effect. For SCM, the second-order effect is taken into
account by selecting a reasonable buckling curve.
However, the buckling curve is normally summarized
from thousands of columns subject to ambient
temperature tests. The buckling curve does not take into
account the deteriorated elastic moduli of steel and
concrete under fire. As a result, the realistic lateral
deformation of the column under fire is not captured. For
the proposed MNIM, the second-order effect is
considered by multiplying the greatest first-order bending
moment by a factor. This amplification factor takes into
account the moment distribution within the column
length and the deteriorated Euler buckling load of the
column under fire. Thus, the MNIM is expected to give a
more reasonable prediction of the second-order effect.

For combined compression and moment, the

following condition should be satisfied for the stability
check within the column length.
M fi , Ed
(13)
fi ,M
fi ,d M fi , pl , Rd
Mfi,Ed is the greatest of the end moments and the
maximum bending moment within the column length,
including imperfections and second order effects. In
ambient design situation according to EN 1994-1-1, the
coefficient fi,M is taken as 0.9 for steel grades between
S235 and S355 inclusive and for steel grades S420 and
S460 as 0.8. The value fi,M is taken into account in case
of premature crushing of the concrete before the steel
yields. The higher the steel grade, the more likely the
concrete will be crushed prematurely. However, in the
present fire design methods, the premature crushing of
concrete is not considered. The reason is attributed to two
facts. Firstly, concrete, even high strength concrete,
generally loses its strength and shows better ductility
under fire than when under ambient temperature.
Concrete is more ductile at elevated temperatures, it is
less prone to be crushed before steel yields. Secondly, the
steel tube is softened and loses its capacity to prevent the
lateral expansion of concrete under fire. As a result, the
concrete is more prone to be laterally split rather than
crushed. Hence, the coefficient fi,M is taken as 1.0 in the
present fire resistance calculations.

Table 2. Details of columns in Lie and Chabot and Romeros

tests and comparison of test and predicted results.

6 VALIDATIONS
Besides the authors tests, the fire tests from Lie and
Chabot (1992) and Romero et al. (2011) were used to
validate the SCM and MNIM for steel tubes infilled with
NSC and HSC. There were in total 66 specimens.
In Lie and Chabots tests (1992), the specimens were
filled with both siliceous and calcareous aggregate
concrete. The concrete strength varied from 23.8MPa to
58.3MPa. All the columns were tested with both ends
fixed except for C-16 where both ends were simply
supported and a load eccentricity of 34mm was applied.
The column length was 3810mm and the exposed length
to fire was 3200mm. In Romeros tests (2011), the
concrete strength varied from 28.55MPa to 71.14MPa.
The type of aggregate was calcareous. The column length
was 3180mm and the exposed length to fire was
2970mm. All columns were fixed at one end and simply
supported at another end except for one column with both
ends simply supported.
The calculated fire resistance times are shown in
Table 2 and Table 3. The standard deviation and average
value are calculated based on the ratio between the
calculated and experimental fire resistance time. It can be
seen in Lie and Romeros tests that MNIM shows less
scattered and are more conservative than SCM in terms of
standard deviation and average value. But in the authors

1, * load eccentricity=34mm;

222

Xiong et al.
2, C circular column; S square column;
3; fy yield strength of steel; fc cylindrical compressive strength of
concrete; BC. Boundary condition; Fap applied load in fire test; Tt
tested fire resistant time; Tfr predicted fire resistant time;

The validation indicates that MNIM can be proposed

to design CFST columns under combined axial load and
bending moment under fire. It is also applicable for fire
resistant design of CFST columns with UHSC and HSS
and thus can be extended to EN 1994-1-2 where only
SCM is recommended.

In the authors tests, the calculated fire resistance time

from both SCM and MNIM are much higher than the
experimental values for two columns which are labeled as
LC-2-2 and LC-2-3. The reason is related to the boundary
conditions. LC-2-2 and LC-2-3 were the second and third
columns in the authors tests. At that time, the loading
head had not been fully restrained by the anti-rotational
plate Thus, the fixed end support could not be taken as
rigid, and these two columns were failed prematurely.
For better illustration, the calculated and measured
fire resistance time are plotted in Figure 2 and Figure 3 in
terms of SCM and MNIM for all test results. The
comparisons show that 61% of the calculations by MNIM
are smaller than the test values, whereas only 45% in
terms of SCM. For MNIM, the standard deviation and
average value based on the ratio between calculated and
experimental values are 0.218 and 0.985. For SCM, they
are 0.246 and 1.077 respectively. Thus, MNIM shows
more conservative and less scattered calculated values of
the fire resistance time than SCM.

Figure 2. Comparisons between tested and calculated fire

resistance time based on SCM.

Table 3. Comparisons between Authors tested with calculated

fire resistance time.

Figure 3. Comparisons between tested and calculated fire

resistance time based on MNIM.

Figure 4. M-N curves of column LC-2-4 under fire.

For reference, the M-N interaction curves from four

typical CFST columns in the authors tests are shown in
Figure 4 and Figure 5. It is noted that the capacities of the
bending moment and axial load are not monolithically
reduced with fire temperature. They are improved after

223

Xiong et al.

REFERENCES

being exposed to the fire for some time, but finally

reduced. This is due to the fact that the compressive
strength and elastic modulus of UHSC recovered part of
their deteriorations at the temperature range of
100oC~300oC. The applied axial load remains the same
but the external bending moment increases with
increasing temperature due to second-order effects. The
column failed when the applied external loads exceeded
the capacities of bending moment and axial force.

Croft, D.R. & Lilley D.G. 1977. Heat transfer calculations

using finite difference equations. Applied Science
Publishers LTD, London.
European Committee for Standardization. 2002. Eurocode 1:
Actions on structures-Part 1-2: General actions-actions on
structures exposed to fire, EN 1991-1-2.
European Committee for Standardization. 2005. Eurocode 3:
Design of steel structures-Part 1-2: General rules-structural
fire design, EN 1993-1-2.
European Committee for Standardization. 2004. Eurocode 4:
Design of composite steel and concrete structures-Part 1-1:
General rules and rules for buildings, EN 1994-1-1.
European Committee for Standardization. 2005. Eurocode 4:
Design of composite steel and concrete structures-Part 1-2:
General rules-structural fire design, EN 1994-1-2.
ISO 834-1. 1999. Fire-resistance tests-elements of building
construction Part1: General requirements. International
Standard ISO 834, Geneva.
Lie T.T. & Chabot M. 1992. Experimental studies on the fire
resistance of hollow steel columns filled with plain concrete.
National Research Council Canada, Internal Report No.
611.
Liew J.Y.R., Xiong D.X. (2012). Ultra-high strength concrete
filled composite columns for multi-storey building
construction. Advances in Structural Engineering Vol. 15
No. 9, p1487-1503.
Liew J.Y.R., Xiong M.X., Xiong D.X. (2014). Design of high
strength concrete filled tubular columns for tall buildings.
Journal of high-rise buildings, Vol. 3, No. 3, p1-7.
Romero, M.L., Moliner V., Espinos A., Ibanez C. & Hospitaler
A. 2011. Fire behavior of axially loaded slender high
strength concrete-filled tubular columns. Journal of
Constructional Steel Research, 67: 1953-1965.
Xiong M.X. 2013. Fire resistance of ultra-high strength
concrete filled steel tubular columns. PhD Thesis,
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering,
National University of Singapore.
Xiong M.X. & Liew J.Y.R. 2015. Mechanical properties of
heat-treated high tensile structural steel at elevated
temperatures.
Thin-Walled
Structures.
DOI
10.1016/j.tws.2015.04.010.
Xiong, M.X. & Yan, J.B. 2015. Buckling length determination
of concrete filled steel tubular column under axial
compression in standard fire test. Materials and Structures.
DOI 10.1617/s11527-015-0570-1.

Figure 5. M-N curves of column LSH-2-4 under fire.

7 CONCLUSIONS
This paper presents the fire resistance design methods
for CFST columns under standard fires. The simple
calculation model (SCM) in EN 1994-1-2 is strictly not
applicable to UHSC and HSS when the column is also
subject to bending moment. The proposed M-N
interaction model (MNIM) can be used to determine the
fire resistance of CFST columns subject to combined
bending moment and axial force, and it can be extended
to CFST columns with ultra high strength concrete and
high strength steel.
In using the SCM or MNIM, the first step is to
calculate the temperature profiles of the columns under
fire. A modified finite difference method is proposed to
perform heat transfer analysis and the calculation
procedure is implemented by software MATLAB. Both
the SCM and MNIM were validated by test results in
literature and from the authors tests. The comparisons
show that the MNIM exhibits more conservative and less
scattered calculated values than the SCM. The predictions
of fire resistance time by the SCM are generally higher
than those by the MNIM for fixed-fixed columns, but
smaller for pinned-pinned columns. This is because the
MNIM considers the direct second-order effect of column
under fire and it is more suitable for columns with a
higher slenderness ratio. It is proposed that the MNIM to
be used to design CFST columns with the high strength
concrete and high strength steel.

224

11th International Conference on

Advances in Steel and Concrete Composite Structures
Tsinghua University, Beijing, China, December 3-5, 2015

NEW ENGINEERING THEORY FOR TORSIONAL BUCKLING OF

STEEL-CONCRETE COMPOSITE I-COLUMNS
W. F. Zhanga
a

Northeast Petroleum University, Daqing, Heilongjiang , China

E-mails: zhang_wenfu@126.com
ABSTRACT

Keywords:
steel-concrete composite
column; torsional buckling; thin
plate theory; beam theory; total
potential energy.

Steel-concrete composite I-column with CFST flange is a new type of composite structures, and
its torsional buckling problem is the theoretical foundation for formulating codes and the
stability design of engineering structures. Based upon the Kirchhoffs thin plate theory and
Eulers beam theory, a new theory for the torsional buckling for steel-concrete open thin-walled
members is proposed. Taking the double symmetric, steel-concrete composite I-column under
axial compression as an example, the total potential energy of its torsional buckling is obtained,
and its energy variational model as well as differential equation model is presented. This new
plate-beam theory presented in this paper not only has clear mechanics concept, but also can be
used to solve the torsional buckling problem of the steel-concrete composite open/closed
thin-walled members, and its easy to understand and master for engineers, which indicate that
this new theory has the important theoretical value and broad engineering application value.

1 INTRODUCTION
For I-beam/column composed of three flat plates, its
flexure-torsional buckling (FTB) is a common type of
failures. In order to further improve the overall stability
of I-shaped steel beam/column, the flat flange is replaced
with steel tube, thus forming the so-called hollow flange
beam, as shown in Fig.1, which was first proposed by
Australian scholars Dempsey (1990).
However, when the span and load are larger, the
compression flange for this new type of I-beam with
hollow flange may firstly appear the local buckling
phenomenon, and thus decrease the utilization efficiency
of steel material. For this reason, Kim & Sause (2005)
first proposed to fill concrete into hollow flange of
I-beam, which form such thought of I-beam with CFST
flange, and completed the corresponding experimental
studies on the static behavior of single span, simply
supported beams in 2008 (Fig. 2).
These studies show that this new composite beam
with CFST flange has the following advantages: (1)with
the same amount of steel for top flange, the CFST flange
has greater strength, stiffness and better stability than the
hollow flange; (2)with the same height of beam, the
height of CFST flange is larger than that of flat flange,
thus the height of web is reduced. Since the
depth-thickness ratio of the web is smaller, it is not prone
to occur the local buckling and distortional buckling;
(3)CFST flange increase the torsional stiffness of
structures and improve the overall stability of structures.

Figure 1. Typical sections of hollow flange beams.

Figure 2. Sections and members of I-shaped beams with CFST

flange(Sause & Kim,2008).

At present, although lots of basic theoretical and

experimental researches on the members and structural
systems of the concrete filled steel tube (CFST) have
been done in China (Zhong,1994;Zhong,2006;Han,2007),
the studies on this new type of composite beam/column
with CFST flange are still insufficient.
225

Zhang et al.

(3) Strain energy and initial stress potential of

in-plane and out-of-plane are respectively determined by
the Eulers beam theory and Kirchhoffs thin plate theory.
It is should be noted that the first assumption was
clearly put forward by Vlasov, and this is the general
theoretical basis for elastic flexure-torsional buckling for
thin-walled members at present. The last two assumptions
are first proposed by author. The second assumption is
the foundation for deformation decomposition method
used in the new engineering theory, and this idea of
decomposition of total deformation is helpful to simplify
our theoretical analysis; The third assumption is the
theoretical basis to calculate the strain energy and initial
stress potential.
For torsional buckling, the torsional problem of
thin-walled members is the first problem that will
inevitably encounter in the derivation of new engineering
theory. However, it is observed that the existing torsion
theories contains two sets of essentially associated but
artificially separated theories, that is the uniform torsion
theory and the non-uniform torsion theory. How to unify
the two torsion theories is the key to establish the new
engineering theory. For this purpose, the unified theory
for the narrow rectangular plate based on the energy
variational method is firstly investigated and proposed by
the author, see reference of Zhang(2014) for more details.
In addition, it can be seen from the basic assumptions
that the new proposed torsional buckling theory follows
Vlasovs peripheral rigidity assumption, but the strain
energy and initial stress potential are respectively
calculated via the Eulers beam theory and Kirchhoffs
thin plate theory, so the author temporally call it the
plate-beam theory (Zhang,2014, Zhang,2015a,b,c,d,e).

The first problem about the non-uniform torsion of

open thin-walled members was firstly put forward and
solved by Timoshenko in Russia in 1905. Taking this
work as a starting point, there has been a lot of theories
and applications for the flexure-torsional buckling of
open thin-walled members, in which the representative
buckling theories include: the Vlasov & Bleichs
traditional theory with the shear strain in the middle
surface is assumed to be zero, Lu Liewu and Shen
Shizhaos shear strain energy theory with the nonlinear
shear strain taking into account for the strain energy of
the middle surface, Pi & Trahairs theory, Ghobarah &
Tsos theory with the total shear strain in middle surface
is assumed to be zero, Hughe & Ma and Tong Genshus
transversal normal stress theory. Such theories are the
theoretical foundations for formulating codes and the
stability design of engineering structures. However, by
careful studies, it can be found that these theories have
several problems as follows: (1) the concept of Vlasovs
sectorial coordinates is almost used in the theoretical
derivations, but it is puzzling for practicing engineers,
since the sectorial coordinates belongs to unconventional
coordinate; (2) not making full use of the existing
theories of engineering mechanics, such as the Eulers
beam theory , Kirchhoffs thin plate theory, etc. Instead,
Vlasov's sectorial coordinates law is used to express the
longitudinal displacements for any points on the whole
section; (3) not all strain energy can be naturally obtained
via Vlasov's displacement expression. For example, the
strain energy of uniform torsion and the strain energy of
secondary warping should be artificially add into the
derivation process, otherwise it will lead to incorrect
conclusions; (4) the above theories are only suitable for
thin-walled members with mono material, they cannot be
used to solve the buckling problem of thin-walled
members composed of different materials, such as
steel-concrete composite I-members.
As is known to all, the Kirchhoffs thin plate theory
and Eulers beam theory are the most widely used and
accepted engineering mechanics theories with advantages
of high precision, easy to understand, and so on. In this
study, a new engineering theory without using the
Vlasovs sectorial coordinates will be established for the
torsional buckling of steel-concrete I-columns merely
based upon the Kirchhoffs thin plate theory and Eulers
beam theory.

bf
tf

Concrete/CFST

hw

tw
x

tf

Steel

Figure 3. Section and its deformation of steel-concrete

composite I-column.

3 ENERGY VARIATIONAL MODEL OF

2 BASIC ASSUMPTIONS OF NEW

TORSIONAL BUCKLING FOR I-SHAPED

STEEL-CONCRETE COMPOSITE I-COLUMNS
UNDER AXIAL COMPRESSION

ENGINEERING THEORY: PLATE-BEAM

THEORY
(1) Peripheral rigidity assumption(Vlasov,1961);
(2) Deformation of the plate can be divided into two
parts, namely the in-plane deformation and out-of-plane
deformation;

3.1 Description of problem

Generally, the research object in this paper is a
doubly symmetrical steel-concrete composite I-column
under axial compression, as shown in Fig.3. Assuming

226

Zhang et al.

that the top and bottom flanges are made of

concrete/CFST, its elastic modulus is Ef, shear modulus is
GfPoisson ratio is f; The web is made of steel, its
elastic modulus is Ew, shear modulus is Gw, Poisson ratio
is w. The length of steel column is a, the width of flange
is bf, its thickness is tf, the height of web is hw, its
thickness is tw. Assuming that when the column appear
torsional buckling, the rigid angle of cross section is (x).

h
h
u x, y y ' v x, y
2
2
Linear strain is:

xy

steel-concrete composite I-column

3.2.1 Strain energy for web

(1.1)

According to the unified theory of the uniform and

non-uniform torsion of the narrow rectangular plate,
recently proposed by the author (Zhang,2014), and the
peripheral rigidity assumption, the strain energy caused
by lateral displacement and twist is:

2 1 I 4 2 dx

1 a Ew
Iw ' '2 G w J kw '2 dx

w
2

2 0 1

I y z dydz

hw
2
h
w
2

I y z dydz
Aw

J 4 z dydz 4
Aw

3
w w

hw
2
h
w
2

tw
2
t
w
2

t 3 h3
y z dzdy w w
144

tw
2
t
w
2

bf

2 2

Aw

2 2

1 a Ef
I f ' '2 G f J kf '2 dx

f2

0
2 1

(1.9)

Where

w
k

1 a Ef
f h
' '2

I

dx (1.8)
y

2 0 1 f 2 2

in plane
f

Where

(1.3)

(1.7)

plane
U out

If the Eq.(1.1) is put into the above equation, the

strain energy of web can be obtained as

U wout plane

u v
h
h
' ' 0
y x
2
2

(2) Flexural strain energy of out-of-plane (the Kirchhoffs

thin plate model)
According to the unified theory of the uniform and
non-uniform torsion for narrow rectangular plate, strain
energy caused by flexure of out-of-plane is:

1 a
E
I1v2 Au02 I 2 w02 I 3 2
2 0 1 2
(1.2)

(1.6)

Obviously, the above strain state is consistent with the

Eulers beam theory, namely in accordance with plane
section assumption. According to the Eulers beam
theory, the flexural strain energy of in-plane is obtained
as

The centroid coordinate of web is (0,0), its

displacement components are:

u
v
h
y ' ' ; y
0
x
y
2

3.2 Strain energy of torsional buckling for

uw0 0; vw0 0; ww0 0; w0

(1.5)

J 4 z dydz 4
f
k

2 2

z dydz

bf

tf

3
f f

bt

12

tf

2
tf

Aw

2
bf

2
bf
2

y z dzdy

2
tf

2 2

t 3f b3f
144

z 2 dydz

3
f f

bt
3

It can be readily proved that the total strain energy for

top and bottom flanges is:

3
w w

ht
ht

12
3

U f U tf U bf 2U tf

3.2.2 Strain energy for top and bottom flange

Taking the top flange as an example, the centroid

coordinate of top flange is (0,-h/2), its displacement
components are:

f
1 a
Ef
2
Iy

f
2
2 0 1

2
' '2
h
f
f
f '2
I 2 G J k dx
2

(1.10)

h
u f 0 0; v f 0 ; w f 0 0; f 0 (1.4)
2
(1) Flexural strain energy of in-plane (the Eulers beam
model)
Displacement model is:
227

Zhang et al.

3.2.3 The total strain energy

method is only applicable to the analysis of bending

deformation, but not applicable for torsion and buckling
analysis; (2)the buckling moment of steel-concrete
composite I-beams given by transformed-width method is
up to several times lower than the true solutions. This is
clearly an unacceptable fact in practical engineering
design. Is the results of FEM reliable? Here the reasons
for these errors are analyzed from a theoretical point of
view.
First, the calculation method problem of bending
stiffness is analyzed, and here we adopt superposition
method to calculate bending stiffness around strong axis
for steel-concrete composite I-columns, and its resulting
calculation formula is as follows

U Uw U f

1 a Ew
Iw ' '2 G w J kw '2 dx

w
2

2 0 1

2
''2
1 a
Ef f h
f
f
f '2
2
I

2 G J k dx
y

f2
0
2 1 2

(1.11)
If setting
2

Ef f h
Ew
f
EI

2
I

Iw

comp

f2 y
w2
1
1 2

2
3
3 3
3
3
f
w
t f bf h t f bf
E
E tw hw
2

f2
1 12 2
144 1 w 2 144

EI x comp

G w J kw

t b
2G f f f
3

bf

(1.13)
w t w hw
3

Ef
bf
Ew

(1.16)

Substituting Eq.(1.16) into Eq.(1.15), the resulting

bending stiffness is obtained as
2

Which is called uniform torsional stiffness for the

steel-concrete composite I-column, then its total strain
energy may be expressed as

Ef h
EI x 2 E t f w b f E w I xw
E
2

2
2
1 a
U EI comp ' ' GJ k comp ' dx
2 0

h
2 E f t f b f E w I xw
2

(1.15)

Where, the first term is the bending stiffness of

concrete/CFST flanges, and the second term is the
bending stiffness of steel web.
If using the transformed- section method, and the
concrete flange is converted into an equivalent steel
flange, then the equivalent width is

(1.12)
Which is called non-uniform torsional stiffness or
warping stiffness for the steel-concrete composite
I-column, and

GJ k comp 2G f J kf

h
2 E A E w I xw
2
f

(1.14)

(1.17)

Comparing the two calculation methods of bending

stiffness, namely Eq.(1.17) and Eq.(1.15), it can be found
that the equivalent section method and the traditional
superposition method give the same results. Thus, the
using of the transformed- section method in bending
analysis won't appear any problems. This is an important
reason such that the transformed- section method has
been used widely in the bending analysis of reinforced
concrete structures and composite structures.
Next, the calculation methods for the uniform
torsional stiffness are analyzed. According to the stiffness
formula for the steel-concrete composite I-column
derived in this paper, i.e.

3.2.4 The applicability problem of transformed-section

method to calculate the bending stiffness and
torsional stiffness of steel-concrete composite
column
The transformed-section method is a commonly used
method to calculate the deformation of composite
members with different materials, since it is simple and
easy to use, and can simplify the complex theoretical
problem. Therefore, it is deeply loved by practicing
engineers and it has been widely used in practical
engineering design.
However, the question of whether the transformedsection method is suitable for the torsion and buckling
analysis of composite members with different materials
has not be investigated so far. First, we have finished the
numerical simulation studies on the applicability problem
of the transformed-section method for steel-concrete
composite I-beams by using the FEM software, and
found that (Zhang,2015f): (1)the transformed-section

GJ k comp
or

228

t f 3b f
2G
3

wt h
G w w (1.18)
3

Zhang et al.

a huge difference, which has not been found in previous

3
tw3hw E f 1 w t f b f studies conclusions, is far beyond our imagination.
GJ k comp G
1
2 w
f
In summary, this paper clarifies the applicable scope
3 E 1 tw hw
of the transformed-section method from the theoretical
(1.19)
perspective, that is, the transformed-section method can
If using the transformed-section method, and
well predict the bending stiffness and uniform torsional
substituting Eq.(1.16) into Eq.(1.18), then the resulting
stiffness, but it far underestimate the non-uniform
formula of the uniform torsional stiffness for equivalent
torsional stiffness for the steel-concrete composite
steel section is obtained as
beams/columns. Thus the using of the transformedsection method will give wrong conclusions in the torsion
3
t 3 Ef
w t w hw
and buckling analysis for the steel-concrete composite
GJ k 2G w f
b

G
(1.20)
f
3 Ew
3
beams/columns. These results are highly deserved to
cause the attentions for all practical engineers and
Or
researches.
3
E f t f 3 b f
This conclusion also preliminarily proves the
w t w hw
2 w 1 (1.21) rationality of FEM analysis results theoretically.
GJ k G

3 E
t
h
w

3.3 Initial stress potential of torsional buckling for

Comparing the two calculation methods for the free

torsional stiffness, namely the first term in Eq.(1.21) and
Eq.(1.19), it can be found that the uniform torsional
stiffness given by this paper is a little bit larger than that
given by the transformed-section method, but its
difference is not obvious, because of

steel-concrete composite I-column

As is known, if a I-shaped column is under the
condition of axial compressionit may also occur ether
elastic flexural buckling or torsional buckling. It can be
proven that for a doubly symmetrical I-column its
strength of the torsional buckling is higher that that of the
flexural buckling. Thus in practical design, torsional
buckling does not control the strength of I-column.
Therefore, this problem is deliberately chosen not only to
demonstrate the idea of new engineering theory, but also
to define some new geometric parameters in order to
improve the exiting buckling theory for composite
columns.

1 w 1 0.3

1.04
1 f 1 0.25
This little error can be ignored in practical design.
Finally, the calculation methods of non-uniform
torsional stiffness are analyzed. According to the stiffness
formula for steel-concrete composite I-column derived by
this paper

EI comp

Ef
2
1 f 2

3.3.1 Initial stress potential for web

t f h 2 t f 3 3

b f (1.22)
12 2 144

In this case, the initial stress of web is uniform

compression stress, that is:

If using the transformed-section method, and

substituting Eq.(1.16) into Eq.(1.22), then the resulting
formula for the non-uniform torsional stiffness of
equivalent steel section is obtained

EI 2

Ew
1 w2

EAcomp 2E f A f

EI

1 w2 E w

1 f 2 E f

E w Aw

The sign convention with the compression stress is

negative is used hereafter.
Geometric equations (nonlinear strain) is

The ratio between them is

EI comp

(1.25)

where

tf h
tf E f

w b f (1.23)
12 2 144 E

Ew
P
EAcomp

(1.24)

1 w 1
' 2

y
2 x
2
2

Because the value of elastic modulus of concrete

commonly used in engineering in China is between 3.0
104 ~3.8104 N/mm2, but elastic modulus of steel is 2.06
105 N/mm2, the elastic modulus ratio between them is
about 5.4~6.9. Therefore, the non-uniform torsional
stiffness given in this paper is 28.5~45.8 times higher
than that given by the transformed-section method. Such

NL
x

(1.26)

The strain energy generated by the initial stress is

Vwout plane
Where

229

1 a EwP

2 0 EAcomp

w '2
I x dx

(1.27)

Zhang et al.

hw
2
h
w
2

tw
2
t
w
2

I xw y 2 dydz
Aw

y 2 dydz

V fin,b plane

tw hw3
(1.28)
12

1 a E f P

2 0 EAcomp

3.3.2 Initial stress potential for top and bottom flange

In this case, the initial stress of flange is uniform
compression stress, that is:

Ef
P
EAcomp

plane
V fout

,b

(1.25)

h
u ; w f 0 0; f 0
2

1 v 1 h
'
2 x
2 2
2

1 a E f P

2 0 EA comp

(1.29)

1 a
'' 2
' 2
E
I

GJ

dx
1

comp
comp
2 0
2
(1.37)

1 a E f P
h
2 Af 2 I yf '2 dx

2 0 EA comp
2

2
h '2
dx
2

1 a E w P w '2

I x dx
2 0 EA comp

And it can be simply written as

U w U f Vw V f

1 w 1
' 2

y
2 x
2
2

2
'2 (1.36)
h
f

2
I
dx
y

2

(2) Initial stress potential for out-of-plane bending

Geometric equations (nonlinear strain) is
NL
x

2 Af

The total potential energy is the sum of strain energy

and initial stress energy of the steel-concrete composite
I-column, i.e.
U w U f Vw V f

1 h ' 2
dxdydz (1.30)
2 2

Af

1 a E f P

2 0 EA comp

variational model of torsional buckling for

steel-concrete composite I-column

V fin,t plane

2
2
1 a
E1I comp ' ' GJ k comp ' P r0,2comp '2 dx

2
(1.38)
In which

(1.31)

Initial stress potential is

plane
V fout
,t

EfP

EA comp

1
2
y ' dxdydz (1.32)
2

1 a E f P

2 0 EA comp

f '2
I y dx

r0,2comp

EJ comp
EAcomp

r02 J A

Af

bf

2
bf
2

tf

2
tf

y 2 dydz

t f b3f

(1.39)

is the square of the radius of gyration for sections of

steel-concrete composite I-column which is newly
defined by the author. It is different from the traditional
concept for sections with mono material, i.e.

Where

I yf y 2 dydz

f '2
I y dx (1.35)

3.4 The total potential energy and the energy

Initial stress potential is

EfP

EA comp

1 a E f P

2 0 EAcomp

V f V f ,t V f ,b

(1) Initial stress potential for in-plane bending

Geometric equations (nonlinear strain) is
NL
x

2
(1.34)
h '2

dx

Then the sum of initial stress energy for top and

bottom flanges is:

The displacements of the centroid coordinates (0,-h/2)

of the top flange is

u f 0 0; v f 0

Af

(1.39)

These reflect that their mechanics mechanism are

different in nature. Thus the relationship defined in
Eq.(1.39) is the basic geometric parameters of the
composite beam/column, which is very useful for the
design engineers

(1.33)

12

Similarly, the initial stress energy for the bottom

flange generated by the initial stress is obtained:

230

Zhang et al.

EJ comp EI x comp EI y comp

constructed, namely the energy variational model and

differential equation model. Although the two kinds of
mechanical models are different in analysis idea and
research methods, it can be proven that (omitted): they
describe the same mechanical problems, so the two
models are equivalent mathematiclly.

(1.40a)

is the polar moment of inertia of composite section,

and

EI x comp

h
2 E A E w I xw
2
f

(1.40b)

4.1 Equilibrium equation

According to Euler equation

is the moment of inertia of composite section around

its strong axis, which is the same as that, Eq.(1.15) given
by the superposition method, and

EI

2E I
f

y comp

f
y

F d F d 2 F

0
dx ' dx 2 ' '

(1.40c)

For the case of constant section, there is

GJ

is the moment of inertia of composite section around

its weak axis.
The Eq.1.41 can also be rewriten as

1
2 0

EI comp ''2

dx
2
'2
GJ k

Pr

0, comp
comp

k compk

F ' , '' dx

If is given, or

(1.41)

F d F

0
' dx ' '
i.e.

GJ

k comp

(1.50)

That is

'' 0

(1.51)

For the three kinds of common boundary conditions,

their results are summarized as follows
(1) Simply supported end (cross section can not rotate
freely, but can warp freely)

''
EI comp 0

(1.42)

EI

''2
1 comp

F ,
2
'2
2 GJ k

Pr

0,comp
comp

Pr0,2comp ' EI comp ' '' 0 (1.49)

EI comp ' ' 0

Where
''

(1.48)

If is given, or

Pr0,2comp ' ' EI comp IV 0 (1.47)

4.2 Boundary conditions

This is the total potential energy for the torsional

buckling of the steel-concrete composite I-column under
axial compression based on the plate-beam theory
presented by the author. Its form is consistent with the
result of traditional buckling theory derived according to
sectorial coordinate. However, the geometrical
parameters defined and its derivation in this paper are
more rational and natural, and only the most basic
Kirchhoffs thin plate theory and Eulers beam theory are
used.
Finally, the torsional buckling problem of steelconcrete composite I-column under axial compression is
transformed into such a variational model that: searching
for one function, (x), in the range 0xa, and to make
it satisfy a specified geometric boundary conditions, that
is the endpoint constraints, and make the energy
functional defined by the following formula a minimum.

'

(1.45)

(1.52)

(2) Fixed end (cross section can neither rotate freely, nor
warp freely)

(1.43)

' 0

4 DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION MODEL OF

(1.53)

(3) Free end (cross section can rotate and warp freely)

TORSIONAL BUCKLING FOR

STEEL-CONCRETE COMPOSITE I-COLUMN
UNDER AXIAL COMPRESSION

EI comp ''' GJ k comp Pr0,2comp ' 0

EI comp '' 0

It is well known that the static equilibrium principle

and static energy criterion are two kinds of basic
principles for the study on the problems of static
equilibrium and static buckling of structures. Thus the
two corresponding mechanical models can be

231

(1.54)

Zhang et al.

5 CONCLUSION

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section under biaxial bending and longitudinal load. Journal
of Heilongjiang Institute of Technology,02:13-16.
Zhang,W.F. 2014. Unified theory of free and restricted torsion
for narrow rectangular plate, China Science and technology
paperonline,http://www.paper.edu.cn/html/releasepaper/04/
143/
Zhang,W.F. 2015a. New theory of flexure-torsional buckling
for axial loaded H-shape steel columns. Proc. of the 15th
National Symposium on Modern Structure Engineering.
pp:725-735 (In Chinese)
Zhang,W.F. 2015b. New theory of elastic torsional buckling for
axial loaded box-shape steel columns. Proc. of the 15th
National Symposium on Modern Structure Engineering.
pp:793-804 (In Chinese)
Zhang,W.F. 2015c. New theory of torsion and flexure-torsional
buckling for narrow plates. Proc. of the 15th National
Symposium on Modern Structure Engineering. pp:
1728-1743 (In Chinese)
Zhang,W.F. 2015d. New engineering theory for mixed torsion
of steel-concrete-steel composite walls. Proc. of 11th
International Conference on Advances in Steel and
Concrete Composite Structures.
Zhang,W.F. 2015e. New engineering theory for mixed torsion
of steel-concrete-steel composite box-beams. Proc. of 11th
International Conference on Advances in Steel and
Concrete Composite Structures.
Zhang,W.F, Fu,Y.&Liu,Y.C. 2015f. Applicability problem of
equivalent section method for I-shaped steel-concrete
composite beam. Proceedings of 24th China Structural
Engineering Conference.
Zhong, S.T. 1994. Concrete-filled steel tube structures. Harbin:
Heilongjiang Technology Press.

It can be seen that, from the above derivations of

total potential energy, equilibrium equations and
boundary conditions, the new engineering theory
presented in this paper is the same as the existing
buckling theory for I-columns with mono-material, and
this results also effectively proves the validity of the
plate-beam theory. However, comparing with the
traditional buckling theory, the new engineering theory
abandons the concept of Vlasovs sectorial coordinates
and only the classic thin plate theory and beam theory are
used to establish the energy variational model and
differential equation model of the torsional buckling for
steel-concrete composite I-column with the help of
Vlasovs peripheral rigidity assumption and the
deformation decomposition method presented in this
paper. This new theory has clear mechanics concept, and
its easy to understand and master for practicing
engineers. What is most important is that the new
proposed theory not only can used directly to solve a
series of vibration and flexure-torsional buckling
problems for steel-concrete, open thin-walled members
(e.g. Zhang,2015d), but also can be easily extended to
that of the steel-concrete, closed thin-walled members
(e.g.Zhang,2015e). These indicate that this new
engineering theory has the important theoretical value
and broad engineering application value.
In addition, this article clarify the applicable scope of
the transformed-section method from the theoretical
perspective, That is, the transformed-section method can
well predict the bending stiffness and uniform torsional
stiffness, but it far underestimate non-uniform torsional
stiffness for composite column.
These conclusions are highly deserved to cause the
attentions for all practical engineers and researches.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors acknowledge the valuable support of
natural science foundation of China (51178087,
51578120).
REFERENCES
Bleich, F. 1965.Buckling strength of the metal structure.
Translated by department of steel and wood structure of
Tongji University. Beijing: Science Press.
Chen,J.2006.Stability theory and design of steel structure.
Beijing: Science Press.
Chen, W.F.&Atsuta,T. 1997. Beam and column analysis and
design: the second volume space problem features and
design. Translated by Zhou S.P&Liu X.Beijing: China
Communications Press.
Dempsey,R.1990.Structural behavior and design of hollow
flange beams. Proc. 2nd Nat. Structural Engineering
Conference, Institution of Engineers, 327-335. Australia.

232

11th International Conference on

Advances in Steel and Concrete Composite Structures
Tsinghua University,Beijing,China,December 3-5,2015

FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS ON MECHANICAL PERFORMANCE OF MIDDLE LONG CONCRETE-FILLED SQUARE STEEL
TUBE COLUMN WITH INNER I-SHAPED CFRP PROFILE
UNDER AXIAL LOADING
G. C. Li, R. R. Zhang, Z. J. Yang & B. Zhou
School of Civil Engineering, Shenyang Jianzhu University, Shenyang, China
E-mails: liguochang0604@sina.com, 526824375@qq.com, faemail@163.com, 604485084@qq.com
ABSTRACT
Keywords:
concrete-filled square tube
with I-shaped CFRP profile
inside; middle long column; axial
load; damaged mode; mechanical
mechanism

The mechanical performance of middle long concrete-filled square steel tube (CFST) column
with I-shaped CFRP profile inside was studied in this paper. The numerical model of middle
long CFST column with I-shaped CFRP profile inside was established by ABAQUS finite
element software on the basis of the reasonable constitutive relationship model of material. The
whole process curve of load deformation was analyzed, which can be divided into four stages:
elastic stage, elastic-plastic rise stage, elastic-plastic decline stage and rebound stage. The
specimen damaged because of buckling in the mid-span. The effect of steel strength and
concrete strength, CFRP profile ratio and thickness of steel tube on mechanical performance of
middle long column was studied. The bearing capacity of specimen increased with the increase
of steel strength. With the increase of the concrete strength, the ultimate bearing capacity
increased, but the ductility decreases. The ultimate bearing capability increased with the increase
the CFRP profile ratio and steel tube thickness.

(1997) studied the GFRP confined concrete specimens

subjected to axial loading, and the result showed that
CFRP can effectively restrain the core concrete.
Ozbakaloglu (2012) conducted 24 concrete columns
confined by AFRP and CFRP under monotonic and
cyclic loading, the results showed that concrete strength
and thickness of fiber layer had effect on the member
stress-strain curve. Vincent (2013) conducted the test of
55 high strength and ultra high strength concrete short
columns restrained by CFRP, which showed that
specimens had good ductility.
Based on the background above, the author put
forward a new kind of concrete-filled square steel tube
(CFST) column with I-shaped CFRP profile inside to
improve the mechanical property of CFST column. The
CFRP is used to bear the vertical load rather than confine
the concrete. After putting I-shaped CFRP profile inside
CFST column, the bearing capacity and ductility will
increase, and the weight of the structure will be reduced.
Li (2014) studied the behavior of CFST short column
with I-shaped CFRP profile inside under axial loading.
The model was established by ABAQUS to study the
mechanical performance of axial compressed middle
long CFST column with I-shaped CFRP profile inside in
this paper.

1 INTROCTION
The concrete-filled steel tube structure (CFT) has the
performance of high bearing capacity, convenient
construction, good shape and excellent characteristics of
fire resistance. The section size of CFT column which is
applied in high-rise buildings is large, the diameter
thickness ratio of the tube wall and the confinement
coefficient is small. Zhong (2003) pointed out that
collocated the materials such as longitudinal and
transverse reinforcement steel bar into CFT column will
improve the ductility of the structure. The fiber
reinforced
polymer
(FRP)
is
a
kind
of
excellent-performance material with high strength,
anisotropy, corrosion resistance, light weight, low
thermal expansion coefficient, good durability and
fatigue resistance which is more and more widely used in
engineering. Wang (2009) reported the test result of six
DSTC members under bending load, which indicated
FRP could increase the bearing capacity and stiffness.
Wang (2011) studied the bearing capacity of DSTC short
column under axial compression, and put forward
calculation formula. Wang (2014) conducted the test of
10 DSTC square columns under axial loading,
considering the parameters of hollow rate, cross section
of the configuration and CFRP thickness. Nanni (1995)
reported the test results of AFRP confined concrete
under axial compressive and bending load. Mirmiran

233

Li et al.

2 SPECIMEN DESIGN
steel tube

The section of new type composite column is shown

in Fig.1. The square steel tube were made of
Q235,Q345,Q390 steel, and the section width B is
200mm, the thickness of steel tube are 4mm, 5mm, 6mm
and 8mm. The concrete strength is C30, C40, C50 and
C60. Three types of the I-shaped CFRP profile were
designed as follows: 120706mm, 120808mm,
1408010mm and 14010010mm. The details of
specimens are shown in Table 1.

concrete
CFRP profiles

Figure 1. CFST column with CFRP I-shaped profile inside

Table 1 Details of specimens

Number

BtL(mm)

HWT(mm)

fy (MPa)

As (mm2)

fcu (MPa)

L/B

N (kN)

ZC1

20051000

120808

235

2112

40

2587.8

ZC2

20051000

120808

345

2112

40

3098.18

ZC3

20051000

120808

390

2112

40

3288.76

ZC4

20051000

120808

420

2112

40

3436.1

ZC5

20051000

120808

235

2112

30

2456.1

ZC6

20051000

120808

235

2112

50

2833.3

ZC7

20051000

120808

235

2112

60

3240.97

ZC8

20051000

120706

235

1488

40

2372.1

ZC9

20051000

140808

235

2800

40

2753.28

ZC10

20051000

1408010

235

3200

40

3241.48

ZC11

20041000

120808

235

2112

40

2358.07

ZC12

20061000

120808

235

2112

40

2713.51

ZC13

20081000

120808

235

2112

40

3045.15

ZC14

20051000

235

40

2199.43

Note: L is the length of the specimen, fy is steel yield strength, AF is the cross-sectional area of CFRP, fcu is the compressive strength
of concrete, Nu is the ultimate bearing capacity of FEM.

3 THE MATERIAL CONSTITUTIVE

RELATIONSHIP

y
0 f c ( N / mm2 ) 0 c 800
0
0

3.1 The constitutive relationship

x
y of
concrete
0 f c ( N / mm2 ) 0 c 800 0.2 106
The lateral pressure of concrete increases with the
A f
c (1300 12.5 f c ) 106 = S y 1.6 1.5 /
increasing of the load as the CFST column with I-shaped
Ac f ck
CFRP profile inside under axial loading. The
A f
f c0.1
stress-strain relationship
concrete
is different
from
c of
(1300
12.5
f c ) 106
= S y 1.6 1.5 / x 0
unidirectional compressive condition. Considering the Ac f ck
1.2 1
applicability of various constitutive relation for the CFST
fc is the cylinder compressive strength of concrete; fck
column with I-shaped CFRP profile inside, the concrete
is standard value of concrete axial compressive strength;
plastic damage model of ABAQUS was used in this
fy is the yield strength of steel; As, Ac are the cross
paper. The concrete constitutive relationship of CFST
section area of steel tube and concrete respectively.
column proposed by Liu (2005) was selected, as follows:
3.2 The constitutive relationship of steel

2 x x 2

y
x
( x 1) x
0

( x 1)
( x 1)

The simplified ideal elastic-plastic stress-strain

relationship of the steel is used, which is shown in Fig.2.

(1)

Where,

234

Li et al.

points in each layer direction of the shell element. The

contact between steel tube and concrete adopted hard
contact, the tangential interaction friction of contact
surface was simulated by coulomb friction model of
ABAQUS, the friction coefficient is 0.6 referred to
Susantha (2001) and Hu (2003). CFRP profile and
concrete was tie together. The contact between concrete
and endplate, steel tube and concrete in the normal
direction is hard contact. The contact between steel tube,
CFRP profile and endplate was shell to-solid coupling.
Load control was used to apply load.

fy

Figure 2 The stress-strain relationship curve of steel

3.3 The constitutive relationship of I-shaped CFRP

profile

5 CALCULATION RESULT ANALYSIS

CFRP profile can be regarded as laminated structure

in the simulation, which are mainly carbon fiber
unidirectional cloth(Roving) and carbon fiber felt
continuous fiber layer (CSM) overlapped. Each layer can
be regarded as homogeneous and linear elastic
orthogonal anisotropy material (1999).The equivalent
thickness is used for each layer, and single layer stiffness
performance can be calculated from single fiber volume
fraction by mesoscopic mechanics method (1992), the
strength of a single feature can be determined through
standard test method (1994). Failure of I-shaped CFRP
profile is based on the secondary development USDFLD
subroutine of ABAQUS.
The single-layer failure can be judged by Tsai-Wu
failure strength criterion, and limited stiffness
degradation of materials can be defined by progressive
damage method. Tsai - Wu failure criterion in the state of
two-dimensional are as follows (1996):

5.1 Load-strain curve analysis

The load-displacement curves of ZC-1 and ZC-14
specimens are shown in Figure.3.
3000

N/kN

2000

1000
ZC-14
ZC-1
0
0.00

0.03

Figure 3.The impact of CFRP for concrete-filled

steel tube long column N- curve

It can be seen from Figure 3 that there are four stages

such as elastic stage, elastic-plastic rise stage,
elastic-plastic decline stage and rebound stage of middle
long CFST column with I-shaped CFRP profile inside.
At the beginning of loading, the specimen was in elastic
stage, and concrete, steel tube and CFRP undertook the
load together; With the increase of load, specimen turned
into the elastic-plastic stage, steel tube began to yield,
and the concrete started to crack, the bearing capacity of
the specimen declined after reaching ultimate bearing
capacity. The high performance of the CFRP profile was
fully played, which damaged inside the material. The
performance of the specimen degenerated, and entered
into the rebound stage, the load-strain curve appeared
obviously nonlinear. It is effective to increase the bearing
capability and the ductility of specimen. After putting
CFRP profile inside the component, the bearing
capability increased by almost 20% compared with
CFST.

(2)

Where,
1
1
1 1
1
F1

F2 F11
Xt Xc
Yt Yc
Xt Xc
1
1
F12
YtYc
2

0.02

F1112 F22 22 F66 62 F11 F2 2 2F121 2 1

F22

0.01

1
1
F66 2
S
X t X cYtY c

H1 =F11 F1112H2 F2 2 F22 22H6 F66 6 2

There are three failure modes to be determined
according to formula (2): fiber fracture, transverse matrix
damage and shear failure inside the facet. The FRP
profile has no damage in the initial state. As formula (2)
meets, the material damages and the stiffness degenerates,
and H1 is calculated at the gauss point.

4 MODEL ESTBLISHMENT AND

CALCULATION

3.2 Failure mode and working mechanism analysis

The S4R element was used to simulate the steel tube.

The C3D8R element was used to simulate concrete and
endplates. S4R composite layer shell element was used
to simulate CFRP profile, there are 3 simpson integral

At the beginning of loading, the deformation of

specimen was small. As the load reached 60% - 70% of
the ultimate bearing capacity, the deflection of mid-span

235

Li et al.

became obvious. when the deflection reached a critical

value, the load began to decline, and the deformation
increased quickly. As is shown in Figure 4, the mid-span
section of the specimen damaged outside as drum mode.

Figure 4. Failure mode of ZC-1 specimen

(b)steel tube

(c) concrete core

(d) CFRP
Figure 5. Stress distribution of ZC-1 specimen at ultimate state

Take ZC1 specimen as an example to illustrate the

ultimate bearing capacity state loading mechanism. The
stress distribution of the steel tube, core concrete and
CFRP profile are shown in Figure 5.
It can be seen from Figure 5 that the square steel tube
had a confinement effect on the core concrete, which
made steel tube into biaxial stress state such as
longitudinal compression, transverse tensile. The
strength of core concrete was significantly higher than
the uniaxial compressive strength, large plastic strain
appeared at the mid- span. The plastic of zone concrete at
CFRP profile web damaged outside more like drum
mode efficiently than the flange. The stress state of
CFRP profile along the height direction was relatively
uniform, stress distribution of mid-span was higher, and
the outward plastic deformation of mid-span is also large.
CFRP profile is a kind of brittle material. It was based on
the classical laminated plate theory, while the end of
layer failure strength theory. As one layer of the
laminated material was out of work, the stiffness of the
layer would decrease. So the yield strength of CFRP
profile was not destroyed to invalid and because of the
confinement function of steel tube, which made concrete

to be tri-axial compressive stress state, and the strength

of specimen is developed.

5.3 Parameter analysis

The load-strain curves of the specimen of different
parameters are shown in Figure 6. It can be seen from
Figure 6(a) that the ultimate bearing capacity of the
specimen increased with the increase of steel tube
strength, Figure 6(b) shows that the ultimate bearing
capacity increased with the increase of compressive
strength of core concrete, while the ductility reduced.
The ultimate bearing capacity increased by about 13%
with the increase of core concrete strength by 10MPa. It
can be seen from Figure 6(c) that the bearing capacity
increased by 8.3%, 6.1% and 15.1% respectively while
the CRRP profile ratio ( = AF/AC, AC is the area of
concrete) increased. The ductility enhancement effect
was not obvious. The rebound trend was more obvious in
the rebound stage following the increase of CRRP profile
ratio. It can be seen from Figure 6(d), the bearing
capacity and ductility of the specimen increased
obviously with the increase of the steel tube thickness.

236

4000

4000

3000

3000

2000

N/kN

N/kN

Li et al.

ZC-1 (fy=235MPa)
ZC-2 (fy=235MPa)

1000

2000
ZC-5 (fcu=30MPa)
ZC-1 (fcu=40MPa)

1000

ZC-3 (fy=235MPa)

ZC-6 (fcu=50MPa)
ZC-7 (fcu=60MPa)

ZC-4 (fy=235MPa)
0
0.00

0.01

0.02

0
0.000

0.03

0.005

4000

3000

3000

2000
ZC-1 (=0.528)
ZC-8 (=0.372)
ZC-9 (=0.700)
ZC-10 (=0.800)

1000

0
0.000

0.004

0.008

0.012

0.015

0.020

(b) Concrete strength

4000

N/kN

N/kN

(a) Steel yield strength

0.010

2000
ZC-11 (t=4mm)
ZC-12 (t=6mm)
ZC-13 (t=8mm)
ZC-1 (t=5mm)

1000

0.016

0
0.000

0.004

(c) CRRP profile ratio

0.008

0.012

0.016

(d) Steel ratio

Figure 6 The constract of different members axial load-strain curves

5 CONCLUCTIONS

REFERENCES

The conclusion can be reached as follows through

Zhong S T. 2003.Steel concrete structure. Beijing:

Tsinghua University Press.
Wang Z B and Tao Z. 2009,Experimental Behaviour of
FRP-concrete-steel double-skin tubular beams.
Industry Construction, 04: 5-8.
Wang J., Zhao J H and Zhu Q. 2011, Axial bearing
capacity of FRP-concrete-steel double-skin tubular
short columns. Industry Construction, 41(11):
130-133.
Wang D., Wang Y Z., Duan X P and Lei Q G. 2014,.
Study on axial compression performance of
GFRP-concrete-steel tube combined square
columns. Construction Structure.15,57-60
Nanni A. and Norris M S. 1995, FRP jacked concrete
under flexure and combined flexurecompression.
Construction and Building Materials, 9(5): 273-281
Mirmiran A and Shahawy M. 1997, Behavior of concrete
columns confined by fiber composites. Journal of
Structural Engineering, 123(5): 583-590
Ozbakkaloglu, T. 2012. Behavior of FRP-confined
normal and high-strength concrete under cyclic
axial compression. Journal of Composites for
Construction,: 451-463.
Thomas V and Ozbakkaloglu T. 2013, Influence of
concrete strength and confinement method on axial
compressive behavior of FRP confined high and

ABAQUS nonlinear finite element analysis:

The steel tube, CFRP profile and concrete can work
well together. After putting CFRP profile inside, the
performance of high strength is fully played, the bearing
capacity and ductility performance of specimens can also
be effectively improved.
The mid-span section of middle long CFST column
with I-shaped CFRP profile inside damaged outside as
drum mode under axial loading.
Parametric analysis showed that the bearing capacity
and ductility increased with the increase of steel strength
and thickness of steel tube. The bearing capacity
increased with the increase of concrete strength, but the
ductility slightly reduced. With the increase of CFRP
profile ratio, the r bearing capacity increased.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This project was supported by National Science
Foundation of China (51378319), Innovative Research
Team of Higher Education in Liaoning Province
(LT2014012).

237

Li et al.

ultra high-strength concrete. Composites Part B:

Engineering, 50: 413-428.
Li G C., Zhou B and Pan J H. 2014, Finite element
analysis on concrete-filled square steel tube short
columns with inner cfrp profiles under axial
compression.
Applied
Mechanics
and
Materials,578-579: 335-339.
Liu W. 2005.Research on mechanism of concrete-filled
steel tubes subjected to local compression. Fujian:
Fuzhou university engineering, Ph.D. Thesis,
Davalos J F and Qiao P Z. 1999, A computational
approach for analysis and optimal design of FRP
beams. Computers and Structures, 70: 169-183.
Sonti S S. 1992. Stress analysis of pultruded structural
shapes. Master thesis, West Virginia University,
Morgantown, West Virginai,

Makkapati S. 1994.Compressive strength of pultruded

structural shapes. Master thesis, West Virginia
University, Morgantown, West Virginai,
Gol denblat II and Kopnov V A. 1965. Strength of
glass-reinforced plastics in complex stress state.
Mekhanika Polimerov: 1-70; English translation in
Polymer Mechanics: 1-54.
Susantha K A S., Ge H B and Usami T. 2001,
Confinement
evaluation
of
concrete-filled
box-shaped steel columns. Steel and Composite
Structures, 1(3): 313-328.
Hu H T., Huang C S and Wu M H. 2003, Nonlinear
analysis of axially loaded concrete-filled tube
columns with confinement effect. Journal of
Structural Engineering, 129(10): 1322-1329.

238

11th International Conference on

Advances in Steel and Concrete Composite Structures
Tsinghua University, Beijing, China, December 3-5, 2015

POST-FIRE PERFORMANCE
CONCRETE (SRC) COLUMNS

OF

STEEL

REINFORCED

L. H. Hana, K. Zhoua Q.H. Tanb & T.Y. Songc

a

Department of Civil Engineering, Tsinghua University, Beijing, China

E-mails: lhhan@tsinghua.edu.cn, zhouk12@mails.tsinghua.edu.cn
b

Department of Civil Engineering, National University of Defense Technology, Changsha, China

E-mail: tanqinghua@nudt.edu.cn
c

Institute for Infrastructure Engineering, Western Sydney University, Penrith, NSW 2751, Australia
E-mail: t.song@uws.edu.au
ABSTRACT
Keywords:
Steel reinforced concrete
(SRC), Column, Fire resistance,
Post-fire, Concrete explosive
spalling (CES), Residual load
carrying capacity

Steel Reinforced Concrete (SRC) has been widely used in high-rise buildings in China. Existing
studies indicate that SRC columns have good performance in fire, but their performance after
fire has seldom been investigated. This paper studies the post-fire performance of SRC columns
subjected to an entire loading and fire phase, including ambient temperature loading, heating
and cooling with constant external loads, and post-fire loading. Sequentially coupled
thermal-stress analysis in ABAQUS was employed to establish temperature field analysis and
structural analysis models of SRC columns. To improve the precision of the finite element
analysis (FEA) model, the influence of fire-induced concrete spalling was considered by using
element change technique. To validate the accuracy of the FEA model in the post-fire phase, a
set of fire tests on SRC columns, including fire resistance tests and post-fire tests subjected to
the entire loading and fire phase, were conducted. The comparison between predicted and test
results indicates that the accuracy of the FEA model was acceptable. The FEA model then was
extended to simulate a full-scale SRC column subjected to the entire loading and fire phase. The
residual load carrying capacities of SRC columns under the entire fire and loading phase were
analyzed. Influences of various parameters on the residual load carrying capacity index of the
SRC columns were calculated. It is found that, in general, heating time, perimeter of column
section, slenderness ratio and concrete strength clearly affect the residual load carrying capacity
index of the SRC columns. Then, computation diagram for the residual load carrying capacity
index of the SRC columns after fire were proposed.

NOMENCLATURE

1 INTRODUCTION

kr
M
Mu

Steel reinforced concrete (SRC), making of shaped

steel, reinforcing bars and concrete, has good
performance under fire due to the fact that the peripheral
concrete is capable of preventing the local buckling of the
inner shaped steel. Some studies have been conducted to
investigate its performance in fire, such as Huang et al.
(2008), Moura Correia and Rodrigues (2011) Young and
Ellobody (2011) and Rodrigues et al. (2015). These
researches demonstrate the excellent performance of SRC
columns under the standard or non-standard fire.
However, its post-fire performance has seldom been
investigated. A high-rise building using SRC column
suffered severe fire in China in 2009, and repair work
was required based on reasonable assessment of the
fire-exposed SRC columns. This puts forward a question,
i.e. how to assess the performance of SRC column after

N
NF
Nu
Nur
NurP
n
T
t
tR
tRP
th
c

Residual load carrying capacity index

Bending moment
Bending moment carrying capacity at ambient
temperature
Axial load
External load applied on the column
Axial load carrying capacity at ambient
temperature
Residual load carrying capacity
Predicted residual load carrying capacity
Column load ratio
Temperature, in C
Time
Fire resistance
Predicted fire resistance
Heating time
Axial deformation

239

Han et al.

2.2 Structural analysis

fire exposure. Set against this background, this paper

studies the post-fire performance of SRC columns.
In this paper, an entire coupled time-load-temperature
path, which contains ambient phase, heating phase,
cooling phase and post-fire phase, is employed to
investigate the influence of loading and temperature
histories on the post-fire behaviors of SRC columns.
Based on this, this paper established the finite element
analysis (FEA) model of SRC column. To validate the
FEA model, a series of fire and post-fire tests on SRC
columns was conducted. A full-range analysis is
conducted to investigate the thermal and structural
behaviors of a full-scale SRC column in the entire
loading and fire path. Parametric analysis is also
conducted to study the influence of main factors on the
residual load carrying capacity of SRC column. Finally,
simplified computation diagrams on the residual load
carrying capacity index are proposed.

The material constitutive models for the four phases

are different. For the steel, the stress-strain models
corresponding to different phases proposed by Song et al.
(2011) were adopted in this paper. For the concrete, the
stress-strain relations in ambient temperature and heating
phases proposed by Song et al. (2011) were used. The
model proposed by Lin et al. (1995) was adopted for the
concrete in cooling and post-fire phases. Subroutine
USDFLD was adopted to realize the automatic choose
of constitutive models among the four phases. Tie
constraint was used between shaped steel and concrete,
and embedded constraint was used between
reinforcement and concrete. As for concrete spalling in
the structural analysis, the method of Element change
technique was also adopted. Figure 1 shows the
boundary conditions of structural analysis model. The
bottom of the column is fixed. The top displacements are
restrained in the X and Z directions. Vertical axial load is
applied in the Y direction on the top of the endplate.
To validate the proposed FEA model, a series of tests
on SRC columns under combined loading and fire phase
was conducted in this paper. The details of test and
validation are introduced in the following section.

2 FEA MODEL
Finite element analysis program ABAQUS 6.10
(2010) is adopted to simulate the behavior of SRC
columns under the combined loading and fire path. Both
temperature field distribution and structural analysis were
conducted.

3 EXPERIMENTAL STUDY AND

2.1 Analysis of the temperature

VERIFICATION OF THE FEA MODEL

This paper adopts the modeling method proposed by

Song et al. (2011) to capture the temperature
development. Additionally, the FEA model is improved
by adopting the Element change technique to consider
the influence of concrete spalling in this paper. Figure 1
shows the element division and boundary conditions of
the FEA model. Initial boundary conditions of thermal
convection and radiation are applied on the fire-exposed
surfaces first, and then as the temperature increases,
concrete spalling occurs in the cover layer and the
thermal boundary conditions are applied onto the newly
exposed concrete surfaces.

Considering the boundary conditions provided by the

test setup, the complicated boundary conditions of an
SRC column in a real building were simplified. As shown
in Figure 2, the bottom end of the column is fixed, and
the top end of the column is restrained against all the
degrees of freedom except the vertical translation.
Only vertical
displacement allowed
NF
Furnace
Fire

Cooling
Heating
Spalling
Thermal area
radiation

NF
Top end

Fixed end
Figure 2. Simplification of the SRC column model in test

3.1 Specimen preparation

Reinforcing bar
Stirrups
z y
H-Shaped steel
Bottom end

Thermal
convection

Five SRC column specimens with the same

dimensions were fabricated. The detailed dimension of
specimens is shown in Figure 3. Four 16 steel bars were
used as longitudinal reinforcement and steel bars
were used as stirrups at 200 mm interval.

Figure 1. Meshing and boundary conditions of FEA model

240

Han et al.

380 20

the shaped steel. The others were arranged on the

reinforcements and distributed symmetrically about the
section center with two of them located on reinforcing bar
and the rest four on stirrups.
Test parameters include test type (fire resistance test
and post-fire test), column load ratio and heating time.
Table 1 gives the summary of the SRC column
specimens, in which, n is the column load ratio, NF is the
axial load applied on the column, tR is the fire resistance,
th is the heating time, Nur is the residual load carrying
capacity after fire exposure, tRP is the predicted fire
resistance by FEA model, NurP is the predicted residual
load carrying capacity after fire exposure. According to
the original design, SRCC4 was designed to be a post-fire
test, but the SRCC4 failed after 42 minutes heating due
to the remarkable influence of concrete spalling,
therefore, it turned out to be a fire resistance test actually.
The failure modes of B and A represent bending
failure mode and axial compressive failure mode,
respectively.

End plate
Fire protection

Shaped steel

Reinforcing bar

9.3

3800

Stirrups

1500

30

9.3 1

2
150
9

300

SRC specimen

150

1500

Thermocouple

300
20 380

Fire protection

End plate

Concrete
(b) Section A-A

(a) SRC column

Figure 3. Details of SRC column specimens (units: mm)

Nine thermocouples were embedded in the

mid-height cross-section of each specimen to obtain the
temperature distribution. Three of them were located in
Table 1. Summary of SRC column specimens
Label

NF (kN)

Test type

tR (min)

th (min)

Failure mode

Nur (kN)

tRP (min)

NurP (kN)

SRCC1
SRCC2
SRCC3
SRCC4
SRCC5

0.50
0.25
0.50
0.50
0.25

3500
1750
3500
3500
1750

Fire resistance
Fire resistance
Post-fire
Fire resistance
Post-fire

109
101
42
-

33
30

B
B
A
A
A

5068
4857

119
114
38
-

4983
4781

3.2 Test procedure

3.3 Test results and validations of the FEA model

For the fire resistance test, the following test

procedure is adopted:
1) Ambient temperature loading. Preloading was
conducted to eliminate any possible equipment
malfunction. After that, the specimens were loaded to
design levels shown in Table 1.
2) Heating with constant load. Only 3000 mms
height (h) in the middle of the column was heated. The
surface without fire exposure was wrapped with ceramic
fiber blanket to prevent direct heat exchange with the fire.
The specimens were exposed to a fire following ISO-834
(1975) Temperature development and vertical
displacement were captured. Failure criteria specified in
ISO-834-1 (1999) was used.
For the post-fire test, the ambient temperature loading
and heating phases were identical to the fire resistance
test. The cooling and post-fire loading phases are:
1) Cooling with constant load. After the
predetermined heating time was reached, the heating
phase ended and the cooling phase started. In the cooling
phase, the axial load was kept constant.
2) Post-fire loading. When the specimen temperature
dropped to room temperature, the axial load was
increased until the specimen failed.

Test results are briefly reported in this section, and

the test results are used to validate the FEA model
proposed. Figure 4 shows the comparison between the
measured and predicted temperature (T) versus time (t)
curves of SRCC3. It can be found that the temperatures of
concrete, reinforcing bars and shaped steel keep
increasing for a period of time after the heating phase
ends. However, the temperature of point 9 drops
immediately after the fire temperature starts dropping.
That can be attributed to the influence of concrete
spalling. The concrete spalling in the concrete cover
exposed these points to fire almost directly; hence, the
peak temperatures of these points are higher than others,
and the heating and cooling rates are also higher.
Generally, the predicted results are close to the measured
ones; however, due to the influence of concrete spalling,
the predicted temperatures of reinforcing bars are
inaccurate.

241

Han et al.

Figure 6 shows the concrete spalling pattern of

SRCC3. The distribution and extent of concrete spalling
pattern are quite random and uneven. Comparing the
spalling pattern of all tests, it can be found that the test
parameters show minor influence on concrete spalling.

600

Heating end

Measured
Predicted

500

300

200

380

West South East North

100

1
t (min)

0
50

100

200

250

300

1100

150

Heating end

500

4
5
6

300

Depth of spalling
0mm
10 mm
20 mm
30 mm

700
1200

T ()

Measured
Predicted

400

30000

(a) Point 1, 2, 3
600

800

1100
600

T ()

400

380

200

Figure 6. Spalling pattern of concrete of SRCC3 (units: mm)

t (min)
0

50

100

150

200

250

300

(b) Point 4, 5, 6
600

Heating end

500

Measured
Predicted

400

8
300

200

100
0

50

100

150

200

250

Measured

0
-2

Predicted

A'

A'

-10

-6

-20

Cooling end

Figure 5 shows the comparison of the observed and

predicted failure mode of SRCC3. It can be seen that the
FEA model can predict the failure modes well when
concrete spalling was considered in the model.

-30

-10
0

20

40
t(min)

B'

Heating end

60

-40
0

300

600 900
t(min)

1200 1500

Figure 7. Axial deformation (c) - time (t) curves of SRCC3

End plate

4 ANALYSIS AND DISSCUSSION

Concrete spalling

Based on the validated FEA model, the behavior of a

full-scale SRC column subjected to the entire loading and
fire phase was investigated. The dimension of the SRC
column was decided according to a real project with SRC
columns. The SRC column size is DBH=
6006006000 mm, where D is the depth of the SRC
column section, B is the width of the SRC column section
and H is the height of the SRC column. The size of
shaped steel is hfbftwtf=3603001616 mm, where
hf and bf are the height and width of the shaped steels
cross-section respectively and tw and tf are the thickness

Reinforcing bars

Concrete
Concrete spalling

Concrete spalling

300

(c) Point 7, 8, 9
Figure 4. Temperature (T) - time (t) curves of SRCC3

Concrete spalling
Stirrups

10

t (min)
0

c(mm)

T ()

Figure 7 shows the measured and predicted axial

deformation (c) versus time (t) curves of SRCC3. It can
be seen that the change of axial compression deformation
in cooling phase are 18.2 mm, which is 12.4 times bigger
than that in the heating phase. Comparing with the
measured curves, the concrete spalling induces to the
discrepancies of predicted results, but in general, it can be
accepted.

c(mm)

100

Concrete spalling

End plate

Figure 5. Observed and predicted failure modes of SRCC3

242

Han et al.

of the web and flange respectively. The longitudinal

reinforcements are 1220 with stirrup of 10 at an
interval of 200 mm. The other calculating conditions are:
fy =345 MPa, fyb =335 MPa, fcu =60 MPa, 35, =4%,
=1%, in which,is the slenderness ratio, = 2 3 l /B, l
is the effective bucking length of column; is the steel
ratio, =As /Ac, As and Ac are the steel and concrete
cross-sectionalareas respectively;is the reinforcement
ratio, =Asb /Ac, Asb is the reinforcing bar cross-sectional
area. The thickness of the concrete protection layer is 30
mm. Both ends of the column are pinned. The ISO-834
(1980) standard fire with a heating time of 45 min and a
following cooling phase is used.

25

Bp
E

10 3 N (kN)

20

Dp

15

E'
10
5

After full-range fire

D'
A1
A'
A

0
-10

10

Ambient
20 30
c (mm)

40

50

60

Figure 8. Typical load (NF) versus axial deformation (c) curves

of full-scale SRC column

4.1 Load versus axial deformation relations in the

4.2 Interact relation of N/Nu and M/Mu

entire phases

The interact relation of Nu and Mu reveals the ultimate

states of SRC column, and it is used to assess the change
of load carrying capacity of SRC column. For the
N/Nu-M/Mu relation after exposure to fire, the following
process was adopted. The SRC column was first exposed
to the ISO-834 (1980) standard fire including heating and
cooling phases with constant axial load. The initial
column load ratio n was 0.2 and the heating time was 45
min. The state at the end of cooling phase (point D') was
assumed to be the initial state for the analysis after fire.
The ultimate state with subjected to both axial force and
bending moment was then obtained. The N/Nu-M/Mu
relation after exposure to fire was therefore illustrated, as
shown in Figure 9. Some conclusions can be drawn from
Figure 9:
1) The SRC column after exposure to fire shows
similar performance as beam-column compared with that
at ambient condition. Compressive failure mode is
observed in curves FG and F'G', whilst bending failure
mode is observed in curves GH and G'H'.
2) The load carrying capacity of SRC column
decreases after exposure to fire, because an evident
inward shift can be observed in curve F'G'H' compared
with curve FGH. The grey part FGHH'G'F' can be
deemed as the loss of load carrying capacity of SRC
column. The SRC column would fail during fire if its
load combination lies in the grey part before fire.

Figure 8 illustrates the typical load (NF) versus axial

deformation (c) curves of SRC columns. The curve
AAA1DDpE is the NF-c curve of SRC column during
the combined loading and fire phases. The curve can be
divided into the following four phases:
1) Ambient temperature phase (AA): Axial
deformation increases with the increasing axial load at
ambient temperature.
2) Expansion phase (AA1): After exposed to fire, a
slight deformation reduction is observed for the SRC
column. That is mainly because thermal expansion
exceeds the compression deformation caused by material
deterioration.
3) Compression phase (A1AD): The compression
deformation starts from A1 point. And then, in the cooling
phase, the column keeps contracting until D point. That
is mainly due to the cooling contraction of material.
4) Post-fire phase (DDpE): Axial load is increased
after fire. As a result, axial compression deformation
increases until it reaches load carrying capacity, as
marked by point Dp.
To compare with the curve AAA1DDpE, the case
that SRC column was loaded axially to failure at ambient
phase was investigated, and the corresponding NF-c
curve is shown by curve AABpE in Figure 8, in which Bp
represents that the external load reaches the load carrying
capacity of SRC column at ambient temperature; E
represents the ending point of loading at ambient
temperature. It could be clearly seen that the post-fire
peak load is 26.7 % lower than that at ambient
temperature, but the corresponding c almost doubles.

1.2
F

N /N u

Ambient
Post-fire

Compressive failure

F'

0.8
0.6
0.4
G'

0.2
0

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

H' H
1

M /M u
Figure 9. N/Nu - M/Mu curves of SRC columns

243

Bending failure

1.2

1.4

Han et al.

4.3 Definition of post-fire residual strength index of

provide kr as function of th with respect to three main

parameters: C, and fcu, as shown in Figure 11.

SRC columns

kr

N ur t h
Nu

kr

For the purpose of assessing the loss level of load

carrying capacity of SRC column, the residual load
carrying capacity index (kr) is defined to quantify it,
which is expressed as follows:

1.00

Basic
C=2400mm
C=1600mm
C=1600mm
C=3200mm
C=3200mm
C=4000mm
C=4000mm
ffcuc=40MPa
cuc=40MPa
ffcuc=80MPa
cuc=80MPa
=17.5
=17.5
=52.5
=52.5

0.85
0.70

(1)

0.55
0.40

Where Nu is the axial load carrying capacity at

ambient temperature; Nur (th) is the residual axial load
carrying capacity after entire loading and fire phase with
respect to heating time (th).
An extensive parametric study was conducted to
investigate the influence of different parameters on kr.
The investigated parameters include:
1) Geometric parameters: sectional perimeter (C,
C=2B+2D); sectional aspect ratio (, =D/B);
slenderness ratio (, = 2 3 l/B); sectional steel ratio
(, =As /Ac); reinforcement ratio (, =Asb /Ac);
2) Loading parameters: heating time (th); load
eccentricity ratio (e/r, in which, e is load
eccentricity; r=D/2 when bending around the
stronger axis, r=B/2 when bending around the
weaker axis); column load ratio (n);
3) Physical parameters: the yield strength of shaped
steel (fy), yield strength of reinforcement (fyb), and
concrete strength (fcu).
The heating times (th) varied from 0 min to 90 min at
an interval of 15 min. Concrete spalling at high
temperature was ignored for fcu=40 MPa and 60 MPa.
The parametric analysis shows that kr is significantly
affected by C, and fcu. While some parameters, such as
n, fy, and , have moderate influence on kr. Other
parameters, such as , e/r, fyb, and , have little influence
on kr. Figure 10 shows the influence of C on kr. It can also
be found that kr decreases with the increase of heating
time (th).

0.25
0

C=1600mm
C=1600mm
C=2400mm
C=2400mm
C=3200mm
C=3200mm
C=4000mm
C=4000mm
15

30

45

t h(min)

60

75

kr

75

90 t h (min)

The following conclusions can be drawn:

1) A FEA model that was capable of considering the
influence of concrete spalling was proposed to simulate
the reaction of SRC column subjected to an entire loading
and fire path. The accuracy of this model is acceptable by
comparing with the existing test data.
2) Experiments on SRC columns subjected to the
entire loading and fire phase were conducted. The change
of axial compressive deformation in the cooling phase
could be 12.4 times of that in the heating phase, which
indicated significant influence of cooling phase on the
post-fire performance of SRC columns. Fire-induced
concrete spalling was unevenly distributed in all
specimens, dramatically influencing the post-fire
performance of SRC columns. Column load ratio has a
minor influence on concrete explosive spalling.
3) The analysis of SRC columns under the entire
loading and fire phase was conducted. The load versus
axial deformation curves show that the post-fire peak
load is 26.7% lower than that at ambient temperature, but
the corresponding axial deformation almost doubles. The
shrink of N/Nu-M/Mu relations of SRC column after fire
reveals the loss of load carrying capacity.
4) The residual load carrying capacity was calculated
for SRC columns. Three parameters were identified to
have a major influence on residual load carrying capacity,
they are sectional perimeter(C), slenderness ratio () and
concrete strength (fcu).

0.6

60

5 CONCLUSIONS

0.8

45

The limits of application for Figure 11 are as follows:

C=1600-4000 mm, =17.5-70, th=0-90 min, fcu=40-80
MPa, fy=235-420 MPa, fyb=235-400 MPa, =4%-8%,
=1%-3%, and e/r=0-0.9.

0.2

30

Figure 11. Residual load carrying capacity coefficient (kr)

computation diagram for SRC column

1.2

0.4

15

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

90

The research reported in this paper is supported by the

National Key Project of Scientific and Technical
Supporting Programs Funded by Ministry of Science &
Technology of China (No. 2012BAJ07B01), and their
financial support is highly appreciated.

Figure 10. Influence of sectional perimeter (C) on kr

Based on the results of parametric analysis, the

computation diagram of kr for SRC column is graphed to

244

Han et al.

REFERENCES
ABAQUS. 2010. ABAQUS analysis users manual, SIMULIA.
Providence, RI.
Huang, Z. F., Tan, K. H., Toh, W. S. & Phng, G. H. 2008. Fire
resistance of composite columns with embedded I-section
steel-effects of section size and load level. Journal of
Constructional Steel Research, 64, 312-325.
ISO-834. 1975. Fire resistance tests-elements of building
construction. International Standard ISO 834. Switzerland,
Geneva.
ISO-834-1. 1999. Fire-resistance tests-elements of building
construction-Part 1: General requirements. International
Standard ISO 834, Geneva.
ISO-834. 1980. Fire-resistance tests-elements of building
construction. International Standard ISO834: Amendment 1,
Amendment 2, Geneva.
Lin, C.H., Chen, S.T. & Yang, C.A. 1995. Repair of
fire-damaged reinforced concrete columns. ACI structural
journal, 92(4): 406-411.
Moura Correia, A. J. P. & Rodrigues, J. P. C. 2011. Fire
resistance of partially encased steel columns with restrained
thermal elongation. Journal of Constructional Steel
Research, 67, 593-601.
Rodrigues, J. P. C., Moura Correia, A. J. P. & Pires, T. A.C.
2015. Behaviour of composite columns made of totally
encased steel sections in fire. Journal of Constructional
Steel Research, 105, 97-106.
Song, T. Y., Han, L. H. & Yu, H. X. 2011. Temperature field
analysis of SRC-column to SRC-beam joints subjected to
simulated fire including cooling phase. Advances in
Structural Engineering, 14(3), 353-366.
Young, B. & Ellobody, E. 2011. Performance of axially
restrained concrete encased steel composite columns at
elevated temperatures. Engineering Structure, 33(1),
245-254.

245

11th International Conference on

Advances in Steel and Concrete Composite Structures
Tsinghua University, Beijing, China, December 3-5, 2015

TESTS OF THREE-LEGGED CFST LATTICED COLUMNS

UNDER CYCLIC LOADINGS
Y. F. Yang, D. R. Song
State Key Laboratory of Coastal and Offshore Engineering, Dalian University of Technology, Dalian, China
E-mails: youfuyang@163.com, 981575966@qq.com
ABSTRACT
Keywords:
Concrete filled steel tube
(CFST); Latticed columns;
Three-legged; Cyclic loading;
Ductility; Energy dissipation

An experimental investigation of three-legged concrete filled steel tube (CFST) latticed columns
under cyclic loadings is described. A total of 4 specimens, including three CFST latticed
columns and one steel latticed column, were tested. The main parameter considered in the tests
was axial compressive load ratio. It was found that, while being subjected to constant axial
compressive load and cyclically increasing flexural loadings, three-legged CFST latticed
columns had different responses in two loading directions owing to the cross section asymmetry.
The calculated bearing capacity of the tested three-legged CFST latticed columns using the
simplified method in design codes are evaluated by comparison with the measured results.

two-legged CFST latticed columns under monotonic and

cyclic loadings, and the results showed that the rigidity
and strength of joints between circular CFST limbs and
lacings increased compared with the corresponding steel
latticed columns. Kawano & Matsui (1999, 2000)
suggested a prediction method for the deformability of
two-legged CFST latticed columns under monotonic and
cyclic loadings, which had been incorporated into the
recommendations for design and construction of CFST
structures drafted by AIJ (AIJ 2008). Kawano et al.
(2003) proposed a seismic-resistant system of multistory
frames with CFST truss girders and further performed the
calculation and analysis of seismic-resistant ability of the
system. Kawano & Sakino (2003) proposed a seismicresistant system of steel frames with CFST latticed
members, and the function of the latticed members in the
system was similar to the continuous shear wall. Deng
(2012) carried out the quasi-static and pseudo-dynamic
tests on four-legged CFST latticed columns and further
simulated the seismic performance of such composite
members using finite element analysis model. Luo (2013)
experimentally and theoretically studied the behaviour of
four-legged CFST latticed columns under cyclic loadings
and preliminarily suggested the load versus displacement
hysteretic model. Comparative tests on the performance
of two four-legged CFST latticed specimens with square
limbs and one CFST latticed specimen with circular
limbs subjected to cyclic loadings were conducted by
Chen et al. (2014). Moreover, Jiang et al. (2014)
experimentally and theoretically studied the failure
pattern and seismic performance of CFST latticed
columns to composite box beam joints under cyclic
loadings.

1 INTRODUCTION
Concrete filled steel tube (CFST) latticed members
have the large cross-sectional moment of inertia due to
the main load-bearing limbs being away from the
centroidal axis, and the limbs of CFST latticed members
mainly undertake the axial compressive loads (Zhong
2003). As a result, the superiority of CFST can be
brought into full play while used as the limbs of a latticed
column. In practical engineering, CFST latticed members
are adopted when the member has the large load
eccentricity ratio and slenderness ratio, such as column of
industrial plants, trestle column, arch rib of arch bridge,
etc. Figure 1 shows the typical application of CFST
latticed members.

(a)
(b)
Figure 1. Typical application of CFST latticed members.

CFST latticed members have a long history of studies

and applications (Zhong 2003; Ou & Chen 2008);
however, previous studies mainly focused on the static
behaviour and bearing capacity calculation of CFST
latticed columns with variation of cross section and
lacing arrangement. Currently, the investigation on
seismic performance of CFST latticed members is still in
its infancy. Kawano et al. (1996) carried out the tests to
study the elasto-plastic performance and deformability of

246

Yang & Song

(see Figure 3) owing to the cross section asymmetry of

specimens.

The analysis of the existing literature highlights that

the performance of three-legged CFST latticed columns
under cyclic loadings has received less attention. The aim
of the present paper is thus to experimentally study the
seismic performance of three-legged CFST latticed
columns, including the failure pattern, load versus
displacement curves, stiffness degradation and ductility.
A total of four specimens were tested with varying axial
compressive load ratio. The experimental results were
further used to evaluate the accuracy of the predicted
bearing capacity of three-legged CFST and steel latticed
columns using the method prescribed in the related
design codes.

Table 1. Information of the tested specimens.

Label

fys
fyw
fcu
(MPa) (MPa) (MPa)

Pue+
(kN)

Pue(kN)

CFST1 325.2 332.4

55.9

0.05

34.2

47.0 -113.1

CFST2 325.2 332.4

55.9

0.26

34.2

77.9 -137.1

CFST3 325.2 332.4

55.9

0.52

34.2

110.5 -116.0

--

0.26

29.4

41.9

Steel

325.2 332.4

-39.4

The axial compressive load ratio (n) is defined as

follows, i.e.,

2 EXPERIMENTAL PROGRAMME

n=

2.1 Test specimens

Three CFST latticed columns and one steel latticed
column were tested under constant axial compressive
load and cyclically increasing flexural loadings. Figure 1
demonstrates the schematic diagram of the tested
specimens, where Ds and Dw are the outside diameter of
circular limbs and lacings and equal to 100 mm and 34
mm, respectively, and ts and tw are the wall thickness of
limbs and lacings and equal to 2.0 mm and 2.5 mm,
respectively.

N0
Nu

(1)

where N0 is the axial compressive load applied to the

latticed columns, and and Nu are the stability factor
related to the conversion slenderness ratio and the
sectional bearing capacity under concentric compression,
which are calculated using the formulae in DBJ 13-51
(2003) and GB 50017 (2003) for CFST and steel latticed
columns, respectively.

2.2 Test set-up

The specimens were tested under combined constant
axial compressive load and cyclically increasing flexural
loadings. Figure 3 is the sketch map of test set-up. The
axial compressive load (N0) was applied and maintained
constant by a 1000 kN actuator. The flexural loadings
were applied by imposing cyclically lateral displacements
at the top of the specimen via an actuator having 500 kN
capacity. Several displacement transducers (DTs) were
used to measure the in-plane displacements.

Figure 2. Schematic diagram of specimens. (unit: mm)

The detail information of the tested specimens is

presented in Table 1, where fys and fyw are the yield
strength of steel limbs and lacings, respectively; fcu is the
cube compressive strength of concrete filled into the
limbs of CFST latticed columns, n is the axial
compressive load ratio, * is the conversion slenderness
ratio, which is obtained based on the formulae in DBJ
13-51 (2003) and GB 50017 (2003) for CFST and steel
latticed specimens, respectively, and Pue+ and Pue- are the
experimental bearing capacity in push and pull directions

Figure 3. Sketch map of test set-up.

247

Yang & Song

3 TEST RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

time, the lacings of CFST latticed column with n of 0.05

and steel latticed column have no obvious change during
the tests. However, several lacings near the failure section
of CFST latticed specimens with relatively large n buckle
after the tests, and CFST latticed specimen with n of 0.52
has the largest numbers of the buckled lacings. Moreover,
several cracks of limbs go into the joint between limbs
and lacings, which accelerate the failure of specimen
CFST3.

3.1 Overall observations and failure pattern

The response of the tested specimens under constant
axial compressive load and cyclically increasing flexural
loadings was initially dominated by a combination of
local deformation and global bending, and subsequently,
the lateral displacements increased quickly. During the
tests, the behaviour of the tested specimens with bottom
end fixed showed the conventional cantilever beamcolumn failure mechanism due to compression and
bending. The variation of lateral displacements of two
typical specimens is shown in Figure 4, where y is the
distance away from the bottom end, H is the effective
height of the specimens, p (=P/P+,e or P/P-,e, in which P is
the recorded lateral load, and the minus values represent
the stage after peak load) is the load ratio, and is the
measured displacements using DTs (see Figure 2). It can
be seen that, the lateral displacements of specimens are
similar to the deformations of a cantilever beam-column.

0.8

0.8

0.6

0.6

CFST1

CFST2

0.4

0.2

p=0.47
p=0.70
p=1.00
p=-0.72
p=-0.65

p=0.37
p=0.83
p=0.98
p=1.00
p=-0.93

Push

Pull
-90

-45

(mm)

45

90

y /H

y /H

0.4

(a)
(b)
(c)
Figure 5. Failure pattern of the tested specimens.

(d)

p=0.37
p=0.75
p=0.88
p=1.00
p=-0.87

p=0.54
p=0.86
p=1.00
p=-0.76
p=-0.71

3.2 Load versus deformation curves

The measured lateral load (P) versus the top lateral
displacement () curves of all tested specimens are
shown in Fig. 6, where denotes the starting of the
yield and fracture of the limb. It can be seen that, for
CFST latticed columns, P- hysteretic curve exhibits
obvious asymmetric characteristics and better hysteretic
responses are produced while two limbs at tensile side.
Moreover, starting of the yield and fracture of the limb
happens to the single limb at tensile side. However, for
steel latticed specimen, the difference of P- hysteretic
curve in push and pull directions is smaller than that
exhibited in CFST specimens, and starting of the yield
and fracture of the limb happens to the double limbs at
tensile side. The maximum lateral loads (Pue+ and Pue-)
obtained in the test are summarized in Table 1.

0.2

Steel

CFST3

Pull
-60

-30

Push
0

30

60

(mm)

(a) CFST2
(b) Steel
Figure 4. Variation of lateral displacements

From the tests, it was found that the failure process of

limbs exhibited different due to the cross section
asymmetry of specimens. For CFST latticed specimens,
the tensile cracking of single limb (L1) was obviously
earlier than that of double limbs (L2 and L3) owing to its
lower tensile strength; however, for steel latticed
specimen, the tensile cracking of double limbs (L2 and
L3) was slightly earlier than that of single limb (L1).
Figure 5 shows the failure pattern of the tested
specimens after the completion of tests. It can be seen
that, in general, the failure mainly focuses on the section
close to the top of bottom stiffener regardless of the type
of limbs. For CFST latticed columns, the buckling and
cracking of single limb are more evident than those of
double limbs, and the buckling range increases with
increase of axial compressive load ratio (n) owing to the
increase of the second-order effect. For steel latticed
specimen, only cracking of limbs happens to whole tube
of single limb and half tube of double limbs. At the same

60

Push

P (kN)

-60

Pull
-120
-100

-50

(mm)

(a) CFST1

248

50

100

Yang & Song

100

150

Push

CFST1 (n=0.05)
CFST2 (n=0.26)
CFST3 (n=0.52)
Steel (n=0.26)

50

P (kN)

P (kN)

75

0
-50
-100

-75

Pull
-150
-150

Push

-75

75

Pull

150

-150

(mm)

-150

-75

75

150

(mm)

(b) CFST2
Figure 7. P- skeleton curves

150

Push

3.3 Bearing capacity

P (kN)

75

Figure 8 indicates the comparison of the measured

lateral bearing capacities (Pue+ and Pue-) of the tested
specimens. It can be seen that, under the same axial
compressive load ratio (n), the bearing capacity of CFST
latticed column is obviously higher than that of steel
latticed column, and Pue+ and Pue- of CFST latticed
specimen are 85.9% and 248% higher than those of steel
latticed specimen, respectively. This can be attributed to
the interaction between steel tube and core concrete of the
lambs. Generally, the bearing capacity of CFST latticed
columns increases with increase of axial compressive
load ratio (n) except for Pue- of specimen CFST3. The
increased bearing capacity of CFST latticed specimens
with larger n may be due to the fact that, when n is
relatively small (about 0.52 in the current tests), the larger
n value means larger constraint of axial compressive load
to the tensile stress in the limbs produced by the
cyclically increasing flexural loadings.

-75

Pull
-150
-150

-75

75

150

(mm)

(c) CFST3
60

Push

P (kN)

30

-30

Pull
-60
-100

-50

0
(mm)

50

200

100

P ue (kN)

(d) Steel
Figure 6. Load versus displacement hysteretic curves

Figure 7 shows the lateral load (P) versus the top

lateral displacement () skeleton curve of the tested
specimens. It is shown that, for CFST latticed specimens,
the axial compressive load ratio (n) not only affects the
bearing capacities but also determines the initial stiffness
and deformability after reaching the bearing capacity.
Furthermore, under the same axial compressive load ratio
(n), CFST latticed column has obviously larger bearing
capacity, initial stiffness and deformability after reaching
the bearing capacity compared with the steel latticed
column due to the existence of the filled concrete in the
limbs.

Push

CFST
Steel

100
0

-100

Pull
-200
0

0.26
n

0.52

Figure 8. Comparison of bearing capacity

3.4 Stiffness degradation

Figure 9 shows the ratio between the stiffness of
specimens (Ki) as obtained from P- hysteretic curves at
different loading cycles and the measured initial stiffness
(Kini). Similar to a CFST beam-column loaded with a
concentrated lateral load at mid-span (Elremaily &

249

Yang & Song

where y is the yield lateral displacement, u is the lateral

displacement when the lateral load falls to 85% of the
bearing capacity in P- skeleton curves. The DF in two
loading directions so determined is calculated and
analyzed.
Fig. 10 shows the variation of DF of the tested
specimens in push and pull directions. It can be seen that,
for CFST latticed specimens, a larger axial compressive
load ratio (n) results in a lower DF in push direction;
however, DF generally increases with increase of n in
pull direction. This may be caused by the cross section
asymmetry of CFST latticed specimens. Under the same
axial compressive load ratio (n), CFST latticed specimen
has a lower and a higher DF than steel latticed specimen
in push and pull direction, respectively.

Azizinamini 2002), the lateral displacement of a latticed

column can be obtained by:
=

PL3 3(tan u u )

48 K
u3

(2)

where u=(N0L2/4K)0.5, N0 is the applied axial compressive

load, and L is the effective buckling length of the column
in the plane of bending.
The iterative method was used to solve Eq. (2) to
obtain the stiffness of the specimens based on the
experimental results. The initial stiffness (Kini) was
calculated based on the initial part of the first cycle in the
measured P- hysteretic curves and the stiffness at
subsequent cycles (Ki) was calculated by replacing the
value of P and in the first cycle by the values obtained
from the slope of the unloading portion of the
corresponding cycle (Elremaily & Azizinamini 2002).
It can be seen from Fig. 9 that, under the same lateral
displacement, CFST latticed columns with n of 0.26 and
0.52 generally have lower stiffness degradation than that
with n of 0.05, and CFST latticed column with n of 0.26
has the lowest stiffness degradation. This may be
explained by that larger axial compressive loads delay the
cracking or/and crushing of core concrete in the limbs
when n is relatively small; however, when n is large
enough (e.g. n=0.52) the second-order effect increases the
stiffness degradation of CFST latticed specimen.
Moreover, under the same axial compressive load ratio
(n), the stiffness degradation of CFST latticed specimen
is far slower than that of steel latticed specimen due to the
delay action of core concrete to the tube cracking of the
limbs.

6
Push

DF

0
CFST1

The lateral bearing capacities of CFST and steel

latticed columns under cyclic loadings respectively
predicted using the axial compressive load (N) versus
moment (M) equations in DBJ 13-51 (2003) and GB
50017 (2003) are compared with the experimental results
obtained in current tests.
The axial compressive load (N) versus moment (M)
equations for the CFST and steel latticed columns are as
follows:
For CFST latticed columns:
n / + a m / d = 1
(n 2 3 0 )
(4)

2
3
b n c n + m / d = 1 (n < 2 0 )

K i/K ini

0.4
0.2
0
30

60

90

120

(mm)

where n=N/Nu, m=M/Mu, Mu is the moment capacity, and

a, b, c, d and 0 is the intermediate variables (DBJ 13-51,
2003).
For steel latticed columns:
n / + m m / e = 1
(5)

Figure 9. Stiffness degradation.

3.5 Ductility

where m is the equivalent moment coefficient, and e is

also the intermediate variables (GB 50017, 2003).
In all calculations, the material partial safety factors
were set to unity.
Comparison between the predicted bearing capacities
(Puc+ and Puc-) with the measured results (Pue+ and Pue-) is
shown in Table 2.

Similar to single composite columns under cyclic

loadings (Yang et al. 2009), a ductility factor (DF) is
defined to quantify the ductility of the latticed columns,
and DF is expressed as follows:
DF =

u
y

3.6 Prediction of bearing capacity

0.6

Steel

Figure 10. DF of the tested specimens

CFST1 (n=0.05)
CFST2 (n=0.26)
CFST3 (n=0.52)
Steel (n=0.26)

0.8

CFST2 CFST3
Specimen

1.2
1

Pull

(3)

250

Yang & Song

6 REFERENCES

Table 2. Comparison between the predicted and measured

bearing capacity.
PuePuc+
PucPue+
Puc+/Pue+ Puc-/PueLabel
(kN)
(kN)
(kN)
(kN)
CFST1

47.0

-113.1

82.7

-139.1

1.760

1.230

CFST2

77.9

-137.1

89.1

-149.8

1.144

1.093

CFST3 110.5

-116.0

62.8

-105.5

0.568

0.909

-39.4

19.7

-33.1

0.470

0.840

Steel

41.9

Zhong, S.T. 2003. Concrete-filled steel tubular structures (3rd

ed.). Beijing: Tsinghua University Press (in Chinese).
Ou, Z.J. & Chen, B.C. 2008. Development and research on
concrete filled steel tubular laced columns. Journal of
Fuzhou University (Natural Science) 36(4): 585-591 (in
Chinese).
Kawano, A., Matsui, C. & Sakino, Y. 1996. An experimental
study on the elasto-plastic behavior and deformability of
concrete-filled tubular truss beam-columns under cyclic
loading. Journal of Structural and Construction
Engineering AIJ No. 482: 141-150 (in Japanese).
Kawano, A. & Matsui, C. 1999. The deformation capacities of
parallel chord trusses with concrete filled tubular chords.
Journal of Structural and Construction Engineering AIJ No.
522: 129-135 (in Japanese).
Kawano, A. & Matsui, C. 2000. The deformation capacity of
trusses with concrete filled tubular chords. In Hajjar, J.F. et
al.: Composite Construction in Steel and Concrete IV, May
28-June 2, 2000. Alberta, Canada.
AIJ. 2008. Recommendations for design and construction of
concrete filled steel tubular structures. Architectural
Institute of Japan (in Japanese).
Kawano, A., Nejime, H. & Kuma, K. 2003. Seismic-resistant
capacity of multistory frames with CFT truss girders. In
Jaurietta, M.A. et al.: 10th International Symposium on
Tubular Structures, September 18-20, 2003. Madrid, Spain.
Kawano, A. & Sakino, K. 2003. Seismic resistance of CFT
trusses. Engineering Structures 25(5): 607-619.
Deng, X.Y. 2012. Study on the seismic performance of concrete
filled steel tubular lattice column. Master thesis, Central
South University (in Chinese).
Luo, Y. 2013. Studies on the seismic performance of four-tube
concrete filled steel tubular laced columns. Master thesis,
Central South University (in Chinese).
Chen, B.W., Zou, Y.H., Tang, C., Yang, X. & He, M.L. 2014.
Contrast research on square and circular CFST laced
columns pseudo-static test. China Civil Engineering Journal
37(Suppl. 2): 108-112 (in Chinese).
Jiang, L.Z., Huang, Z., Chen, S. & Zhou, W.B. 2014. Tests for
aseismic behavior of connection joints composed of
concrete-filled steel tubular lattice columns and composite
box girders. Journal of Vibration and Shock 33(18):
156-163 (in Chinese).
DBJ 13-51. 2003. Technical specification for concrete- filled
steel tubular structures. Fujian: Department of Construction
of Fujian Province (in Chinese).
GB 50017. 2003. Code for design of steel structures. Beijing:
China Architecture & Building Press.
Elremaily, A. & Azizinamini, A. 2002. Behavior and strength of
circular concrete-filled tube columns. Journal of
Constructional Steel Research 58(12): 1567-1591.
Yang, Y.F., Han, L.H. & Zhu, L.T. 2009. Experimental
performance of recycled aggregate concrete-filled circular
steel tubular columns subjected to cyclic flexural loadings.
Advances in Structural Engineering 12(2): 183-194.

Results in Table 2 clearly indicate that, for all

specimens, the predicted bearing capacities with double
limbs in tension (i.e. in pull direction) agreed well with
the experimental results compared with the case of single
limb in tension (i.e. in push direction). Generally, CFST
latticed specimen with n of 0.52 and steel latticed
specimen with n of 0.26 had a conservative prediction;
however, the predicted bearing capacities of CFST
latticed specimens with n of 0.05 and 0.26 are 14.4% to
76% higher than the experimental results.

4 CONCLUSIONS
The following conclusions can be drawn within the
limitations of the research:
(1) The failure process of limbs of three-legged
latticed specimens under constant axial compressive load
and cyclically increasing flexural loadings are different
owing to their cross section asymmetry. The failure
pattern of CFST latticed columns includes cracking and
buckling of limbs; however, only cracking of limbs
happens to steel latticed column.
(2) CFST latticed specimens have better P-
hysteretic curve while double limbs in tension than the
case when single limb in tension, however, steel latticed
specimen has the similar P- hysteretic curve in push and
pull directions.
(3) CFST latticed specimen has higher bearing
capacity and lower stiffness degradation than the
corresponding steel latticed specimen. In general, CFST
latticed specimens with larger n possess higher bearing
capacity and lower stiffness degradation. Ductility factor
of CFST latticed specimens has not consistent changing
rule in two loading directions with variation of n.
(4) For three-legged latticed columns, the predicted
bearing capacity is generally in good agreement with the
measured result while double limbs in tension compared
with the case while double limbs in compression.

5 ACKNOWLEDEGMENTS
The studies in this paper are financially supported by
the National Natural Science Foundation of China
(51421064) and the Natural Science Foundation of
Liaoning Province (2013020125). The financial support
is gratefully acknowledged. The authors also wish to
thank Mr. Min Liu for his assistance in the experiments.

251

11th International Conference on

Advances in Steel and Concrete Composite Structures
Tsinghua University, Beijing, China, December 3-5, 2015

ANALYTICAL BEHAVIOUR OF CIRCULAR CONCRETE

ENCASED CFST STUB COLUMNS: FINITE ELEMENT
ANALYSIS
W. J. Zhanga, Y. J. Lia & F. Y. Liaoa*
a

College of Transportation and Civil Engineering, Fujian Agriculture and Forestry University, Fuzhou, Fujian, China
E-mails: zhangweijie2014@sina.com, liyongjin@tsinghua.edu.cn, feiyu.liao@fafu.edu.cn
ABSTRACT

Keywords:
Circular concrete encased
concrete filled steel tube
(CECFST); Finite element (FE)
method; Axial compression;
Mechanical behaviour.

The aim of this paper is to numerically investigate the behavior of circular concrete encased
concrete-filled steel tubular (CECFST) columns subjected to axial compression. A finite
element (FE) model was developed in this paper to model the circular CECFST columns
under axial compression, where the material and geometric nonlinear were both included in
the model. The predicted load versus axial strain curves and failure mode show a good
agreement with the measured ones. Then, the FE model was employed to analyze the
behaviour of circular CECFST columns under axial compression, in terms of typical load
versus axial strain curves, stress distributions of each component inside the columns, and
interactions between concrete and steel tube. The influence of important parameters on the
behaviour of composite columns was numerically clarified as well.

In the past, some research was carried out to study the

mechanic behaviour of CECFET columns with square
section(Yao et al. 2013, Kang & Qian 2011, Chen et al.
2005, Liao & Han 2010). However, still little effort has
been put forward to study the behaviour of circular
CECFST columns. The past research results showed that,
actually, the constraint effect from stirrups in the
CECFST columns with circle sections is more uniform
and significant than that of the CECFST columns with
square sections (Cai et al. 2002), which may result in the
mechanics difference between them.
The present study is thus an attempt to study the
mechanical behaviour of the circular CECFST stub
columns subjected to axial compression. A finite element
(FE) model is developed in this paper, and verified
against the existing test results. The behaviour of circular
CECFST columns under axial compression is then
numerically investigated, and parametric study is
performed as well.

1 INTRODUCTION
Concrete encased concrete filled steel tube
(CECFST), as illustrated in Fig. 1, is an innovative type
of composite column. The column consists two parts,
which are the inside concrete filled steel tube (CFST) and
the outside reinforced concrete (RC), respectively. The
CECFST columns have been extensively used in some
high-rise buildings and large span bridges in China. The
CECFST column have some advantages when compared
to the CFST column, such as higher stiffness, and greater
fire resistance. Moreover, the possibility of corrosion and
outward bucking of inner steel tubes can be prevented in
the CECFST column due to the restraint from the outer
concrete. And also, the CECTST column has better
structural and constructional performance than the RC
counterpart, such as higher ductility and faster
construction speed (Han et al. 2009).
Transverse bar

Outer concrete

2 GENERAL DESCRIPTIONS
Longitudinal bar

In the FE model, an elasticplastic model, with the

Von-Mises yield criteria, is used to describe the
constitutive behaviour of steel; and a stressstrain
relation, consists of five stages is adopted. More details of
the stressstrain relationship can be found in Han et al.
(2007). Concrete constitutive model, employed to
simulate the concrete behaviour under axial loading
condition, is the concrete-damaged plasticity model. The
concrete-damaged plasticity model adopts a unique yield

Di

Core concrete

Steel tube
Do

Figure 1. Cross section of concrete filled steel tube reinforced

concrete.

252

Zhang et al.

function with non-associated flow and a Drucker-Prager

hyperbolic flow potential function (Hibbitt et al. 2007) to
describe the plasticity of concrete. The stress-strain
relationship, given by Attard &Setunge (1996), is applied
for the unconfined concrete in the outer concrete.
According to Han et al. (2007), although it is the fact that
the confinement effect may be automatically considered
to some extent when solid elements are used, the
adoption of confined concrete stress-strain relationship
will provide better predictions for CFST columns.
Therefore, the confined concrete stress-strain relationship
presented in Han et al. (2007) is employed herein in
current FE model.
Contact in both the normal and tangential directions is
defined between the outer concrete and the steel tube, as
well as the steel tube and core concrete. Hard contact is
applied in the normal direction, where two contact
matching surfaces are allowed to separate from each
other but penetration is inhibited. The Coulomb friction
model is adopted to model the interaction between
concrete and steel tube in tangential direction, where the
frictional coefficient is taken as 0.6 according to Han et
al. (2007).
The three-dimensional 8-node reduced integration
solid element (C3D8R) is used for the outer concrete and
core concrete of a CECFST column, as well as the steel
tube and the end plates. The longitudinal reinforcements
and transverse reinforcements are modeled by the 2-node
truss element (T3D2). The embedded element technique
is adopted to simulate the connection between the
reinforcement elements and the outer concrete elements,
where the translational degrees of freedom at the rebar
node are eliminated and the node thus becomes an
embedded node.
Rigid end plate

The finite element mesh for the typical CECFST

column is shown in Fig. 2. Due to the nonlinear nature of
the modeling, the well-known NewtonRaphson
incremental-iterative solution method is adopted in the
model, and the displacement control technique is
employed

3 VERIFICATIONS OF THE FEA MODELING

For verifying the mentioned finite element model, a
comparison between the experimental results (Li et al.
2012, Lin et al. 2003) and FE results is conducted. The
predicted axial load (N) versus axial strain () curves are
shown in Fig. 3.
4000
Li et al. (2012)
Predicted

N (kN)

3000
2000

crc1-1

1000
crc1-2

0
0

3000

6000

9000 12000 15000

(a) crc1-1 and crc1-2

4000
Li et al. (2012)
Predicted

N (kN)

3000

crc2-2

2000
1000

crc2-1

0
Longitudinal bar

3000

6000

9000 12000 15000

Core oncrete
Steel tube

(b) crc2-1 and crc2-2

4000

Transverse bar

Li et al. (2012)

Outer
concrete

Predicted

N (kN)

3000

Rigid end plate

crc3-1

2000
1000

(a) Schematic view of element model

Outer concrete

crc3-2

0
Steel tube

Longitudinal bar

3000

6000 9000 12000 15000

()

(c) crc3-1 and crc3-2

Core concrete
(b) Element divisions of section
Figure 2. Typical finite element model of CECFST column

253

Zhang et al.

5000

4000
Li et al. (2012)
Predicted

2000

4000

(MPa)

N (kN)

3000

crc4-1

1000

3000

Nue= Nuc

2000
Li et al. (2012)

1000

crc4-2

Lin et al. (2003)

0
0

3000

6000 9000 12000 15000

()

1000

2000 3000
()

4000

5000

Figure 4. Comparisons between predicted and measured

ultimate strength.

(d) crc4-1 and crc4-2

4000
Li et al. (2012)
Predicted

N (kN)

3000

Concrete
spalling

2000
crc5-2

1000

crc5-1

Diagonal
shear failure
mode

0
0

3000

6000 9000 12000 15000

()

(e) crc5-1 and crc5-2

(a) Failure tested

(b) predicted
Figure 5. Comparison of typical failure modes of CECFST
specimen (crc2-1) (Li et al. 2012).

40

(MPa)

30

4 ANALYTICAL BEHAVIOURS
20

In order to investigate the mechanical behavior of the

circular CECFST columns, a typical circular RC column
reinforced with circular CFST, with steel tube ratio
(s=Asc/A, where Asc and A are the cross sectional area of
CFST section and the composite section) of 0.25,
subjected to axial loading is analyzed. The basic
parameters of the CECFST column used in the
calculations are as follows:
circular hollow RC column: Do=400mm; fcu=60MPa
814 (longitudinal bars: b=1.3%, fy=300MPa); 8@100
(circular hoop reinforcement, fy=210MPa), where Do is
overall diameter of CECFST, fcu is the cube strength of
concrete, b (b=Ab/Ao, where Ab and Ao are the cross
sectional area of longitudinal reinforcements and outer
concrete) is reinforcement ratio and fy is yield strength of
longitudinal reinforcement.
inner circular CFST: Dit=2005mm; fy=345MPa,
fcu=60MPa, where Di is the diameter of inner steel tube, t
is wall thickness of steel tube, and fy is yield strength of
steel tube.
L=1200mm, where L is the column height.

Lin et al. (2003)

10

Predicted

0
0

600

1200 1800
()

2400

3000

(f) SRCG32
Figure 3. Comparison of predicted and measured N - /
relations.

Comparisons of predicted and measured ultimate

strength are shown in Fig. 4. The failure mode using FE
modes are compared with the measured one in Fig. 5.The
predicted ultimate strengths (Nuc) by using the FE
modeling are compared with those obtained from tests
(Nue) in Fig. 4. A mean ratio (Nue/Nuc) of 0.991 is obtained
with a standard deviation of 0.048. It can be seen that the
predicted ultimate strengths show a good agreement with
the tested ones.

254

Zhang et al.

4.1 Load versus deformation relation

CFST still increases and no obvious descending stage

will occur on the curve. It can be found that the inner
CFST bears 33.5% of load carrying capacity for whole
column when the ultimate strength of the circular
CECFST column is reached. Furthermore, approximately
65% ultimate load of the circular CECFST column is
carried by the inner CFST during the flat stage (stage
CD). These demonstrate that the inner CFST carries part
of load of the circular CECFST column, especially in the
flat stage larger part of load carried by the inner CFST
and more ductility provided by the inner CFST as well.
Thus the inner CFST could effectively enhance the
strength and ductility for the circular CECFST column.

The predicted axia1 load (N) versus axial strain ()

relation for the typical circular CECFST column is shown
in Fig. 6, where u is the axial strain corresponding to the
ultimate axial load. Four characteristic points are also
marked on the curve, in which Point A is corresponding
to the longitudinal reinforcements begin to come into
elastic-plastic stage. Ultimate axial load is reached at
Point B. Point C is the moment which the curve turns into
a flat stage from descending stage after the peak load. At
Point D, the longitudinal strain attains the value of 0.02.
It is clear from Fig. 6 that structural response of the
circular CECFST column under axial load can be
generally divided into four obvious stage: an elastic
(OA), plastic (AB), descending (BC), and flat (CD) stage.
In the elastic stage, load increases sharply, whereas
improvement in axial deformation is very limited. On the
other hand, there is a linear relation between load and
strain in this stage. Following that, the circular CECFST
member comes into the plastic stage, axial deformation of
the circular CECFST column accelerates compared to the
elastic stage, and the axia1 load increases continuously
until the load-carrying capacity is attained. Hereafter, in
the descending stage, the axia1 load carried by the
circular CECFST column begins to fall down and
decreases sharply. Finally, the load capacity keeps
steadily with increasing deformation and the column
comes into the flat stage.
10000

N (kN)

N (kN)

3000
2000
1000

Inner CFST
Counterpart CFST

0
0

5000

10000 15000 20000

()

(a) N relations

Outward
buckling

Overall
buckling

CFST RC
Outer hollow RC
Inner CFST

8000
6000

4000

A
C

4000

(i) Inner CFST

(i) Inner CFST

(b) Failure modes
Figure 7. Comparisons between inner CFST an counterpart
CFST.

2000
0
0

5000

10000

()

15000

20000

Furthermore, a counterpart CFST column, which is

the same as the steel tube and core concrete inside the
abovementioned typical circular CECFST column, is also
simulated in this section to compare the behavior of the
inner CFST inside the circular CECFST column. The
comparisons, on the load (N) versus strain () relations
and failure modes between inner CFST and counterpart
CFST under axial loading, is depicted in Fig. 7. As can be
seen, the ultimate load carried by inner CFST is larger
than that of the counterpart CFST column, even though
they have the same materials and sectional size. And
comparing the failure modes in Fig. 7(b), the inner CFST
reveals an outward local buckling failure mode, whereas
overall buckling failure is occurred for the counterpart
CFST column. These can be explained that, in the
circular CECFST column, the outer reinforced concrete
could provide the supporting for the inner CFST and

Figure 6. Axial load (N) versus axial strain () relations for

typical circular CECFST column.

4.2 RC and Inner CFST

Fig. 6 also gives the axia1 load (N), carried by the
outer hollow RC and inner CFST of typical circular
CECFST column, versus axial strain () relations,
respectively. As can be seen, the load carried by outer
hollow RC attains its ultimate value when the ultimate
capacity of the whole column is reached; subsequently,
the load capacity degrades sharply until a flat stage
occurs. However, for the inner CFST, the load capacity is
very close to its peak value at the time of column ultimate
capacity reached; after that the axia1 load carried by inner

255

Zhang et al.

significant in the elastic stage. During the plastic stage

(stage AB), the Mises stress for transverse bar develops
quickly compared with the steel tube and longitudinal
bar, which indicates that the lateral confinement of
transverse bar to outer concrete increases with the
increasing axial deformation. When the column ultimate
strength is reached, the steel tube, longitudinal bar and
transverse bar attain their yield strengths respectively.
After that, the steel tube begins to come into the yield
stage and the following strain hardening stage, whilst the
maximum Mises stresses of rebar generally remain the
yielding stress.

restrict the overall buckling of inner CFST, which results

in the increase of load carrying capacity compared with
the counterpart CFST column.

4.3 Concrete stress

The comparison of average axial stress () versus
axial strain () relations between the outer concrete and
the core concrete, in which the same concrete strength is
adopted, is presented in Fig. 8. As can be seen, in the
elastic stage (stage OA), the average stress of the core
concrete is the same as that of the outer concrete. And,
compared with the outer concrete, the average stress for
the core concrete increases faster during the plastic stage
(stage AB). And, the average stress strength for the core
concrete is 9.6% higher than that of the outer concrete
when the ultimate capacity of the circular CECFST
column is reached. Following that, the axial stress of the
outer concrete decreases dramatically when the CECFST
column comes into the descending stage (stage BC), and
then keeps as 10 MPa in the flat stage (stage CD).
However, the axial stress of the core concrete can still
keep significantly increasing after attaining the column
ultimate strength, and reach the value of 76.5 MPa;
hereafter, the stress for the core concrete decreases
moderately. This is attributed to the fact that the
confinement provided by steel tube on the core concrete
in the circular CECFST column can remarkably enhance
the strength and ductility of the core concrete.
100

s mises (MPa)

400
300

200
Steel tube
Longitudinal bar
T ransverse bar

100
0
0

5000

15000

20000

Figure 9. Mises stress (Mises) versus axial strain () relations of

steel.

4.5 Interaction of steel and concrete

u
P2

80

s (MPa)

10000

()

P2

P1

60
40

Outer concrete
Inner concrete

20

(a) Outer concrete

0
0

5000

10000

15000

(b) Steel tube

20000

()

P1

Figure 8. Axial stress () versus axial strain () relations of

concrete.

4.4 Steel stress

(c) Core concrete
Figure 10. Interactions between steel tube and concrete.

Fig. 9 depicts the Mises stress (Mises) versus axial

strain () relations of steel tube, longitudinal bar and
transverse bar for typical circular CECFST column,
respectively. It can be seen that, in the elastic stage (stage
OA), the Mises stresses of both steel tube and
longitudinal bar develop rapidly under axial loading.
However, the Mises stress for transverse bar increases
slowly which implies that the effect of confinement on
the out concrete provided by the transverse bar is not

Fig. 10 shows the interaction between the steel tube

and core concrete, as well as the outer concrete and steel
tube, in which p1 is the interaction stress between the
steel tube and core concrete, and p2 is that between the
outer concrete and the steel tube, respectively. It can be
found that, for the circular CECFST member, the

256

Zhang et al.

which results in the increase of p2. This phenomenon can

be explained by the fact that the confinement offered by
hoop reinforcement restricts the outward bulges of outer
concrete and the outer concrete provides confinement for
the inner steel tube to restrain its outward buckling.
From Fig. 11 it can also be seen that, the maximum
value of the interaction stresses p1 will attain 11 MPa in
this typical circular CECFST member; while the
interaction stress p2 does not exceed 1MPa during the
whole load process.

interaction stresses p1 and p2 are almost constant across

the cross-section under axial loadings.
Fig. 11 shows the interaction stresses p1 and p2, taken
from the cross-section at the mid-height, versus axial
stain relations. In Fig. 11, if p>0 it means that the
interaction is present, and if p=0, it indicates the
occurrence of a separation tendency between the surfaces.
It can be found that, due to the larger Poissons ratio of
the steel tube compared with that of the concrete, the
lateral deformation of the steel tube is larger than that of
the concrete which leads to the separating tendency
between the steel tube and core concrete. With the
increase of axial strain and the development of concrete
cracking, the lateral deformation of concrete begins to
exceed that of the steel tube. Therefore, the confinement
on core concrete provided by the steel tube occurs, and
the interaction stress p1 increases with the increasing
the axial strain.

5 PARAMETRIC ANALYSIS
5.1 Effects of steel tube ratio
By using the FE model, parametric study is performed
herein to investigate the effect of different parameters on
the behaviour of circular CECSFT columns.
Steel tube ratio (s) is an important parameter,
affecting the compressive behaviour of the circular
CECFST column. The effect of steel tube ratio on the
axial load (N) versus axial strain () relations for typical
circular CECFST columns is depicted in Fig. 12.
As can be seen in Fig. 12 that, the load-carrying
capacity of the circular CECFST column increases
moderately with the increase of steel tube ratio, and the
increased s tends to lead to the significantly improved
ductility of the circular CECFST column.

2
axial strain at peak load

p (MPa )

1.5
P1

1
0.5

P2

0
0

1000

2000

3000

4000

10000

()

s=0.06
s=0.25
s=0.56

8000

N (kN)

(a) Initial stage of the loading process

15

4000

axial strain at peak load

12

p (MPa)

6000

2000
P1

0
0

5000

10000

15000

20000

()

3
P2

Figure 12. Effects of steel tube radio on N versus relations.

0
0

5000

10000

()

15000

20000

5.2 Effects of stirrup spacing

As mentioned above, the transverse bar can provide
confinement to the outer concrete, which will delay the
occurrence of concrete crushing and improve the concrete
strength. Thus the compressive behaviour of the circular
CECFST might be influenced by the stirrup space (s).
Fig. 13 presents the axial load (N) versus axial strain
() relations of the circular CECFST columns with
different stirrup spaces. It is found that, for the circular
CECFST, the stirrup space has a moderate influence on
the ultimate strength of CECFST columns, and the

(b) Whole loading process

Figure 11. Interaction stress (p) versus axial strain () relations.

As far as the interaction stress p2 is concerned, it

increases at the initial stage due to the outward lateral
deformation of steel tube. After axial strain reaches
around 1000 , the value of p2 decreases until the peak
load is obtained. This is because the outer concrete tends
to outward bulge at this period. After that, thep2 is kept as
nearly zero and in the failure stage, the interaction occurs
once again between the outer concrete and the steel tube,
257

Zhang et al.

its peak load. The interaction between steel tube and core
concrete, as well as between the outer concrete and steel
tube, play an important role in improving the
performance of circular CECFST column under axial
compression.
(3) Based on the parametric analytical results, it is
found that the improved steel tube ratio and core concrete
strength has a significant effect on the ultimate strength
and ductility of circular CECFST column, whilst the
effect of stirrup space on the ultimate strength is less
remarkable.

reduced s tends to improve the capacity of the column at

the later stage.
10000

s =50mm
s =100mm
s =200mm

N (kN)

8000
6000
4000
2000
0
0

5000

10000
()

15000

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

20000

The study of this paper is financially supported by

two projects (51108084 and 51308121) from National
Natural Science Foundation of China. The authors also
appreciate the support from the Provincial Natural
Science Foundation of Fujian (2012J01192) and Fujian
Agriculture and Forestry University Young Teacher
Research Program (2012xjj22)

Figure 13. Effects of stirrup spacing on N versus relations.

5.3 Effects of core concrete strength

Fig. 14 shows the effect of core concrete strength on
the axial load (N) versus axial strain () curves of typical
circular CECFST columns, where the strength of outer
concrete remains unchanged in these calculating cases.
It can be seen from Fig.14 that, both the axial ultimate
strength and the initial stiffness of the circular CECFST
increase obviously as the core concrete strength (fcu,c is
the core concrete cube strength) increases, while the
influence of the core concrete strength on the ductility for
the circular CECFST columns is moderate.

REFERENCES
Attard, M.M. & Setunge, S. 1996. Stress-strain relationship of
confined and unconfined concrete. ACI Materials Journal
93(5): 432-442.
Cai, J., Xie, X.F., Yang, C., He, J.G. & Chen, H.F. 2002. An
experimental research on the composite column with core
of high-strength concrete filled steel tube under axial
compressive loading. Journal of South China of
Technology (Natural Science) 30 (6): 81-85 (in Chinese).
Chen, Z.Y., Yi, W.J., Zhao, G.F. Sha, Z.P. & Lin, L.Y. 2005.
Ultimate strength of high strength concrete columns
reinforced with concrete filled steel tube under axial
compressive and their reliability analysis. Journal of Hu nan
university (Natural Sciences) 32(4): 6-11 (in Chinese).
Han, L.H. 2007. Concrete-filled steel tubular structures-theory
and practice (2nd ed.). Beijing: China Science Press (in
Chinese).
Han, L.H., Liao, F.Y., Tao, Z. & Hong, Z. 2009. Performance of
concrete-filled steel tube reinforced concrete columns
subjected to cyclic bending. Journal of constructional steel
research 65(8-9): 1607-1616.
Hibbitt, Karlson, Sorenson. 2007. ABAQUS Version 6.7:
Theory Manual, users manual, verification manual and
example problems manual. Hibbitt, Karlson and Sorenson
Inc.
Kang, H.Z. & Qian, J.R. 2011. Experiment study on axial
compressive capacity of high strength concrete-filled steel
tube composite columns. Journal of building structures41
(6): 64-67 (in Chinese).
Liao, F.Y. & Han, L.H. 2010. Performance of concrete-filled
steel tube reinforced concrete columns with square sections.
Engineering Mechanics 27(4): 153-162 (in Chinese).
Lin, Y.J., Cheng, W.R. & Li, J. 2003.Experiment and study of
SRC columns with steel circle pipe subjected to axial
compressive loading. Building Science Research of
Sichuan29 (4):11-16 (in Chinese).
Li, Y.J., Ren, Q.X. & Liao, F.Y. 2012. Behaviour of concrete
filled steel tube reinforced concrete (CECFST) stub
columns: experiments. In Li, H.N. et al.: 2ndInternational

10000
fcuc=30MPa
fcuc=60MPa
fcuc=90MPa

N (kN)

8000
6000
4000
2000
0
0

5000

10000

()

15000

20000

Figure 14. Effects of core concrete strength on N versus

relations.

6 CONCLUSIONS
(1) A finite element model was developed in this
paper to model the behavior of circular CECFST column
under axial compression. The predicted results show
good agreement with the tested results in terms of failure
mode, ultimate strength and axial load versus axial strain
relations.
(2) Behaviour analysis was performed by using the
FE model. It is found that the ultimate capacity of the
whole column is reached when the outer concrete reaches

258

Zhang et al.
Conference on Civil Engineering, Architecture and Building
Materials, May 25-27, 2012. China.
Yao, G.H., Li, Y.J. & Liao, F.Y. 2013. Behavior of
concrete-filled steel tube reinforced concrete columns
subjected to axial compressive. Journal of building
structures 34(5): 114-112 (in Chinese).

259

11th International Conference on

Advances in Steel and Concrete Composite Structures
Tsinghua University, Beijing, China, December 3-5, 2015

COMPOSITE EFFECT AND SHEAR STRENGTH MODEL OF

SQUARE STEEL TUBED RC COLUMNS
X. H. Zhoua,b, J. P. Liua, D. Gana,b,*
a

School of Civil Engineering, Chongqing University, Chongqing , China

E-mails: zhouxuhong@126.com, liujp@cqu.edu.cn, gandan@cqu.edu.cn*
b

School of Civil Engineering, Changan University, Xian, China

ABSTRACT

Keywords:
Steel tubed reinforced
concrete (TRC) column;
Composite columns; Cyclic
behavior; Shear failure; Shear
strength.

The shear force resisting mechanism of tubed reinforced concrete (TRC) columns is different
from that of RC columns. The steel tube of TRC column can resist shear force through the
tensile stress of a truss model, and the direct shear stress. A simplified shear strength models for
square tubed reinforced concrete (TRC) columns is proposed, in which the relationship between
cyclic shear strength and lateral drift ratio of the columns and the shear-resisting mechanisms for
both shear and transverse stresses of the tube are considered. The cyclic behavior of
large-width-to-thickness ratio square tubed reinforced concrete (TRC) columns was examined
through the tests of 4 specimens subjected to a constant axial compression combined with
quasi-static cyclic lateral loading. Three main system parameters were considered in the tests:
(1) width-to-thickness ratio (106-134); (2) axial load ratio (0.4 and 0.6); and (3) shear
span-to-depth ratio (1.5-2.0). The test results from this paper and literatures are in good
agreement with predictions from the simplified model.

The infilled concrete of square tubed columns is

non-uniformly confined and the effectiveness of
confinement is much reduced compared with circular
steel tubes. The deterioration of response was inevitable
for rectangular columns unless a thick steel tube was used,
particularly for columns with their axial load exceeding
50% of the axial load capacity. Aboutaha et al. (1999)
tested a system that combined a through bolt with a
relatively thin rectangular jacket and showed enhanced
confinement efficiency. Sakino K (2000a, b), Xiao Y.
(2003), Zhou et al. (2010) investigated the seismic
behavior of tubed columns using partially stiffened
square or rectangular steel jackets in the plastic hinge
region. Their test results showed that the stiffened steel
tubes were effective in improving the strength, ductility,
and energy dissipation capacity of the columns.

1 INTRODUCTION
The tubed reinforced concrete (RC) columns shown in
Figure 1 are a kind of special concrete-filled tube (CFT)
columns, in which the outer thin-walled steel tube does
not pass through the beam-column joint and thus can
avoid the direct transfer of an axial load and maximize
the confinement effect from the steel tube (Tomii N. et al.
1985; Liu J. P. 2009). In order to sustain tensile forces and
flexural moments, a reinforcement cage embedded in the
concrete of the tubed columns is also needed in practice.
The steel tube can serve as the formwork for casting the
concrete and hence eases the construction work. In recent
years, the tubed column has become more popular in
retrofitting concrete structures, and constructing new
building structures and bridge piers .
Tomii M. (1985) extended the concept of tubed
columns, by referring them as super-reinforced concrete
structure. Priestley M.J.N. (1994a, b), Prion. H. G. L
(1994), Fam A. (2004), Han L. H (2005), Liu J. P. 2009),
and Zhou X. H. et al. (2010) investigated the seismic
behavior of circular tubed reinforced concrete (TRC)
beam-columns. Test results showed that the steel tubes
were effective in preventing a brittle shear failure for
short RC columns. The columns showed excellent
load-carrying capacities, deformational behavior, and
energy dissipation capacity.

260

Zhou et al.

S-55-2-106
RC beam

S-55-2-106-4
8002.0106 3.8
S-55-2-106-6

39.6

Flexural

* = the steel ratio of the steel tube.

Square tubed
RC column

at the joint
Figure 1 Tubed RC columns

By considering the tube acting as a series of

independent stirrups and adopting the truss-action
strength of transverse reinforcement, some researchers
(Priestley, M. J. N 1994a; Sakino K. 2000c; Chen S. J.,
2011) proposed the methods for shear design. However,
it is well known that the shear force resisting
mechanism of tubed columns is significantly different
from that of RC columns. For a more rigorous
estimation, the tube can resist shear force through the
tensile stress of a truss model, and the direct shear
stress.
To this date, information pertaining to the cyclic
behavior of square tubed RC columns, particularly the
effects of important system parameters, is still limited.
This paper describes an experimental investigation on the
cyclic behavior of square TRC short columns.
Specifically, the shear and flexural failure mechanisms,
the stress state under cyclic loads, and composite
response are discussed. Moreover, the formulas for
predicting the shear strength of square TRC columns are
proposed based on the simplified shear strength models.

Table 2. Properties of steel tubes and rebars.

Thickness
Yield
Type
or diameter
strength
(mm)
fy (MPa)
1.49
314.1
Tube
1.89
309.2
Longitudinal
16.36
357.0
rebars
Stirrups
8.02
316.4

1
200
S-55-1.5-134

800
816 8@100
t=1.89

400

Figure 2 depicts the details of the test specimens.

Each column was rigidly supported by the rigid beams at
the top and bottom, thus simulating the column in a real
frame. The steel tube was terminated at 15mm away from
each end of the column to avoid the direct bearing of an
axial load. The stirrups in the columns were used for the
purpose of erecting the longitudinal reinforcement. Note
that no stirrup was used for the specimens in Group
S-55-2.0-106 because these specimens were stiffened in
their plastic hinge regions. The stiffeners were welded at
the trisection points of each side at the height of 200mm.

Gap

S-55-1.5-134-4
6001.5134 3.0
S-55-1.5-134-6

S-55-1.5-134

Failure
mode

36.6

Shear

200

400

Stiffener

800

fco
(MPa)

200
S-55-2-106

25 45

800

1-1

Table 1. Parameters, nomenclature, and failure modes of the test

specimens
H D/t (%)*

458.3

1-1

Gap
1

2.1 Details of specimens and test set-up

Specimens

554.5

t=1.49

2 EXPERIMENTAL PROGRAM AND RESULTS

Group

Ultimate
strength
fuMPa
414.9
399.0

816 8@200

1600
600

Disconnection

A summary of the specimens is presented in Table 1.

In the group designation, the first letter represents square
(S) tubed reinforced concrete specimens; the second
number represents the nominal cubic strength of concrete
(=55MPa); the third number (1.5-2) represents the shear
span-to-depth ratio ; and the fourth number (106-134)
means the width-to-thickness ratio of the tube D/t. The
specimen designation has the fifth number implying the
axial load ratio n0 (40% or 60%) defined as n0 = N/(fcoAg)
where N is the axial load applied during the test, fco is the
concrete compressive prismatic strength, and Ag is the
gross area of the cross section. The properties of steel
tubes and rebars are listed in Table 2.

Figure2. Details of specimens (unit: mm).

The test rig consists of a lateral reaction system

supporting the lateral hydraulic actuator and a vertical
system supporting the vertical hydraulic actuator (Liu J. P.

261

Zhou et al.

2009). The lateral reaction system has a rigid reaction

wall, a 630 kN hydraulic actuator, and a stiff L beam. The
vertical reaction system includes reaction racks, two
rollers, a 2500 kN hydraulic jack, a 2000 kN load cell,
and distribution beams.
Figure 3 depicts the instrumentation layout for the
specimens. Two LVDTs were used to measure the
horizontal displacement at the top of the column. In each
lateral loading cycle, a pull (positive loading) was exerted
first followed by a push (negative loading), as shown in
Figure 4. Three strain gauges were placed at the
mid-height of both sheared plates of the tube: one
transverse, one longitudinal, and one 45diagonal strain
gauges. The transvers strain gages were placed at both
ends of a columns at an interval of 90around the column
perimeter for the specimens with = 2.0 because the
flexural failure was anticipated for this specimen type
(Figure 5).
N

4,, times the measured yield displacement until the

specimen failed. Two loading cycles were also repeated
at each displacement level.

2.2 Damage and failure mode

Shear failure mode was seen in Specimens
S-55-1.5-134-4 (Figure 6a) and S-55-1.5-134-6 (Figure
6b). The specimens did not show a clear failure pattern
during the test due to the existence of tube. When the
peak load was reached, the concrete cover at the gaps
between the tube and the rigid beam crushed and the RC
core column dilated, but the tube did not buckle. After the
test, the tubes were removed and several cracks were
observed at the mid-height of the shear plane. The cracks
were inclined at 31-330 for the columns. The specimens
with higher axial load ratio (S-55-1.5-134-6) displayed
steeper inclined angle and more severe damage.
Flexural failure mode was observed in Specimens
S-55-2-106-4 (Figure 6c) and S-55-6-106-6 (Figure 6d).
The RC core columns were intact except the flexural
cracks and crushed concrete in the plastic hinge regions.
One longitudinal rebar was ruptured due to the tension at
the specimens top end for Specimen S-55-2-106-4 at the
end of test.

Pull +
3 Non-sheared plate

P
LVDT
2

Strain
gauges

Shear
point

Outstretched
rod

Figure 3. Instrumentation layout.

1
Sheared plate

Push -

Tube removed

Tube removed

Figure 4. Sheared plate of

the tube.

Shear cracks

Crushed and
spalled off

Crushed

Shear cracks
Non-sheared
plate

(a) S-55-1.5-134-4

(b) S-55-1.5-134-6

Strain gages
Tube removed

(a) S-55-1.5-134

Tube removed

Strain gage

Sheared plate

(b) S-55-2-106

Intact
Buckling

Figure 5. Strain gages layout.

Crushed and cracks

At the beginning of the test, an axial load was applied

until the specified N = n0fcoAg. During the test, a constant
axial load N = n0fcoAg was maintained by re-adjusting the
hydraulic jack. Before the specimen yielded, the applied
lateral load was controlled by a force and one loading
cycle was performed at each force level. A total of four
force magnitudes were considered: 50kN, 100kN, 150kN,
and the yield load (Note: 50kN 0.20~0.25 times the
yield load). Later two other loading cycles were repeated
using the predicted yield force. The loading was then
switched to the displacement control mode where the
controlling horizontal displacement was set equal to 2, 3,

(c) S-55-2-106-4
(d) S-55-2-106-4
Figure 6. Failure patterns of the beam-columns

2.3 Forcedisplacement relationship

Figure 7 shows the relationships between the
measured lateral force and the displacement for all
specimens. The hysteresis loops for the specimens
displaying the flexural failure mode (e.g., S-55-2-106-6)
were stable and not significantly pinched because the
stiffening method efficiently improved the confinement
effect of square tubes. As for the specimens having the
shear failure mode (e.g., S-55-1.5-134-6), degradation of

262

Zhou et al.

stiffness and residual deformation were observed during

the unloading stage in every second cycle after the cracks
of concrete initiated. After the peak load, the strength and
stiffness degradation became noticeable.

point.
Table 3. Lateral load-carrying capacities, deformation capacities,
and ductility ratios of the specimens.

2.4 Lateral load-carrying capacity and deformation

Specimens

capacity

S-55-1.5-134-4
S-55-1.5-134-6
S-55-2-106-4
S-55-2-106-6

Figure 8 depicts the envelope curves of lateral force

versus drift ratio of all specimens. The drift ratio is
calculated as R = /H.

20

Displacement, mm

40

60

Load, P / (kN)

(a) S-55-1.5-134-6
400
300
200
100
0
-100
-200
-300
-400
-60 -40 -20 0 20 40
Displacement,mm

60

Load, P / (kN)

(b) S-55-2-106-6
Figure 7. Lateral force versus displacement relationships.

400
300
200
100
0
S-55-1.5-134-4
-100
S-55-1.5-134-6
S-55-2-106-4
-200
S-55-2-106-6
-300
Failure
-400
-0.08 -0.04 0.00 0.04 0.08
Drift ratio, R

Load, P

Figure 8. Envelope curves of lateral force versus drift ratio.

Pu
Py

A C

Y
B

Pu
(kN)
283.3
297.2
265.5
310.8

y
(mm)
6.9
5.9
7.7
7.0

0.85
(mm)
25.3
15.1
50.0
45.2

3.7
2.6
6.5
6.5

R0.85
(%)
4.3
2.5
6.0
5.6

Table 3 lists the yield displacement y, yield load Py,

peak load Pu, ultimate displacement 0.85, and ultimate
drift ratio R0.85 values for the specimens. The values
shown in the table are meant for both push and pull
directions. 0.85 and R0.85 are defined as the post-peak
displacement and the post-peak drift ratio at the instant
when the lateral load decreases to 85% of the peak lateral
load, respectively. The displacement ductility ratio of
the specimens is calculated by = 0.85/y. Py and y
values can be determined from the envelope curves as
shown in Figure 9.
In the groups, the specimens with higher axial load
ratio showed a greater lateral stiffness and bearing
capacity within the range of test parameters considered.
and 0.85 values decreased with the increase of axial
load ratio in both groups. The lateral capacity decreased
dramatically to 60% and 50% of the peak value at the end
the
test
for
Specimens
S-55-1.5-134-4
and
S-55-1.5-134-6, respectively. For the group of flexural
failure, the influence of the axial load ratio on strength
and stiffness degradation was not so obvious compared to
the group of shear failure. The ratio of yield load to peak
load ranged from 0.76 to 0.81.
EuroCode 8 (CEN 2004) stipulates that the
displacement ductility ratio shall be no less than 4.0 for
DCM (medium ductile columns) RC columns, while the
Chinese code GB 50011-2010 (CMC 2010) states that the
ultimate drift ratio is no less than 0.02 for ductile RC
columns. The specimens with flexural failure satisfy both
ductility requirements, but the square specimens with
shear failure do not meet the displacement ductility
requirement of the Eurocode. The test results show that
the stiffened tubes with large D/t (=106) provide enough
confinement for the RC columns. However, the
deformation capacities for square TRC specimens
subjected to shear failure were poor, especially for
Specimen S-55-1.5-134-6 under high axial load ratio. The
cyclic shear behavior of stiffened square TRC specimens
could be improved with an appropriate stiffening
arrangement, but this should be further studied separately.

Load, P / (kN)

400
300
200
100
0
-100
-200
-300
-400
-60 -40 -20

Py
(kN)
216.5
242.2
211.8
247.1

0.85Pu

u
0.85
Displacement,

Figure 9. The geometrical method for determining the yield

263

Zhou et al.

3 COMPOSITE RESPONSE OF SQUARE TRC

As for the specimens experiencing shear failure (e.g.

Specimen S-55-1.5-134-4, Figure 10a), a small
longitudinal stress was induced by the adhesion and
friction between the steel tube and the concrete during the
axial loading stage. The shear and transverse strains
(stresses) did not increase until the lateral load reached
the bearing capacity of the core RC column. Then, the
shear and transverse strains or stresses increased
dramatically. The vertical compression stress decreased
and even reversed to tension because the adhesion was
destroyed by the cyclic lateral load.
As for the specimens experiencing flexural failure
(e.g., S-55-2-106-6 Figure10b, c), the transverse strain
and stress stayed around a relatively low level till the end
of the test. The shear strain and stress increased with the
increment of lateral load until the peak load, while they
decreased with an increment of lateral displacement after
the peak load.
The transverse strain (stress) components at the end of
the tube for the flexural-failure specimens increased
dramatically when the applied lateral load reached the
yield load. The stress and strain in the plastic hinges zone
for the non-sheared plate (ns and ns) reached the yield
point at peak load; the stress and strain for the
non-sheared plate (s and s) were lower than s and s at
the same load level.

COLUMNS

3.1 Stress analysis of steel tube

The steel tubes strains may be averaged due to the
symmetrical arrangement of strain gauges (Figure 5). The
relationship between the experimentally measured strains
v, h , 45, and shear strain xy can be expressed as

(1)

where h is the horizontal strain, v is the vertical

strain, 45 is the diagonal strain. The elasto-plastic
analysis method (Zhang S. M. et al. 2005) was adopted to
analyze the stress state on a steel tube.
Figure 10 shows the load-strain and load-stress curves
for the columns, in which v and h are the vertical and
transverse steel stresses at the mid-height of the tube, is
the shear stress, and z is the equivalent stress. The
transverse strain gages placed at the end of the tube
should be in tension only because they are close to the
gap and not bearing an axial load. The tension strains s
and ns are the transverse strains for sheared plate and
non-sheared plate, respectively. s and ns are the stress
counterparts.

Load,NP(kN)
/ (kN)

200
100

h
xy

-100

Load,N P(kN)
/ (kN)

300

300

200

200

100

-100

-200

-200

-300

-300
0

2000

4000

Strain,
/()

-500

6000

(a1) S-55-1.5-134-4 load-strain at

mid-height

100

h
z

yield

-100

500

Strain,
/ ()

1000

100

200 300
Stress, (MPa)
/ (MPa)

400

-100
-200

1500

300

200

200

100

-100

2000

4000

Strain, /
()

6000

8000

(c1) S-55-2-106-6 load-strain at the end*

100

ns

-100

-200
-300

-300
0

ns

300

-200

-300

100

-300
0

-100

-200
-100

Load, PP /(kN)
(kN)

200

xy

(b1) S-55-2-106-6 load-strain at

mid-height

300

Load,PP(kN)
/ (kN)

300

Load, PN /(kN)
(kN)

h v

Load,
P / (kN)
Load, P / (kN)

xy 2 45

100

(MPa)
Stress,
/ (MPa)

200

100

200

300

Stress, MPa
Stress,
/ (MPa)

400

(a2) S-55-1.5-134-4 load-stress at

(b2) S-55-2-106-6 load-stress at
(c2) S-55-2-106-6 load-stress at the end*
mid-height
mid-height
Figure 10. Load-strain and load-stress relationships of tubes.
* The subscripts s and ns denote the transverse strains and stresses at the end of the sheared plate and non-sheared plate, respectively.

Specimens

Loading

Table 4. Experimental results at the peak load.

Peak load
Load when tube yields
v(MPa)

264

h(MPa)

(MPa)

z(MPa)

Zhou et al.

S-55-1.5-134-4
S-55-1.5-134-6

direction
Negative
positive
Negative
positive

-301.7
298.2
-344.5
339.8

-274.1
286.9
-290.1
304.3

36.2
53.1
60.9
26.5

126.3
130.7
143.2
178.7

169.0
167.2
166.0
148.5

313.6
311.2
313.3
306.7

column can be predicted by

3.2 The composite response and mechanisms

VA Vc Vs Vp V Vh

The experimental results show that the steel tube

plays an important role in resisting the external lateral
forces. The trends for the stress states of the shear-failure
and flexural-failure specimens were determined by the
failure modes. At the peak load, the sheared plates of
steel tubes reached the yield point for the specimens
subjected to shear failure, while the steel tube yielded in
the plastic hinge regions only for the specimens subjected
to flexural failure. The stress components for the sheared
plate of the shear-failure specimens at the peak load
(Table 4) were utilized to determine the key parameters
of the simplified shear strength model described in
Section 4.
As for the shear-failure specimens, the concrete forms
an ideal core to withstand the external loading and it
prevents the local buckling of the steel tubes with large
width-to-thickness ratio. When the applied load reached
the shear capacities of core RC columns and shear cracks
occurred, the shear-resisting contribution of core RC
columns would be degraded with increasing displacement
ductility due to the widening of cracks, resulting in a
reduced aggregate interlocking (Priestley M.J.N. et al.
1994b). To resist the increasing external load and the load
released from the cracked RC columns, the shear and
transverse stresses of the tube may increase largely to
provide the shear-resisting force. The shear stress resists
the lateral load by working with the core concrete
columns, whereas the transverse stress withstands the
lateral load by a truss model and provides the
confinement to the RC columns to constrain the shear
cracks from widening and thus increases the compressive
strength of concrete. The square TRC columns reached
the peak load when the sheared plates of tubes yielded.
As for the flexural-failure specimens, the stiffened
square tubes can endure the lateral load through a
synchronous work with the core concrete columns once
the later load is engaged. The benefits from an
appropriate stiffening method for square tubes are
twofold. First, the shear stress of the square tube is able
to carry the lateral load through a coordination work with
the core concrete columns once the lateral load is applied.
Second, the confinement effect for the concrete in the
plastic hinge region is significantly improved.

(2)

where Vc and Vs are the concrete shear-resisting and

transverse steel shear-resisting mechanisms, respectively;
Vp is the shear capacity provided by the axial load
through an arching action; V and Vh are the shear and
transverse stress of tube shear-resisting mechanisms,
respectively.
Since the transverse steel is normally spaced largely
to erect the longitudinal reinforcement, Eq. (2) can be
expressed as

VA Vc V Vh Vp

(3)

4.1 Concrete shear-resisting mechanisms Vc

The concrete mechanisms Vc can be expressed as
(Mervyn J. K. et al. 2000)
Vc

f c' (0.8 Ag )

(4)

where Ag is the column gross section area, is a

factor accounting for the columns shear span-to-depth
ratio = 3- M/(VD) = 1-1.5 (M = bending moment, V =
shear force, and D = section depth) ; is a modifier factor
accounting for the longitudinal steel ratio = 0.5+201 1
(1 = longitudinal steel ratio); is the parameter reflecting
the strength reduction of the concrete shear resisting
mechanism which decreases with an increasing ductility
as shown in Figure 11; and fc is the concrete compressive
cylindrical or prismatic strength. Since the experimental
results for TRC columns are still lacking, the available
confinement relationship for RC columns may be adopted
for conservatism.

Parameter, / (MPa)

0.3
U

0.2

ni

ia
l

ax
i

al

ax

uc

til
ity

uc

til
i

ty

0.1

0.0

4 SIMPLIFIED SHEAR STRENGTH MODEL

Bi

Figure 11. vs. displacement ductility .

The total nominal shear strength VA of a square TRC

265

Displacement Ductility,

10

Zhou et al.

4.2 Shear stress of tube shear-resisting mechanisms

in this paper, which is based on the principle of minimum

energy (Kim J. H. et al. 2007)

V
Figure 12 depicts the shear stress in the sheared plate
of square tubes. V can be calculated by Eq. (5)

I 2t
16
max D t max
S
9

v Av

) / (0.61)
A

t g

where v is the volumetric ratio of shear steel to

concrete = 4t/D for square tubes; t is the volumetric ratio
of longitudinal steel to concrete = Ast/Ag (Ast = sectional
area of longitudinal steel); Av is the shear area of concrete
section; Ag is the gross sectional area of columns; and
is an end fixity parameter = 1 for fixed-pinned ends and =
2 for fixedfixed ends.

4.4 Shear strength provided by axial load Vp

8
V he 2t x 0.94he tf y
9

(6)

The axial load component Vp recognizes the enhanced

shear strength provided by axial load N. The shear
capacity provided by the axial load can be predicted as

where he is the effective width = min(2D/t, h)

(without stiffeners) or = h (with stiffeners). Note that the
square tube cannot make the full use of the shear-resisting
mechanism without using an appropriate stiffener.

cov

Vt
max

D-c-cov

(D-c-cov)

Vp = KN

VA
Figure 12. Shear-resisting mechanism for
the shear stress of steel tubes.

Figure 13.
Shear-resisting
mechanism for
transverse stress of
a tube.

mechanisms Vh
By adopting the truss mechanism strength of stirrups,
Vh can be obtained as follows (Figure 13)
(7)

where is the assumed inclination angle between a

shear crack and the vertical column axis and D is the
width of the confined core given
D =D cov c

fc' (0.8 Ag ) 0.94hetw f y 0.8 f ytD' cot KN (11)

Table 5 lists the comparisons between the predicted

nominal shear strengths and the test results of square
TRC columns. The predicted nominal shear strengths V1
and V2 were obtained based on the model presented by
Sakino K. et al. (2000c) and Eq. (11), respectively. For
Sakinos model, the predicted results are generally in
good agreement with the test results while slightly more
conservative. For Eq. (11), the mean value of 0.936,
root-mean-square deviation of 0.047, and correlation
coefficient of 0.997 are derived. The predictions from the
simplified model are in good agreement with those from
the tests.

4.3 Transverse stress of tube shear-resisting

V h 2tf h D' cot 0.8 f y tD' cot

(10)

where K = 0.07 when considering seismic effects or =

0.056, when N 0.4fcAg (fc is compressive strength of the
concrete, and Ag = the gross area of the cross section), N
should be taken as 0.4fcAg.
Considering the shear-resisting mechanisms of
concrete, shear stress, transverse stress, and axial load,
the total nominal shear strength VA of the square TRC
columns can be predicted from the combination of Eqs.
(4), (6), (7), and (10).

(9)

(5)

The transverse stress at the peak load h of a square

tube can be taken as 0.4fy instead based on the
experimental results. The maximum shear stress max
equals to 0.53fy based on von-Mises yielding criteria
when the vertical stress is considered as zero. V can be
obtained by

0.25

tan 1 (

Table 5. Comparisons between the predicted shear

strengths and the test results.

(8)

where cov is the concrete cover measured to the

outside of the longitudinal reinforcement, and c is the
neutral axis depth.
The transverse stress at the peak load is taken 0.4 fy
for square tubes. The following equation for is adopted

266

Specimens

n0

S-55-1.5-150-4
S-55-1.5-150-6
S-60-1.5-67-6
S-60-1.5-106-4
S-60-1.43-300-0
S-60-1.43-150-0

0.4
0.6
0.55
0.35
0
0

Ve
(kN)
280.5
297.2
319.9
301.6
1481.0
1472.0

V1/
Ve
0.78
0.81
0.73
0.66
0.76
0.83

V2/
Ve
0.90
0.94
0.97
0.87
0.94
0.98

Loading
path
Cyclic
Cyclic
Cyclic
Cyclic
Static
Static

Zhou et al.
STU-60-1.43-300-0
S-30-1-115-0.33
S-30-1-80-0.33
S-30-1-58-0.33
S-30-1-42-0.33
S-30-1-26-0.33

0
0.33
0.33
0.33
0.33
0.33

1567.0
364.0
406.0
390.0
396.0
410.0

0.72
0.88
0.79
0.85
0.87
0.84

0.89
1.03
0.78
0.85
0.91
0.92

Tubes Subjected to Axial Compression and Lateral Cyclic

Loads. Journal of Structural Engineering. 125 (5): 631 640
Han L.H., Yao G.H., Chen Z.P. & Yu Q. 2005. Experimental
behaviour of steel tube confined concrete (STCC) columns.
Steel and Composite Structures. 5(6):459-484.
Kim J. H. & Mander J. B. 2007. Influence of transverse
reinforcement on elastic shear stiffness of cracked concrete
elements. Engineering Structures. 29(8): 17981807.
Liu J. P., Zhang S. M, Zhang X. D. & Guo L. H. 2009.
Behavior and strength of circular tube confined
reinforced-concrete (CTRC) columns. Journal of
Constructional Steel Research. 65(7): 1447-1458.
Mervyn J. K. & Priestley M.J.N. 2000. Improved Analytical
Model for Shear Strength of Circular Reinforced Concrete
Columns in Seismic Regions. ACI Structrual Journal. 97(3):
388-396.
Prion. H. G. L. & Boehme. J. 1994. Beam column behavior of
steel tubes filled with high-strength concrete. Canadian
Journal of Civil Engineering. 21(1): 207-218.
Priestley M.J.N.Seible F., Xiao Y. & Verma R. 1994. Steel
Jacket Retrofitting of Reinforced Concrete Bridge Columns
for Enhanced Shear Strength-Part 1: Theoretical
Considerations and Test Design. ACI Structrual Journal.
91(4):394-05.
Priestley M.J.N.Seible F., Xiao Y. & Verma R. 1994. Steel
Jacket Retrofitting of Reinforced Concrete Bridge Columns
for Enhanced Shear Strength-Part 2: Test Results and
CoMParison With Theory. ACI Structrual Journal.
91(5):537-551.
Priestley M. J. N., Verma R. & Xiao Y. 1994. Seismic Shear
Strength of Reinforced Concrete Columns. Journal of the
Structural Engneering. 120(8):2310-2329.
Sakino K. & Sun Y. 2000. Earthquake-resisting performance of
R/C columns confined by square steel tubes-Part 2 Effects
of wall thickness of steel tube[J].Journal of Structural and
Constructional Engneering. NO.531:133~140.
Sakino K. & Sun Y. 2001. Earthquake-resisting performance of
R/C columns confined by square steel tubes-Part 3 Effects
of shear span ratio of column. Journal of Structural and
Constructional Engneering. NO.547:129~136.
Sakino K & Sun Y. 2000. Steel jacketing for improvement of
column strength and ductility. Proceeding of 12th World
Conference on Earthquake Engineering. Auckland, New
Zealand. 252540.
Tomii M, Sakino K, Xiao Y & Watanabe K. 1985
Earthquake-resisting Hysteretic Behavior of Reinforced
Concrete Short Columns Confined by Steel Tube.
Proceeding of the international speciality conference on
concrete filled steel tubular structuresHarbin China.
119-125
Xiao Y. & Wu H. 2003. Retrofit of Reinforced Concrete
Columns Using Partially stiffened steel jackets. Journal of
Structural Engineering. 196(6): 725-732.
Zhang S. M., Guo L. H., Ye Z. L. & Wang Y. Y. 2005. Behavior
of steel tube and confined concrete high strength concrete
for concrete-filled RHS tubes. Advances in Structural
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Zhou X. & Liu J. P. 2010. Seismic behavior and shear strength
of tubed RC short columns. Journal of Constructional Steel
Research. 66(3): 385-397.

Static
Cyclic
Cyclic
Cyclic
Cyclic
Cyclic

5 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

This paper describes the experiment and theoretical
analysis on the cyclic behavior of square tubed reinforced
concrete (TRC) columns. Based on the study results, the
following major findings and conclusions are offered:
(1)
The large width-to-thickness square tube with
stiffeners effectively improves the confinement effect to
the core concrete and the composite response between
tube and concrete. While the square tube without a
stiffener cannot cooperatively work with a short RC
columns to resist the lateral load until the lateral load
reaches the lateral strength of the core RC columns.
(2)
The stiffness and lateral strength square TRC
columns tend to increase with an increment in axial load,
whereas the ductility index tends to decrease.
(3)
The stress state can be determined based on
failure modes. The sheared plate of a tubes yields at the
peak load for the shear-failure specimens. The tube can
provide a shear-resisting mechanism to both transvers and
shear stresses. However, the tube seems to yield only at
the compression end for the flexural-failure specimens.
(4)
A simplified shear strength model was
developed and the design formulas were proposed to
calculate the shear strength of square TRC columns.
Acknowledgment
The authors greatly appreciate the financial supports
provided by the National Natural Science Foundation of
China (No. 51308051, No. 51178210) and the
fundamental research funds for the central universities
(No. 106112014CDJZR200004). The opinions expressed
in this paper are solely of the authors, however.
REFERENCES
Aboutaha R. S. & Machado R. I. 1999. Seismic Resistance of
Steel-Tubed High- Strength Reinforced-Concrete Columns.
Journal of Structural Engineering. 125 (5): 485- 494.
CEN. 2004. EuroCode 8: Design Provisions for Earthquake
Resistance-Part 1: General Rules, Seismic Actions and
Rules for Buildings. European Committee for
Standardization: Brussels.
CMC. 2010. GB50017-2003. Code for Seismic Design of
Buildings (GB50011-2010). Beijing: china building industry
press [in Chinese].
Chen S. J., Yang K.C., Lin K.M. & C.D.Wang. 2011. Seismic
behavior of ductile rectangular composite bridge piers.
Earthquake Engineering & Structural Dynamics.
40(1):21-34.
Fam A., Qie F. S. & Rizkalla S. 2004. Concrete-Filled Steel

267

11th International Conference on

Advances in Steel and Concrete Composite Structures
Tsinghua University, Beijing, China, December 3-5, 2015

EXPERIMENTAL STUDY ON CFDST SECTIONS UNDER AXIAL

LOADING
U.Mashudha Sulthanaa, S. Arul Jayachandrana & M. Praveenaa
a

Department of Civil Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Madras, Chennai, India

E-mails:mashudha@gmail.com, aruls@iitm.ac.in
ABSTRACT

Keywords:
CFDST; CFHSST;
Confinement factor; Long
column; Failure pattern.

Tall structures are built in large numbers worldwide to satisfy the demands of the urban
population. At the structural level, the lower stories of these buildings pose a huge demand in
columns for strength, stiffness and ductility. Concrete filled steel tubes (CFST) are proved to be
a better alternative to conventional materials like structural steel and reinforced concrete. The
steel and concrete in CFST are mutually benefitted, as the steel gives confinement to concrete
and the concrete in turn delays and modifies the buckling of steel tube. Recently, concrete filled
double skinned steel tubes (CFDST) are developed and recognized for superior ductility and
energy absorption capabilities. But there is no accredited methodology available for designing
CFDST sections in international standards and so there is a need to study the behavior of
CFDST sections. According to authors knowledge, the long column behavior of CFDST is not
yet explored in the available literature. In the present study, experiments were conducted on
CFST, CFDST and CFHSST cross-section with an objective to study the significance of inner
tube in CFDST sections for long columns. Parameters for study are the length of the column,
cross-sectional shape of inner tube and the absence of inner tube as in the case of CFHSST.
Experiments were conducted on wide range of L/D ratios while the results of long column alone
are presented here. Load-deflection curves, load carrying capacity and axial stiffness, increase in
strength and stiffness for CFDST sections with respect to increase in steel ratio for long column
are reported from the test results. Corroborating the established theories, it is observed that the
inner steel tube loses its significance in contributing to strength and stiffness of the cross-section
as the length of the column increases.

recent add-on in the family of CFST sections where the

less stressed inner concrete core is removed and the edge
is reinforced with an inner steel tube. CFDST is lighter,
stronger and proved to have better ductility and energy
absorption properties than CFST sections. CFDST
concept was previously used in pressure vessels, and later
it was extended to bridge piers and building columns.
SHS outer and SHS inner columns were tested (Zhao et
al., 2002) and report shows that these columns develop
enhanced ductility and energy absorption capabilities.
Experiments conducted on CHS outer and SHS inner tube
(Elchalakani et al., 2002) reported that the behavior is
mostly dependent on the section slenderness of outer tube,
and also the authors concluded that AISC is suitable for
predicting strength whereas EC4 overestimates the
concrete confinement. CHS outer and CHS inner CFDST
stub columns, beams and beam-columns were reported to
have an enhancement in the strength due to confinement
effect (Tao et al., 2004) and a simplified model was
developed to predict the strength of CFDST. Test
conducted on SHS outer and CHS inner CFDST columns
also reported strength and ductility enhancement due to
confinement effects (Han et al., 2004). A parametric

1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 General
Populated cities in India have led to the development
of tall structures and infrastructure projects. There is a
need to innovate construction techniques which will
reduce the cross section of the column and increase the
carpet area as there are restrictions over the floor space
index (FSI), in India. Concrete filled steel tube (CFST) is
a viable option to replace conventional reinforced
concrete and structural steel systems. The CFST section
exploits the interaction between the steel tube and the
concrete filling and improves the effectiveness of the
cross-section altogether. The outer steel tube confines the
concrete filling whereas the concrete in-fill delays and
modifies the mode of buckling in the steel tube. The
resulting cross-section has high strength, high stiffness,
ductility, large column free space, reduced cross-section,
and ease in construction and maintenance.

1.2 CFDST
Concrete filled double skinned tube (CFDST) is a

268

Sulthana et al.

the axial and flexural behavior of these specimens. The

research and development carried out in the family of
CFST sections is reported (Han et al., 2014). They have
summarized the variety of cross-sections that were
developed in CFST family, experiments conducted so far
and the behavior of CFSTs under various loading
conditions and also compared the design criteria specified
in international standards for CFST cross-section.
In the available literature, the parameters considered
for the study of CFDST cross-section is mainly focused
on stub column behavior. Some of the research reports
indicated that the strength index in CFDST is influenced
by the slenderness ratio of the column (Han et al., 2009 &
Li et al., 2012). This observation inspired to study the
influence of column length over the axial load carrying
capacity and mode of failure in CFDST members. The
present study also tries to understand the significance of
inner steel tube in the strength and stiffness contribution
of CFDST.
This paper presents the axial load behavior of CFDST
columns reported in the form of load-deflection curves
and failure modes of the columns. Specimens selected for
test were categorized into five sets based on their
cross-section as shown in Figure 1. The outer tube is SHS
and its dimensions are kept constant for all the specimens
while two types of inner tubes are considered for the
study, namely (1) square and (2) circular. The inner tube
is removed in the case of CFHSST (concrete filled hollow
single steel tube) to understand the significance of inner
tube in CFDST. Experiments were conducted for a wide
range of column lengths while the test reports for long
column (L/D = 20) alone is presented in this paper.

analysis was performed (Han et al., 2009) to study the

M- response and P- relationship in CFDST members
subjected to constant axial load and cyclically increasing
flexural loading and a simplified model was suggested.
They have also recommended formulae for calculating
capacity in columns, beams and beam-column design of
CFDST. FEM model of CFDST stub columns was
developed using ABAQUS software (Huang et al.,2010)
and validated them against previous experimental results.
They have investigated the stress distribution in concrete,
interaction between concrete and steel, hollowness ratio
and other parameters that influence the sectional
capacities of CFDST. Axial load test was conducted on
CFDST (Uenaka et al., 2010) with hollowness ratio and
D/t as parameters for the study. Plastic deformability of
CFDST is found to reduce beyond a limiting hollowness
ratio and the authors proved that the inner tube does not
contribute much in confining the concrete due to complex
biaxial compression. FEM model was developed (Lu et
al., 2011) to simulate the fire behavior of CFDST
columns and the predicted response was in good
agreement with the test results. Parametric studies
reported that suitable selection of inner tube and outer
tube strength and concrete thickness would improve the
fire resistance capacity of CFDST. FEM model was also
developed for analyzing CFDST columns subjected to
preloads on its steel tubes (Li et al., 2012). CFDST with
preloads on outer tube alone behaved similar to CFST
column with preload. The authors observed that the
column slenderness ratio is the most influential parameter
on strength index for CFDST column subjected to
preloads. Tapered CFDST members were tested (Li et al.,
2013) and their behavior was compared with a
corresponding straight column. Tapered column behaved
in a ductile manner similar to straight columns but the
maximum transverse displacement occurred above the
middle cross-section. FEM model was developed to study
the parameters influencing the behavior of tapered
CFDST. Equivalent column method was developed to
predict the column strength under eccentric compression.
FEM model was developed for CFDST columns
subjected to axial compression (Pagoulatou et al., 2014)
and verified against the available test results. Parametric
study was carried out to understand the influence of D/t,
concrete and steel strength in calculating the axial
capacity. Experiments were performed on CFST/CFDST
columns (Hsiao et al., 2014) to promote their seismic
capabilities further, using ultra-high strength steel. A
simple formulation was proposed based on the concept of
superposed strength method and the evaluated parameters
were clarified by the experimental results. FEM model
was developed using LS-DYNA software for fiber
reinforced polymer concrete and double skin steel tube
subjected to axial load and lateral displacement
(Abdelkarim et al., 2014). Parametric study was done to
understand the influence of various factors contributing to

(a)

(b)

(c)

to

Di

Do

ti
(d)

(e)

Figure 1. Cross-section details of test specimens (a) CFST, (b)

CFDST (SHS in SHS), (c) CFSDT (CHS in SHS), (d) CFHSST
(SHS in SHS) and (e) CFHSST (CHS in SHS)

2 SPECIMEN DETAILS
Test specimens were categorized into five types based
on their cross-section properties. The specimens are
identified in three terms as shown in Table 1. The first
term refers to number of steel tubes in the cross-section;
SS single skin; DS double skin and HSS hollow

269

Sulthana et al.

single skin. Second term refers to shape of the steel tubes

in the order of outer first and inner next; S square and C
circular. Third term gives the L/D ratio of the column.
The dimension of the inner and outer steel tubes and the
length of the columns for the test specimens are shown in
Table 1. Hollowness ratio of the CFDST section was
taken as 0.35, which is defined as the width of inner tube
to inner edge width of outer tube. It is selected such that
behavior of CFDST is not much different from CFST
section as reported (Uenaka et al., 2010).
Table 1. Specimen ID and geometry of test specimens
Specimen
ID

Diameter and thickness

Length

Do
to
Di
ti
L
L/Do
(mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm)
SS-S-20
180
5
3600
20
DS-SS-20
180
5
60
3.2
3600
20
DS-SC-20
180
5
60.3
3.2
3600
20
HSS-SS-20 180
5
60
3.2
3600
20
HSS-SC-20 180
5
60.3
3.2
3600
20
SS-Single skin; DS-Double skin; HSS- Hollow single skin;
S-SHS; SS-SHS in SHS; SC-CHS in SHS; Do, Di Diameter of
outer and inner tube respectively; to, ti Thickness of outer and
inner tube respectively; L Length of the specimen

The concrete and steel material properties were kept

constant for all the specimens. Plain concrete of M30
grade was taken as the concrete infill material. Average
28-day strength of concrete cube was obtained as 38.8
N/mm2. Hot rolled steel tubes were used for both inner
and outer tubes. Tension coupon test was carried out and
the yield strength of the steel tube was 357.9 N/mm2.

Figure 3. Schematic diagram of instrumentation (a) isometric

view, (b) plan view

3 TEST RESULTS
Test specimens were held in the loading frame in
upright position as shown in Figure 2. Load was applied
concentrically and the load increments were given in a
gradual manner. In long columns, test was terminated at
the onset of sharp drop in the load carrying capacity and
sudden increase in lateral deflection. The axial and lateral
deflections were recorded through LVDTs and their
locations are given in Figure 3. The failure pattern,
load-deformation curves, load-carrying capacity and axial
stiffness of the long column specimens are discussed as
below.

3.1 Failure pattern

Long column specimens with L/D ratio of 20 failed
due to global buckling and the local bent in the outer steel
tube was in outward direction unlike in the case of hollow
steel tubes. This phenomenon was uniformly observed in
CFST, CFDST and CFHSST cross-sections as shown in
Figure 4.

(a)

Loading frame

ss-bc

(b)

Specimen

(a)

Reaction floor

500T Hydraulic jack

Figure 2. Schematic diagram of test set-up

Figure 4. Typical long column failure pattern for L/D of 20, (a)

270

Sulthana et al.
stiffness

CFHSST, (b) CFDST

The post peak curve shows distinct features pertaining

to ductility of the columns. The load carrying capacity of
specimens drops down suddenly after reaching the peak
owing to global buckling of the column. The descending
branch of the curve is steep for CFHSST sections and it
forms a plateau in case of CFST and CFDST sections. It
shows that CFST and CFDST are more ductile than
CFHSST sections. Even though the strength and stiffness
of CFDST is reduced for long columns, ductility remains
intact with CFDST specimens.
The load-lateral deflection plots of all the specimens
are shown in Figure 7. The lateral deflection in all the
specimens is not very evident till the load reaches the
peak capacity of the respective cross-sections, but after
reaching the peak, deflection increases drastically. The
increase in lateral deflection and the sustenance of section
capacity for every load increment is better in case of
CFDST compared to other cross-sections.

3.2 Load-deformation curves

Load-axial deformation curve of all the cross-sections
is plotted in Figure 5, for comparative study. They show
linear variation up to 80% of ultimate load after which
the curve becomes non-linear along with stiffness
degradation. The strength and stiffness of CFDST
specimens is found to be almost the same as that of CFST
and CFHSST specimens. It shows that the inner tube in
CFDST is not effectively contributing for the strength and
stiffness of the column when the length of the column is
increased. The axial capacity of long column normalized
to the squash load of CFST cross-section is shown in
Figure 6a. The axial stiffness of long columns normalized
to the axial stiffness of CFST stub column is shown in
Figure 6b.
1800
1600
1400

1800

1000

1600

800

SS-S-20

600

DS-SS-20

1400

Load in kN

Load in kN

2000

1200

DS-SC-20

400

HSS-SS-20

200

HSS-SC-20

1200
1000

SS-S-20
DS-SS-20

800

DS-SC-20

600

10

15

20

25

30

35

40

45

HSS-SS-20

400

Axial deformation in mm

HSS-SC-20

200
0

Figure 5. Load vs. axial deformation curves for L/D of 20

-10

10

20

30

40

50

60

Lateral deflection in mm

(a)

Figure 7. Load vs lateral deflection curves for L/D of 20

Normalized axial capacity

0.90

The shape of the inner tube is also observed to lose its

significance when the column length is increased.
Increase in steel quantity for square and circular inner
tube is 17% and 14% respectively when compared with
CFHSST specimens. But increase in strength of CFDST
section with respect to CFHSST is only 5% for both
DS-SS-20 and DS-SC-20 specimens. Circular inner tube
was expected to perform better over square tubes, as
circular inner tubes could accommodate more concrete
infill compared to a square one and also their
confinement effect is higher. But the shape had no effect
as the significance of inner steel tube and the inner core
concrete has come down for long columns.

0.80
SS-S
DS-SS
0.70

DS-SC
HSS-SS
HSS-SC

0.60

10

15

20

25

L/D

(b)

Normalized axial stiffness

0.70

0.60

4 ANALYTICAL STUDY

SS-S
DS-SS

0.50

In most of the international standards, sectional

capacity for CFST is calculated based on the principle of
super position method. The steel and concrete strengths
are linearly added up with some enhancement factors.
These factors depend on steel section classification,
cross-sectional shape and length of the column. The
design procedure for CFDST is not even mentioned in

DS-SC
HSS-SS

0.40
HSS-SC

0.30

10

15

20

25

L/D

Figure 6. (a) Normalized axial capacity (b) Normalized axial

271

Sulthana et al.
capacity of specimens from test, AISC, EC4, (Han et al., 2004),
(Zhao et al., 2002) respectively.

these standards, even though it has better strength and

ductility properties. Simplified models were proposed
(Han et al., 2004) and (Zhao et al., 2002) for calculating
the member capacity of CFDST sections. The
experimental values from the present study are compared
with AISC, EC4 code provisions and the capacity
formulae suggested by the above authors for CFDST, in
Table 2. Their proposed equation is given as below.
= + +

Parameters considered were shape of the inner tube,

absence of inner tube and the length of the column. Load
carrying capacity, Load-axial deformation and
load-lateral deflection curves were plotted. The following
conclusions are made from this limited research.
Specimens failed due to global buckling irrespective
of the type of cross-section.
The participation of inner tube in resisting the axial
load is considerably reduced for long columns. The
axial load carrying capacity and axial stiffness is
almost the same for all the specimens. In CFHSST
specimens, where inner tube is not provided, failure
occurs in similar fashion as that of CFDST
specimens, also their strength and stiffness is not
much different from CFST and CFDST specimens.
Even though the strength and stiffness of CFDST
section is reduced in long columns, the ductile
behavior remains intact. In case of long columns
with lesser ductility demands CFHSST could be a
feasible solution over CFDST.
The shape of the inner tube also loses its
significance when the length of the column is
increased. The increase in steel in DS-SS-20 and
DS-SC-20 is 17% and 14% respectively compared to
its corresponding CFHSST columns but the increase
in strength is only 5% for both the specimens.
Experimental load carrying capacity is compared
with section capacity formulae given in AISC and
EC4 and it is found that code predictions are not
conservative for long columns. The effectiveness of
inner tube is found to be reduced by 60% compared
to code based section capacity values. Therefore, a
reduction factor for inner tube strength is suggested
to be incorporated in the capacity calculation of
inner tubes. Further studies should be carried out to
propose such reduction factors.

(1)

where, PTheory = Total axial strength of the cross-section;

Pouter, Pinner and Pconcrete = axial strength of outer, inner and
concrete infill respectively.
In the above equation, Pinner is not reduced for local
buckling (Zhao et al., 2002) since the inner tube is
assumed to be fully effective. But experiment on long
columns conveys that there is a reduction in the
effectiveness of inner tube. Also, section capacity
formulae in AISC and EC4 for CFST section gives more
reasonable result for HSS-SS-20 compared to other
cross-sections. Based on these observations it could be
suggested that the strength of inner tube should be
reduced by incorporating a reduction factor in the
capacity formulae for long columns. Experimental result
shows a 60% reduction in inner tube strength for L/D of
20. The concrete confinement factor should also be
reduced when the length of column increases as the
effectiveness of concrete core is observed to come down
with increase in column length. The reduction factor to be
used for improving the accuracy of calculation may be
dependent on various parameters like, L/D ratio of the
column, hollowness ratio, and strength of inner tube,
outer tube and concrete. Further studies are required to
arrive at reasonable reduction factors.

5 SUMMARY & CONCLUSIONS

Axial compression test was carried out for long
column specimens categorized into five groups based on
their cross-sectional properties. Specimens with L/d ratio
of 20 is presented in this paper. Main objective of the
study was to understand the significance of inner tube in
CFDST section for long columns.
Table 2. Axial capacity of test specimens
Specimen ID Pe

Failure mode PAISC

kN

PEC4

PHan/Zhao

kN

kN

kN

PAISC / Pe

PEC4 / Pe

PHan/Zhao / Pe

SS-S-20

1468

GB

1634

1766

1.11

1.20

DS-SS-20

1635

GB

1752

1861

1748

1.07

1.14

1.07

DS-SC-20

1503

GB

1726

1840

2074

1.15

1.22

1.38

HSS-SS-20

1535

GB

1574

1693

1567

1.03

1.10

1.02

HSS-SC-20

1491

GB

1587

1709

1939

1.06

1.15

1.30

Mean

1.08

1.16

1.19

Std dev

0.05

0.05

0.17

GB-Global buckling failure; Pe, PAISC, PEC4, PHan, PZhao Axial

272

Sulthana et al.

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11th International Conference on

Advances in Steel and Concrete Composite Structures
Tsinghua University, Beijing, China, December 3-5, 2015

BEHAVIOUR OF OCTAGONAL STEEL-REINFORCED HOLLOW

CONCRETE COLUMNS UNDER COMPRESSIVE LOAD
R. Wang a, L. H. Han b, D. Lam c, T. Sheehan c, B. B. Wang a
a

College of Architecture and Civil Engineering, Taiyuan University of Technology, 030024

E-mails: 506727225@qq.com, bob_wbb@qq.com

Department of Civil Engineering, Tsinghua University, 100084

E-mail: lhhan@tsinghua.edu.cn

School of Engineering, University of Bradford, Bradford, DB7 1DP, UK

E-mail: D.Lam1@Bradford.ac.uk, T.Sheehan@Bradford.ac.uk
ABSTRACT

Keywords:
Octagonal steel-reinforced
hollow concrete, Compressive
load, Finite element analysis, Full
stage analysis, Strength capacity

A series of tests on octagonal steel-reinforced hollow concrete stub columns under compressive
load were carried out in this study. Material properties of the concrete and steel used in the test
specimens were measured. The full stage of behaviour of the octagonal steel-reinforced hollow
concrete columns was investigated. The effect of local bucking of steel tubes was also
examined. Based on test results, a finite element model is developed using ABAQUS to simulate
the experimental studies. Design equations for the octagonal steel-reinforced hollow concrete
stub column under compressive load are proposed. The test strengths are compared with the
design strengths calculated using the proposed method given in this paper.

1 INTRODUCTION
A hollow reinforced concrete (HRC) column is an
economical design due to the reductions in material and
self-weight (Calvi et al., 2005). Taylor et al. (1995) and
Mander (1984) paid attention to the mechanic
performance of HRC as bridge piers in the earlier years.
In recently years, a lot of researches have been focused
on the behaviour of HRC under compressive load, torsion
load, bending and shear load and cyclic load (Delgado et
al., 2009; Jeng et al., 2014; Kim et al., 2013; Lee et al.,
2014; Lignola et al., 2008; Vlgyi et al., 2014; Vila Pouca
et al., 2011). These researcher results show that residual
failure mode of hollow reinforced concrete column is
caused by the brittle failure on the inner face of the
column. This brittle failure of a hollow RC column is due
to the lack of confinement of the core concrete because
the core concrete of hollow RC column is generally only
confined by outer transverse reinforcements. To prevent
this brittle failure, the steel tube is used in the inner face
(Han et al., 2010a) as shown in Figure 1. Furthermore,
this inner steel tube can be used as a support during the
construction process. This form of structure is named as
steel reinforced hollow concrete column in this paper.
The previous research on the steel reinforced hollow
concrete columns focused on their compressive behavior
(Han et al., 2010b; Kang et al., 2008; Kang et al., 2010;
Kang et al., 2011), fire-resisting ability (Won et al., 2014b)

274

and the confining effect of the inner steel tube on

thereinforced hollow RC column (Won et al., 2014a). The
objectives mainly focused on the circular section as
shown in Figure 1.
Transverse
reinforcement
Longitudinal
reinforcement
Concrete

Inner steel tube

Figure 1. Reinforced hollow RC

Figure 2. OSR-HRC in application engineering

Recently octagonal steel-reinforced square hollow

concrete columns (OSR-HRC) have been used as piers of
a bridge in China as shown in Figure 2 due to the
convenience of manufacturing octagonal steel tubes in
comparison with circular steel tubes. This study aims to

Wang et al.

investigate the behavior of octagonal steel-reinforced

load and propose the calculation method for the
compressive capacity of octagonal steel-reinforced square
hollow concrete columns for their applications in
engineering. This paper starts with a description of the
compressive test program including two hollow HRC
specimens and four (OSR-HRC). The next section
presents the test results and discusses the effect of each
component in the OSR-HRC specimen in resisting the
compressive load. Then, a validated finite element
analysis with a detailed discussion on the compressive
performance of OSR-HRC is reported. The subsequent
section proposes the compressive calculation method.
Finally, the last section summarizes the conclusions
drawn from this study.

from mild steel sheets with 2mm or 4 mm wall

thicknesses, tack welded into an octagonal shape and then
welded with a single bevel butt weld. For the HRC
reference specimens, the inner steel tube was replaced by
the eight longitudinal bars with a diameter of 10 mm and
6.5 mm transversal reinforcement bar ties at 100 mm
intervals. All test members had eight longitudinal bars
with a diameter of 12 mm and 6.5 mm transversal
reinforcement bar ties at 100 mm intervals near the outer
square perimeter of the section. The thickness of the
concrete cover to the steel ties was 10 mm. The lengths
(L=900 mm) of stub columns were chosen to be three
times the width (Bo=300 mm) to avoid the effects of
overall buckling and end conditions (Tao and Han, 2003).
The section dimensions of test members are shown in
Figure 3.
The detailed information of each specimen is listed in
Table 1. The following labeling system is used to identify
each specimen:
The initial characters C denote that the load is a
compressive load.
The character a and b represent the HRC specimens
and OSR-HRC specimens, respectively.
The numbers 2 and 4 (if any) indicate that the wall
thickness of the inner steel tube are 2 mm and 4 mm,
respectively.
The last numbers1and 2 represent the different
members under the same load case.

2 EXPERIMENTAL PROGRAM
2.1 Test specimens
A total of 6 specimens were tested in this paper,
including 4 OSR-HRC specimens and 2 HRC as
reference specimens. The main parameter is the wall
thickness of the inner steel tube in OSR-HRC specimens.
The OSR-HRC specimens were prepared in the following
steps: (1) square steel tubes, reinforcement bars and
octagonal steel tubes with 2 mm or 4 mm wall thickness
were prepared and the inner octagonal steel tube and
reinforcement bars were installed inside the square tube
at the correct positions; (2) the concrete was cast into the
interlayer between the outer square tube and inner
octagonal steel tubes;(3) the outer square steel tube
wasremoved after the concrete had hardened (cured for
21 days); (4) the specimens were left under laboratory
conditions for about 1 month before testing. To the HRC
reference specimens, the octagonal steel tube with 4 mm
wall thickness was used as formwork and this inner tube
and the outer square tube were removed together when
the concrete had hardened. In order to facilitate easy
removal of the inner octagonal steel tube of HRC
reference specimens as formwork, there is a 0.2% tapered
angle in the inner octagonal steel tube.
The inner octagonal steel tubes weremanufactured

2.2 Material properties

Tensile tests were conducted to measure the material
properties of steel coupons cut from the steel sheetand
reinforcement bars. The measured yield stresses fay are
217 MPa and 281 MPa for the inner octagonal steel tubes
with wall thicknesses of 2 mm and 4mm, respectively.
The yield stresses (fy) are 444 MPa and 406 MPa for
thelongitudinal reinforcement bars with diameters of 10
mmand 12 mm, respectively. The yield stress for the
transverse reinforcement bars (fy) is 371MPa; whilst the
corresponding Youngs module values are given in Table
2. All steels demonstrated a long plastic plateau
after yielding. The average measured cube strength of

47 46 47

300

47 46 47

300

810

80

80

6.5@100

6.5@100
300

812

(a) OSR-HRC

300
(b) HRC

Figure 3. Section dimensions of specimens (mm)

275

ts=2 or 4

Wang et al.
Table 1. Information of specimens and results
Bo

Label

ti

Nu(kN)

fcu
(

N/mm2

Test

Predicted

Test/Predicted

(mm)

mm

Ca-1

300

53.5

4024

Ca-2

300

53.5

4192

Cb2-1

300

40.0

2958

2826

0.96

Cb2-2

300

53.5

4138

3595

0.88

Cb4-1

300

40.0

2895

3130

1.08

Cb4-2

300

40.0

3137

3130

0.99

Mean

0.98

0.08

Table 2. Mechanical property of steel sheets and reinforcing bars

d

Yield stress

fu

Es

(mm)

(mm)

(N/mm2)

(N/mm2)

(N/mm2)

6.5

371

459

2.03105

0.285

572

1.93105

0.250
0.270

6.5
10

10.1

444

12

11.8

406

591

1.93105

2mm

1.9

217

330

1.98105

0.240

403

2.05105

0.263

4mm

3.6

281

3 EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Concrete (fcu) was given in Table 1 for the test day.

3.1 Failure modes

N

The failure modes of HRC specimens and OSR-HRC

specimens are all outward folding at the middle height
and the HRC and OSR-HRC with 2 mm wall thickness of
inner octagonal steel tube were damaged more seriously
as shown in Figure 5. During the test, there we re no

Strain
Specimen gauges
s

450

900

450

LVD
T

Ca-1

HRC
Strain gauges
300

Ca-2

Cb2-1

Cb2-2

Cb4-1

Cb4-2

OSR-HR
C

1-1

Figure 4. Arrangement of stub column tests

All of the tests were performed on the 5000 kN

capacity testing machine. The specimens were placed into
the testing machine and the load was applied on the
specimens directly. Figure 4 gives schematic views of the
testing arrangement. The loading ram is a solid steel plate,
which acts like an end stiffener. Strain gauges were used
for each specimen to measure concrete, inner octagonal
steel tube and reinforcement bar strains at the mid-height
section. Two linear variable displacement transducers
(LVDTs) were used to measure the axial deformation, as
shown in Figure 4. A load interval of less than one tenth
of the estimated carrying load capacity was used. Each
load interval lasted for approximately 2 minutes.

Figure 5. Residual deformations of specimens

visible deformation and the concrete cracked on the

specimen surface for HRC specimens before they reach
the maximum load value. As the load increased further,
some slight longitudinal cracksoccurred at the middle
height surface, and then as the load reached the maximum
value very quickly, with a sudden loud noise, the concrete
was crushed and the longitudinal reinforcement bars were
damaged in local (outward folding) failure, meaning that
the HRC tube column had failed. For OSR-HRC
specimens, a similar phenomenon was observed before
the load reached the maximum value, but as the load
approached the maximum value, some obvious
longitudinal cracks occurred on the concrete surface and
as the load increased further, the specimens failed due to
276

Wang et al.

resisting the applied load. With further increases in load,

the rate of deformation also increases until it exceeds that
of the load. When the load is near the maximum value,
the inner steel tube yield first followed by the
longitudinal reinforcement bars. When the concrete is
crushed, the load reaches the maximum value. After that,
the load carrying capacity begins to decrease. For the
HRC specimen Ca-2 and the OSR-HRC specimen Cb2-2,
this process is very quick. However, the rate of load
decrease of the other OSR-HRC specimens is slower than
that of specimen Ca-2 and Cb2-2. There is a shorter
unloading process for specimen Cb2-2 than it of the
OSR-HRC specimens owing to the higher compressive
cube strength of the concrete. Thus the higher the
strength of the concrete is in the OSR-HRC specimen, the
more brittle the behavior. The maximum values in the
curves are taken as the compressive capacity (Nu) of the
OSR-HRC specimens and are given in Table 1. The
compressive capacities (Nu) of specimens Cb2-1, Cb4-1
and Cb4-2 are 2958 kN, 2595 kN and 3137 kN,
respectively. The three specimens have the same concrete
compressive cube strength but have different wall
thicknesses for the inner steel tubes. It is means the effect
of the wall thickness of the inner octagonal steel tube
does not have a significant impact on the compressive
capacity of OSR-HRC specimens in this paper.

the crushing of the concrete.

After the tests, the concrete was removed from the
OSR-HRC specimens, and the residual failure models of
the inner steel tube and reinforcement bars can be seen in
Figure 6. It can be found that the deformations of the
longitudinal reinforcement bars are local outward
deformations and the local buckling of inner steel tube
also occurred at the corresponding position that showing
that the inner steel tube and RC can work together very
well during the loading process.

Figure 6. Residual failure models of inner steel tube and

reinforcement bars

3.2 Analysis of complete

load-deflection verves

load-strain

and

Figure 7 and Figure 8 give the axial load (N) versus

deformation () curves and axial load (N) versus strains
() curves, respectively. The strains in Figure 8 include
the longitudinal strains of the concrete surface, the
longitudinal reinforcement bars and the inner steel tubes,
the detailed strain positions are showed in Figure 4. And
the average measured value of deformations and strains at
the symmetrical position by LVDTs and strain gauges are
shown in Figure 7 and Figure8.

cl
sl
stl

sty=1827

(kN)

y= 1402

Cb2-1

(kN)

(u)
Figure 8. Axial load (N) versus strainscurves specimen
Cb2-1

4 FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS (FEA)

4.1 Descriptions of the FEA modeling

ABAQUS software was used for the finite element

analysis of the OSR-HRC stub column subject to
compressive load. The steel tube was simulated by using
4-noded shell elements (S4R), the concrete was simulated
using 8-noded brick elements (C3D8R) and the
reinforcement bars were simulated using 2-noded bar
elements (T3D2). A surface-based interaction with a
contact pressure model in the normal direction and a
Coulomb friction model in the tangential direction were
used to simulate the interface between the inner steel tube
and the concrete, reinforcement bars and concrete and the
contact interfaces in FEA model.

(mm)

Figure 7. Axial load(N) versus deformationcurves

From Figure 7 and Figure 8, it can be seen that in the

beginning, there is a linear relationship between the axial
load and the compressive deformation and the strains of
inner steel tube, longitudinal reinforcement bars and
concrete. The strains in the every part in OSR-HRC
specimens keep the same rate of increase with respect to
the increase in compressive load, demonstrating that the
inner steel tube and RC can work cooperatively in
277

Wang et al.

N (kN)

Fixed boundary conditions were applied to the bottom

surface of column. The uniform axial deformation was
applied to the top surface to the composite members. The
displacement was applied in several incremental steps,
and OSR-HRC specimens after each step could be
calculated from the equilibrium equations. Figure 9
shows a view of the element divisions.
Inner steel
tube

(a) Concrete

Inner steel tube

Transversal
Reinforcement
bars

(b) Steel and reinforcement

bars

(mm)

(a) Wall thickness 2 mm

Concrete
(c) Section element
divisions

N (kN)

Longitudinal
reinforcement
bars

Figure 9. Schematic view of the FEA model

A five-stage stress-strain model (Han et al., 2004)

was used to simulate the material of the inner steel tubes
and reinforcement bars. The concrete damage plasticity
model was used to simulate the behavior of the concrete.
The stress-strain relationship models of concrete in the
Chinese standard for reinforced concrete (GB50010-2010)
were used.

(mm)

(b) Wall thickness 4 mm

Figure 10. Comparisons of load versus deformation curves
between predicted and the test results

4.2 Verification on the FEA modeling

Cb4-2

Cb2-2

Figure 10 shows the comparisons of load versus

deformation curves between predicted results by FEA and
the test results. Figure11shows the comparison between
the predicted and observed failure modes of concrete,
reinforcement bars and inner steel tube. The directions of
maximum plastic strain in Figure 11b demonstrate the
tension cracks in the concrete, which are perpendicular to
the direction of the maximum plastic strain. It can be
found that, generally, good agreements are obtained
between the predicted and test results.

(a) Test

4.3 Full-stage analysis

Specimen Cb2-2 was selected in this section as a
typical example for the analysis. Figure 12 gives the axial
load (N) versus inner steel tube longitudinal strain ()
curve of Specimen Cb2-2. Three key points are defined
as point A, B and C: the inner steel tube yielded at point
A; the compressive load reached the maximum value at
point B; and at point C the axial load decreased to 85% of
the maximum value.

(b) FEA
Figure 11. Comparison between the predicted and observed
failure modes

278

Wang et al.

sides of the section. At point C, with unloading, the

concrete stress decreases from the inside to the outside.
And the maximum value of concrete stress is at the
region of inner steel tube, meaning that the inner steel
tube gives support to the outside reinforced concrete.
Figures 14 and 15 show von Mises stress of inner
steel tube and reinforcement bars, respectively. It can be
seen that maximum value of von Mises stress of the inner
steel tube and reinforcement bars are at the mid-height
and decrease along the longitudinal axis to the top and
bottom ends in the whole loading process. At point B, the
inner steel tube and reinforcement bars have yielded at
the mid-height section and then the yielding spreads from
the mid-height section towards both ends during the later
stages of the analysis.
Figure 16 presents the load distribution in the inner
steel tube, longitudinal reinforcement bars and concrete
of the OSR-HRC stub column under compressive loading.
It can be seen that most of the axial load is taken bythe
concrete in the OSR-HRC stub column. As the load
increases, the inner steel tube yields firstly and then the

Figure 12. Axial load (N) versus inner steel tube longitudinal
strain (curves

Figure 13 shows the concrete stress of the section at

the middle height at key stages A, B and C of the test. It
can be seen the concrete stress of the section at the
middle height is uniform and stays close to a value of
30MPa. At point B, the load reaches the maximum value,
the concrete stress increases and the concrete stress near
the inner steel tube is larger than the stress at other parts,
the concrete stress at the corner is larger than it at the

(a) Point A

(b) Point B
(c) Point C
Figure 13. Concrete stress of the section at middle height

(a) Point

(b) Point B

A
Figure 14. von Mises stress of inner steel tube

(a) Point A

(b) Point B
Figure 15. von Mises stress of reinforcement bars

279

(c)

Point

(c) Point C

Wang et al.

seen that the mean Nu value of Test/Predicated is 0.98 and

the standard deviations is 0.08. A good agreement
between the predicted and measured results is achieved.

5000

Load in concrete

N (kN)

4000

Total compressive
load

6 CONCLUSIONS

3000

2000

(1) The inner octagonal steel tube and RC in ORS-HRC

stub columns can work together very well during the
loading process and the axial compressive loads are taken
by the inner steel tube and RC together.
(2) The maximum load value of ORS-HRC stub
columns is lower than that of HRC, but there is a longer
post-peak stage for ORS-HRC stub columns than for
HRC columns resulting in a ductile failure mode. With the
increase of concrete strength, the bearing capacity
increases, however, the ductility reduces.
(3) The failure of ORS-HRC stub columns, similar to
the HRC specimens, is initially from the yielding of the
steel and finally in the concrete crushing.
(4) The effect of wall thickness on the bearing capacity
of HRC stub columns is not obvious in this paper.
(5) A simplified model was developed and a good
agreement between the predicted and test results was
achieved.

Reinforcement
Inner steel
bar yield
tube yield
Load in bars
Load in tube

1000

0
0

1000

2000

3000

Figure 16. Load distributions in OSR-HRC stub column

longitudinal reinforcement bars yield; when the load

reach the load maximum, concrete is crushed followed by
a decrease in load. During this stage, the axial load in the
inner steel tube, longitudinal reinforcement bars and
concrete decreases. The total compressive load is the sum
of axial load in the inner steel tube, longitudinal
reinforcement bars and concrete during the whole process.

5 BEARING CAPACITY

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The results of the tests and FEA show that the inner
steel tube and RC can work together very well during the
loading process and the axial load is borne by inner
octagonal and RC together. So the compressive capacity
(Nu) can be regarded as the sum of the bearing capacity of
the inner octagonal steel tube and the RC as given in
equation (1)
Nu = N R C+ Na

The research presented in this paper is supported by the

China Scholarship Council (CSC).
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stub columns, NRC is the bearing capacity of reinforced
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N RC Ac f c f y As

(2)

and Na can be calculated by equation (3)

N a Aafa y

(3)

where, Ac is area of concreteAs is the area of longitudinal

reinforcement barsfc is the strength of concrete and
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paper. The compared results are given in Table 1, it can be

280

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281

11th International Conference on

Advances in Steel and Concrete Composite Structures
Tsinghua University, Beijing, China, December 3-5, 2015

FIRE DESIGN METHOD FOR CONCRETE-FILLED TUBULAR

COLUMNS OF DIFFERENT CROSS-SECTION SHAPE
A. Espinsa, M.L. Romeroa, V. Alberoa, A. Hospitalera, G. Bihinab & C. Renaudb
a

Concrete Science and Technology Institute (ICITECH), Universitat Politcnica de Valncia, Valencia, Spain
E-mails: aespinos@mes.upv.es, mromero@mes.upv.es, vialga@upvnet.upv.es, ahospita@cst.upv.es

Centre Technique Industriel de la Construction Mtallique (CTICM), Saint Aubin, France

E-mail: gbihina@cticm.com, crenaud@cticm.com
ABSTRACT
Keywords:
Concrete-filled tubular;
columns; fire; finite element
analysis; simplified design
methods; Eurocode 4.

This paper presents a method for evaluating the fire resistance of concrete filled steel tubular
columns (CFST), developed in the framework of the European Project FRISCC (Fire resistance
of innovative and slender concrete filled tubular composite columns). Based on the results of an
extensive experimental programme carried out in the aforementioned project, numerical models
were set up and parametric studies conducted in order to develop a full method which solves the
shortcomings of the current design rules in EN 1994-1-2, proved to be unsafe for slender
columns. Design rules for the evaluation of the fire resistance of CFST columns of different
cross-section shape and under different loading conditions are developed, extending the
applicability of the current code provisions. The main factors affecting the fire resistance of
CFST columns are investigated in the parametric studies, such as the cross-sectional
dimensions, steel tube wall thickness, member slenderness, load level, percentage of
reinforcement and load eccentricity, widely covering the range of values which can be found in
practice. From the results of these parametric studies, equations for obtaining the equivalent
temperatures of steel, concrete and reinforcing bars are developed, and appropriate flexural
stiffness reduction coefficients are derived.

square and rectangular (Espinos et al. 2015a,b). The

results from this experimental investigation are now used
in this work for evaluating the current design rules in EN
1994-1-2 (CEN 2005b) and for developing a new
simplified design method.
Eurocode 4 Part 1.2 presents two approaches for the
evaluation of the fire resistance of CFST columns. Clause
4.3.5.1 provides a simple calculation model for
evaluating the design axial buckling load of composite
columns in the fire situation based on the elastic buckling
theory. In turn, a specific method for unprotected CFST
columns can also be found in Annex H of the same code.
However, previous investigations (Aribert et al. 2008,
Espinos et al. 2012, 2013) have revealed that this method
produces unsafe results for slender columns, which has
led to the approval of an addenda to Eurocode 4 by the
committee CEN/TC250/SC4 (CEN 2011) limiting the
applicability of Annex H to a maximum relative
slenderness of 0.5.
Therefore, in this work, a new and comprehensive
simplified design method is developed, which solves the
current limitations of the methods in Eurocode 4 and
extends the range of application to all the cross-section
geometries available in the market.

1 INTRODUCTION
Owing to the combined action of steel and concrete,
concrete-filled steel tubular (CFST) columns show an
ideal structural performance at room temperature. In
addition, CFST columns can reach a significant fire
endurance without the need of external protection.
However, in the case of slender columns, the expected
fire resistance is in certain cases not achieved. Besides,
while the fire behaviour of CFST columns with circular
and square cross-section has been well established, based
on previous experimental and numerical investigations,
the knowledge on the elevated temperature performance
of CFST columns with other geometries, such as
elliptical cross-sections, is very scarce.
With this motivation, an extensive fire testing
program on slender CFST columns of different
geometries was recently carried out by the authors of this
paper in the framework of the European Project FRISCC.
One of the aims of this project was to provide a full range
of experimental evidence on the fire behaviour of CFST
columns, a necessary basis for the development of
numerical models and simple calculation rules. Four
different section shapes were studied: circular, elliptical,

282

Espins et al.

2 NUMERICAL MODEL

2.3 Two-dimensional model from CTICM

2.1 General

A two-dimensional model was developed by CTICM,

which allows for the modelling of structural behaviour of
steel-concrete
composite
columns.
A
detailed
presentation of the finite element formulation and the
solution algorithms can be found in several publications
by the authors (Zhao & Aribert 1996, Renaud et al. 2003,
Renaud 2003).
In the model, any composite column with hollow steel
section whose flexural bending occurs in a symmetrical
plane is represented by new two-noded beam-column
elements using the updated Lagrangian formulation. As
illustrated in Figure 2, the proposed beam-column
element consists of two traditional beam-column
elements complying with the Euler-Bernoulli theory (for
the hollow steel section and the concrete core) combined
with a specific link element of zero thickness allowing
full, partial or zero shear connection (owing to
mechanical bond) at the steel-concrete interface. After the
assemblage of these three finite sub-elements, the
proposed beam-column element has four degrees of
freedom at each node. Apart from the conventional two
translational and single rotational degrees of freedom, it
has an extra degree of freedom which represents the
relative displacement between the steel and the concrete
parts of composite columns.
The cross-section of the above-mentioned traditional
beam-column element is divided into small fibres which
can be triangular or quadrangular, and each fibre may
have different material, temperature and mechanical
properties. For a given temperature distribution in a
cross-section, the assumption is made that the total strain
of every fibre (steel and concrete) is equal to the sum of
four independent terms, related to the stress exerted on
the fibre at the relevant temperature, to thermal
elongation, to residual stress and to creep, respectively.
The temperature distribution is obtained separately
from a two-dimensional heat transfer analysis. The
thermal calculation is conducted using FEA code
Cast3M, considering usually only a quarter of the column
cross-section owing to double symmetry.

Two different numerical models were developed

within the European project FRISCC by two of the
partners involved in this project, Universitat Politcnica
de Valncia (UPV) and Centre Technique Industriel de la
Construction Mtallique (CTICM), to simulate the fire
behaviour of concrete-filled steel tubular columns with
different cross-section shape (CHS, SHS, EHS and RHS).
The model by UPV was a three-dimensional finite
element model, while the model from CTICM was a
fiber-based model, which, although more simplified,
allowed for a reduction in the computational cost of the
numerical simulations. These models are described
hereafter.

2.2 Three-dimensional model from UPV

The three-dimensional numerical model from UPV
was developed by means of the general purpose nonlinear
finite element analysis package ABAQUS. A more
comprehensive description of the numerical model can be
found in Espinos et al. (2010) and Espinos (2012),
although the main features of the model are presented in
this section.
In this model, a sequentially coupled thermal-stress
analysis strategy is designed, hence a pure heat transfer
analysis is first conducted for obtaining the temperature
field, and afterwards a stress/deformation analysis is
performed for calculating the structural response.
The model is meshed with three-dimensional
eight-noded solid elements for both the steel tube and the
concrete core, and two-noded truss elements for the
reinforcing bars. The loading plate is modelled as a
discrete rigid part with all nodes coupled to a reference
point. This rigid plate is meshed using two-dimensional
four-noded shell elements. Based on the results of a mesh
sensitivity study, a maximum finite element size of 2 cm
is used. Figure 1 shows the finite element mesh of a
CFST specimen. Due to symmetry of both the geometry
and the boundary conditions, only a quarter of the
columns is modelled.

beam-column element "c" (concrete core)

Link element

Node

Link element

Node

Node
Node

Node
X
Z

Node
beam-column element "s" (steel hollow section)

Figure 2. Specific beam element from CTICM 2D model.

Figure 1. 3D finite element model from UPV.

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Espins et al.

validated against the same experimental results, verifying

that both models were consistent and accurate.
The overall accuracy of the numerical models can be
seen in Figure 3, where the simulation results are
compared with the failure times of all the experiments
carried out in the project FRISCC, comprising the
different geometries studied. The average error was 0.99,
with a standard deviation of 0.13.

2.4 Parameters adopted in the numerical models

Because of the changes in material properties and the
large deflections experienced under severe conditions of
heat exposure, both geometric and material
non-linearities were taken into account in the numerical
models. The values of the different parameters of both
models were defined to be exactly the same, so as to
obtain the same response in the numerical simulations.
Therefore, these assumptions are only described once in
this section for both models.
The values recommended by EN 1991-1-2 (CEN
2002) for the main heat transfer parameters which govern
the heat exchange by radiation and convection were
adopted. Besides, in order to take into account the
thermal resistance at the boundary surface between the
steel tube and the concrete core, a constant value of 200
W/m2K was used for the gap conductance.
The temperature dependent thermal and mechanical
properties of the materials were accounted for in the
numerical models. The values of the parameters given in
the Eurocodes were used, so as to obtain a model which
was completely based on the European standards.
Therefore, the thermal properties for concrete and steel at
elevated temperatures were obtained from Clause 3.3 in
EN 1994-1-2 (CEN 2005b) for steel-concrete composite
structural elements. It should be pointed out that the
upper limit of the concrete thermal conductivity was
used, as recommended in Note 2, Clause 3.3.2(9). Also a
4% concrete moisture content was assumed in the model,
as given in Clause 3.3.2(7) and the latent heat of water
vaporisation was taken into account through a peak value
in the specific heat capacity formulation between 100 and
200C, as per Clause 3.3.2(8).
The constitutive models selected for representing the
uniaxial behaviour of steel and concrete at elevated
temperatures, and their reduction factors, were those
given by EN 1993-1-2 (CEN 2005a) and EN 1992-1-2
(CEN 2004b), respectively.
In both models, an initial geometric imperfection of
the columns was considered, which was obtained as the
first buckling mode shape of a hinged column multiplied
by an amplification factor of L/1000, being L the length
of the column.

Figure 3. Comparison between test results and numerical model

predictions, for all the specimens from Espinos et al. (2015a,b).

In general, an accurate fitting was obtained for the

different section shapes, therefore both models can be
used indifferently to represent the fire behavior of CFST
columns.

3 PARAMETRIC STUDIES
Once the previously described numerical models were
validated, they were used for conducting a parametric
study. An extensive programme of numerical simulations
was designed in this parametric study, in order to
investigate the behaviour of CFST columns at elevated
temperatures, considering different cross-section shapes
(CHS, SHS, EHS and RHS). After having proved that the
response of the 2D model was consistent with that of the
3D model, the first model was used to perform the
numerical simulations in the parametric studies, since it
allowed for a significant reduction of the computational
cost without loss of accuracy.
The parameters studied were the outer diameter (D) or
larger and smaller outer dimension (H - B) in the case of
rectangular and elliptical columns, the thickness of the
steel tube wall (t), the relative slenderness of the columns
at room temperature (), the percentage of reinforcement
(), the concrete cover (us), the load level () and the
relative eccentricity (e/D - e/H - e/B).

2.5 Validation of the numerical models

The previously described numerical models were
validated against an extensive database of test results
from an experimental program carried out by the authors
within the European project FRISCC (Espinos et al.
2015a,b). Although the 3D model had been already
validated for circular columns in previous works (Espinos
et al. 2010), a new validation was needed in order to
assess its accuracy for all sections shapes (CHS, SHS,
RHS and EHS). Moreover, the 2D model was also

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Espins et al.

4 ASSESSMENT OF THE CURRENT METHODS

A detailed study was carried out, in order to define the

analysis cases for the parametric study. Based on a
previous evaluation of the commercially available section
shapes and their usage in construction, the cross-section
dimensions and ranges of variation of the different
parameters were decided. For the sake of brevity, these
combinations are not included in this paper. In all, 2640
circular, 2640 square, 4520 rectangular and 2000
elliptical columns were selected, meaning a total amount
of 11800 numerical simulations to be performed
combining the different parameters. It should be
mentioned that only the results of the concentrically
loaded columns are presented in this paper.
All the specimens were designed to meet the criteria
of non-slender sections (D/t 90), having a steel
contribution ratio between 0.2 0.9, in order to
accomplish with the limitations in EN 1994-1-1 (CEN
2004a). Some of the input parameters of the model were
kept constant, such as the boundary conditions
(pinned-pinned), material strengths (S355 for the steel
tube, C30 for the concrete infill and S500 for the
reinforcing bars) and concrete moisture content (4%).
The numerical fire buckling resistance of the columns
(Nfi,Rd) was obtained from the results of all simulations
performed in the parametric studies. From this buckling
resistance, the normalized buckling load ( is obtained
by dividing its value by the cross-sectional plastic
resistance in the fire situation (Nfi,pl,Rd) and plotted against
the relative slenderness at elevated temperature () in
Figure 4.

IN EUROCODE 4 PART 1.2

In order to compare the simulation results against the
existing design methods, the buckling resistance for all
specimens used in the parametric studies was calculated
by means of the two approaches currently available in EN
1994-1-2 (CEN 2005b). On the one hand, the general
method for composite columns in Clause 4.3.5.1 was
assessed, assuming flexural stiffness reduction
coefficients equal to unity (EC4(1)). On the other hand,
the specific calculation method in Annex H for CFST
columns (EC4(H)) was evaluated. It should be pointed
out that, given its proved unsafety, the application of the
method in Annex H is not allowed in some European
countries, and in fact an amendment to this method has
been
recently
approved
by
the
Committee
CEN/TC250/SC4 which limits its applicability to relative
slenderness lower than 0.5 (CEN 2011), while it is under
revision at the moment.
Figure 5 shows the comparison between the simple
calculation methods EC4(1) and EC4(H) and the
numerical results for the concentrically loaded specimens.
EC4(1)

a)

+15%

UNSAFE

0.8
-15%

PRED

0.6

0.4

1,2
CHS

SAFE

SHS
1,0

0.2

RHS

(Nfi,RdNUM / Nfi,pl,Rd)

EHS
0,8

Buckling curve C

0
0.0

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

1.0

NUM

0,6

b)
0,4

EC4(H)

1
+15%

0,2

UNSAFE

0.8
0,0
1

PRED

Figure 4. Results of the numerical simulations from the

parametric studies.

0.6

-15%

0.4

This figure only shows the results for concentrically

loaded columns, 3000 specimens approximately, from all
the four sections shapes studied (CHS, SHS, RHS and
EHS). These results have been superimposed with
buckling curve c, which is prescribed in Clause
4.3.5.1(2) of EN 1994-1-2 (CEN 2005b) for the fire
design of composite columns. It can be observed that
most of the analysis cases lie below the buckling curve
c, therefore being unsafe.

SAFE

0.2

0
0.0

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

1.0

NUM

Figure 5. Comparison between the current simple calculation

methods in EN 1994-1-2 and numerical results: a) Clause
4.3.5.1 with unity coefficients, b) Annex H.

285

Espins et al.

It can be observed that, for both calculation methods,

most of the predictions lie on the unsafe side reaching
deviations higher than a 95% over the reference value,
therefore the current simple calculation methods in
Eurocode 4 Part 1.2 are not reliable and should be
improved.

a,eq

c,eq
s,eq

5 DEVELOPMENT OF A NEW SIMPLIFIED

DESIGN METHOD
In order to solve the highlighted shortcomings of the
current calculation methods in EN 1994-1-2 (CEN
2005b) and extend their applicability limits to other
cross-section geometries such as the elliptical shapes, a
new proposal is developed by the authors in this section.
The new simplified design method is based in the general
method from Clause 4.3.5.1(2) of EN 1994-1-2, which is
conceived for composite columns (and in fact used for
other type of steel-concrete composite sections such as
composite columns with partially encased steel sections)
and grounded on the elastic buckling theory, as an
extension of the method for room temperature design.

Figure 6. Definition of equivalent temperature for the three

components of the composite section.

In order to obtain these equivalent temperatures, the

calculation procedure described by Espinos et al. (2012) extended to other section shapes and fire exposure times has been followed in this work and applied to all the
analysis cases from the parametric studies. For the ease of
presentation, this procedure is not described here, but the
reader can refer to the aforementioned paper.
Once the equivalent temperatures were calculated for
all the case specimens, a generalized approach was
developed by using the section factor concept (Am/V),
which merges all section shapes (CHS, SHS, RHS and
EHS) in a single and compact formulation. In order to do
so, a non-linear regression analysis was applied to all the
numerical data from the parametric studies, where the
equivalent temperature is expressed as a function of the
fire exposure time (R) and section factor (Am/V).
For the concrete core, the equation for evaluating the
equivalent temperature (c,eq) is as follows:

5.1 Simplified cross-sectional temperature field

In order to be able to calculate the buckling load of a
CSFT column in the fire situation by means of the simple
calculation model in Clause 4.3.5.1(2), the cross-sectional
temperature field at elevated temperature is previously
required. However, the code does not provide any
simplified method to obtain this temperature field.
Therefore, in order to help designers in this task, a simple
method to acquire the temperature field within the
cross-section of a CFST column is proposed here.
In line with previous studies from the authors
(Espinos et al. 2012, 2013), which presented a simplified
method to obtain the temperature field in circular and
elliptical CFST columns, the method proposed here is
extended to square and rectangular sections up to 240
minutes of fire exposure time. Therefore, this new
proposal is valid for CHS, SHS, RHS and EHS columns
and fire exposure times ranging from 30 to 240 minutes.
In order to simplify the method, a single equivalent
temperature is provided for each part of the cross-section
(see Figure 6): an equivalent temperature for the whole
concrete core (c,eq), another one for the steel tube (a,eq)
and finally one for the reinforcement (s,eq). This
approach is already used in Annex G of EN 1994-1-2
(CEN 2005b) for composite columns with partially
encased steel sections, being its main benefit that
designer can evaluate the fire resistance of the column by
using a single strength and stiffness value for each
component of the composite cross-section corresponding
to its equivalent temperature.

c ,eq 81.801 5.046 R 0.003R 2

15.07 Am / V 0.331( Am / V ) 2
0.875R?Am V 7.428R 0.842 ? Am V

(1)
0.714

In turn, the equation which provides the equivalent

temperature of the steel tube (a,eq) is given below:

a,eq 824.667 5.579 R 0.007 R 2

0.009 R?Am V 645.076 R 0.269 ? Am V

0.017

(2)

Furthermore, by studying the evolution of the

cross-sectional temperature field, a strong relation of the
temperature of the reinforcing bars with t/us2 (min/mm2)
was found out, as given in Wickstrm (1987) for heat
transfer in concrete sections. In Figure 7, this relation
between s,eq and t/us2 is displayed for CHS columns,
being similar for the rest of the section shapes.

286

Espins et al.

account for the effect of the thermal stresses should be

applied.
Following the line from previous studies by the
authors (Espinos et al. 2012, 2013) developed for circular
and elliptical concrete-filled tubular columns, this
research provides flexural stiffness reduction coefficients
extended to square and rectangular columns, which are
developed through the results of the extensive parametric
study presented previously. These coefficients have been
derived using the realistic temperature field obtained
from the numerical simulations. Also the corresponding
buckling curve to be applied in the method is assessed for
all cases.
In this study, the value of the concrete flexural
stiffness coefficient was fixed to c = 0.8, when the
initial tangent stiffness (calculated as 3/2 times the secant
modulus) is used. Therefore, if the secant modulus of
concrete is used, this coefficient equals 1.2. This
assumption matches with previous works from the
authors (Espinos et al. 2012, 2013, Aribert et al. 2008,
Renaud et al. 2004).
Regarding the flexural stiffness reduction coefficient
for the steel tube, the same procedure as that described by
Espinos et al. (2012, 2013) for circular and elliptical
columns was applied. Again, for the sake of brevity, this
procedure is not described here, but the reader can refer
to the aforementioned papers.
In this work, buckling curves a and b were used
for unreinforced and reinforced columns respectively,
instead of curve c, which is prescribed in Clause 4.3.5.1
of EN 1994-1-2. This assumption produced the best fit to
the parametric studies results, and is in line with the
recommended buckling curves in EN 1994-1-1 (2004c)
for concrete-filled tubular columns at room temperature.
Following this procedure, the numerical value for the
flexural stiffness reduction coefficient of the steel tube
was obtained for all the analysis cases in the parametric
studies. Subsequently, a statistical analysis of these
values was performed obtaining complex functions of the
different variables that interact in the problem, such as
the member slenderness (l/D), the cross-sectional
slenderness (D/t), the section factor (Am/V), and the fire
exposure time (R). For the case of rectangular and
elliptical cross-sections, the main dimension (D) was
considered equal to the minor axis dimension (B), thus
the member slenderness and the cross-section slenderness
were defined as l/B and B/t, respectively. Through a
correlation analysis, these selected variables showed the
strongest dependency with the flexural stiffness reduction
coefficient. Therefore, the following shape of the function
was proposed for the steel reduction coefficient, each
term representing the influence of an independent
variable:

1200
1100
1000

s,eq(C) NUM

900
800
700

us = 20

600
500

us = 30

CHS

us = 35

400

300
200
0,00

0,10

0,20

0,30
0,40
t/us2(min/mm2)

0,50

0,60

0,70

Figure 7. Evolution of the equivalent temperature of the

reinforcement, CHS columns.

By using the proposed relation, a non-linear

regression analysis was performed, in order to adjust an
equation with the following shape:
s,eq 3
t us2 2 t us2 1?t us2 0
3

(3)

where the coefficients depend on the section shape and

concrete cover, and are given in Table 1.
Table 1. Coefficients for the equivalent temperature of the
reinforcement s,eq (C).

CHS

SHS

RHS

EHS

us (mm)
20
30
35
50
55
70
20
30
35
50
55
70
20
30
35
50
30
40
55
65

3
7236.5
58714
0
0
0
0
8151.3
85460
0
0
0
0
7863.2
82790
0
0
79543
304952
0
0

2
-10458
-41328
-12732
-55639
-43201
0
-11323
-54898
-18802
-67134
-78597
0
-10978
-53604
-20109
-79340
-51871
-117159
-100810
-157800

1
5497.6
10910
6518
13768
10790
8858
5595.4
12825
8222.9
15912
14878
11922
5465.2
12626
8575.4
17108
12481
18180
18531
23377

0
19.38
11.179
91.208
-19.897
24.229
96.676
93.392
-22.081
116.34
16.125
-43.033
23.258
108.38
-8.4515
53.012
-54.085
-45.483
-111.73
-35.745
-86.427

5.2 Calculation of the buckling load at elevated

temperature
In Section 4, the application of the general method for
composite columns from Clause 4.3.5.1 of EN-1994-1-2
(CEN 2005b) was studied, with flexural stiffness
reduction coefficients equal to unity, showing in most
cases unsafe predictions. Therefore, it has been proved
that a set of flexural stiffness reduction coefficients which

a, a, ,1 Am V
a, ,2 l D a, ,3 D t ?a, ,4 R

287

(4)

Espins et al.

loaded cases from the parametric studies (about 3000

specimens in total). Once all the calculation points had
been obtained, the accuracy of the proposal was assessed.

where each term was adjusted to a function with the

following shape:

a, ,i x a0 a1 x

a2

(5)

Table 3. Proposed function terms for the reduction coefficients

of the reinforcement.

All the resulting proposed functions, detailed for each

cross-section geometry, are shown in Table 2.

CHS
Table 2. Proposed function terms for the reduction coefficients
of the steel tube.

CHS
l / D 12

l / D 12

a , ,1 6.05 -1.16? Am / V )0.417

a , ,1 0.2

a , ,2 0.55 0.082? l / D)0.979

a , ,3 566.37 - 565.25? D / t )2.21? 0

a , ,4 2.66 0.44? R)0.28

SHS
l / B 12

l / B 12

a , ,1 16.1 15.2? Am / V )8.43? 0

a , ,2 103 103? l / B)

a , ,1 3.08 0.1? Am / V )

a , ,3 1.255 2.2? 02 ? B / t )

a , ,4 0.58 7.3? 0 ? R)

a , ,4 0.67 2.85? 03? R)1.084

6.974

RHS
l / B 30
2

a , ,2 0.253 1.296310 6? l / B)3.9659

a , ,3 200 195.8? B / t ) 4.046? 0

a , ,1 84.4 84.9? A / V )5.75? 0

a , ,2 0.482 0.187? l / B)0.587

a , ,3 0.925 5.75? 02 ? B / t )0.5186

a , ,4 1

a , ,4 1

EHS
l / B 23

l / B 23

a , ,1 0.298 5.07? 07 ? Am / V )3.373

a , ,1 31.9 34.4? Am / V )0.008

13.275

a , ,2 0.5872 1? 0 ? l / B)

a , ,2 0.224 0.08035? l / B )0.7161

3.97? 04

a , ,3 0.26 1.59? 03? B / t )1.2

18

a , ,3 714.27 712.69? B / t )
a , ,4 1

a , ,4 1

Regarding the flexural stiffness reduction coefficient

for the reinforcement, similar functions were developed.
In this case, only two variables were found to interact in
the problem: the section factor (Am/V) and the fire
exposure time (R). Different functions were adjusted for
the different reinforcement levels studied. Specifically,
these expressions can be seen in Table 3 for percentages
of reinforcement lower than 2.5 % and for percentages
between 2.5 % and 5 %.

s, s, ,1 Am / V ?s , ,2 R

2.5%
s, ,1 0.76 0.008? Am / V )

5%
s, ,1 0.76 0.008? Am / V )

s, ,2 0.7 0.0005? R)

s, ,2 0.83 0.0005? R)

2.5%
s, ,1 0.85

5%
s, ,1 0.7

s, ,2 1

s, ,2 1

2.5%
s, ,1 0.95

5%
s, ,1 0.95

s, ,2 1

s, ,2 1

The criteria used in this work for verifying the

accuracy of the developed simplified design method was
that approved by CEN/TC250/SC4 Horizontal Group Fire
(Kruppa, 1999), which prescribes that three criteria
should be met for a calculation method to be considered
accurate. Firstly, the calculation result shall not be on the
unsafe side by more than 15% of the reference result,
secondly a maximum of 20% of individual calculation
results shall be on the unsafe side and thirdly the mean
value of all percentage differences between calculation
results and reference results shall be on the safe side.
Taking all the calculation points from the parametric
studies results, the average error lies on the safe side with
a value of 1.203 and a standard deviation of 0.164. A
maximum deviation on the unsafe side of 14.91% (<15%)
is observed and only 8.02% (<20%) of the cases lie on
the unsafe side. Therefore, all the prescribed criteria are
met. On the contrary, the maximum deviation on the safe
side is 47.12%, although it should be noted that the
criteria from CEN/TC250/SC4 do not limit the error on
the safe side.

l / B 30

a , ,1 2.218 2.243? Am / V )1.609? 0

s , ,2 0.83 0.001? R)

EHS

5.88? 02

a , ,3 0.381 0.043? B / t )0.834

18

s, ,2 0.8 0.001? R)

RHS

0.1412

a , ,2 3.526 3.1? L / B)

2.43? 03

a , ,3 0.5375 7.5? 03? D / t )

a , ,4 0.116 8.84? 012? R) 4.285

5%
s, ,1 0.57 0.017 Am / V

SHS

a , ,2 4262 4253? l / D)9.03? 0

-4

2.5%
s, ,1 0.23 0.018? Am / V )

(6)

Finally, the results shown in Figure 8 were obtained

by applying the proposed reduction coefficients for
concrete, steel and reinforcement to all the concentrically

288

Espins et al.

REFERENCES

+15%

0.9

ABAQUS. 2013. Abaqus/ Standard version 6.13 users manual,

vols. I III. Pawtucket, Rhode Island: Hibbit, Karlsson &
Sorenson, Inc.
Aribert, J.M., Renaud, C. & Zhao, B. 2008. Simplified fire
design for composite hollow-section columns. Proc Inst
Civil Eng-Struct Build. 161:325-36.
CEN. 2002. EN 1991-1-2, Eurocode 1: Actions on structures.
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Normalisation.
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CEN. 2011. CEN/TC250/SC4N358. Resolutions agreed by
unanimity at the CEN/TC 250/SC4 meeting in Vienna on the
14th April 2011. ComitEuropen de Normalisation.
Espinos, A. 2012. Numerical analysis of the fire resistance of
circular and elliptical slender concrete filled tubular
columns. Doctoral thesis. Valencia, Spain: Universitat
Politcnica de Valncia.
Espinos, A., Romero, M.L. & Hospitaler, A. 2010. Advanced
model for predicting the fire response of concrete filled
tubular columns. J Constr Steel Res. 66:1030-46.
Espinos, A., Romero, M.L. & Hospitaler, A. 2012. Simple
calculation model for evaluating the fire resistance of
unreinforced concrete filled tubular columns. Engineering
Structures 42:231-44.
Espinos, A., Romero, M.L. & Hospitaler, A. 2013. Fire design
method for bar-reinforced circular and elliptical concrete
filled tubular columns. Engineering Structures 56:384-95.
Espinos, A., Romero, M.L., Serra, E. & Hospitaler, A. 2015a.
Circular and square slender concrete-filled tubular columns
under large eccentricities and fire. J Constr Steel Res.
110:90-100.
Espinos, A., Romero, M.L., Serra, E. & Hospitaler, A. 2015b.
Experimental investigation on the fire behaviour of
rectangular and elliptical slender concrete-filled tubular
columns. Thin-Walled Structures. 93:137-48.
Kruppa, J. 1999. Document n. 99/130 CEN/TC250/SC4
Horizontal Group Fire. Eurocodes Fire parts. Proposal
for a methodology to check the accuracy of assessment
methods. Saint-Rmy-ls-Chevreuse, France: Centre
Technique Industriel de la Contruction Mtallique
(CTICM).
Renaud C. 2003. Modlisation numrique, exprimentation et
dimensionnement pratique des poteaux mixtes avec profil
creux exposs l'incendie [In French]. INSA de Rennes,
France.
Renaud, C., Aribert, J.M. & Zhao, B. 2003. Advanced
numerical model for the fire behaviour of composite

UNSAFE

0.8
0.7

-15%

PRED

0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3

SAFE
0.2
0.1
0
0.0

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

1.0

NUM

Figure 8. Comparison between the proposed simplified design

method predictions and parametric studies results.

Therefore, the proposed calculation method proves to

be accurate and to provide a significant improvement to
the current methods in EN 1994-1-2 (CEN 2005b), as can
be observed by comparing Figure 5 and Figure 8.

6 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

In this work, the development of a new method for
evaluating the fire resistance of CFST columns of
different cross-section shape has been presented.
Two numerical models were set up and validated
against an extensive experimental database from the
European Project FRISCC: a 3D model (UPV) and a 2D
model (CTICM), which allowed for a significant
reduction of computational time without loss of accuracy.
By means of this numerical model, parametric studies
were conducted in order to develop a full method which
solves the shortcomings of the current design rules in EN
1994-1-2, proved to be unsafe for slender columns.
Through the parametric studies results, design
equations were proposed for defining the appropriate
values of the flexural stiffness reduction coefficients.
Expressions for obtaining the equivalent temperatures of
the different components of the composite cross-section
were also developed, in order to facilitate practitioners to
apply the method without the need of using advanced
heat transfer calculation tools.
A good agreement was found between the proposed
method predictions and the numerical simulations,
meeting the criteria for accuracy from CEN/TC250/SC4
and significantly improving the current provisions of
Eurocode 4.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors would like to express their sincere
gratitude to the European Union for the help provided
through the Project RFSR-CT-2012-00025, carried out
with a financial grant of the Research Programme of the
Research Fund for Coal and Steel.

289

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columns with hollow steel section. Steel Compos Struct.
3:75-95.
Renaud, C., Joyeux, D. & Kruppa, J. 2004. Improvement and
extension of the simple calculation method for fire
resistance of unprotected concrete filled hollow columns.
In: 15Q-12/03 Crp, editor. Saint-Rmy-ls-Chevreuse,
France: Centre Technique Industriel de la Contruction
Mtallique (CTICM).
Wickstrm, U. 1987. A very simple method for estimating
temperature in fire exposed concrete structures. Fire
Technology. Technical Report. SP-RAPP 1986:46. Bors,
Sweden: Swedish National Testing Institute.
Zhao, B. & Aribert, J.M. 1996. Finite element method for
steel-concrete composite frames taking account of slip and
large displacements. European Journal of Finite Element
5:221-49.

290

11th International Conference on

Advances in Steel and Concrete Composite Structures
Tsinghua University, Beijing, China, December 3-5, 2015

BEHAVIOUR OF CONCRETE-FILLED STEEL TUBULAR STUB

COLUMNS WITH DIFFERENT AGGREGATES
X. Yu, Z. Tao & T. Y. Song
Institute for Infrastructure Engineering, Western Sydney University, Penrith, NSW, Australia
E-mails: x.yu@westernsydney.edu.au, z.tao@westernsydney.edu.au, t.song@westernsydney.edu.au
ABSTRACT
Keywords:
Concrete-filled steel tubes;
Stub columns; Lightweight
aggregate; Steel slag; Waste
glass.

A series of tests on concrete-filled steel tubular (CFST) stub columns under axial compression
was presented in this paper. Five different concrete mixes with the same cement content and
water/cement ratio were designed using normal limestone aggregate, lightweight aggregate, steel
slag, and waste glass. The influence of aggregate type on the failure modes, development of
axial and lateral strains, strength and ductility of CFST stub columns is discussed. The
experimental results demonstrate the feasibility of using steel slag and/or waste glass to replace
partial or all concrete aggregates; the novel composite columns have similar and in some cases
even better structural behaviour compared with normal CFST columns. The test results are
compared with predictions of Eurocode 4 and finite element analysis, and the agreement
between them is reasonable.

mechanical properties of concrete using steel slag (a

by-product of the steel-making process) as aggregate. It
was found that similar mechanical properties as normal
concrete could be obtained by developing suitable
concrete mixes. Crushed waste glass aggregate has been
used in concrete as coarse and fine aggregate replacement
(Topu & Canbaz 2004), and glass powder has been used
to replace partial cement in concrete (Matos &
Sousa-Coutinho 2012). The research indicated that the
replacement with waste glass aggregate generally caused
a strength reduction in concrete depending on the
replacement ratio. Although fly ash is also a by-product,
it, however, has been well accepted and widely used to
replace partial cement in making modern concrete.
Despite the fact that using waste materials in concrete
can achieve significant economic and environmental
benefits, the potential applications of these new types of
concrete have not been well explored. In particular, the
long-term performance of the concrete using waste
materials is often a concern to engineers and
administrators responsible for the structures. For instance,
steel slag from basic oxygen furnace and electric arc
furnace contains free lime (CaO) that can result in
volumetric instability (expansion). Proper measures
should be taken to significantly reduce the free lime
content before steel slag is reliable to be used in concrete.
Similarly, stability of concrete with waste glass is also a
big concern, since chemical reaction can take place
between the silica-rich glass particles and the alkali in the
pore solution of concrete, i.e., alkali-silica reaction (ASR)
(Jin et al. 2000). The ASR reaction then causes

1 INTRODUCTION
Concrete-filled steel tubular (CFST) columns have
been widely used in engineering structures, and extensive
experimental and numerical studies have been conducted
in the past (Han et al. 2014). To further improve the
structural efficiency and meet different design
requirements, some recent research has focused on the
development of different types of novel CFST columns,
namely, stiffened concrete-filled steel tubular columns,
concrete-filled double skin steel tubular columns, and
concrete-filled stainless steel tubular columns. These
studies mainly aimed to use new alloys or change the
configuration of conventional CFST columns to improve
the structural performance of composite columns.
Since concrete plays an important role in CFST
columns, some engineers and researchers have also tried
to use new types of concrete other than conventional
concrete to construct composite columns. For example,
ultra-high strength concrete was proposed to significantly
increase the load-carrying capacities of CFST columns;
CFST columns constructed with recycled aggregate
concrete were developed to conserve the natural resource
and reduce the landfill requirements; and the utilisation of
lightweight aggregate concrete in CFST columns was
proposed to reduce the structural weight significantly.
In recent years, there has been a growing emphasis on
the utilisation of waste materials/by-products in
construction materials to provide viable solutions to
environmental and ecological problems. Maslehuddin et
al. (2003) and Qasrawi et al. (2009) investigated the

291

Yu et al.

Five types of concrete were mixed to fill the steel

tubes. By using different coarse and/or fine aggregates,
they are referred to as normal concrete (NC), lightweight
concrete (LWC), coarse steel slag concrete (CSSC),
coarse and fine steel slag concrete (CFSSC) and steel slag
and glass concrete (SSGC) hereafter. The concrete was
placed into the steel tube in layers and was vibrated by a
poker vibrator. The specimens were then stored in the
laboratory until testing. The exact concrete age at testing
for each specimen is presented in Table 1, which varied
from 29 days to 36 days.

unsatisfactory concrete because of excessive expansion

and marked cracking in the concrete.
In a CFST column, however, the concrete is passively
confined by the steel tube, leading to the so-called
composite action between the steel tube and concrete.
In engineering practice, expansive agent is sometimes
added to the concrete core to compensate for the
shrinkage of normal concrete in CFST columns.
Therefore, a small amount of concrete expansion (if any)
will be beneficial to maintain the interaction between the
steel tube and concrete. For this reason, steel slag and
waste glass can be safely used in CFST columns without
the concern of concrete instability. To the best knowledge
of the authors, no research effort has been devoted to
investigate the behaviour of CFST columns using steel
slag or waste glass aggregates. Set against this
background, the feasibility of using steel slag and waste
glass to replace partial or all aggregates in the core
concrete of CFST columns is investigated. Reference
tests were also conducted on CFST columns using
limestone or lightweight concrete aggregates. The test
results are compared with predictions of Eurocode 4
(Eurocode 4 2005) and finite element analysis.

2.2 Material properties

Concrete was mixed using a pan mixer at the Western
Sydney University. The mix proportions of different
types of concrete were summarised in Table 2. All
concrete mixes had the same cement content of 420
kg/m3 and effective water/cement ratio of 0.42. The
crushed limestone used in mix NC had a nominal size of
20 mm, whilst lightweight aggregate (volcanic scoria)
had a nominal size of 14 mm and an oven-dry density of
1474 kg/m3. The raw steel slag was sieved in the
laboratory. Steel slag passing through 20 mm sieve and
retained on 4.9 mm sieve was used to replace coarse
aggregate, whilst steel slag passing through 4.9 mm sieve
was adopt to replace fine aggregate. For mix SSGC,
waste glass (4.75 mm8 mm) was used to replace 17.5%
by volume of coarse aggregate, and the remaining coarse
aggregate was replaced by steel slag. In addition, 42% by
volume sand in this mix was replaced by fine steel slag.
In contrast, all coarse aggregate was replaced by steel
slag in the mixes CSSC and CFSSC. Similar to mix
SSGC, 42% by volume sand was replaced by fine steel
slag in mix CFSSC.
For each type of aggregate, the specific gravity,
apparent specific gravity, oven-dry density and water
absorption were measured and the values are given in
Table 3. To ensure a consistent effective water/cement
ratio for different types of concrete, some additional
water was added during the concrete mixing taking into
account the different water absorption capacities of
different aggregates. The amount of additional water was
not included in the free water content shown in Table 2.
Concrete cylinders of size 100 mm200 mm were cast
and tested to determine the compressive strength (fc) of
concrete. Tensile tests were conducted on steel coupons
cut from the original circular and square steel tubes. The
measured compressive strength of concrete (fc) for
different types of concrete at the time of testing and the
yield stress of steel tubes (fy) are given in Table 1.

2 EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATION
2.1 Specimen preparation
A total of 13 CFST stub columns, including 6 circular
and 7 square specimens, were fabricated, where a
summary of the specimens is presented in Table 1. C
and S in the specimen labels denote circular and square
columns, respectively. Meanwhile, a few duplicate
specimens were prepared, and they are distinguished by
the use of a letter a or b in the label. All specimens
had a same length of 540 mm. The nominal overall
diameter (D) and tube thickness (t) for the circular
specimens were 177 mm and 3 mm, respectively; whilst
the nominal width (B) and tube thickness (t) for the
square specimens were 180 mm and 4 mm, respectively.
Mild steel sheets were used to cold form semi-circular
tubes, and two such semi-circular tubes were then welded
together to form a whole circular tube. Similarly, two
U-shaped steel channels were cold-formed and welded
together to form a square tube. Two end plates with a
thickness of 15 mm were welded to the top and bottom
ends of each steel tube. A hole of 100 mm diameter was
cut in the top end plate to pour concrete. A Vernier
calliper was used to measure the cross-sectional
dimensions of the hollow tubes, and the measured
dimensions are given in Table 1. It should be noted that
the measured dimension difference of adjacent sides for a
square tube was very small, which was normally less than
1 mm. To differentiate the dimensions of the shorter and
longer sides of a square tube, they were denoted as B and
D in Table 1, respectively.

2.3 Test setup

The specimens were tested under axial compression using
a universal testing machine. A total of four bidirectional
strain gauges with a gauge length of 3 mm were used for
each specimen to measure the longitudinal and transverse
292

Yu et al.
Table 1. Summary of CFST stub column specimens.
Section
type
Circular

Square

Label

B
(mm)

178.9
178.6
178.9
177.7
178.6
178.1
178.3

C1
C2
C3
C4
C5a
C5b
S1
S2
S3a
S3b
S4
S5a
S5b

D
(mm)
177.4
177.8
175.9
177.3
177.5
177.4
179.2
179.3
179.1
179.8
179.5
179.2
179.1

t
(mm)
2.95
2.90
2.93
2.93
2.93
2.90
3.92
3.91
3.92
3.93
3.90
3.90
3.90

fc
(MPa)
36.5
33.5
35.3
45.6
42.0
44.5
36.5
33.5
35.3
35.3
45.6
42.0
44.5

fy
(MPa)
320.9
320.9
320.9
320.9
320.9
320.9
305.8
305.8
305.8
305.8
305.8
305.8
305.8

Nue
(kN)
1502
1342
1526
1784
1756
1859
1915
1783
1858
1921
2235
2206
2344

Concrete age
(days)
30
36
35
30
31
34
29
36
35
35
30
31
34

Aggregate
type
Limestone
Lightweight
Coarse steel slag
Coarse & fine steel slag
Seel slag & glass
Seel slag & glass
Limestone
Lightweight
Coarse steel slag
Coarse steel slag
Coarse & fine steel slag
Seel slag & glass
Seel slag & glass

Table 2. Proportions of concrete mixes.

Mix

Aggregate
type

Aggregate (kg)
Coarse
Limestone Lightweight Steel slag Waste glass
420
1070

420

480

420

1418

420

1418

420

1170
175

Cement
(kg)

NC
Limestone
LWC Lightweight
CSSC Coarse steel slag
CFSSC Coarse & fine steel slag
SSGC Seel slag & glass

Table 3. Properties of different aggregates.

Aggregate

Limestone
Coarse steel slag
Fine steel slag
Lightweight
Waste glass

Specific
gravity
2.64
3.28
3.41
1.63
2.48

Sand
714
714
714
413
413

Fine
Steel slag

413
413

Water
(kg)
176.4
176.4
176.4
176.4
176.4

Water
reducer
(L)
1.4
2.2
1.0
2.0
1.2

obvious influence on the failure mode of the test

specimens.

Apparent Oven-dry
Absorption
specific density
(%)
3
gravity
(kg/m )
2.65
2621
0.32
3.51
3174
2.95
3.57
3404
1.31
1.75
1474
10.62
2.48
2481

C1

C3

C2

C5b

C5a

C4

(a) Circular columns

strains of the steel tube at the mid-height. Two linear

variable displacement transducers (LVDT) were used to
measure the column axial deformation. Before reaching
the peak load, a specimen was loaded at a rate of 0.12
mm/min; the load rate was then increased to 0.6 mm/min
in the post-peak range.

S1

S2

S3a

S3b

S4

S5a

S5b

3 EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

(b) Square columns

Figure 1. Failure modes of CFST stub columns.

3.1 Failure mode

3.2 Axial load versus axial strain curves

The failure appearances of the 13 CFST stub columns

are shown in Figure 1, which indicate that all stub
columns demonstrated a similar local (outward folding)
failure. But the local buckling occurred somewhat
randomly at different locations. For square columns, the
local buckling normally appeared near the mid-height;
four out of the six circular tubes, however, had local
buckling occurred just above the stiffeners since the
circular tubes were thinner than the square tubes. In
general, the use of different types of aggregates had no

The effect of aggregate type on the measured axial load

(N) verse axial strain () curves is shown in Figure 2 and
3 for circular and square specimens, respectively. In the
figures, the -values were obtained from the
measurements of the strain gauges and LVDTs. Before
the steel tube buckled, the average value of the readings
of the four axial strain gauges was used to represent .
After that, the axial strain was calculated from the
measured axial shortening divided by the overall length
of the specimen. The steel yield strains obtained from the
steel coupon tests are also indicated in the figures.

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Yu et al.
2000
NC

1500
1000

LWC
Steel yield strain
C1
1758
C2
C4

500
0
0

2000

1500

NC

1000

CSSC

500

Steel yield strain

1758
C1
C3

20000 40000 60000

Axial strain, (10-6)

Axial load, N (kN)

CFSSC

Axial load, N (kN)

Axial load, N (kN)

2000

SSGC

1500

NC
Steel yield strain
1758

1000
500
0

20000 40000 60000

Axial strain, (10-6)

C1
C5a
C5b

20000 40000 60000

Axial strain, (10-6)

Figure 2. Comparison of N curves for circular CFST stub columns.

1800

NC

1200

2400
NC

1800

CSSC

1200

Steel yield strainLWC

S1
1754
S2
S4

600
0
0

15000 30000 45000

Axial strain, (10-6)

Steel yield strain

1754

600
0
0

S1
S3a
S3b

15000 30000 45000

Axial strain, (10-6)

Axial load, N (kN)

2400
CFSSC

Axial load, N (kN)

Axial load, N (kN)

2400

SSGC

1800
1200

NC

Steel yield strain

S1
1754
S5a
S5b

600
0
0

15000 30000 45000

Axial strain, (10-6)

Figure 3. Comparison of N curves for square CFST stub columns.

In general, a typical N curve can be divided into the

ascending and descending branches until reaching a
relatively stable residual strength. Although the square
tubes had a greater thickness than the circular tubes, the
square CFST columns demonstrated a steeper post-peak
response compared with the circular counterparts. This is
owing to the better concrete confinement provided by a
circular tube than a square tube.
As can be seen in Figure 2 and 3, the influence of
aggregate type on the initial stiffness of the N response
is minor. Significant influence, however, is found on the
load-carrying capacities and ductility of the composite
columns. Detailed analysis will be presented in following
subsections. In terms of the residual strength, it is lower
in a CFST column with lightweight aggregate than in the
reference column with limestone aggregate. For a CFST
column with steel slag and/or waste glass, its residual
strength is generally close to that of the reference
specimen with limestone aggregate.

steel slag in the concrete mix CSSC, which led to a

strength reduction of 3.3% compared to the control mix.
Due to the porous texture of steel slag, large-size steel
slag can easily break and reduce the concrete strength.
Further research is required to optimise the size of steel
slag in replacing coarse concrete aggregate. Based on the
mix proportion of CFSSC, some coarse aggregate was
further replaced by waste glass in mix SSGC. Compared
to mix CFSSC, a strength reduction of up to 7.9% was
found for mix SSGC, which is due to the fact that coarse
waste glass has poor shape, poor surface characteristics
and high friability (Polley et al. 1998). Despite this, the
replacement ratio of 17.5% by volume can be considered
suitable for waste glass due to the relatively minor
influence on concrete strength.
The measured ultimate strength (Nue) for each CFST
specimen is listed in Table 1, where Nue is simply defined
as the peak load. Since about 5070% strength of a CFST
specimen was contributed by concrete, the influence of
aggregate type on the ultimate strength of composite
columns is generally similar to that on the concrete
strength.
To quantify the strength enhancement due to concrete
confinement in a CFST column, a strength index (SI) as
shown in Eq. (1) is used:

3.3 Ultimate strength

As expected, the strength of lightweight concrete
reduced by 8.2% compared with normal concrete due to
the weaker pore structure of lightweight aggregate.
Except the concrete mix CSSC, the other two concrete
mixes CFSSC and SSGC using steel slag demonstrated
increased strength by 15.1%24.9% compared with the
control mix using limestone aggregate. This strength
increase is mainly due to the enhanced interlocking
between porous steel slag and cement paste that leads to
improved transition zone between the paste and aggregate
(Huang et al. 2012). This beneficial influence of using
steel slag, however, was outweighed by using only coarse

SI

N ue
N0

(1)

where N0 = fyAs + fc'Ac; As=cross-sectional area of the steel

tube; Ac=cross-sectional area of the concrete core.
The SI-values for the circular CFST columns range
from 1.041 to 1.208; whilst the corresponding values for

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Yu et al.

when the load attained 75% of the ultimate strength in the

pre-peak stage.
Figure 5 shows the ductility indexes of CFST stub
columns with different types of concrete. In general, the
circular specimens demonstrate better ductility than the
square ones due to the better concrete confinement.
Among all types of concrete, lightweight concrete has the
lowest ductility index. In general, the ductility index of a
specimen with steel slag is comparable to that of the
reference specimen with normal concrete. A slight
decrease in DI-value, however, is observed for the
specimens with a small portion of waste glass. This is
mainly associated with the poor chemical bond between
the glass and cement paste.

the square CFST columns vary from 0.980 to 1.099.

Obviously, the circular columns demonstrated better
concrete confinement when the concrete type is the same.
For the two specimens C2 and S2 with lightweight
concrete, their SI-values are quite close to unity as shown
in Figure 4, indicating negligible concrete confinement.
Compared with the reference CFST columns with normal
concrete, all CFST columns with steel slag and/or waste
glass have higher values of SI index. The trend is more
obvious when both steel slag and waste glass were
included in mix SSGC. This can be explained by the
beneficial effect of concrete volume change resulting
from the hydration of free lime in steel slag and the ASR
reaction of the waste glass. Since the volume expansion
of concrete was restricted by the steel tube, it would
modify the microstructure of concrete and increase the
confinement from the steel tube.

8.0
6.0

1.2

C1

C2

C3

C4

C5aC5b

DI

1.4

C1

C4

C5aC5b

DI=5.48

4.0

C2

1.0
2.0

SI=1

SI

0.8

C3

0.6
0.0

0.4

NC

LWC

0.2

CSSC CFSSC SSGC

Concrete type

(a) Circular columns

0.0
NC

LWC CSSC CFSSC SSGC

Concrete type

8.0

(a) Circular columns

6.0

1.4
S1

S2

SI

1.0
0.8

S3b
S3a

S4

S5b
S5a

DI

1.2

4.0
S1

DI=2.43
S2

S3aS3b S4

S5a S5b

2.0

SI=1

0.6
0.0

0.4

NC

0.2

CSSC CFSSC SSGC

Concrete type

(b) Square columns

Figure 5. Comparison of ductility indexes (DI).

0.0

NC

LWC

LWC CSSC CFSSC SSGC

Concrete type

3.5 Lateral and axial strains

(b) Square columns

Figure 4. Comparison of strength indexes (SI).

The ultimate strain (u) corresponding to the peak

load exceeded the yield strain of the steel tube for each
CFST column, as shown in Figure 2 and 3. This indicates
that the steel strength was fully developed in the CFST
columns. The lateral-to-axial strain ratios () of a steel
tube during the loading process, which can be used to
evaluate the concrete confinement by the steel tube, were
calculated from strain readings of the corresponding
strain gauges. Figure 6 depicts the development of the
lateral-to-axial strain ratios for all the circular and square
specimens. To make a meaningful comparison, the axial
loads (N) in Figure 6 are normalised with respect to the

3.4 Ductility
A ductility index (DI) defined in Eq. (2) is introduced
to evaluate the ability of CFST stub columns to undergo
plastic deformation without significant strength
degradation.

(2)
DI 90%
y
where 90% = axial strain when the load decreased to 90%
of the ultimate strength; y = 75%/0.75; 75% = axial strain

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Yu et al.

4 EVALUATION OF TEST RESULTS

corresponding peak loads (Nue).

4.1 Comparison with code predictions

Normalised axial load N/Nue

1.2

There are a number of codes available to predict the

cross-section strength of CFST columns. For CFST stub
columns, previous research has indicated that American
code AISC and Chinese code DBJ/T give conservative
predictions when compared with Eurocode 4 (EC4) and
Australia standard AS 5100. Similar equations are
adopted by AS 5100 and EC4; thus their predictions are
quite close (Tao et al. 2008). Therefore, in this paper,
only EC4 is used to predict the load-carrying capacities of
the tested CFST specimens. It should be noted that all the
existing codes were developed only for the design of
CFST columns with normal concrete. The feasibility of
these codes in the design of CFST columns with new
types of concrete should be thoroughly examined.

0.9
0.6

C1 (NC)
C2 (LWC)
C3 (CSSC)
C4 (CFSSC)
C5a (SSGC)
C5b (SSGC)

0.3
0

0.3
0.6
0.9
Lateral-to-axial strain ratio n

1.2

(a) Circular columns

0.9
2
0.6

S1 (NC)
S2 (LWC)
S3a (CSSC)
S3b (CSSC)
S4 (CFSSC)
S5a (SSGC)

0.3
0
0

0.3
0.6
0.9
Lateral-to-axial strain ratio n

1.5
Nue/NEC4

Normalised axial load N/Nue

1.2

1.2

15%

1
0.5

(b) Square columns

Figure 6. Development of lateral-to-axial strain ratios for steel
tubes.

NC
CSSC
SSGC

0
0

500

15%
LWC
CFSSC
Fu et al. (2011a, b)
1000
1500
Nue (kN)

2000

2500

Figure 7. Comparison between test results and EC4 predictions.

The -values for all the steel tubes were initially

around 0.3, which is the same as the normal Poissons
ratio for mild steel before yielding. In this stage,
considering the fact that the Poissons ratio is around 0.2
for concrete, the lateral expansion of core concrete would
be lower than that of the steel tube. Therefore, a gap
would be formed between the steel tube and concrete, and
there was no confinement effect. After the axial load
reached about 90% of the peak load for a typical column,
the lateral-to-axial strain ratio increased significantly as
shown in Figure 6. This indicates that interaction between
the steel tube and concrete occurred, and the lateral
expansion of concrete was restrained by the steel tube. In
general, N/Nue versus curves of the CFST columns with
steel slag and/or waste glass are similar to that of the
corresponding reference specimen with normal concrete.
But when lightweight concrete was used, the -values
started to increase when the axial load reached about
0.2Nue. After that, the specimens with lightweight
concrete demonstrated faster lateral expansion compared
with other specimens. This may be explained by the fact
that the elastic modulus of lightweight concrete was only
about half that of normal concrete, leading to an earlier
and quicker volumetric expansion for lightweight
concrete.

The predicted axial strength (NEC4) for each specimen

is given in Table 4. In general, EC4 slightly overpredicts
the ultimate strength of the circular columns by an
average of 2%; whilst the prediction accuracy is
relatively accurate for the square columns with an
average Nue/NEC4 of 1.034. The strength of the circular
specimen C2 with lightweight concrete was overpredicted
by 12.2%. This can be explained by the lower elastic
modulus and higher brittleness of lightweight concrete,
which greatly hinders the interaction between the steel
tube and concrete. Fu et al. (2011a, b) reported test results
of 32 circular CFST stub columns with lightweight
concrete. On average, EC4 overestimates the ultimate
strength of those specimens by about 20%, as shown in
Figure 7. Without considering concrete confinement, EC4
actually gives reasonably good predictions of the ultimate
strength for the current circular specimen C2 and the
specimens presented in Fu et al. (2011a, b), which
indicates that the influence of steel tube confinement to
the strength of lightweight concrete can be practically
ignored.

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Yu et al.
Table 4. Comparison of test results with Eurocode 4 and FE predictions.
Circular specimen
Specimen
NEC4 (kN)
label
C1
1599.0
C2
1529.0
C3
1543.0
C4
1792.0
C5a
1717.0
C5b
1762.0

NFE (kN)

Nue/NEC4

Nue/NFE

1539.8
1465.7
1488.5
1736.2
1658.8
1706.3

0.940
0.878
0.987
0.995
1.023
1.055

0.995
0.916
1.025
1.028
1.059
1.089

0.980
0.063

1.015
0.062

Average
Stand deviation

1200
C1
(Normal concrete)

800
400

Test
FE

0
0

1200
800

C2
(Lightweight concrete)

400

Test
FE

15000 30000 45000

Axial strain (10-6)

500

Test
FE

0
0

15000 30000 45000

Axial strain (10-6)

500

1930.7
1848.0
1901.8
1904.3
2184.4
2082.4
2153.2

1.002
0.980
0.995
1.026
1.028
1.071
1.099
1.034
0.041

0.992
0.965
0.977
1.009
1.023
1.059
1.089
1.016
0.045

Test
FE

0
0

15000 30000 45000

Axial strain (10-6)

2400

1500
1000

S3b
(Coarse steel slag
concrete)

500
0
0

Test
FE

15000 30000 45000

Axial load N (kN)

S2
(Lightweight concrete)

Axial load N (kN)

Axial load N (kN)

1000

Nue/NFE

C4
(Coarse and fine
steel slag concrete)

1000

15000 30000 45000

2000

1500

Nue/NEC4

1500

Axial strain (10-6)

2000

NFE (kN)

2000
Axial load N (kN)

1600
Axial load N (kN)

Axial load N (kN)

1600

Square specimen
Specimen
NEC4 (kN)
label
S1
1910.3
S2
1818.6
S3a
1837.4
S3b
1837.4
S4
2172.9
S5a
2060.2
S5b
2133.5

1800
1200

S5a
(Steel slag and glass
concrete)
Test

600

FE

0
0

Axial strain (10-6)

15000 30000 45000

Axial strain (10-6)

Figure 8. Comparison between measured and predicted N curves for typical CFST columns.

feasibility of the existing FE model developed by Tao et

al. (2013) in simulating the current test results. To fulfil
this task, the possible influence of the aggregate type is
tentatively ignored in modelling the concrete. Details of
the FE model, such as the choice of element types,
boundary conditions, material models and modelling of
the steel tubeconcrete interface can be found in Tao et al.
(2013).
The predicted axial load (N) versus axial strain ()
curves for typical CFST stub columns are compared with
the test results in Figure 8. In general, the FE model gives
reasonable predictions for different types of CFST
columns. For the circular specimen C2 with lightweight
concrete, the FE model however overpredicts the ultimate
strength and ductility of the specimen. This indicates that
the interaction between the steel tube and lightweight
concrete is overestimated in the FE model, and future
research is required to consider the influence of
lightweight aggregate on the concrete model. For the
square specimen S2 with lightweight concrete, the
accuracy of the prediction is acceptable. This is because

4.2 Comparison with FE predictions

For CFST columns with normal concrete, extensive
efforts have been devoted to improve the prediction
accuracy of FE modelling in the past. More recently, Tao
et al. (2013) collected a total of 340 full-range
loaddeformation curves and used them to develop a
refined FE model for CFST stub columns under axial
compression. The FE simulation conducted by Tao et al.
(2013) was based on the concrete damaged plasticity
material model in ABAQUS, where a new strain
hardening/softening function was developed for confined
concrete and new models were introduced for a few
material parameters used in the concrete model. The
predictions from the proposed FE model were compared
with the test data collected, which indicates that the FE
model developed by Tao et al. (2013) is reasonably
accurate in modelling CFST stub columns.
Since no FE models have been developed for CFST
columns filled with concrete using lightweight aggregate,
steel slag or waste glass, it is worthwhile to check the

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Yu et al.

Council (ARC) under its Future Fellowships scheme

(Project No: FT0991433). It has also been partially
supported by the ARC Discovery Project (Grant No:
DP120100971). The financial support is gratefully
acknowledged.

that the interaction between a square tube and concrete is

much weaker than that in a circular CFST column; thus
the influence of lightweight aggregate is less significant
on the performance of a square CFST column. For other
specimens using steel slag and/or waste glass, the FE
model gives reasonably good predictions of the N
curves, although the ultimate strengths were slightly
underestimated (up to 8.9%) and a slightly steeper
post-peak slope was obtained for most square CFST
specimens. To further improve the FE prediction accuracy,
future research may be conducted to consider the
influence of steel slag and waste glass on the concrete
model.
As shown in Table 4, both FE analysis and EC4 give
very close predictions for the ultimate strengths of square
CFST columns. The maximum difference between the
predictions of the two methods is only 3.5%. But for the
circular columns, the FE predicted ultimate strength (NFE)
is generally about 4% lower than the predicted strength
by EC4. It can be seen that the FE predictions are on the
safe side for most of the circular columns.

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with glass aggregate. ACI Structural Journal 97(2):
208213.
Maslehuddin, M., Sharif, A.M., Shameem, M., Ibrahim, M. &
Barry, M.S. 2003. Comparison of properties of steel slag
and crushed limestone aggregate concretes. Construction
and Building Materials 17(2): 105112.
Matos, A.M. & Sousa-Coutinho, J. 2012. Durability of mortar
using waste glass powder as cement replacement.
Construction and Building Materials 36: 205215.
Polley, C., Cramer, S.M. & De La Cruz, R.V. 1998. Potential for
using waste glass in Portland cement concrete. Journal of
Materials in Civil Engineering 10(4):210219.
Qasrawi, H., Shalabi, F. & Asi, I. 2009. Use of low CaO
unprocessed steel slag in concrete as fine aggregate.
Construction and Building Materials 23(2): 11181125.
Tao, Z., Uy, B., Han, L.H. & He, S.H. 2008. Design of
concrete-filled steel tubular members according to the
Australian Standard AS 5100 model and calibration.
Australian Journal of Structural Engineering 8(3):197214.
Tao, Z., Wang, Z.B. & Yu, Q. 2013. Finite element modelling of
concrete-filled steel stub columns under axial compression.
Journal of Constructional Steel Research 89:121131.
Topu, I.B. & Canbaz, M. 2004. Properties of concrete
containing waste glass. Cement and Concrete Research
34(2): 267274.

5 CONCLUSIONS
The following conclusions can be drawn within the
limitation of this study:
(1) The behaviour of axially loaded CFST stub
columns filled with five types of concrete was
experimentally investigated. The results indicated that all
CFST columns performed reasonably well despite the
utilisation of different types of aggregates.
(2) CFST columns with steel slag and/or waste glass
have comparable initial stiffness, strength and ductility
with the reference specimens using normal concrete. Due
to the confinement from the steel tube, the possible
volumetric instability of concrete can be eliminated and
steel slag and waste glass can be safely used as concrete
aggregate in composite columns. For CFST columns with
lightweight concrete, a reduction in strength and ductility
was observed.
(3) Eurocode 4 gives reasonable predictions of the
ultimate strength for CFST columns using different types
of concrete. However, the concrete confinement effect
should not be considered when Eurocode 4 is used to
predict the ultimate strength of a circular CFST column
with lightweight concrete.
(4) The existing FE model proposed by Tao et al.
(2008) can predict the test results of CFST stub columns
with different types of concrete reasonably well. To
improve the prediction accuracy, further research is
required to consider the influence of aggregate type on
the concrete model, especially when lightweight
aggregate is used.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This work is supported by the Australian Research

298

11th International Conference on

Advances in Steel and Concrete Composite Structures
Tsinghua University, Beijing, China, December 3-5, 2015

BEHAVIOUR OF CONCRETE-FILLED STAINLESS

TUBULAR COLUMNS UNDER AXIAL COMPRESSION

STEEL

M. L. Pattona & K. D. Singhb

a

Department of Civil Engineering, National Institute of Technology Meghalya, India

E-mail:nagaland22@gmail.com
b

Department of Civil Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Guwahati, India

E-mail: darun@iitg.ernet.in
Keywords:
Finite Element Modelling;
LDSS; Concrete-Filled Tubular
Columns; Non-Rectangular
Sections; Axial Compression;
Abaqus.

ABSTRACT
Lean Duplex Stainless Steel (LDSS) with low nickel content of ~ 1.5%, such as grade EN
1.4162, offers roughly twice the strength compared to austenitic stainless steels and has great
potential for expanding future structural possibilities, enabling a reduction in the section sizes
leading to lighter structures. In the past two decades, the construction industry has also shown an
increasing interest in the use of reinforced concrete columns with T-, and +-shaped
cross-sections (Non-Rectangular Sections (NRSs)). Columns with NRSs have the advantage of
providing a flushed wall face, resulting in an enlarged usable indoor floor space area and also
makes the interior space more regular. In this context, non-linear Finite Element (FE) studies for
the buckling behavior of concrete-filled lean duplex slender stainless steel tubular (CFDSST)
columns of square section and NRSs were carried out using the FE software package Abaqus,
maintaining same consumption of LDSS. The main objective is to compare the load and
deformation capacities of the CFDSST columns of NRSs with the square section (as a
representative section) at different lengths. In CFDSST columns, for non-dimensional
slenderness () ~ < 0.5, +-shape showed a 7 % higher strength and T-shape showed similar
strengths compared to the representative square section. For 0.5 1.5, a linear increasing
trend in strength is seen with increasing as compared to the square section. On the axial strain
at ultimate load (u), the cross-sectional shapes have less influence at higher , but shows
increasingly significant at lower .

strength of conventional austenitic stainless steel, has a

potential for use in constructions, and its use has seen
significant growth and development over the last 20 years.
The prime mover for this development is the increase in
raw material costs, such as nickel, along with an appetite
for improved corrosion resistance and strength, enabling
a reduction in section sizes leading to higher strength to
weight ratios. Recent research interest regarding LDSS
hollow structures (Theofanous & Gardner 2009, Huang &
Young 2012, Huang & Young 2013, Umbarkar et al. 2012,
Patton & Singh 2012, Pattong & Singh 2013) and its
early application in construction (Gedge 2008) suggest a
promising future for LDSS materials in engineering
structures and also a need for more data to further

1 INTRODUCTION
Generally, the austenitic grades feature most
prominently within the constructional industry. Despite
the benefits which austenitic stainless steel can offer, the
initial cost, which is about 3-5 times that of carbon steel,
greatly limits its application in construction industries
(Mann 1993, Gardner 2005). However, there is a
possibility of decreasing the cost by way of reducing
the amount of alloying element such as nickel. In LDSS,
the reduction in cost has been achieved by lowering the
nickel content to about ~ 1.5% (e.g. grade EN 1.4162)
(Baddoo 2008, EN 10088-4 2009, Gardner 2005). LDSS
grade EN 1.4162 in particular, with twice the mechanical

299

Patton & Singh

The steel cross-sectional areas of the NRSs and the

representative square section are kept equal, to have the
same steel material consumption, thus resulting in
reduction of concrete core area by ~36 % for CFDSST
columns with NRSs sections as compared to the
representative square section. The FE results were
compared with the currently available design standard for
stainless steel, such as, the European specification
(EN1994-1-1, 2004) for their applicability in the design
of fixed-ended CFDSST slender columns.

understand its structural performances.

However, due to the high initial material costs in the
use of stainless steel alone in conventional constructions,
a promising and innovative way to reduce the cost is a
composite construction, where concrete is filled inside
the stainless steel hollow sections (also known as
concrete-filled steel tubular (CFST) structures). This type
of composite construction combines the advantages of
both steel and concrete which provide not only an
increase in the load-carrying capacity but also rapid
construction (Uy & Patil 2006, Zhao et al. 2010). Also,
CFST in particular does not need any formwork or
reinforcement and the amount of stainless steel used can
be greatly reduced by concrete filling as reported by
several researchers (Young & Ellobody 2006, Lam &
Gardner 2008, Dabaon et al. 2009, Uy et al. 2011). Thus,
the use of CFST columns in a building project can
significantly reduce the overall cost (Johansson 2002).
The use of special shaped reinforced concrete column
sections, such as, T-, and +-shape sections
(Non-Rectangular Sections or NRSs), in residential
high-rise buildings are also welcomed by architects
because of their convenient construction at beam-column
joints, larger moment of inertia of cross-section that leads
to much higher capacity for resisting lateral load, and
provides a flushed wall face, resulting in an enlarged
usable indoor floor space area and also in making the
interior space more regular.
Similar concept can readily be extended to CFST
columns with NRSs. Only limited studies have been done
on CFST columns with NRSs (Yang et al. 2010, Wang et
al. 2009, Xu et al. 2012). And there is still a lack of
systematic studies relating to CFST columns with NRSs.
In addition, only few literatures are available on CFST
with LDSS material (Hassanein 2010, Hassanein et al.
2013).
The paper presents a nonlinear finite element (FE)
analysis of fixed-ended concrete-filled lean duplex
slender stainless steel tubular (CFDSST) columns of
NRSs and a representative square section under axial
compression at different lengths. The main objective is to
study cross-sectional effects on the strength and behavior
of CFST columns (Fig. 1).

2 DESCRIPTION OF THE FINITE ELEMENT

STUDY

2.1 General
The FE software package Abaqus (2009) was
employed for the FE analyses. The approach used to
develop the FE models of CFDSST slender columns are
similar to that used by other researchers (e.g. Hassanein
2010). The elements used to simulate the LDSS tube and
the concrete core are S4R (4-noded shell elements with
reduced integration) and C3D8R (a three-dimensional
eight-node solid element), respectively. Hassanein (2010)
reported that mesh refinement has little influence on the
numerical results, hence the mesh convergence study on
the models were checked starting with relatively coarser
mesh. The aspect ratio of the elements is kept at ~1.0 in
all the FE models.
The FE models considered herein are fixed at the ends
except for the vertical displacement at the top end. The
boundary conditions were accomplished using two rigid
plates that were tied to the column ends via
surface-to-node for the rigid plate to steel tube and
surface-to-surface for the rigid plate to concrete with the
tie constraints available in Abaqus (2009). The rigid body
reference nodes associated with the rigid plates was then
used to restrain all degrees of freedom apart from vertical
translation at the loaded end. Loading was applied in a
displacement control mode at the upper rigid plate
reference node to simulate the axial loading condition,
thus applying uniform pressure at the top edges of the
column through the rigid plate.

2.2 Development of material models

2.2.1 Lean duplex stainless steel material

Concrete-infill

According to EN 10088-4 (2009), LDSS Grade EN

B/2

B/2

1.4162 has a minimum 0.2% proof stress (0.2) of 530

MPa and an ultimate tensile strength ranging from

D/2

D/2

700-900 MPa. The generation of non-linear relationship

between stress and strain for stainless steel is given by the

Steel tube

(a) Square

Equations 1 & 2.
(b) T-Shaped

(c) +-Shaped
=

Figure 1. FE model specimens with Square section and NRSs.

)
+ 0.002 (

0.2

0.2

(1)

300

Patton & Singh

= {(

0.2
0.2

) + (1.0 0.2

0.2
0.2

)(

0.2 0.2,1.0

0.2

50
+ 0.2 }

0.2

fcc

40

(2)

0.2

Stress
0

c cc

11

cc
0.005 Strain 0.01

0.015

Figure 2. Equivalent uniaxial stress-strain curve for confined

concrete (Hassanein 2010).

The value of unconfined concrete strain (c) is usually

taken as 0.003 as suggested by ACI specification (1999).
Poisson's ratio (c) in the elastic part of concrete under
uniaxial compression stress ranges from 0.15 to 0.22,
with a representative value of 0.19 to 0.2 according to
ASCE (1982). In the present work, Poisson's ratio for
concrete (c) is taken as 0.2. The confined concrete
compressive strength (fcc) and the corresponding confined
strain (cc) can be calculated from Equations 6 & 7,
respectively, proposed by Mander et al. (1988).
= + 1
(6)

Equation 1, which is the Ramberg-Osgood model

(Ramberg & Osgood 1943), is known to give excellent
agreement with experimental stress-strain data up to the
0.2% proof stress (0.2), however, for higher strains the
formulation generally overestimates the corresponding
stresses. Therefore, Gardner and Ashraf (2006) proposed
the use of an expression for the complete stress-strain
curve for the stainless steel greater than 0.2 (Eq. 2),
which is for compression elements which do not show
any necking phenomena, and have been found to give
good agreement with the measured stress-strain curves in
both tension and compression.
The non-linear stress-strain curve for the LDSS is
represented by Abaqus (2009) with a multi-linear
stress-strain curve. The first part of the multi-linear curve
represents the elastic part up to the proportional limit
stress, with input parameters such as Es and Poisson's
ratio of 0.3. Equations 1 & 2 is used in the current
investigation to generate the stress-strain curve of the
LDSS material. Since the analysis of post-buckling
involves large inelastic strains, the nominal static
stress-strain curve was converted to a true stress and
logarithmic plastic true strain curve. The true stress true

and plastic true strain were calculated using

Equations 4 & 5.
true = nom (1+nom)
(4)
= (1 + )

Unconfined concrete

10

(3)

0.2 +0.002

Confined concrete

rk3fcc
30
fc
0.5
20fcc
1

where, Es is the initial modulus of elasticity of steel, n is

called the nonlinearity index and it is a measure of the
non-linearity of the stress-strain behavior, t0.2 & t1.0 are
the total strains at 0.2 and 1.0, respectively, n0.2,1.0 is the
strain hardening exponent, and E0.2 is the tangent
modulus of the stress-strain curve at the 0.2% proof stress
and is given as:
0.2 =

= (1 + 2

(7)

where, lat is the lateral confining pressure imposed on

the concrete by the steel tube and dependent on the steel
tube yield stress (fy), D/t ratio, cross-sectional shape, and
stiffening means. The approximate values of lat can be
interpolated from the measured values given by Hu et al.
(2003). The value of lat has significant effect for steel
tubes with small D/t ratio. For D/t ratios greater than or
equal to 29.2, the value of lat is taken as zero. The factors
k1 and k2 are taken as 4.1 and 20.5, respectively, (Richart
et al., 1928).
The first part of the curve is the elastic part upto the
proportional limit (0.5fcc). The initial modulus of
elasticity of the confined concrete (Ecc) is highly
correlated to its compressive strength and can be
calculated with reasonable accuracy from Ecc = 4700fcc,
(ACI, 1999):
The second part of the curve is the nonlinear portion,
starting from the proportional limit stress (0.5fcc) to the
confined concrete strength (fcc). The stress-strain
relationship proposed by Saenz (1964) has been widely
adopted as the uniaxial stress-strain curve for concrete
and it has the following form:

(5)

2.2.2 Infill-concrete core material

In CFST columns, the confinement provided by the
steel tube on the concrete depends on the steel
depth-to-thickness (D/t) ratios. A lower value of D/t ratio
provides considerable confinement for the concrete,
thereby improving the strength of CFSTs. However, with
inadequate confinement (i.e. at a higher D/t ratio), there
can be premature failure of the columns due to local
buckling of steel tubes. Mander et al. (1988) defined the
limiting D/t ratio between confined and inadequetly
confined (or unconfined) concrete to be equal to 29.2.
Figure 2 presents the equivalent uniaxial stress-strain
curve for confined concrete, as well as the unconfined
stress-strain concrete curves.

2
3
1 + ( + 2) ( ) (2 1) ( ) + ( )

(8)

where =

; =

( 1)
( 1)2

The constants R and R are taken equal to 4.0 as

recommended by Hu & Schnobrich (1989).
The third part of the confined concrete stressstrain
301

Patton & Singh

curve with > cc, which is used to describe the softening

behavior of the concrete, is the linear descending line
from the confined concrete strength (fcc) to a value lower
than or equal to rk3fcc with the corresponding strain of 11
cc. The material degradation parameter (k3) depends on
the steel D/t ratio and fy, and can be approximately
calculated from the empirical equations given by Hu et al.
(2003).

each other.

2.4

Initial Imperfection

The effect of initial local imperfections on the

CFDSST columns was neglected because the strength
reduction is not significant owing to the delay in the local
buckling of the LDSS tube by the core concrete (Tao et al.
2009). However, initial out-of straightness was
considered in CFDSST slender columns as it is one of the
main effect factors on the ultimate strength (Galambos
1998). The out-of-straightness of the CFDSST slender
columns mainly comes from initial out-of-straightness of
the LDSS tube and was assumed to be same as that of the
experimental tests conducted by (Theofanous & Gardner
2009) for a pinned-ended hollow columns, which is a
fraction of the respective specimen length (i.e. L) of the
order of L/1500. This is in accord with the experimentally
observed imperfection magnitude range i.e. L/44100 to
L/950 for similar investigation on fixed-ended
cold-formed stainless steel slender square columns (Lui
& Young 2003). This imperfection amplitude was applied
at the mid-height of the column in the plane of the weaker
principal axis (determined through eigen buckling
analysis) for all the CFDSST slender columns.

3 = 0.000178 ( ) 0.02492 ( ) + 1.2722

for (17 D/t 70)

(9)
The reduction factor (r) was introduced by Ellobody
et al. (2006) based on the experimental investigation
conducted by Giakoumelis & Lam (2004), to account for
the effect of different concrete strengths. The value of r is
taken as 1.0 for concrete with cube strength (fcu) equal to
30 MPa. While, the value of r is taken as 0.5 for concrete
with fcu greater than or equal to 100 MPa, as given by
Tomii (1991) and Mursi & Uy (2003). Linear
interpolation is used to determine the value of r for
concrete cube strength between 30 and 100 MPa.
In CFST slender columns under axial compressive
loading, the concrete core experiences compressive
loading at initial stage of loading and both tensile and
compressive state at later stage due to bending
deformation on the column. Hence, the concrete damage
plasticity model provided in the material library of
Abaqus (2009) is applied for describing the constitutive
behavior of concrete core based on the concept of
plasticity and damage in all the FE models. This model
has the potential to represent complete nonlinear behavior
of concrete both in tension and compression including
damage parameter. The strength enhancement of the
concrete core under confinement can be achieved by the
definition of the yield surface, and the description of the
plastic behavior coming from the equivalent stress- strain
relationship of the confined concrete.

2.5 Validation of the FE model

2.5.1 Hollow tubular column
The verification of the FE model for the LDSS
material was done through an experimental test
performed by Theofanous & Gardner (2009). However, in
the present FE study, flat material properties have been
used for both the flat and corner portions (i.e. the strength
enhancement in the corner regions by cold
forming-process is neglected).
Figures 3a, b shows a typical deformed shape and a
variation of Pu with effective length (Le) for a
pinned-ended square hollow tubular column from
experimental (Theofanous & Gardner 2009) and FE
results, respectively. It can be seen that the present
modelling approach is able to achieve good agreement
with the experimental values, for Le varying from 300
mm to 2000 mm. As a result, the verification ensures the
accuracy of simulating the slender LDSS hollow tubular
columns.

2.3 Concrete-steel tube interface

The contact between the LDSS tube and the concrete
is modeled through by interface elements which consist
of two matching contact faces of the LDSS tube and
concrete elements. The mechanical property of the
contact interaction is defined along normal and tangential
directions to the interface respectively. The tangential
mechanical property of the contact interaction is
simulated by an isotropic Coulomb friction model, and
the friction between the two faces is maintained as long
as the surfaces remained in contact. The coefficient of
friction between the two faces is taken as 0.25 in the
analysis (Hassanein 2010). The Hard contact relation
(Abaqus 2009) is selected as normal mechanical property.
The contact interface between the concrete and the steel
tube are allowed to separate but not permitted to penetrate

1000
800
Pu (kN)

600
400
Exp - Theofanous and
Garnder (2009)
FE

200
0
0

(a)

302

1000
Le (mm)

(b)

2000

Patton & Singh

Figure 3. Typical FE deformed shape and variation of Pu Vs Le
for a pinned-ended square hollow tubular column (80804),
respectively.

1500
1200
Pu (kN)

2.5.2 Concrete-filled tubular columns

The validity of the FE models were established
through a comparison with various experimental tests
performed on thin-walled steel cross-sections of square
(Ellobody & Young 2006, Uy et al. 2011), T-shaped
(Yang et al. 2010) and rectangular (Hassanein 2010). The
concrete-filled thin-walled steel stub and slender columns
dimensions and material properties are given in Table 1.

600

0
0

10

L/D

30

Dimensions
D
t
L
mm
mm
mm
100
4.1
299
300
100.3
1200
2.76
2400
400
6
1200
330
3.49 315

Steel tube
fy/0.2
MPa
333

Concrete
Strength
MPa
97.2

Also, Figure 5 shows a comparison of Pu with L/D

ratio for thin-walled CFST slender columns. It can be
seen that there is a good agreement between the
developed FE and experimental test results for CFST
slender columns. Hence, the steps followed in the
verification of FE models was used in subsequent FE
analysis of CFDSST slender columns with a high degree
of confidence.

390.3

36.3

2.6 LDSS concrete-filled tubular columns

45
315

180

540

530

47.6
23.2
25
85

99.5

1.93

300
600
1200

363.3

A range of non-dimension slenderness (), defined

through by Equation 10 in accordance with EN1993-1-4
(2006), from 0.05 to 2.0 were considered for the study of
fixed-ended CFDSST columns with NRSs and the
representative square section.

36.3

From the plot of load (P) - axial displacement ()

curves (Fig. 4) obtained from the FE analysis and
experimental tests by Ellobody & Young (2006), Zou et
al. (2012) & Hassanein (2010) for square, L-shape, and
rectangular sections, respectively, it can be seen that good
agreement has been achieved between both FE and
experimental results for thin-walled CFST stub columns.

2500
2000
1500

(10)

where Ncr is the nominal Euler load for concrete-filled

tubular columns representing the ultimate strength of an
ideal elastic column under pure axial compression given
by Equation 10.
=

2 ( +0.6 )
2

(11)

No = Asfy + Acfc
(12)
Where Is and Ic are the moment of inertia for steel tube
and concrete core, respectively.
The dimensions of the CFDSST columns are
summarized in Table 2 (also see Fig. 1).

Exp. (S9)- [44]

Exp (C1) - [20]
RHS3C25 [3]
S9 - FE
FE - C1
FE - RHS3C25

3000

P (kN)

20

Figure 5. Plot of Pu Vs L/D ratio for CFST slender columns.

column dimensions and material properties.

S9
S1 1a
S1 2a
S1 3a
C1
T-4
RHS3C25
RHS3C85
R1 1a
R1 2a
R1 3a

900

300

Table 1. Concrete-filled steel stub and slender CFST

Specimen

Square ( Exp. - Uy et al., 2011)

Rectangular ( Exp. - Uy et al., 2011)
FE - Square
FE - Rectangular

1000

Table 2. Details of concrete-filled stainless steel columns

500

with square and NRHCs sections.

0
0

4
6
(mm)

10
Specimen

Figure 4. P versus curves for CFST stub columns.

SC25

TC25

+C25

303

Dimensions and cross-sectional areas

B
t
L/D
As
Ac
mm mm
mm
mm2
mm2
3
600
600
10
to
23600 336400
100
3
600
600
10
to
23600 246400
100
3
600
600
10
to
23600 246400
100

D
mm

Patton & Singh

The fixed-ended CFDSST slender columns are

labeled such that the cross-sectional shape, concrete cube
strength as well as the column lengths can be identified
from the label. For example, the label SC25 and TC25
defines the square and T-shape CFDSST columns
indicated by the letter S and T, respectively, and the
letter C25 defines the concrete cube strength in MPa
(25 MPa). In line with other researchers (Hassanein 2010,
Zhang & Yang 2012, Zou et al. 2012), the corners of the
CFDSST columns are assumed herein to be exact 900 (i.e
corner radii are not considered).
Based on the thickness of the LDSS tube in the
current investigation, which is fixed at 10.0 mm
throughout the investigation, the lateral confining
(a)
(b)
(c)
pressure (lat) imposed by the LDSS tube is considered
Buckling axis
Buckling axis Buckling axis
negligible in all the CFDSST column FE models, as the
D/t ratios of all the plate elements in the NRSs and the Undeformed
Undeformed
Undeformed
representative square section are found to be greater than
29.2 (Hu et al. 1989). Hence, inadequately confined
concrete models were considered in the FE models as
Deformed
mentioned in Section 2.2.2. Also, the effect of residual Deformed
Deformed
stresses was neglected in all FE models because its effect
(d)
(e)
(f)
on the column capacity was found to be small (Ellobody
Figure
6.
Typical
failure
modes
of
fixed-ended
CFDSST
slender
2007). The generated stress-strain curves, as explained in
columns (a-c) and mid-height local failure shapes (d-f) of
Sections 2.2 were used in the numerical modeling of the
square and NRSs sections at Pu.
LDSS and concrete material.

3.2 Load-axial deformation profile

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

Figures 7a, b shows a typical P versus curves as

well as umu (i.e. mid-height deflection at Pu) for
fixed-ended CFDSST and LDSS hollow tubular slender
columns. As similar nature of P versus and P versus umu
are observed for the other CFDSSTs and LDSS hollow
tubular slender columns, only the square and +-shape
section are plotted, respectively.

The results of the FE analysis for the fixed-ended

CFDSST slender columns were presented in terms of
variation in the load and deformation capacities along
with the failure modes with change in the cross-sectional
shapes. The FE results were compared with the currently
available design standards for stainless steel, such as, the
European specification (EN1994-1-1 2004) for their
applicability in the design of fixed-ended CFDSST
slender columns.

3.1

14000

Typical failure modes

SC25L30000

Pu,CFDSST

12000

Figure 6 shows typical failure modes of fixed-ended

hollow steel and CFDSST slender columns. Only
flexural/global buckling is seen on CFDSST columns at
Pu. At post Pu, only slight local buckling of the LDSS
tubes at mid-height of the columns could be seen due to
the presence of concrete core.

SC0L30000

P (kN)

10000
8000

Pu,Hollow

6000
4000
2000

u,CFDSST

0
0

40

u,Hollow
(mm)
(a)

304

80

120

Patton & Singh

200

10000

T-shape

Pu,CFDSST

+-shape

Pu,Hollow

Pu\Pu,square (%)

P (kN)

8000
6000
4000

+C0L30000
+C0L36000
+C25L30000
+C25L36000

umu,CFDSST

2000

umu,Hollow

0
0

200

um (mm)

400

50

0.0

0.5

1.0

1.5

2.0

(b)
Figure 8. (a) Effect of cross-sectional shape on the Pu Vs
curves, (b) Efficiency of concrete-filled CFDSST NRSs
sections.

Figure 8b shows the efficiency of fixed-ended

concrete-filled CFDSST slender columns of NRSs to
identify the type of relationship with change in the
cross-sectional shape from square section to NRSs. It can
be seen from Figure 8b that, for ~ < 0.5, +-shape
showed a 7 % higher strength, but T-shape showed
similar strength compared to the representative square
section. For 0.5 1.5, a linear increasing trend in
strength is seen with increasing . However, for > 0.5,
T- and +-shape showed a 10 % and 25 % more strength
compared to the representative square section. Thus, in
fixed-ended CFDSST slender columns, change of
cross-sectional shape from square section to NRSs is
significant and can promote the application of thin-walled
LDSS tube.

3.3 Strength capacity

3.4

Figure 8a shows the effect of cross-sectional shapes

on fixed-ended CFDSST slender columns on the Pu
versus (non-dimensional slenderness) curves. It can be
seen from Figure 8a that for all the sections analysed Pu
decreases with increasing . Also, NRSs showed a higher
Pu for all the .

Deformation capacity

Figure 9 shows the effect of cross-sectional shapes

on the axial strain at ultimate load (u) versus curves
for fixed-ended CFDSST slender columns. It can be seen
that the influence of the cross-sectional shapes on the u
becomes less significant with increasing , but becomes
increasingly significant with decreasing . Also, it can be
seen that, the NRSs shows a higher u for all
considered compared to the representative square section,
with +-shape section showing the highest u.

Square
T-shape
+-shape

15000
10000

0.010

5000

0.008

Square
T-shape
+-shape

0.006
0
0.0

0.5

1.0

1.5

2.0

Pu (kN)

Square

It can be seen from Figure 7a that the Pu of CFDSST

column is higher than that of the LDSS hollow tubular
column because of increased flexural rigidity provided by
the concrete core, thereby achieving higher umu by the
CFDSST columns (Fig. 7b). However, u of CFDSST
column is lower than that of the LDSS hollow tubular
column because of higher compression stiffness offered
by the concrete core. It can be seen from Figure 7b that
the larger the column length, the smaller the peak load is
for both the CFDSST and the reference LDSS hollow
tubular columns due to the failure of longer columns
governed principally by flexure and failing to reach the
yield load. Also, with increasing column length, the
post-peak curve becomes milder for both the hollow and
CFDSST column.

20000

100

600

(b)
Figure 7. (a) Typical P Vs curve, (b) P Vs um curve for the
fixed-ended hollow tubular and CFDSST slender columns.

25000

150

0.004
0.002

(a)

0.000
0.0

1.0
1.5
2.0

Figure 9. Effect of cross-sectional shape on the u Vs curves

of fixed-ended CFDSST slender columns.

305

0.5

Patton & Singh

3.5

conservative results for square section and conservative

for T-shape and +-shape sections.

Comparison with design codes

The results from the FE analyses were compared with

the unfactored design strengths predicted using the
European specification (EN1994-1-1 2004). The material
partial safety factors in the design codes are all set to
unity with a purpose to check the feasibility of the design
codes in predicting the load-carrying capacity of the FE
models.

25000
Pu (kN)

3.5.1 Effective area determination

0.125
2

0.0

1.0

25000

1.5

2.0

EC4 - T
T-shape
Flexural buckling

Pu (kN)

20000
15000
10000
5000
0
0.0

0.5

1.0

1.5

2.0

(b)
25000

EC4 - +-shape

20000

+-shape

Pu (kN)

Flexural buckling

15000
10000

(14)

5000

where p is the element slenderness as defined by

EN1993-1-4 (2006) and calculated by Equation 15.

0.5

(a)

0.5

but 1.0

10000

fy is the material yield stress.

The effective area (Ae) for Class 4 section is
calculated using Equation 13.
Ag nst(c - Be)
(13)
where ns = number of sides of the column; Be =
effective width (Be=c). The expressions used for
computing the reduction factor () for stainless steel due
to the effect of local buckling by EN1993-1-4 (2006) is
given by Equation 14.
0.772

15000

5000

The LDSS tube specimens considered are all slender

sections, i.e. Class 4 sections as per EN1993-1-4 (2006),
where design strengths are evaluated based on the
effective area approach. Effective area (Ae) of the
cross-section is used to account for the reduction in the
resistance due to the effects of local buckling. The
cross-section slenderness (c/t) was defined as in
accordance with EN1993-1-4 (2006), where, c is the flat
element width, t is the element thickness and
235 0
=(
)
210000

EC4 - S
Flexural buckling
Square

20000

0
0.0

0.5

1.0

1.5

2.0

( )
28.4

(15)

(c)
Figure 10. Comparison of Pu with for fixed-ended CFDSST

where k = plate buckling coefficient conservatively

taken as 4.0.

slender columns.

3.5.2 Design strength

The design strengths for the fixed-ended CFDSST
slender columns were considered as concentrically loaded
compression members and Le was assumed to be L/2. The
design strengths based on the EN1994-1-1 (2004)
specification is defined by Equation 16.
(16)
Pu,EN1994-1-1 = No

4 CONCLUSION
The FE modeling of fixed-ended CFDSST slender
columns of NRSs and representative square sections
subjected to pure axial compressive loading are presented.
Variations in buckling strength with changes in the
cross-sectional shapes were studied by considering equal
LDSS material cross-sectional areas (or equal LDSS
material consumption), thereby giving a reduction in the
concrete core area of the NRSs by about 36 % compared
to the representative square section, over a range of
column lengths. The following conclusions are drawn
within the limitation of this study:
a) The Pu of CFDSST columns is higher than that of the

3.5.3 Comparison of FE strengths with design

strengths
Figure 10 shows a plot of Pu versus for
fixed-ended CFDSST slender columns with NRSs and the
representative square section. It is found that the design
standard based on the EN1994-1-1 (2004) showed over

306

Patton & Singh

2)

3)

4)

5)

6)

stub columns. Journal of Constructional Steel Research 62:

706715.
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EN.
EN 10088-4. 2009. Stainless steels-part 4: Technical delivery
conditions for sheet/plate and strip of corrosion resisting
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Sons Inc.
Gardner, L. 2005. The use of stainless steel in structures.
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4555.
Gardner, L. & Ashraf, M. 2006. Structural design for non-linear
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Hassanein, M.F. 2010. Numerical modeling of concrete-filled
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of circular concrete-filled lean duplex stainless steel tubular
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Hu, H.T., Huang, C.S., Wu, M.H. & Wu, Y.M. 2003. Nonlinear
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lean duplex stainless steel columns. Journal of
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Patton, M.L. & Singh, K.D. 2012. Numerical modelling of lean
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+-shaped sections under pure axial compression-a finite

reference hollow steel tubular columns because of

increased flexural rigidity provided by the concrete
core, thereby achieving higher umu by the CFDSST
columns. However, the u of CFDSST column is
lower than that of the reference LDSS hollow tubular
column because of a higher elastic compression
stiffness of the latter due to concrete core.
For all the section analysed Pu decreases with
increasing . Also, NRSs showed a higher Pu for all
the .
For ~ < 0.5, +-shape showed a 7 % higher strength,
but T-shape showed similar strength compared to the
representative square section. For 0.5 1.5, a
linear increasing trend in strength is seen with
increasing . However, for > 0.5, T- and +-shape
showed a 10 % and 25 % more strength compared to
the representative square section.
In fixed-ended CFDSST slender columns, change of
cross-sectional shape from square section to NRSs is
significant and can promote the application of
thin-walled LDSS tube.
The influence of the cross-sectional shapes on the u
becomes less significant with increasing , but
becomes increasingly significant with decreasing .
Also, it can be seen that, the NRSs shows a higher u
for all considered compared to the representative
square section, with +-shape section showing the
highest u.
It is found that the design standard based on the
European specification showed over conservative
results for square section and conservative for T-shape
and +-shape sections.

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308

11th International Conference on

Advances in Steel and Concrete Composite Structures
Tsinghua University, Beijing, China, December 3-5, 2015

DESIGN OF AXIALLY LOADED COLD-FORMED STEEL

GAPPED BACK-TO-BACK CHANNEL BUILT-UP SECTIONS
USING THICKNESS REDUCTION METHOD (TReM)
T. C. H. Tinga& H. H.Laua
a

Department of Civil & Construction Engineering, Curtin University Sarawak Malaysia, Miri, Malaysia

E-mails: tina.ting@curtin.edu.my, lau.hieng.ho@curtin.edu.my

ABSTRACT
Keywords:
Cold-formed steel, Built-up
sections, Direct strength method,
Effective width method.

Back to back gapped built-up section is similar to the usual back to back built-up section but has
greater lateral stiffness than individual member due to larger cross section. Guidance for the
design of such complex section is limited in the current design codes. There is also lack of
literature for the design calculation of gapped back-to-back channels built-up section. Due to
this, designers usually resort to assumption that it acts as two individual members without
modification to its geometry in designing gapped built up section. However this approach may
not reflect the true behaviour of the gapped built-up section. Thus, the use of Thickness
Reduction Method (TReM) for gapped built-up section is proposed in this paper.

Moreover, the interaction between the elements of the

cross-section is not accounted for. Thus, the DSM was
proposed. However, determination of buckling stresses in
DSM using Finite Strip Analysis software like CUSFM
or THINWALL is challenging when dealing with
complex cross section like gapped built up section. The
CUFSM model can only account for constant cross
section. In which, the effects of fastener spacing is
modeled as continuous restrained in CUFSM software
rather than discrete restrained as in actual built-up
section.

1 INTRODUCTION
Back to back cold-formed steel channel sections are
becoming increasingly popular for use as compression
member. Normally, built-up channel section composed of
two or more structural members connected together
mechanically using fasteners such as self-drilling screws.
Although, similar to the usual built-up section, gapped
built-up section has gaps in between (See Figure 1).
Thus, gapped built-up section has greater lateral stiffness
than individual section due to larger cross section. In the
current design standards, when using the Effective Width
Method (EWM) and the Direct Strength Method (DSM),
these cross sectional properties are only accounted by
modified slenderness ratio.

Therefore, designers make assumptions in designing

gapped built up section. It is common to design it by
assuming that the gapped built up sections acts as two
individual members without consideration to the
geometry changes along the length of the column where
the gaps are. However, this approach may not reflect the
true behaviour of the gapped built-up sections. In this
paper, use of Thickness Reduction Method (TReM) is
proposed for the gapped built-up section using CUFSM.

2 LITERATURE REVIEW
Georgieva, Schueremans and Pyl (2012) studied the
complex built up sections composed from Z-sections.
They pointed out that strength predictions using the North
American Specification (NAS) and the Eurocode yielded
conservative results compared to the actual test results.
The favourable effect of connecting two Z-sections

Figure 1: Gapped Built-up Section in Roof Truss.

EWM involves tedious calculation to obtain the

effective area especially for complex cross section.

309

Ting & Lau

together is not reflected in the strength prediction

calculated using these design standards. Furthermore,
they pointed out that the design of built-up sections relies
heavily on the sections cross sectional properties which
cannot be accurately derived. Therefore the strength
prediction relies heavily on the assumptions made. This is
also true for gapped built-up section because the cross
section is more complex and its geometry is not constant
along the length of the section due to discrete restraints.
The first attempt to propose a calculation for section
properties of gapped built-up section was carried out by
Johnston (1971) in his study on the behaviour and design
of gapped back-to-back channels built-up columns. His
study showed that if the gapped built-up columns are
assumed to act as an integral, the cross sectional area
could be assumed as the sum of the two individual
columns that make up the gapped built-up columns. With
that, they proposed an equation to calculate the second
moment of inertia of the member with gap. He also
showed that there are four buckling modes for gapped
built-up columns with end ties depending on the end
connections (Figure 2).

Figure 3: Models for Gapped Built-up Column in Rondal &

Niazi (1990).

The design method used in Rondal and Niazi (1990)

is based on the Eurocode 3 design methods for
cold-formed steel and for battened built-up columns.
They have developed an equivalent slenderness equation
for gapped built-up columns. The equivalent slenderness
equation utilised iterative process to come out with an
approximated solution. Moment inertia of the whole
built-up column and moment inertia of an individual
column in the built-up column are both important
parameters in the iterative process. Their proposed design
method resulted in 1.25 averaged ratio of experimental to
theoretical results with a standard deviation of 0.11. Their
results were later evaluated by the finite element model
proposed by Dubina, Zaharia and Ungureanu (2002).
Their study shows that Rondal and Niazis method
predictions using Eurocode 3 is conservative for
specimen with larger connector spacing. This also shows
that cross sectional properties is important in predicting
the strength of gapped built-up columns.

3 DESIGN METHOD

(a) Pin-pin (b) Pin-pin

(c) Fix-pin
(d) Fix-fix
Figure 2: Buckling modes of Gapped Built-up Columns
illustrated by Johnston (1971).

3.1 Design of Built-up Sections

In the Direct Strength Method (DSM), the elastic
buckling loads (Pcrl, Pcrd, and Pcre) are required to
calculate the ultimate design strength of a column. The
elastic buckling loads are either determined through
manual calculations (DSM I) or using finite strip analysis
software (DSM II) such as, the Cornell University Finite
Strip Method (CUFSM), and THINWALL. Direct
Strength Method Design Guide (AISI 2006) proposed
two different approaches for modelling built-up columns
formed from two channels connected back-to-back, to
accommodate the limitations of CUFSM software. They
are:

Based on the buckling modes and equations proposed

by Johnston (1971), Rondal and Niazi (1990) conducted a
study on gapped back-to-back channels built-up columns
with (i) batten plates and (ii) short channels as
intermediate fasteners using the models as illustrated in
Figure 3 for analysis.

(i)

modelled as a rigidly connected back-to-back

channel, or

(ii)

310

modelled as two individual lipped channels

Ting & Lau

According to the design guide (AISI 2006), modelling

the back-to-back channels as a rigidly connected section
provides the upper bound model, whereas the latter
provides the lower bound model. Thus, there is a need to
enhance the modelling of back-to-back channels built-up
sections to give an improved strength prediction of
built-up sections.

= distance of the gap

xc

= distance of the centroid to the web centreline of

individual channel

A recent research by Zhang and Young (2012)

proposed to model back-to-back channels built-up section
as an I-shape with different web thickness in the finite
strip analysis. Several web thicknesses were chosen
arbitrarily to model the I-shape. The web thicknesses are
verified by trial and error approach using test results to
determine the thickness that provides the best estimation
of the column strength. A contact area of the web of 1.2
times the plate thickness was found to be conservative.

= material thickness

Iyc

= moment of inertia of individual channel

For TReM, the gapped back-to-back channels built-up

section is modelled as an I in the CUFSM software as
shown in Figure 5. The pre-programmed template in
CUFSM software is not available for the modelling of I
shape. Therefore, coordinates and elements of the cross
section need to be individually plotted. The thickness of
the cross section is the material thickness of the test
specimens e.g. 1.2mm.The effective web thickness for the
CUFSM modelling, denoted as trw in Figure 6, needs to
be determined to allow for the gap and the connector
spacing of gapped built-up section.

From these literatures, a modified method, Thickness

Reduction method (TReM), adopting the concept of
reduced web thickness is proposed.

61
62
63
64
65
66
67
68
69

3.2 Thickness Reduction Method (TReM)

60

59

58

57
25
56
24
55
23
54
22
21

26

27

28

29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37

20

The TReM proposes modifications to the web

thickness and enhanced the finite strip analysis model to
design gapped back-to-back channels built-up section.
Figure 4 shows the notations used for gapped
back-to-back channels built-up section.

19

t rw

18
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46

47

48

49

17
53
16
52
15
51
14
50
13

12

11

1
2
3
4
5
9876

10

Figure 5: CUFSM Model for the Analysis of GBU Columns.

In accordance with the AISI Specification (2003), the

effectiveness of a web element is bweb=a. The
determination of the effective width of the web, a is
similar to part of the EWM.
where

1 0.22

Figure 4: Notations for Gapped Back-to-back channels Built-up

Section.

Gapped back-to-back channels built-up section has

higher moment of inertia due to the gap in between the
two individual channels. The following equation
proposed by Johnston (1971) is used to calculate the
moment of inertia of gapped back-to-back channels
built-up column, I yGBU for this research.

Ac w 2 xc t
2 I yc
2

w
w

where

Fne
Fcr

I yGBU

(3)

When 0.673, = 1.0, then, bweb = a.

The slenderness factor,

where
Ac

(4)

= cross sectional area of channel

311

w , can be rewritten as:

(5)

Ting & Lau

1.052 w Fne

k t E

BACK-TO-BACK C-CHANNELS COLUMN

(6)

Determine minimum elastic buckling stresses, Fe from (i)

Flexural buckling, and (ii) Torsional buckling.

(EWM)

Flexural Buckling, Fe1

From the above equation, the slenderness factor, w is

influenced by the ratio of actual width to thickness, (w/t).

Torsional Buckling, Fe2

Determine nominal buckling stresses, Fn from (i)

Inelastic buckling, and (ii) Elastic buckling.

The web to thickness ratio of the built-up column is

a/2t. By considering the effectiveness of the web in
accordance with AISI specification, the effective web to
thickness ratio is a/trw, where trw is the effective
thickness of the web. Thus, it can be expressed as:

Determine elastic or inelastic buckling from

c
When c 1.5
Inelastic
Buckling, Fn

Fy
Fe

When c 1.5
Elastic
Buckling, Fn

Reduction factor

a
a

2t t rw

(Proposed)

(7)

Model as an I with trw as web thickness in

CUFSM. Determine buckling load ratio for (i)
local buckling, and (ii) distortional buckling.

From the above expression, the effective web

thickness proposed as the reduced web thickness, trw is
determined by:

t rw

a
a

2t

Determine reduced web thickness, trw

Local Buckling, Py/Pcrl

Determine buckling load ratio for global

buckling according to DSM by manual
calculation (DSM I) for BU column.

Distortional Buckling, Py/Pcrd

Global Buckling, Py/Pcre

Determine nominal buckling strengths for (i) local buckling,

(ii) distortional buckling and (iii) global buckling

(8)

Local Buckling, Pnl

(DSM)

where

Distortional Buckling, Pnd

Global Buckling, Pne

Determine axial compressive strength, P n

Pn = min (Pnl, Pnd, Pne)

(DSM)

Figure 6: Built-up Columns Design Procedure using TReM.

= a reduction factor

= the clear width of web

4 EXPERIMENTAL PROGRAM
This experiment program covers testing on 48 gapped
back-to-back built-up columns. These specimens are
designed with various member slenderness ratios, and
screw spacing to study the behaviour of the built-up
columns.

= the materials thickness of a built-up section

From the above equations, the reduction factor
varies depending on the dimensions, fasteners spacing,
and end conditions of the specimens. Thus, the reduced
web thickness, trw, accommodates all these governing
factors.
t

The test specimens were brake-pressed from

aluminium/zinc-coated grade G550 structural steel sheets
of 1.2mm thickness. The material properties of the
specimens were determined by tensile coupon tests. From
the test results, Youngs modulus of 207.04GPa and a
yield stress of 560MPa were used for this study.

3.2.1 Design Procedures

Figure 6 shows the summary of the processes in the
determination of the design strength of a gapped
back-to-back channels built-up column according to the
TReM.

There are two types of cross sectional dimensions for

this experimental investigation, differentiated by their
web width of 75mm and 90mm. Dimensions of the test
specimens were selected with reference to the
dimensional limits proposed by the AISIs specification.
The gapped back-to-back channel built-up columns
specimens were tested at different fastener spacing with
s/L<0.25 having three intermediate fasteners, and s/L>0.5
having no intermediate fastener. Test specimens with
three intermediate fasteners are within the spacing
requirement of the AISIs specification, whereas, test
specimens with no intermediate fastener are beyond the
spacing requirement. The cross-sections were analysed by
CUFSM software to determine suitable lengths that fall

The yellow box shows design calculations which

involve the determination of the effective web in
accordance with the AISI Specifications (2003). This is
also part of the design procedure for the EWM. The
effective web is then used to determine the reduced web
thickness, trw. This thickness is required as input for the
web thickness of the I-shape model in CUFSM software.
The buckling load ratios determined from analysing the
CUFSM model are then used to determine nominal
buckling strength and finally the axial compressive
strength.

312

Ting & Lau

within the categories of stub, short, intermediate and

slender columns.
1

The test specimens were labelled such that the type of

section, screw spacing, nominal length of specimen and
specimen number were expressed by the label. The type
of section is denoted as GBU for gapped back-to-back
channel built-up column. The intermediate fastener
spacing is denoted as S with spacing. The column length
is stated last in the label as L together with the nominal
column length. Figure 7 shows a sample of the labels
used.
5

Fastener
Spacing 50mm

Gapped Back-to-back
C-channels Built-up
with 75mm web width

GBU75

Specimen
Length 300mm

S50 L300 -1

2
6
3

Specimen 1

Figure 7: Specimens Label

There were 16 gapped back-to-back channels built-up

stub columns test specimens. The flat-ended stub
columns were casted to end plates using high strength
mortar and are tested on flat ends. The test setup is as
shown in Figure 8. The ends of the specimens were
concreted into 25mm thick steel moulds to ensure that the
specimens stayed in position throughout the testing.

Figure 9: Test Setup for Pinned-end Column

5 RESULTS & DISCUSSION

Evaluation of the TReM on the gapped back-to-back
channels built-up columns was conducted using results
from the GBU75 test series and the GBU90 test series.
Figure 10 shows the comparison of compression test, and
the TReM calculated results for GBU75 and GBU90
gapped back-to-back channels built-up columns.

2
3

GBU90
GBU75 L300

GBU75 L500

Figure 8: Test Setup for Fixed-end Column

There were 32 gapped back-to-back C-channels

columns at length of 500mm, 1000mm and 2000mm
tested between pinned end conditions. Pinned end
conditions were achieved by means of fabricated hinge
assemblies at the top and bottom ends. All test specimens
were also cast into 25mm steel moulds at the top and
bottom end using high strength mortar. The cast
specimens were then locked into the pinned end
assemblies as illustrated in Figure 9.

GBU75 L1000
GBU75 L2000

Figure 10: Comparison of Test Results with TReM Calculated

Results for GBU75 and GBU90

313

Ting & Lau

overly
conservative
i.e.
the
GBU75L1000,
GBU75L2000. Overall, the TReM calculated results are
conservative with a mean of 1.40 and a standard
deviation of 0.64when compared to the test results. The
TReM calculated results are mostly conservative for
longer columns with large fastener spacing beyond the
spacing requirements.

As seen in Figure 10, the TReM calculated results are

unconservative in predicting the ultimate strength of stub
columns (i.e. L300) from the GBU75 test series. This is
because the calculation assumed fixed end condition
whereas the columns were tested on flat end condition.
The TReM calculated results are conservative for all
other slender columns and are most conservative for
columns with 1000mm length. Moreover, for the
GBU75L500 and GBU75L1000 columns with no
intermediate fastener, the TReM calculated results are
overly conservative because the fastener spacing is
beyond the spacing requirements.

6 CONCLUSION
There are currently limited design provisions for the
gapped back-to-back C-channels built-up columns.
Therefore, an enhanced design method known as TReM
is proposed. The TReM minimized tedious effective
width calculation from EWM, and reduced transient
assumptions in DSM when using CUFSM software, but
at the same time incorporates the advantages of both
methods. The applicability of the TReM is evaluated on
gapped built-up back-to-back C-channel columns. In
general, TReM calculated results correlate well with the
strength of the tested gapped back-to-back channels
built-up columns although conservatively. The TReM
could serves as an improved method to estimate the
capacity of these built-up columns.

For the GBU90, the TReM is conservative for all

columns. The TReM is more conservative in predicting
the GBU90 compared to the GBU75 because the
torsional buckling strength for gapped back-to-back
channels built-up column is calculated using section
properties of normal back-to-back channels built-up
column. The gapped back-to-back channels built-up
column is conservatively assumed to have warping
constant and radius of gyration of normal back-to-back
channels built-up because the cross section of the gapped
built-up column is not constant along its length.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

Figure 11 shows the comparison of the TReM

calculated results with compression test results for
gapped back-to-back channels built-up columns.

The authors are grateful to EcoSteel Sdn Bhd. for

providing the test specimens. The research work
described in this paper was supported by industry
research grant from EcoSteel Sdn Bhd.
REFERENCES
American Iron and Steel Institute. 2003. North American
Specification for the Design of Cold-Formed Steel
Structural Members. 2001 edition.
American Iron and Steel Institute. 2006. Direct Strength Method
(DSM) Design Guide. CF06-1.
Dubina D., R. Zaharia, and V. Ungureanu. 2002. Behaviour of
Built-up Columns made of C sections Connected with
Bolted C Stitches. International Colloquium on Stability
and Ductility of Steel Structures (SDSS 2002) 179 186.
AkadmiaiKiad, Budapest.
Georgieva, I., L. Schueremans, and L. Pyl. 2012. Composed
columns from cold-formed steel Z-profiles: experiments and
code-based predictions of the overall compression capacity.
Engineering Structures. 37: 125-134.
Johnston, B. G. 1971. Spaced steel columns.Journal of the
Structural Division, 97(5): 1465 1479.

Figure 11: Comparison of Proposed TReM Calculated Results

with Test Results for GBU75 and GBU90

Rondal, J. and M. Niazi. 1990. Stability of built-up beams and

columns with thin-walled members. Journal of
Constructional Steel Research. 16(4): 329 - 335.

Figure 11 shows that the TReM calculated results are

close to 1.0 for shorter columns of the GBU75L300,
GBU75L500,
GBU90L300,
GBU90L500,
and
GBU90L1000 test series. However, for longer columns in
the GBU75 test series, the TReM calculated results are

Zhang, J. H. and B. Young. 2012. Compression tests of

cold-formed steel I-shaped open sections with edge and web
stiffeners. Thin-Walled Structures. 52: 1-1.

314

11th International Conference on

Advances in Steel and Concrete Composite Structures
Tsinghua University, Beijing, China, December 3-5, 2015

EXPERIMENTAL
INVESTIGATION
ON
THIN-WALLED
CIRCULAR CFT COLUMN MADE USING COLD ROLLED
STEEL PLATES
K. Baskara & M. Velmurugana
a

Department of Civil Engineering, National Institute of Technology, Trichy, India

E-mail: kbaskar@nitt.edu
ABSTRACT
Keywords:
Steel-Concrete; Composite
column; CFT; In filled Tubes;
Cold formed; Thin walled.

This paper deals with an experimental investigation on thin-walled circular Concrete Filled
Tubular (CFT) columns. Six numbers of CFT columns with three different D/t ratios such as
50, 75 and 90 and, two different l/D ratios such as 10 and 20 are considered in the present
experimental investigation to study the ultimate load behavior of such columns. Another set of
bare steel circular columns, without any concrete fill, corresponding to the composite columns
are tested as reference columns in view of comparing the behavior of thin-walled CFT columns.
Due to the non-availability of structural steel column sections with the considered larger D/t
ratios, the tubular sections are made using thin cold rolled steel sheets connected by a
longitudinal seem weld. In view of considering the short and long column effect, the two
different l/D ratios are considered. The columns are tested under monotonic axial load until
collapse. The load-deflection behavior is studied. It is noticed that the bare steel columns of
l/D=10 and l/D=20 show two different distinct modes of failure. The shorter bare steel
columns show a multi-fold diamond shape failure at the end. A repeated loose and re-gaining
behavior is found through the load-deflection curves of the short columns. The energy
absorption capacity is found to be more in the case of short bare steel columns. The long bare
steel columns failed in a global buckling mode and at the ultimate stage an elephant foot failure
was observed at the ends of columns. A larger difference in behavior was noticed between the
short and long bare steel columns. Further experiments are carried out on concrete filled
columns and the behavior is compared with those that of bare steel columns. From the
comparison of experimental results, it is noticed that, the short CFT columns provide large
stiffness and larger ductile behavior compared to the long CFT columns. At the ultimate load,
the short CFT columns subjected to local buckling failure that is occurred at different heights.
The longer CFT columns show a local as well as global buckling of failure. The thinner wall
of the CFT column shows a de-bonding between the two materials during the local buckling of
the steel tube. This paper discusses the complete details of the experiments and the results
comparison. Also, it provides the comparison between the predicted ultimate load with the
theoretical values for the thin walled CFT columns.

member subjected to a full plasticization under bending.

Due to the benefit of the composite action of the two
materials, the CFT column provides excellent structural
properties and increases the stability of the column.

1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 Advantages of CFT columns
The use of CFT columns in the contemporary
construction is increasing throughout the world due to its
better performance characteristics compared to the other
types of columns such as reinforced concrete columns
and structural steel columns. The concrete core in the
CFT columns provides higher strength and stiffness and,
reduces the potential inward local buckling of steel tubes.
The steel tube in CFT columns acts as a longitudinal and
lateral reinforcement for the concrete core. It resists
tension, bending and shear, and also provides
confinement to the concrete. Since the steel tube of the
CFT column is located at the outer most fibre, the tubular

1.2 Review of past studies

For many decades, extensive researches are being
carried out worldwide by many different researchers and
are reported. Majority of the experimental study are
carried out on CFT columns made using hot rolled
sections with a smaller D/t ratio of tubular members.
Some of the reported works with larger D/t ratios are
discussed in view of extending further study on
thin-walled CFT columns. Ghose (1977) carried out an
experimental study on two 47ft (14m) long, 13in (33cm)

315

Baskar & Velmurugan

load on concrete alone or the load on both sections

simultaneously. The bond strength was found to be no
influence on the behavior of CFT member when the steel
and concrete sections were loaded simultaneously. On
the contrary, for the columns with the load applied only
to the concrete section, the bond strength highly affected
the confinement effects and, consequently, the
mechanical behavior of the columns.
Georgios & Lam (2004) tested 15 short circular
columns of D/t ratio ranging from 22.9 to 30.5 and with a
l/D ratio of 2.63. The results showed that for
high-strength concrete, the peak load was achieved for
small shortening ( 3.0 mm) whereas for normal
concrete the ultimate load was gained with large
displacement. For high-strength concrete, the variation
between Non-greased and greased was 17%.
Liu (2006) studied the numerical and analytical
behavior of rectangular CFT columns subjected to
eccentric loading.
Gupta et al. (2007) studied the behavior of circular
concentrically loaded concrete filled steel tube columns
till failure. D/t ratio ranging from 25 to 39 and l/D ratio
ranging from 3 to 8 was considered. Concrete with
different percentage of fly ash content was employed in
the study and the effect due to fly ash was reported. The
study concluded that the load carrying capacity decreases
with the increase in % volume of fly ash up to 20% but it
again increases at 25% fly ash volume in concrete. It
was reported that for smaller D/t ratio, a steel tube
provides good confinement effect to concrete.
Liang (2008) studied the short CFT beam-columns
subjected to axial load and bi-axial bending numerically.
Kumar & Goto (2008) presented a numerically stable
finite element model for partially filled CFT columns.
Choi et.al. (2010) studied the square CFT columns
and proposed simplified strength equations. Chithira &
Baskar (2011) studied 30 CFT columns of D/t ratio
varying from 21 to 29 and l/D ratio varying from 5 to 20.
In their study the effect of shear connector under
eccentric load was studied and found effective in respect
stiffness and ductility.
It is evident from the literature that many researches
are being carried out on CFT columns with various D/t
ratios and various l/D ratios. In many of the cases, the
l/D is limited to 5 and in certain researches it is limited to
10. Only very few researches are carried out with larger
l/D ratios. Larger D/t ratio of tubular sections may lead
to economical cross-section and may reduce the self
weight of structure. Therefore it is very much essential
to carryout research with larger D/t and l/D ratios.

diameter tubular columns with and without concrete

infill. It was concluded that the concrete increases the
load and moment carrying capacity without increasing the
size of the column. Prion and Boehme (1989) carried out
an experimental investigation on CFT columns having a
D/t ratio of 92 and reported that the effect of confinement
in the concrete was noticeable when the slenderness ratio
(l/D) of the CFT member is less than 15. It was also
concluded that there is no appreciable difference in load
carrying capacity between the long and short specimens
and between loading on the whole section and loading on
concrete alone.
A series of experiments had been carried out by
OShea & Bridge (1996) on the behavior of circular
thin-walled
steel
tubes.
The
tubes
had
diameter-to-thickness ratio (D/t) ranging between 55 and
200. These experiments include (i) bare steel tubes, (ii)
tubes with unbounded concrete loaded through steel
section alone, (iii) tubes with concrete infill loaded
through the steel and concrete simultaneously and, (iv)
tubes with concrete infill loaded through concrete alone.
The experimental results were compared with the design
standards and specifications. From the experimental
results it was showed that the concrete infill for the
thin-walled circular steel tubes has little effect on the
local buckling strength of the steel tubes.
OShea & Bridge (1997) further carried out
experiments on rectangular and square columns and
concluded that the concrete infill can improve the local
buckling strength for rectangular and square sections.
Kilpatrick & Rangan (1997) verified the applicability of
the Eurocode 4 for design of CFTs with high-strength
concrete. Concrete strength ranging from 23MPa to
103MPa was employed in the study. The mean ratio of
measured/predicted column strength was reported as 1.10
with a standard deviation of 0.13.
Brauns (1998) stated that the effect of confinement
exists at high stress level when structural steel acts in
tension and concrete in compression. OShea & Bridge
(2000) estimated the strength of CFTs under different
loading conditions with small eccentricities. All the
specimens were short with a l/D ratio of 3.5 and a D/t
ratio between 60 and 220. The internal concrete had a
compressive strength of 50, 80 and 120MPa. From the
experimental investigation, it is concluded that the degree
of confinement offered by a thin-walled circular steel
tube to the internal concrete is dependent upon the
loading condition. The greatest confinement occurs for
axially loaded thin-walled CFT columns when the load is
applied only through the concrete and when the steel tube
act only as a pure circumferential restraint.
Mathias & Kent (2002) carried out a study on
composite columns having D/t ratio 33 and l/D ratio 4.
From the study it was showed that the mechanical
behavior of the column was greatly influenced by the
load application point such as load on steel tube alone,

2 EXPERIMENTAL STUDY
2.1 Parameters considered
The limiting D/t ratio of CFT column is
recommended by Euro code - 4 (EC-4) and Reinforced
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Baskar & Velmurugan

2.3 Geometrical property

Concrete Standard of Architectural Institute of Japan

(2001).
According to Steel Reinforced Concrete
Standard of Architectural Institute of Japan (AIJ), as cited
in Shosuke and Keigo (2003), the Limiting D/t ratio shall
be
D 23500

t
F

The length, diameter and thickness of the specimens

are listed in Table 1. Short thin walled steel tubes are
labeled as S and Long thin walled steel tubes are
labeled as L. To differentiate the bare steel tube and
in-filled steel tube the letter H and C are suffixed to the S
and L. SH stands for short hollow steel column and SC
stands for short concrete filled steel tubular columns vice
versa. The first number in the specimen ID refers to the
serial number of D/t ratio and the second number in the
specimen ID refers to the l/D ratio serial number.

(1)

Where F= Standard strength to determine allowable

stress of steel (Smaller of yield stress and 0.7 times
tensile strength (MPa). As per the EC-4, the limiting D/t
ratio shall be calculated as

Table 1. Geometrical properties of specimens.

D
235
.
.(2)
90
t
fy
Considering the actual properties of the materials
used in the present study (section 2.4.1), the D/t
recommended by AIJ is calculated as 143 and the D/t
recommended by EC-4 is calculated as 75
The structural steel tubular sections recommended in
Indian Standard Code of Practice for the Structural Steel
Tubes, IS1161-1998, are available up to a D/t of 50. But,
EC-4 allows the use of tubes up to a D/t of 75 for the
considered grade of steel and the AIJ allow the use of D/t
up to 143 for tubular columns.
In practice, the
composite columns employed in highway piers are made
with larger D/t and lower l/D. In buildings and
structures, the columns would be of larger D/t and larger
l/D. According to AIJ the l/D ratio of a CFT member is
limited to 50. Considering all these factors, three
different D/t ratios such as 50, 75, 90 and two different
l/D such as 10 and 20 are considered in the present
experimental investigation.

Specimen
ID
SH.1.1
SC.1.1
SH.2.1
SC.2.1
SH.3.1
SC.3.1
LH.1.2
LC.1.2
LH.2.2
LC.2.2
LH.3.2
LC.3.2

Diameter,
D (mm)
75.00
75.00
78.75
78.75
94.50
94.50
75.00
75.00
78.75
78.75
94.50
94.50

Thickness
, t (mm)
1.50
1.50
1.05
1.05
1.05
1.05
1.50
1.50
1.05
1.05
1.05
1.05

Length,
l (mm)
750.00
750.00
787.50
787.50
945.00
945.00
1500.00
1500.00
1575.00
1575.00
1890.00
1890.00

D/t

l/D

50
75

10

90
50
75

20

90

2.4 Material property

2.4.1 Structural steel properties
Cold formed steel sheets of 1 mm thick, conforming
to IS 513-2008 are used to fabricate the steel columns.
Standard Coupon test is performed as per ASTM
A370-03A to find the yield strength, ultimate strength
and StressStrain behavior. The yield strength of the
sheets is found to be 280.96 MPa.

2.2 Fabrication of test specimen

Structural steel sections for the considered parameters
are not readily available so it is proposed to fabricate the
test specimens using the cold rolled thin sheets. For short
columns manually operated cold rolling machine is used
to fabricate the specimens and for long columns it is cold
rolled manually using the templates. The longitudinal
seam is welded using TIG welder. The test specimens
are carefully examined for any out of plane imperfection.
The ends of the tubes were milled square and flat. The
entire fabricated specimen is as shown in Figure 1.

2.4.2 Concrete properties

Concrete were produced using only commercially
available materials with normal mixing and curing
techniques. Three trial mix designs had been prepared
before the start of the experiments. Standard cube tests
were used to determine the compressive strength for the
concrete in accordance to the Indian Standards. The 28th
day cube compressive strength is found to be 50 MPa.

2.5 Instrumentation
Two linear variable differential transducers (LVDTs)
were placed in diametrically opposite positions equally
spaced at each side of the column to monitor the axial
deformation. A 500 kN capacity load cell is used to
measure the applied load. All the readings were recorded
Figure 1. Typical view of fabricated test specimens.

317

Baskar & Velmurugan

For SH.2.1 column, ultimate load of 53.36kN reached

for an axial deformation of 3.08mm. After attaining the
first peak load the capacity of column got reduced to
14.71kN while the top end of the column is started to fold
in inward direction. After the stabilization of the load,
the capacity of the column again reached to a load of
approximately 55% of initial peak load and again got
reduced approximately to 35% of the initial peak load.
The loss and regain cycle is continued for totally 7 cycles.
It is observed that the numbers of fold is equal to the
number of 55% peak load i.e. 7 numbers. The final length
of the column was 603mm. It is observed that only
multifold diamond shape failure occurred at top of the
column and the other areas are unaffected.
Similar multifold diamond failure was observed by
Velmurugan & Muralikannan (2007) during their
experimental investigation of annealed steel tubular
columns under axial load. This formation of multimode
diamond failure enables those columns to be used in the
area where the energy absorbing requirement are high
e.g. Auto mobile industry. Typical view of the failure
mode observed in the present study and the earlier study
by Velmurugan & Muralikannan (2007) is shown in
Figure-4.

once in every second, using Data logger connected to a

PC.

2.6 Experimental setup

Testing of the columns was carried out using a 2000
kN capacity automatically operated Hydraulic Jack. The
specimens were positioned over rigid steel plates on both
ends to distribute the applied load uniformly over the
concrete and steel. The typical experimental setup is
shown in Figure 2. The load was applied monotonically
until the failure of specimen.

Figure 2. Typical experimental setup.

3 EXPERIMENTAL TEST RESULTS

a. Cold formed steel

(Present study)

3.1 Results of short column

b. Annealed steel
(Earlier study)

Figure 4. Failure mode comparison of short hollow steel column

(Velmurugan & Muralikannan, 2007)

The typical load vs. axial deformation behaviour of

hollow steel specimen is as shown in Figure3.

90

80

70

Load ( kN)

60

50

40

30

20

10

0
0

10

20

30

40

50

60

Displacement (mm)

Figure 3. Typical Load vs. Axial Deformation

Figure 5. Load vs. Axial Deformation Behavior of Annealed

behaviour of

hollw Steel column. (Velmurugan & Muralikannan, 2007)

Hollow Steel Column.

318

Baskar & Velmurugan

Figure 9. Similarly in the long CFT column initially

failed in global buckling associated with minor elephant
foot failure and local outward buckling as shown in
Figure 10.

The experimental loads were normalized with

squash load and is plotted with respect to Axial
deformation as shown in Figure 6. The formation of
elephant foot failure was the general failure pattern
observed in all short CFT columns as shown in Figure 7.
After the initiation of elephant foot, all the short CFT
columns were started to buckle globally and there by
local buckling in outward direction since the concrete
infill prevented the inward buckling.

Figure 8. Normalized axial load (with Squash load) vs. Axial

Deformation of long columns

Figure 6. Normalized axial load (with Squash load) vs. Axial

Deformation of short columns

Figure 9. Typical view of global and local inward buckling for

long hollow steel columns

Figure 7. Typical view of elephant foot failure, global and local

outward buckling of short CFT columns

3.2 Results of long column

The normalized load vs axial deformation behavior of
long column is as shown in Figure 8. The monotonic
axial load was given until collapse of the specimen. The
long hollow steel column initially failed in global
buckling and there after inward local buckling found at
approximately at 1/3rd height of column as shown in

Figure 10. Typical view of global and local outward buckling of

long CFT columns

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Baskar & Velmurugan

3.3 Ductility factor

Table 3. Contribution of Steel tube in CFT column (kN).

Ductility is the property of member by which it has

the capacity to undergo large inelastic deformations
without significant loss of strength. To perform well in an
earthquake, a structure should possess four main
attributes, namely simple and regular configuration,
adequate lateral strength, stiffness and ductility. To avoid
sudden collapse of the structures during an earthquake
and to enable them to absorb energy by deformation
beyond yield point, the main structural elements should
possess more ductility. Ductile structure yields and
absorbs and dissipates very large amounts of energy by
moving out of the elastic range.
Ductility of a member is assessed by its ductility
factor. Ductility factor is the ratio of displacement at end
of Plastic stage to displacement at Yield load.
Ductility factor for all columns were calculated and
given in Table 2. From the ductility factor calculations
short columns are more ductile than the longer column.
CFT columns also have more ductile compare to the
hollow steel column.

Capacity of
Specimen bare (Hollow )
Sl.No
ID
steel column
(kN)
1
SH.1.1 58.3
2
SH.2.1 53.4
3
SH.3.1 50.1
4
LH.1.2 53.7
5
LH.2.2 52.6
6
LH.3.2 51.9

Increase in
Contribution of
Capacity of
Steel tube in CFT
steel column
column (kN)
(%)
63.6
09.1
70.0
31.1
83.2
65.9
65.0
20.9
68.3
29.7
71.0
36.8

5 CONCLUSION
From the experimental study on hollow steel tubular
column it can be concluded that short hollow column fails
by forming multifold diamond failure at top and long
hollow column fails by global buckling associated with
local inward buckling. It is also found that axial capacity
reduces when increasing both d/t ratio (note t being kept
constant) and l/d ratio.
From the experimental study on short CFT column,
it is noted that the columns fail by formation of elephant
foot and minor global buckling associated with outward
local buckling where as for long CFT column, it was pure
global buckling with minor outward local buckling. It
can be noted that the infill concrete prevents the inward
local buckling of circumferential steel. The increase in
l/d ratio decreases its axial capacity similar to the long
hollow columns.

4 SUMMARY OF TEST RESULTS

Theoretical ultimate load is calculated using the guide
lines given by the Eurocode-4. Comparison between the
experimental ultimate loads and the theoretical prediction
are listed in Table 2.
Table 2. Summary of test results.

REFERENCES
Brauns, J. 1998. Analysis of stress state in concrete-filled steel
column. Journal of Constructional Steel Research 49(2):
189196.
Chithira, K. & Baskar, K., 2014. Experimental Investigation on
Circular CFT columns with and without shear connectors,
International Journal of Steel and Composite Structures
16(1): 99-116.
Choi, Y.H., Kim,K.S. & Choi,S.M. 2008. Simplified P-M
interaction curve for square steel tube filled high-strength
concrete. Thin-Walled structures 46: 506-515
Eurocode-4 DD ENV 1994-1-1, Design of composite steel and
concrete structures. Part 1.1, General Rules and Rules for
Buildings
Georgios, Giakoumelis & Dennis Lam 2004. Axial capacity of
circular concrete filled tube columns. Journal of
Constructional Steel Research 60: 10491068.
Ghosh, R.S. 1977. Strengthening of slender hollow steel
columns by filling with concrete. Canadian Journal of Civil
Engineering 4(2): 127133.
Gupta, P.K., Sarda,S.M. & M.S. Kumar. 2007. Experimental
and computational study of concrete filled steel tubular
columns under axial loads. Journal of Constructional Steel
Research 63: 182193.
IS: 513. 2008. Indian standard Cold reduced low carbon steel
sheet and strip, Bureau of Indian Standards.
IS: 1161. 1998. Indian standard steel tubes for structural
purposes, Bureau of Indian Standards.
Kilpatrick,A. & Rangan, B.V. 1997. Behavior of high-strength
composite
columns
in
Composite
Construction.

PUEC4
PUExp.
Sl. Specimen
Experimental Eurocode PU Exp/Ductility
D/t l/D
No ID
Prediction -4
PU EC4 Factor
Predictio
kN
n,52.7
kN
1 SH.1.1
58.3
1.1
50
2 SC.1.1
198.8
178.7
1.1 1.2
3 SH.2.1
53.4
53.9
1.0
75 10
4 SC.2.1
223.8
169.7
1.3 2.4
5 SH.3.1
50.1
46.5
1.1
90
6 SC.3.1
315.8
230.9
1.4 1.7
7 LH.1.2
53.7
50.4
1.1 1.1
50
8 LC.1.2
163.9
126.8
1.3 1.3
9 LH.2.2
52.7
44.9
1.2 1.4
75 20
10 LC.2.2
197.2
112.7
1.8 1.8
11 LH.3.2
51.9
43.8
1.2 1.1
90
12 LC.3.2
230.8
148.7
1.6 1.8

The results of Hollow steel and CFT column were

critically compared and the increase in the steel portion of
the CFT column is as shown in Table 3. For the short
columns the increase in load carrying capacity of steel
portion of the column is observed to be 20% to 30%. The
same for the long column found out to be 13% to 20 %.
This increase in the capacity is due to the prevention of
local buckling because of the concrete infill.

320

Baskar & Velmurugan

Conventional and Innovative 789794.
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design provisions to high strength composite columns in
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561566.
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thin-walled steel tubular columns with partially in-filled
concrete. Proceedings of the 5th international conference on
thin walled structures, 2008, Australia.
Lakshmi, B. & Shanmugam, N.E. 2002. Nonlinear analysis of
in-filled steel-concrete composite columns. Journal of
Structural Engineering 128(7):922-933
Liang, Q.Q. 2008. Nonlinear analysis of short concrete-filled
steel tubular beam-columns under axial load and biaxial
bending. Journal of Constructional Steel Research 64:
295-304.
Liu, D. 2006. Behavior of eccentrically loaded high-strength
rectangular concrete-filled steel tubular columns. Journal of
Constructional Steel Research 62: 839-846.
Mathias Johansson & Kent Gylloft 2002. Mechanical behavior
of circular steel concrete composite stub column. Journal of
Structural Engineering, ASCE 128: 1073-1081.
OShea, M.D. & Bridge, R.Q. 1996. Circular thin-walled tubes
with high strength concrete infill. Composite construction in
steel and concrete II, Irsee (Germany), ASCE 6: 780793.
OShea, M.D. & Bridge, R.Q. 1997. The Design for local
buckling of concrete filled steel tubes in Composite
Construction. Conventional and Innovate, Innsbruck,
Austria, 319324.
OShea, M.D. & Bridge, R.Q. 2000. Design of circular
thin-walled concrete filled steel tubes. Journal of Structural
Engineering, ASCE, 126(11): 12951303.
Prion, H.G.L. & Boehme, J. 1989. Beam-column behavior of
steel tubes filled with high-strength concrete. In Fourth
International Colloquium, SSRC, New York, 439449.
Shosuke, M. & Keigo, T. 2003. Design and Construction of
Concrete Filled Steel Tube Column System. Japan
Earthquake Engineering and Engineering Seismology 4(1):
51-73
Velmurugan, R. & Muralikannan, R. 2007. Energy absorption
characteristics of heat treated circular steel tubes
NCETE07, pp Eq 1 9

321

11th International Conference on

Advances in Steel and Concrete Composite Structures
Tsinghua University, Beijing, China, December 3-5, 2015

FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS FOR SEISMIC BEHAVIOR OF

CONCRETE-ENCASED COLUMN BASE FOR HEXAGONAL
CFSTS
W. Xu, L.H. Han & W. Li
Department of Civil Engineering, Tsinghua University, Beijing, China
E-mails: xuwu11@mails.tsinghua.edu.cn, lhhan@tsinghua.edu.cn, iliwei@mail.tsinghua.edu.cn
ABSTRACT
Keywords:
Hexagonal concrete-filled
steel tube (CFST);
Concrete-encased column base;
Finite element analysis (FEA);
Load transfer mechanism.

The concrete-encased column base for CFSTs is the connection between the CFST column and
foundation, which is composed of an inner base plate CFST column base partially encased by an
outer reinforced concrete (RC) component. A finite element analysis (FEA) model is established
to simulate the seismic performance of the concrete-encased column base for hexagonal CFSTs.
The cyclic material property of steel, the modelling of concrete crack in the bottom section and
the modelling of base plate connection are discussed. The FEA model is verified by test results
of column bases. Based on the FEA model, stress analysis of the CFST column, the inner base
plate connection, the outer RC component and the foundation concrete is conducted. The load
transfer mechanism of the column base, namely, interaction among the CFST column, the outer
RC component and the inner base plate connection, is also suggested.

Previously, experiments were conducted on the

seismic behavior of the concrete-encased column base for
hexagonal CFSTs by the authors. The CFST column had
a hexagonal section, as seen in Figure 1b, with six sides
of equal length (B), two interior angles of 90 degrees and
four interior angles of 135 degrees. The specimens were
subjected to constant axial load and cyclic lateral load. In
the test, all the column base specimens exhibited good
ductility and energy dissipation ability.
As the experimental work provided limited results of
the seismic behavior of the column base, more analytical
work is conducted to investigate the force mechanism. In
this paper, a finite element analysis (FEA) model for the
seismic behavior of the concrete-encased column base for
hexagonal CFSTs is established. The cyclic material
model of steel, modelling of discrete concrete crack in the
bottom section and modelling of base plate connection
are discussed. The FEA model is verified by the test
results. Based on the FEA model, the analytical behavior
including the failure mode, the stress condition and the
load transfer mechanism are studied.

1 INTRODUCTION
The concrete-encased column base for concrete-filled
steel tubes (CFSTs) is the connection between the CFST
column and foundation, which is composed of an inner
base plate CFST column base partially encased by an
outer reinforced concrete (RC) component, as seen in
Figure 1a. Compared with base plate column base, the
concrete-encased column base can achieve a larger
stiffness and strength due to the outer RC component.
Compared with embedded column base, the
concrete-encased column base has smaller depth
requirement for the foundation and higher constructional
efficiency. As CFST columns are widely used in high rise
buildings and bridges, the concrete-encased column base
for CFSTs has a broad application prospect.
P

N0
ts
A

Core concrete

Stirrup

wr

Hexagonal
steel tube

2=135
B

2 FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS MODEL

1=90
B

Anchor bolt
Longitudinal bar
(a) Column base

2.1 General description

A-A

A schematic view of the FEA model established on

ABAQUS (2010) is shown in Figure 2. The FEA model
contains the hexagonal CFST column, the foundation and
the concrete-encased connection consisted of inner base

(b) Column cross-section

Figure 1. Schematic view of the concrete-encased column base

for hexagonal CFSTs

322

Xu et al.

(2) Steel
1200

400

600

(N/mm2)

800

(N/mm2)

plate connection and outer RC component. Shell element

(S4R) is applied for the steel tube and the base plate.
Solid element (C3D8R) is applied for all concrete,
including core concrete in CFST, outer concrete in outer
RC component and concrete in foundation. Truss element
(T3D2) is used for the reinforcements and anchor bolts.

-400

-800
-5%

CFST

Exp
FEA
-3%

0%

3%

5%

-600

-1200
-8%

(a) H3-1 (Shi et al. 2011)

Outer concrete

Exp
FEA
-4%

0%

4%

8%

(b) HTT400 (Peter et al. 2007)

Figure 3. Comparison between the tested and predicted -

relations of steel coupons

Longitudinal bar
Stirrup

The steel tube, reinforcements and anchor bolts

contribute significantly to the seismic behavior of the
column base. The elastic modulus of steel (Es) is taken as
206,000 N/mm2 and the Poissons ratio (s) is taken as
0.3. The nonlinear kinematic hardening model in
ABAQUS (2010) is utilized to describe the cyclic
behavior of steel. ABAQUS (2010) offers several
methods to calibrate the model, one of which is by the
stabilized - data. The stabilized curve of steel coupon
subjected to symmetric strain cycles is needed for the
calibration. As cyclic test data is often limited, the
stabilized curve obtained from a theoretical cyclic -
model of steel proposed by Han & Yang (2005) is used
here. The feasibility of the cyclic steel model above is
verified by a series of coupon tests (Shi et al. 2011; Peter
et al. 2007). The tested coupons include different types of
structural grade steel, as well as low yield point steel.
Comparison between the tested and predicted - results
of typical examples is shown in Figure 3. It can be seen
that the proposed model provides good simulations of the
cyclic behavior of different types of steel.

Base plate
RC foundation

Anchor bolt

Figure 2. Schematic view of the FEA model

Various interfaces exist in the concrete-encased

column base for hexagonal CFSTs, e.g., interfaces
between the steel tube and concrete, the base plate and
concrete as well as the reinforcements and concrete. For
the interface between steel and concrete, hard contact
model is utilized for the normal behavior and Coulomb
friction model is used to simulate the tangential behavior.
The reinforcements are embedded into the concrete.

2.2 Material models

(1) Concrete
The concrete damaged plasticity (CDP) model in
ABAQUS (2010) is used to model the concrete. The
elastic modulus of concrete (Ec) is taken as 4700 f c'
(N/mm2) according to ACI318-11 (2011), where fc is the
cylinder compressive strength of concrete. The Poissons
ratio (c) is taken as 0.2. The compressive - relation
suggested by Attard & Setunge (1996) is used for the
outer concrete and foundation concrete, while the
compressive - relation for confined concrete in CFST
suggested by Han et al. (2007) is applied for the core
concrete. The peak compressive stress (c) of the curves
is fc, taken as 0.79fcu in this paper, where fcu is the cube
compressive strength of concrete. For the tensile
behavior, the tensile - relation suggested by Shen et al.
(1993) is used, where the peak tensile stress (t) is
calculated as 0.26(fcu)2/3 (N/mm2). In the CDP model, the
compressive and tensile damage coefficients dc and dt, as
well as the stiffness recovery coefficients wc and wt, are
utilized to describe the cyclic behavior. Detailed
information can be found in Li & Han (2011).

2.3 Modelling of concrete crack in the bottom section

160

P (kN)

80

With crack
Without crack
Measured

-80
-160
-60

-25

(mm)

10

45

Figure 4. Effect of the discrete crack on the P- relation

The CDP model in ABAQUS provides a good

estimation of the compressive behavior of concrete, but
the crack opening and closing behavior in tension cannot
be well predicted using this model. To overcome this

323

Xu et al.

the base plate and anchor bolt, single nut construction

in Figure 5a is used, where the anchor bolt and the
base plate experiences cyclic separation and contact
under seismic load. A nonlinear spring element is
utilized to simulate the anisotropic connection.
The proposed base plate connection model is
verified by base plate column bases tested by
Kuwahara et al. (2007) and Matsuo et al. (2011) in
Figure 6. It can be seen that the proposed method
provides good estimations of the hysteretic curves,
which shows that the simplified model for base plate
connection is reasonable.

problem, a discrete crack model is utilized. As a major

horizontal tensile crack was observed in the bottom
section of the outer RC component in the test, a discrete
crack is added between the outer RC component and the
foundation. This crack is simulated by a hard contact
model in the normal direction and a Coulomb friction
model with a friction coefficient of 1.0 in the tangential
direction. The method is also used by Goto et al. (2010)
on CFST members and by Imani et al. (2015) on
concrete-filled double skin steel tubular members.
The effect of the discrete crack on the predicted
results is shown in Figure 4, where the predicted load (P)
versus displacement () relations with and without the
discrete crack are compared with the test result. It can be
seen that when the discrete crack is added, the strength
slightly decreases, and the pinching effect of the curve is
obviously enhanced. The model with discrete crack gives
a much better estimation of the P- relation.

2.5 Model verification

Reaction
frame

2.4 Modelling of base plate connection

Sliding
supported
Hydraulic ram

Horizontal actuator

Rigid fixture
Specimen

Nut
Base plate

Shell element

Embedded
segment

La>25da

kt=

(a) Construction

Figure 7. Test setup of the seismic test

The proposed FEA model of the concrete-encased

column base for hexagonal CFSTs is further verified by
the test results. Figure 7 shows the test setup and Figure 1
shows a schematic view of the specimen. There were four
groups of small specimens (CBS series) and two groups
of large specimens (CBL series). The small specimens
had a sectional width (B) and tube thickness (ts) of 100
mm and 3.95 mm respectively, while the large specimens
had a sectional width (B) and tube thickness (ts) of 180
mm and 7.50 mm respectively. For the small specimens,
the parameters included the height of outer RC
component (H), the existence of shear studs between the
CFST column and outer RC component and the axial
load ratio, while for the large specimens only the height
of outer RC component (H) varied. Two major failure
modes, i.e., failure of the bottom section and failure of
the CFST section, were observed. Most specimens failed
in the bottom section, which was combined failure of
both the inner base plate connection and the outer RC
component. When the height of outer RC component
decreased, the column base would be more likely to
experience failure of the CFST section above the outer
RC component.
The comparison is conducted between the observed
and predicted failure modes of the tested specimens in
Figure 8. The specimen CBL-2-0.3-1 failed in the CFST
section with local buckling of steel tube, which is

(b) Model

Figure 5. Modelling of base plate connection

M (kNm)

200

600

Measured
Predicted

-200
-400
-0.04

Measured
Predicted

300

M (kNm)

400

-300

-0.02

(rad)

0.02

0.04

(a) S1 (Kuwahara et al. 2007)

-600
-0.06

Lateral support

12da
Free
segment

l=0

Lateral support

Spring

kc=1/

Fixed beam

Truss
element

-0.03

0.00

(rad)

0.03

0.06

(b) S1 (Matsuo, 2011)

Figure 6. Verification of the model for base plate connection

In this study, a simplified model for the base plate

connection is proposed, as shown in Figure 5. Shell
element (S4R) is utilized for base plate, and truss
element (T3D2) is utilized for anchor bolt. The anchor
bolt is divided into an embedded segment and a free
segment. The embedded segment is embedded into the
concrete to represent the anchor effect. The free
segment is utilized to simulate the axial deformation
with an effective length of 12da, where da is the
diameter of anchor bolt. As for the connection between
324

Xu et al.

H=900 mm, wr=120 mm, sixteen 16 mm diameter

longitudinal bars and 10 mm diameter stirrups spaced at
70 mm, and n=0.3. B and ts are the side length and
thickness of the hexagonal tube, respectively; L is the
effective length of the CFST column; wp is the width of
the base plate beyond the steel tube; H and wr are the
height and thickness of the outer RC component,
respectively; n is the axial load ratio calculated by N0/Nu;
N0 is the constant axial load and Nu is the ultimate
compressive strength of the hexagonal CFST column. In
the standard specimen, H is designed to be about 3B,
where B (=1.707B) is the effective width of the
hexagonal section. As for the material strength, the cube
compressive strengths (fcu) of core concrete, outer
concrete and foundation concrete are taken as 60, 40 and
40 N/mm2, respectively. The yield strengths (fy) of steel
tube, reinforcement and anchor bolt are 345, 400 and 480
N/mm2, respectively.

predicted by the FEA model. The specimen CBL-3-0.3-1

failed at the bottom section. The crush of the outer RC
component in the compressive side, as well as separation
between the outer RC component and the foundation in
the tensile side, is also predicted by the FEA model.

Tube outward
buckling

(a1) Observed
(a2) Predicted
(a) Failure of CFST section (CBL-2-0.3-1)

500

Concrete
Concrete
crush
crack

Concrete
crush

250

P (kN)

Concrete
Crack

Peak point

Envelop
curve

0
-250

(b1) Observed
(b2) Predicted
(b) Failure of bottom section (CBL-3-0.3-1)

-500
-80

Figure 8. Comparison between the observed and predicted

failure modes

-40

(mm)

40

80

Figure 10. P- relation of the standard specimen

Figure 9 shows the measured and predicted P-

relations of specimens CBL-2-0.3-1 and CBL-3-0.3-1.
The strength and stiffness, as well as the pinching effect,
of the two specimens with different failure modes could
be both well predicted by the FEA model.

P (kN)

250

500

Measured
Predicted

250

P (kN)

500

-250
-500
-80

The simulation shows the standard specimen fails in

the bottom section. Figure 10 shows the predicted P-
relation and the envelop curve. As can be seen, the
envelop curve experiences a linear ascending stage at first
and then increases with a decreasing slope until the peak
point. After the peak point, the load decreases slowly,
indicating good ductility of the specimen. The pinching
effect is observed in the P- relation, which is due to the
crack opening and closing behavior of the interfaces
between the outer RC component and the foundation
concrete and between the base plate and the foundation
concrete.

Measured
Predicted

-250

-40

(mm)

(a) CBL-2-0.3-1

40

80

-500
-80

-40

(mm)

40

80

3.2 Stress analysis

(b) CBL-3-0.3-1

To investigate the failure mechanism of the column

base, the stress conditions of components at the peak
point are analyzed.
(1) Steel tube
The longitudinal stress (11) distribution of steel tube
is shown in Figure 11a. The stress distribution in the
CFST segment is similar to that of a cantilever beam.
While in the concrete-encased segment, the stress
increase along height is moderate due to support of the
outer RC component. At the peak point, steel tube at

Figure 9. Comparison between the measured and predicted P-

relations

3 ANALYTICAL INVESTIGATION
3.1 Load versus displacement relation
A standard specimen is designed and simulated with
the following parameters: B=180 mm, ts=8 mm, L=1800
mm, wp=35 mm, six 16 mm diameter anchor bolts,
325

Xu et al.

As the concrete below the base plate is subjected to

local compression, the contact stress is much larger than
that below the outer RC component. At the peak point,
the maximum contact stress below the base plate has
exceeded 2.0fc, while that below the outer RC component
reaches about 1.0fc.
(5) Anchor bolt and longitudinal bar

section - remains elastic, while at section -

part of the steel tube at the compressive side yields.
(2) Core concrete
The longitudinal stress (33) distribution of core
concrete is shown in Figure 11b. The concrete at the
compressive side of section - has failed due to
compression which results in decrease of 33 below the
peak stress (fc). While for the concrete at section -,
the stress is larger because the strain has not exceeded its
peak strain.

Peak point

A-1
A-2
A-3

-0.0fc
-0.2fc
-0.4fc

0.0fy

-0.6fc
-0.8fc
-1.0fc
-1.1fc

-1.0fy
-1.6fy

33

CPRESS

0.1fc
-0.0fc
-0.2fc
-0.4fc
-0.6fc
-0.8fc
-1.0fc
-1.1fc

(c) Outer concrete

2.4fc
2.0fc
1.6fc
1.2fc
0.8fc
0.4fc
0

-2
0

/y

Figure 12. Stress versus displacement relation of anchor bolt

(b) Core concrete

(a) Steel tube

0
-1

Concrete-encased
segment

0.5fy
-0.5fy

CFST segment

33 0.1fc

1.0fy

11/fy

11 1.2fy

Figure 12 shows the normalized stress (11/fy) versus

displacement () envelop relation of anchor bolt. All
anchor bolts are in compression under axial loading. As
lateral loading goes on, the stress in anchor bolts A-1 and
A-2 turns into tension, while the compressive stress in
anchor bolt A-3 increases. At the peak point, the stresses
of anchor bolts A-1, A-2 and A-3 are 1.11fy, 0.23fy and
-1.01fy, respectively.

Neutral axis

(d) Foundation concrete

Peak point

B-1
B-2
B-3
B-4

11/fy

Figure 11. Stress conditions of steel tube and concrete at the

peak point

(3) Outer concrete

The longitudinal stress (33) distribution of outer
concrete is shown in Figure 11c. As the outer RC
component is subjected to contact stress from the CFST
column, stress concentration is observed due to the
interaction. At the bottom section, majority of the section
is in tension. The concrete at the compressive edge of the
section crushes and the longitudinal stress decreases
below the peak stress (fc).
(4) Foundation concrete
The normal contact stress (CPRESS) distribution of
foundation concrete is shown in Figure 11d. The
positions of the neutral axes of concrete below the inner
base plate connection and the outer RC component are
quite different, indicating that these two parts could not
work together. It can be inferred that the inner base plate
connection is subjected to combined compression and
bending while the outer RC component is mainly
subjected to bending.

-1

-2
0

/y

Figure 13. Stress versus displacement relation of longitudinal

bar

The stress development of longitudinal bar is shown

in Figure 13. The longitudinal bars are also in slightly
compression at first. As the lateral loading goes on, stress
in longitudinal bars B-1, B-2 and B-3 turns into tension,
while longitudinal bar B-4 remains in compression. At
the peak point, longitudinal bars B-1 and B-2 at the
tensile side yields and the longitudinal bar B-4 at the
compressive side also yields.

326

Xu et al.

3.3 Load transfer mechanism

N

N
Q

can hardly work together.

(3) The load transfers from the inner base plate column
base to the outer RC component by two mechanisms,
namely, the contact between the CFST column and
the outer RC component and the interaction between
the inner base plate connection and the outer RC
component. The internal force distribution between
the inner base plate column base and outer RC
component due to the two mechanisms will be
further investigated.

1
p3

2 p2

Base
plate

Concrete-encase
d

p1

3
(a) Interaction mechanism 1

(b) Interaction mechanism

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The research reported in the paper is part of the
Tsinghua University Initiative Scientific Research
Program (NO. 2013Z02). The financial support is highly
appreciated.

Figure 14. Load transfer mechanism

Figure 14 shows the load transfer mechanism of the

column base, where the concrete-encased connection is
divided into the concrete-encased segment and base plate
segment. Two interaction mechanisms exist. In the
concrete-encased segment, the load resisted by the CFST
column is transferred to the outer RC component through
the contact stresses on the interface (referred to as
interaction mechanism 1), as seen in Figure 14a. In
standard specimen, the contact stresses include normal
stresses (p1 and p2) and corresponding tangential stress (1
and 2) due to friction. In the base plate segment, part of
the internal load is transferred from the inner base plate
connection to the outer RC component by the contact
stresses (normal stress p3 and tangential stress 3)
between them (referred to as interaction mechanism 2), as
seen in Figure 14b. Detailed analysis on the internal force
distribution between the inner base plate column base and
the outer RC component due to the two mechanisms
above will be conducted in the future.

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4 CONCLUSIONS
The following conclusions can be drawn based on the
limited study reported in this paper:
(1) The FEA model is developed for the seismic
behavior of the concrete-encased column base for
hexagonal CFSTs, where the cyclic material model
of steel, the modelling of concrete crack in the
bottom section and the modelling of base plate
connection are considered. The proposed FEA model
provides good estimations on the failure modes and
the hysteretic curves of the tested specimens.
(2) Stress analysis shows that, the standard specimen
fails at the bottom section, which is combined failure
of the inner base plate connection and the outer RC
component. The inner base plate connection
experiences yielding of anchor bolts and local stress
concentration of foundation concrete below the base
plate. As for the outer RC component, it fails due to
bending with concrete crush and yielding of
longitudinal bars. In the bottom section, the inner
base plate connection and the outer RC component

327

Xu et al.
loading. Journal of Constructional Steel Research 67(8):
1185-1197.

328

11th International Conference on

Advances in Steel and Concrete Composite Structures
Tsinghua University, Beijing, China, December 3-5, 2015

DESIGN OF NONCOMPACT AND SLENDER CFT COLUMNS

Z. C. Laia & A. H. Varmaa
a

Lyles School of Civil Engineering, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN, USA
E-mails: laiz@purdue.edu, ahvarma@purdue.edu
ABSTRACT
Keywords:
Composite columns;
Concrete-filled steel tube (CFT);
Noncompact; Slender; Design.

The current AISC Specification (AISC 360-10) specifies the provisions for designing
rectangular and circular CFT columns. These provisions include: (i) the slenderness limits to
categorize CFT columns into compact, noncompact or slender; and (ii) the design equations to
estimate the axial strength. However, the design equations for estimating the axial strength of
noncompact and slender CFT columns can be over conservative. In this paper, these design
equations are modified using the effective steel and concrete stress-strain relationships
developed and verified by the authors in a previous research. These effective stress-strain
relationships implicitly account for the effects of geometric imperfections, steel tube local
buckling, steel hoop stresses and concrete confinement from the transverse interaction between
the steel tube and concrete infill. The modified design equations can favorably predict the axial
strength of noncompact and slender CFT columns.

slender tube walls due to concrete casting pressures and

other fabrication processes.

1 INTRODUCTION

Table 1. Slenderness limits for CFT columns.

Concrete-filled steel tube (CFT) members consist of

rectangular or circular steel tubes filled with concrete. The
behavior of CFT members under axial compression,
flexure, and combined axial compression and flexure can
be more efficient than that of structural steel or reinforced
concrete members. The steel tube provides confinement to
the concrete infill, while the concrete infill delays the local
buckling of the steel tube. As an innovative and efficient
structural component, CFT members have been used in
various types of structures including braced frames,
special moment frames, and arch bridges.
The current AISC Specification (AISC 360-10)
specifies the slenderness limits (p, r, and limit, as shown
in Table 1) to categorize CFT columns into compact,
noncompact or slender depending on the governing
slenderness ratio (width-to-thickness b/t or D/t ratio, ) of
the steel tube. The authors have presented the development
of these slenderness limits in detail in Lai et al. (2014) and
Lai & Varma (2015a).
For a CFT member, if the governing tube slenderness
ratio () is less than or equal to p, the member is classified
as compact; if the governing tube slenderness ratio is
greater than p but less than or equal to r, the member is
classified as noncompact; if the governing tube
slenderness ratio is greater than r, the member is classified
as slender. The tube slenderness ratio is also limited to a
maximum permitted value limit due to: (i) the lack of
experimental data for CFTs with such slender steel tubes,
and (ii) potential issues with deflections and stresses in the

Description of
Element

Width-top
r
limit
Thickness Compact/ Noncompact/ Maximum
Ratio
Noncompact
Slender
Permitted

Steel tube walls

of Rectangular
CFT Members

b/t

2.26

Steel tube wall

of Circular CFT
Members

D/t

0 . 15 E s
Fy

Es
Fy

3.00

Es
Fy

Es
Fy

5.00

0 . 19 E s

0 . 31 E s

Fy

Fy

AISC 360-10 also specifies the design equations to

estimate the axial strength of CFT columns. According to
AISC 360-10, the nominal compressive strength (Pno) of
CFT sections can be estimated using Equations (1)-(5) as
follow.
When the CFT member is compact,
Pno Pp As Fy C2 f 'c Ac

(1)

where C2 is 0.85 for rectangular sections and 0.95 for

circular sections.
When the CFT member is noncompact,
Pno Pp

Pp Py
(r p ) 2

( p ) 2

(2)

where,
Py As Fy 0.70 f 'c Ac

When the CFT member is slender,

329

(3)

Lai et al.

Pno Pcr As Fcr 0.70 f 'c Ac

the axial and strength of noncompact and slender CFT

columns.

(4)

where Fcr is the critical buckling stress, which depends on

the cross-section shape as follows:
For rectangular sections,
9 Es
(5)
Fcr
(b t ) 2

Table 2. Noncompact and slender rectangular CFT column tests.

For circular sections,

Fcr

0.72 Fy

D Fy

t E
s

(6)

0.2

The axial compressive strength (Pn) of CFT columns

can be calculated using Equations (7)-(11). In these
Equations: Pno is the nominal compressive strength of the
section accounting for tube slenderness using Equations
(1), (2), or (4); Pe is the elastic (Euler) buckling load of the
column calculated using the column length (KL) and
effective flexural stiffness (EIeff). The effective flexural
stiffness includes contributions of both steel and concrete,
and accounts for the effects of concrete cracking.
When

Pno
2.25
Pe

When

Pno
2.25
Pe

where,

Pn Pno[0.658

Pno
Pe

B
(mm)

tf
(mm)

b /t f

H
tw
(mm) (mm)

h/t w coeff L/H

21
22
23
Janss
24
andAnslijn
25
(1974)
26
27
28
D10
D12
D16
Lin (1998)
D18
E10
E15
E18
CR4-D-2
CR4-D-4-1
CR4-D-4-2
CR4-D-8
CR6-D-2
Fujimoto
CR6-D-4-1
et al.
CR6-D-4-2
(1995)
CR6-D-8
CR8-D-2
CR8-D-4-1
CR8-D-4-2
CR8-D-8
Song and
Kwon
US15
(1997)
NS1
NS7
NS13
Uy (1998)
NS14
NS15
NS16
Schneider
R1
(1998)
HSS14
Uy (2001)
HSS15

1318.3
1328.4
1320.8
1318.3
1318.3
1318.3
1318.3
1320.8
800.0
800.0
800.0
800.0
800.0
480.0
800.0
485.1
485.1
485.1
485.1
477.5
477.5
477.5
477.5
396.2
396.2
396.2
396.2

329.9
331.0
331.0
331.0
333.0
331.0
331.0
331.0
150.0
150.0
200.0
200.0
150.0
200.0
200.0
323.1
323.1
323.1
323.6
319.0
318.5
318.3
318.5
264.9
263.9
264.4
264.9

4.47
4.47
4.50
4.50
6.38
6.30
6.32
6.32
1.40
2.10
1.40
2.10
1.40
1.40
2.10
4.37
4.37
4.37
4.37
6.35
6.35
6.35
6.35
6.48
6.48
6.48
6.48

71.8
72.0
71.6
71.6
50.2
50.5
50.3
50.3
105.1
69.4
140.9
93.2
105.1
140.9
93.2
72.0
72.0
72.0
72.1
48.2
48.2
48.1
48.2
38.9
38.7
38.8
38.9

329.9
331.0
331.0
331.0
333.0
331.0
331.0
331.0
150.0
150.0
150.0
150.0
150.0
150.0
150.0
323.1
323.1
323.1
323.6
319.0
318.5
318.3
318.5
264.9
263.9
264.4
264.9

4.47
4.47
4.50
4.50
6.38
6.30
6.32
6.32
1.40
2.10
1.40
2.10
1.40
1.40
2.10
4.37
4.37
4.37
4.37
6.35
6.35
6.35
6.35
6.48
6.48
6.48
6.48

71.8
72.0
71.6
71.6
50.2
50.5
50.3
50.3
105.1
69.4
105.1
69.4
105.1
105.1
69.4
72.0
72.0
72.0
72.1
48.2
48.2
48.1
48.2
38.9
38.7
38.8
38.9

3.09
3.10
3.08
3.08
2.37
2.38
2.37
2.37
3.70
2.45
4.95
3.29
3.70
4.95
3.29
2.60
2.60
2.60
2.61
2.68
2.67
2.67
2.67
2.51
2.50
2.51
2.51

660.4

222.8

3.00

72.3

222.8

3.00

72.3

558.0
738.0
918.0
918.0
918.0
918.0

186.0
246.0
306.0
306.0
306.0
306.0

3.00
3.00
3.00
3.00
3.00
3.00

60.0
80.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0

186.0
246.0
306.0
306.0
306.0
306.0

3.00
3.00
3.00
3.00
3.00
3.00

60
80
100
100
100
100

600.0

152.3

3.00

48.8

76.6

3.00

630.0
630.0
599.4
749.3
899.2
599.4
899.2

210.0
210.0
199.9
249.9
300.0
199.9
300.0

5.00
5.00
3.20
3.20
3.20
3.20
3.20

40.0
40.0
60.5
76.1
91.7
60.5
91.7

210.0
210.0
199.9
249.9
300.0
199.9
300.0

5.00
5.00
3.20
3.20
3.20
3.20
3.20

KOM2001
KOM2001

EI eff
(KL) 2

EI eff Es I s C3Ec I c

C3 0.6 [

L
(mm)

Kang et
KOM2001
al. (2001)

Pn 0.877 Pe

Pe 2

Specimen
ID

Reference

As
] 0.9
Ac As

KOM2001
KOM2001

(7)

Fy
(MPa)

f' c
(MPa)

Ec
(GPa)

P exp
(kN)

4.0
4.0
4.0
4.0
4.0
4.0
4.0
4.0
5.3
5.3
5.3
5.3
5.3
3.2
5.3
1.5
1.5
1.5
1.5
1.5
1.5
1.5
1.5
1.5
1.5
1.5
1.5

370.3
370.3
370.3
370.3
444.7
444.7
444.7
444.7
247.3
248.5
247.0
248.3
247.3
247.0
248.3
261.3
261.3
261.3
261.3
616.4
616.4
616.4
616.4
832.9
832.9
832.9
832.9

31.6
27.4
27.4
31.6
31.6
31.6
27.4
27.4
22.5
22.5
22.5
22.5
35.3
33.7
35.3
25.4
41.0
41.0
80.1
25.4
41.0
41.0
84.9
25.4
41.0
41.0
84.9

26.60
24.76
24.76
26.60
26.60
26.60
24.76
24.76
22.47
22.47
22.47
22.47
28.11
27.48
28.11
23.84
30.32
30.32
42.37
23.84
30.32
30.32
43.62
23.84
30.32
30.32
43.62

4363.3
4411.7
4656.8
4411.7
5862.8
5843.2
5833.4
5637.2
711.5
792.8
881.0
843.8
973.1
1191.7
1288.4
3365.5
4949.1
4828.5
7478.4
6318.7
7777.3
7470.3
10353.7
6544.2
7114.5
7169.6
8987.2

2.86

3.0

313.7

30.1

25.98

2412.7

2.32
3.10
3.87
3.75
3.75
3.75

3.0
3.0
3.0
3.0
3.0
3.0

300
300
300
281
281
281

32.0
38.0
38.0
47.0
47.0
47.0

26.77
29.17
29.17
32.44
32.44
32.44

1555.0
3095.0
4003.0
4253.0
4495.0
4658.0

23.5

2.32

7.8

430.0

30.5

26.61

819.0

40
40
60.5
76.1
91.7
60.5
91.7

2.45
2.45
2.41
3.03
3.66
2.41
3.66

3.0
3.0
3.0
3.0
3.0
3.0
3.0

750.0
750.0
317.9
317.9
317.9
317.9
317.9

30.0
30.0
24.8
24.8
24.8
30.3
30.3

25.92
25.92
23.55
23.55
23.55
26.07
26.07

3710.0
3483.0
1577.8
2123.1
2749.9
2463.0
4590.6

2 EXPERIMENTAL DATABASE, FEM

(8)

ANALYSES AND COMPARISONS WITH

DESIGN EQUATIONS

(9)

2.1 Experimental database and FEM analyses

As part of the research to present the basis of the AISC
360-10 for the design of noncompact and slender CFT
members under axial compression, flexure, and combined
axial and flexural loading, the authors have compiled
experimental database of tests conducted on noncompact
and slender CFT columns in Lai et al. (2014) and Lai &
Varma (2015a). A total of 187 tests were included in the
database, including 88 column tests, 46 beam tests, and 53
beam-column tests. This paper focuses on the portion of
the database related to the 88 CFT columns tests.
41 rectangular and 47 circular noncompact and slender
CFT column tests were compiled into the experimental
database. Table 2 summarizes the noncompact and slender
rectangular CFT column tests that were included. The table
includes the relevant parameters for the specimens
included in the database. These include the length (L),
width (B), depth (H), flange thickness (tf), web thickness
(tw), governing tube slenderness ratio (B/t and h/tw), and
the slenderness coefficient (coeff) obtained by dividing the
governing slenderness ratio with the square root of Es/Fy.
Table 2 also includes the steel yield stress (Fy) and
concrete strength (fc) reported by the researchers.
Table 3 summarizes the noncompact and slender
circular CFT column tests. This table includes the relevant
parameters for the specimens, namely, the length (L),

(10)
(11)

The AISC 360-10 design equations (Eqs 1-11) provide

a consistent methodology to estimate the axial
compressive strength of CFT columns, accounting for
length effects, member slenderness, and residual stresses.
However, they are over conservative for noncompact and
slender CFT columns.
This paper presents the experimental database of tests
conducted on noncompact and slender CFT columns, and
finite element analyses that addressed the gaps in the
experimental database. The results from the experimental
database and finite element analyses are used to illustrate
the significant conservatism of the AISC 360-10 design
equations. The AISC 360-10 design equations are
modified using the effective steel and concrete stressstrain relationships developed and verified by the authors
in a previous research. These effective stress-strain
relationships implicitly account for the effects of
geometric imperfections, steel tube local buckling, steel
hoop stresses and concrete confinement from the
transverse interaction between the steel tube and concrete
infill. The modified design equations can favorably predict

330

Lai et al.

Prototype specimens were selected from the

experimental database for CFT columns, beams, and
beam-columns. Additional analyses were performed using
the benchmarked models of these prototype CFT
specimens by varying the tube slenderness ratios. The
slenderness ratios were varied by changing the tube wall
thickness. The prototype selected for rectangular CFT
columns was Specimen E10 by Lin (1988). Thirteen
additional analyses were conducted for different tube
slenderness ratios in the range of noncompact and slender
(coeff = 2.26 to 5.0) CFT columns. The prototype selected
for circular CFT columns was Specimen D2 also tested by
Lin (1988). Seven additional analyses were conducted for
different tube slenderness ratios (coeff = 0.23, 0.24, 0.25,
0.26, 0.28, 0.30 and 0.31).

diameter (D), tube thickness (t), tube slenderness ratio

(D/t), and the slenderness coefficient (coeff) obtained by
dividing the governing tube slenderness ratio with Es/Fy.
Table 3 also includes the measured steel yield stress (Fy)
and concrete strength (fc) where reported by the
researchers. The experimental axial load strength (Pexp) is
included in the Tables 2 and 3.
Table 3. Noncompact and slender circular CFT column tests.

Luksha and
Nesterovich
(1991)
Bridge and
Webb (1993)

D
t
D/t
(mm) (mm)

N.A.

914.4

152.4 1.55 98.4 0.16 6.0 331.0

21.0

21.70

682.4

N.A.

914.4

152.4 1.55 98.4 0.16 6.0 331.0

25.9

24.06

721.5

N.A.

914.4

152.4 1.55 98.4 0.16 6.0 331.0

25.9

24.06

733.1

D1

480.0

150.0 0.70 214.3 0.27 3.2 248.2

22.5

2.19

538.0

D2

800.0

150.0 0.70 214.3 0.27 5.3 248.2

22.5

3.36

513.5

E1

480.0

150.0 0.70 214.3 0.27 3.2 248.2

33.7

3.96

743.8

SB-5

2460.0 820.0 8.93 91.8 0.15 3.0 331.0

45.0

31.75 33600.0

SB-9

3060.0 1020.0 9.64 105.8 0.18 3.0 336.0

16.9

19.46 30000.0

750.0

250.0 2.00 125.0 0.16 3.0 260.0

59.5

36.50 3400.0

1348.7 450.1 2.97 151.5 0.21 3.0 283.4

25.4

23.84 4413.5

CC4-D-4-1 1348.7 449.8 2.97 151.4 0.21 3.0 283.4

41.0

30.31 6867.6

CC4-D-4-2 1348.7 450.1 2.97 151.5 0.21 3.0 283.4

41.0

30.31 6983.3

D
CC4-D-2

Yoshioka et al.
(1995)

O'shea and
Bridge (1997)

O'shea and
Bridge (2000)

Fy
f' c
Ec
(MPa) (MPa) (GPa)

P exp
(kN)

CC4-D-8

1348.7 449.8 2.97 151.4 0.21 3.0 283.4

84.9

43.62 11661.9

CC6-C-2

716.3

238.5 4.55 52.5 0.15 3.0 578.5

25.4

23.84 3034.1

CC6-C-4-1

713.7

238.3 4.55 52.4 0.15 3.0 578.5

40.4

30.08 3582.2

CC6-C-4-2

713.7

238.0 4.55 52.3 0.15 3.0 578.5

40.4

30.08 3646.2

CC6-C-8

713.7

237.7 4.55 52.3 0.15 3.0 578.5

76.8

41.48 5576.3

CC6-D-2

1082.0 360.7 4.55 79.3 0.22 3.0 578.5

25.4

23.84 5631.4

CC6-D-4-1 1082.0 360.7 4.55 79.3 0.22 3.0 578.5

41.0

30.31 7257.7

CC6-D-4-2 1079.5 360.2 4.55 79.2 0.22 3.0 578.5

41.0

30.31 7043.3

2.2 Comparisons with design equations

The AISC 36-10 design equations (Eqs 1-11) were
used to predict the strength of the 88 test specimens in the
database and the 20 columns from the additional FEM
analyses. The comparisons are shown in Figure 1a for
rectangular CFT columns and Figure 1b for circular CFT
columns. These comparisons indicate that the AISC 36010 design equations are extremely conservative for (i)
slender rectangular CFT columns and (ii) noncompact and
slender circular CFT columns.

CC6-D-8

1082.0 360.4 4.55 79.2 0.22 3.0 578.5

84.9

43.62 11501.8

CC8-D-2

1010.9 336.8 6.48 52.0

0.2

3.0 834.3

25.4

23.84 8472.5

CC8-D-4-1 1008.4 336.6 6.48 52.0

0.2

3.0 834.3

41.0

30.31 9665.5

CC8-D-4-2 1010.9 336.8 6.48 52.0

0.2

3.0 834.3

41.0

30.31 9832.3

2.00

0.2

3.0 834.3

84.9

43.62 13772.6

1.80

CC8-D-8
O'Shea and
Bridge (1996)

coeff L/D

1010.9 336.6 6.48 52.0

S16CS

661.5

190.0 1.55 122.6 0.18 3.5 315.3 113.5 31.17 3260.0

1.60

S12CS

660.0

190.0 1.15 165.2 0.17 3.5 184.8 113.5 31.17 3058.0

1.40

S10CS

662.0

190.0 0.95 200.0 0.23 3.5 211.2 113.5 31.17 3070.0

1.20

R12CF1

662.0

190.0 1.11 171.2 0.18 3.5 203.1 110.0 32.50 3030.0

R12CF2

656.0

190.0 1.11 171.2 0.18 3.5 203.1 110.0 32.50 2940.0

R12CF3

662.0

190.0 1.11 171.2 0.18 3.5 203.1 110.0 32.50 3140.0

0.60

R12CF4

662.0

190.0 1.11 171.2 0.18 3.5 203.1

29.60 2462.0

0.40

R12CF5

664.0

190.0 1.11 171.2 0.18 3.5 203.1 110.0 32.50 3055.0

0.20
0.00

94.7

1.00
0.80

R12CF7

660.0

190.0 1.11 171.2 0.18 3.5 203.1 110.0 32.50 3000.0

S10CL10C

664.0

190.0 0.86 220.9 0.26 3.5 210.7

S12CL10A

661.5

190.0 1.13 168.1 0.18 3.5 185.7 113.6 32.50 3220.0

S12CL10C

662.5

190.0 1.13 168.1 0.18 3.5 185.7

91.7

31.10 2630.0

S16CL10C

658.0

190.0 1.52 125.0 0.18 3.5 306.1

91.7

31.10 2830.0

S16CS50B

664.5

190.0 1.52 125.0 0.18 3.5 306.1

48.3

21.21 1695.0

S12CS50A

664.5

190.0 1.13 168.1 0.18 3.5 185.7

41.0

17.81 1377.0

1.8

S10CS50A

659.0

190.0 0.86 220.9 0.26 3.5 210.7

41.0

17.81 1350.0

1.6

S16CS80A

663.5

190.0 1.52 125.0 0.18 3.5 306.1

80.2

28.45 2602.0

1.4

S12CS80A

662.5

190.0 1.13 168.1 0.18 3.5 185.7

80.2

28.45 2295.0

74.7

27.58 2451.0

91.7

S10CS80B

663.5

190.0 0.86 220.9 0.26 3.5 210.7

661.5

190.0 1.52 125.0 0.18 3.5 306.1 108.0 29.82 3260.0

S12CS10A

660.0

190.0 1.13 168.1 0.18 3.5 185.7 108.0 29.82 3058.0

S10CS10A

662.0

190.0 0.86 220.9 0.26 3.5 210.7 108.0 29.82 3070.0

SLENDER
EXP
Additional FEM

2.00

31.10 2553.0

S16CS10A

NONCOMPACT

2.50

3.00

3.50
4.00
b/t(Fy/Es)0.5

4.50

5.00

5.50

(a)

1.2
1.0

NONCOMPACT

Lin (1988)

L
(mm)

Pexp/Pn

Furlong (1967)

Specimen
ID

Pexp/Pn

Reference

0.8
0.6
0.4

The experimental database provided valuable data

points to evaluate the AISC 360-10 design equations.
However, there were some gaps in the experimental
database. For example, there are just two data points for
rectangular CFT columns with coeff in the range of 4.0 and
5.0, and the data points for circular CFT columns with
slender sections is limited. To address these, in Lai et al.
(2014) and Lai & Varma (2015a), the authors have also
developed detailed finite element method (FEM) models
using ABAQUS and benchmarked the FEM models using
results from the experimental database. The benchmarked
models were then used to address gaps in the database by
conducting additional analyses as follows.

0.2

0.0
0.10

SLENDER

EXP
Additional FEM

0.15

0.20

0.25

0.30

0.35

coeff = D/t(Fy/Es)

(b)
Figure 1. Comparisons of the nominal and experimental
strengths for noncompact and slender CFT columns: (a)
rectangular; (b) circular.

There are two primary reasons for the overconservatism. The first reason is that the critical buckling
stress (Fcr) is underestimated by Equations (5) and (6), as
shown later in Section 3. The second reason is that the
331

Lai et al.

effect of concrete confinement is ignored. To address

these, more accurate estimation of the critical buckling
stress and concrete confinement is required. This is
feasible using the effective-strain relationships developed
previously by the authors in Lai & Varma (2015b).

Fy

1.12 0.11coeff 1.0

b Fy
0.87 0.0055 '
Fy
t fc

(14)

n
c n 1 0 n

(15-a)

f c f cp'

3 EFFECTIVE STRESS-STRAIN

(13)

RELATIONSHIPS

The behavior and strengths of CFT stub columns and

the resulting effective stress-strain relationships depend on
several parameters, such as the tube slenderness ratio (b/t
or D/t), steel yield stress (Fy), and concrete compressive
strength (fc). In a previous paper (Lai & Varma, 2015b),
the authors have developed the effective-stress strain
relationships for steel tube and concrete infill of
noncompact and slender CFT members. The effective
stress-strain relationships were developed using results
from comprehensive parametric studies, which were
conducted using FEM models developed and
benchmarked previously by the authors in Lai et al. (2014)
and Lai & Varma (2015a). The FEM models accounted for
the effects of geometric imperfections, steel tube local
buckling, and steel hoop stresses and concrete confinement
from the transverse interaction between the steel tube and
concrete infill. Details of the development and verification
of the effective stress-strain relationships have been
presented by the authors in Lai & Varma (2015b), and are
not repeated here for brevity. This section presents the
formulation of the developed stress-strain relationships.

f cp'
f c'

(15-c)

b t Fy f c'
1.10
0.8 0.18

100
30

(16)

p/Fy

/Fy

2/Fy
0.5

p/y
0
0

/y

(a)
f'cp/f'c
1

fc/f'c

For noncompact and slender rectangular CFT columns,

the governing failure mode usually involves the local
buckling of the steel tube wall, and there is limited
confinement provided to the concrete infill. Therefore it is
important for the effective stress-strain relationships to
model the local buckling stress of the steel tube and limited
confinement of the concrete infill.
Figure 2a shows the developed effective stress-strain
relationship for the steel tube of rectangular CFT columns.
As shown, two anchor points (p, p and 2y, 2) are
required to define it: p is the peak stress (i.e., steel critical
buckling stress), p is the peak strain (p), y is the steel
yield strain, and 2 is the post-buckling stress at 2y. These
anchor points can be calculated using Equation (12)-(14).
Figure 2b shows the effective stress-strain relationship for
the concrete infill of rectangular CFT columns. The
formulation of this relationship is given in Equation (15),
which is the same as the model developed by Popovics
(1973). The concrete peak stress (fcp) can be calculated
using Equation (16).

p
Es

(15-b)

n 0.058 f c' 1.0

3.1 Effective stress-strain relationships for

rectangular CFT members

f c' n
Ec n 1

0.5

0.5

1.5

/c

2.5

3.5

(b)
Figure 2. Idealized effective stress-strain relationship for
rectangular CFT members: (a) the steel tube and (b) the
concrete infill.

3.2 Effective stress-strain relationships for circular

CFT members
As compared to noncompact and slender rectangular
CFT members, local buckling of the steel tube of
noncompact and slender circular CFT members is not that
evident. The failure mode usually involves reaching of the
material strengths of both the steel tube and concrete infill.
However, the longitudinal (axial) stress capacity of the
materials is influenced by the transverse interaction
between the steel tube and concrete infill: this transverse

(12)

332

Lai et al.

interaction produces hoop stresses in the steel tube wall

and confinement to the concrete infill. Therefore it is
important for the effective stress-strain relationships to
model: (i) the reductions in the longitudinal stress capacity
required to cause yielding of the steel tube in compression,
and (ii) the increase in the compressive strength of the
concrete infill.
(17)

D t Fy f c'

1
.
0

0
.
11
100 9
f c'

(18)

f cp

Pno As p C2 f 'cp Ac

1
0.9
0.8
0.7

/Fy

0.6

0.5
0.4

0.3
0.2
0.1
0
0

/y

(19)

where C2 is 0.85 for rectangular sections and 1.0 for

circular sections. This is consistent with the values used
for compact CFT columns specified in AISC 360-10.
The axial compressive strength (Pn) of CFT columns
can now be calculated using Equations (7)-(11), with Pno
calculated using Equation (19). Figure 4a and Figure 4b
show the comparisons of the calculated axial strength with
the experimental results (data points labeled as EXP) for
all specimens in the database and additional FEM analyses
results (data points labeled as FEM). The ordinate
represents the ratio of experimental-to-calculated value
(Pexp/Pn), while the abscissa represents the normalized
slenderness coefficient (coeff). These comparisons indicate
that the proposed equations can well predict the axial
strength of CFT columns, and reduce the overconservatism of the AISC 360-10 design equations.

(a)
1.5

Pexp/Pn

f'cp/f'c

fc/f'c

0.5

2
1.8
1.6
1.4
1.2
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
2.00

EXP
FEM

Noncompact

p 0.9Fy

be calculated using Equation (13) (for rectangular CFT) or

Equation (17) (for circular CFT), and fcp can be calculated
using Equation (16) (for rectangular CFT) or Equation (18)
(for circular CFT).

2.50

Slender

3.00

3.50

4.00

4.50

5.00

5.50

b/t(Fy/Es)0.5

0
0.5

1.5

/c

2.5

3.5

(a)

(b)

1.8
EXP

1.6

Figure 3. Idealized effective stress-strain relationship for

circular CFT members: (a) the steel tube and (b) the concrete
infill.

FEM

1.4

Pexp/Pn

1.2

Figure 3a shows the developed effective stress-strain

relationship for the steel tube of circular CFT columns. As
shown, the effective stress-strain relationship is idealized
as a bilinear elastic-perfectly plastic curve, with the steel
peak stress (p) set as 0.9Fy (Eq. 17). Figure 3b shows the
developed effective stress-strain relationship for the
concrete infill of circular CFT columns. As shown, the
effective stress-strain relationship is idealized as an
elastic-perfectly plastic curve, with the elastic branch
calculated using Equation (15), and the concrete peak
stress (fcp) calculated using Equation (18).

Noncompact

0.8

0.6
0.4
0.2

Slender

0
0.1

0.15

0.2

0.25

0.3

0.35

D/t(Fy/Es)

(b)
Figure 4. Comparisons of the calculated axial strength with the
experimental results and additional FEM analyses results for
CFT columns: (a) rectangular; and (b) circular.

5 CONCLUSIONS

4 PROPOSED DESIGN EQUATIONS

AISC 360-10 specifies extremely conservative

equations for the design of noncompact and slender CFT
columns. The over-conservatism of these design equations

The nominal compressive strength of CFT section can

be calculated using Equation (19). In this Equation, p can

333

Lai et al.
Journal of Steel Structures, 13(3): 279287.
Mursi, M. & Uy, B. 2004. Strength of Slender Concrete Filled
High Strength Steel Box Columns. Journal of Constructional
Steel Research, 60(12): 18251848.
OShea, M. D. & Bridge, R. Q. 1997. Tests on Circular ThinWalled Steel Tubes Filled with Very High Strength Concrete.
Research Report No. R755, School of Civil Engineering,
University of Sydney, Sydney, Australia.
OShea, M. D. & Bridge, R. Q. 1997. Behaviour of Thin-Walled
Box Sections with Lateral Restraint. Research Report No.
R739, School of Civil Engineering, University of Sydney,
Sydney, Australia.
OShea, M. D. & Bridge, R. Q. 2000. Design of Circular ThinWalled Concrete Filled Steel Tubes. Journal of Structural
Engineering, 126(November): 12951303.
Popovics, S. (1973). A numerical approach to the complete
stress-strain curve of concrete. Cement and Concrete
Research, 3:583599.
Schneider, S. P. 1998. Axially Loaded Concrete-Filled Steel
Tubes. Journal of Structural Engineering, 124(October),
11251138.
Song, J. Y. & Kwon, Y. 1997. Structural Behavior of ConcreteFilled Steel Box. Composite Construction-Conventional and
Innovative,
International
Conference,
International
Association for Bridge and Structural Engineering,
Innsbruck, Austria: 795800.
Uy, B. (1998). Local and Post-Local Buckling of Concrete
Filled Steel Welded Box Columns. Journal of
Constructional Steel Researchournal of Constructional Steel
Research, 47, 4772.
Uy, B. (2001). Strength of Short Concrete Filled High Strength
Steel Box Columns. Journal of Constructional Steel
Research, 57(2), 113134.
Yoshioka, K., Inai, E., Hukumoto, N., Kai, M., Murata, Y.,
Noguchi, T., Tanaka, Y., Tokinoya, H. & Mukai, A. (1995).
Compressive Tests on CFT Short Columns. Part 1: Circular
CFT Columns. Proceedings of the Second Joint Technical
Coordinating Committee (JTCC) on Composite and Hybird
Structures, Phase 5: Composite and Hybrid Structures,
National Science Foundation, Honolulu,Hawaii.

was demonstrated using: (i) experimental results from the

comprehensive database of noncompact and slender CFT
column tests complied by the authors, and (ii) finiteelement analyses results that address gaps in the database.
This over-conservatism was due to the conservative
estimation of the critical buckling stress (Fcr), and the
ignoring of the effect of concrete confinement.
In this paper, the AISC 360-10 design equations were
modified using the effective steel and concrete stressstrain relationships developed and verified by the authors
in a previous research. These effective stress-strain
relationships implicitly account for the effects of
geometric imperfections, steel tube local buckling, steel
hoop stresses and concrete confinement from the
transverse interaction between the steel tube and concrete
infill. The modified design equations can favorably predict
the axial and strength of noncompact and slender CFT
columns, and reduce the over-conservatism of the AISC
360-10 design equations.
REFERENCES
Bridge, R. Q. & Webb, J. (1993). Thin Walled Circular Concrete
Filled Steel Tubular Columns. Composite Construction in
Steel and Concrete II, Proceedings of the Engineering
Foundation Conference, W. S. Easterling and W. M. Roddis,
eds., ASCE, Potosi, Missouri: 634649.
Fujimoto, T., Nishiyama, I., Mukai, A. & Baba, T. 1995. Test
Results of Eccentrically Loaded Short Columns - Square
CFT Columns. Proceedings of the Second Joint Technical
Coordinating Committee Meeting, U.S.-Japan Cooperative
Research Program, Phase 5: Composite and Hybrid
Structures, National Science Foundation, Honolulu.
Furlong, R. W. 1967. Strength of Steel-Encased Concrete Beam
Columns. Journal of the Structural Division, ASCE,
93(ST5): 113124.
Janss, J. & Anslijn, R. 1974. Le Calcul des Charges Ultimes des
Colonnes Mtalliques Enrobs de Bton. Rapport CRIF, MT,
89, (Blgica).
Lai, Z., Varma, A. H. & Zhang, K. 2014. Noncompact and
slender rectangular CFT members: experimental database,
analysis, and design. Journal of Constructional Steel
Research, 101(10): 455468.
Lai, Z. & Varma, A. H. 2015a. Noncompact and slender circular
CFT members: experimental database, analysis, and design.
Journal of Constructional Steel Research, 106 (3): 220-223.
Lai, Z. & Varma, A. H. 2015b. Effective stress-strain curves for
noncompact and slender CFT members. Engineering
Structures (submitted).
Lin, C. Y. (1988). Axial Capacity of Concrete Infilled ColdFormed Steel Columns. Ninth International Specialty
Conference on Cold-Formed Steel Structures, W.-W. Yu and
H. S. Joseph, eds., University of Missouri - Rolla, St. Louis:
443457.
Luksha, L.K. & Nesterovich A.P. 1991. Strength testing of largediameter concrete filled steel tubular members. M.
Wakabayashi (Ed.), Proc. Third Int. Conf. Steel-Concrete
Compos. Struct., Association for International Cooperation
and Research in Steel-Concrete Composite Structures,
Fukuoka, Japan: 6772
Kang, C. H., Oh, Y. S. & Moon, T. S. 2001. Strength of Axially
Loaded Concrete-Filled Tubular Stub Column. International

334

11th International Conference on

Advances in Steel and Concrete Composite Structures
Tsinghua University, Beijing, China, December 3-5, 2015

TESTS OF SEAWATER AND SEA SAND CONCRETE (SWSSC)

FILLED STAINLESS STEEL (SS) AND GFRP TUBES
Y.L. Lia, Y.Y. Zhanga, R.F. Niea, X.L. Zhao*a, R.K. Singh Ramanb, S. Al-Saddib & J.G. Tengc
a

Department of Civil Engineering, Monash University, Clayton, Victoria, Australia

E-mails: yinglei.li@monash.edu, yzha644@student.monash.edu, rnie4@student.monash.edu, ZXL@monash.edu
(*corresponding author)
b

Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, Monash University, Clayton, Victoria, Australia
E-mail: Raman.Singh@monash.edu, saadchemeng@gmail.com
c

Research Institute for Sustainable Urban Development, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hong Kong, China
E-mail: jin-guang.teng@polyu.edu.hk
ABSTRACT
Keywords:

concrete-filled tubes,
SWSSC, stainless steel,
FRP, compressive strength

This paper presents a development of seawater and sea sand concrete (SWSSC)
which is used together with fibre reinforced polymer (FRP) and stainless steel to form
composite tubular sections. Industry waste (slag) was used to replace Portland cement in
making geo-polymer SWSSC. The 316 grade stainless steel was adopted and the GFRP
tube was fabricated by the process of filament winding with various glass fiber
orientations. A series of tests were conducted on SWSSC-filled stainless steel and GFRP
circular tubes under axial compression. During the test, both the core concrete and
encased tubes were loaded simultaneously. After reaching the peak load, concrete-filled
stainless steel tubes could sustain the load steadily. GFRP tube rapture was found to be
the final failure mode of SWSSC-filled GFRP tubes. The test results showed that the
strength of the core SWSSC was greatly enhanced due to the confinement effect
provided by the stainless steel tube and GFRP tubes. Finally, the experimental ultimate
load carrying capacity of SWSSC-filled tubes are compared with predicted capacities.
effect is less obvious than that of CFT loaded on core
concrete only.
Due to the resource shortage, the use of seawater, sea
sand and industry waste (e.g. slag) to make seawater, sea
sand concrete (SWSSC) becomes an attractive option. In
general, the mechanical properties of alkaline-activated
SWSSC are similar to those of conventional Portland
concrete (Mohammed et al. 2004). However, serious
attention should be paid on the corrosion problem caused
by the chloride from the seawater and sea sand.
The stainless steel (SS), which is featured with
rounded stress-strain curves and high corrosion resistance,
has been increasingly used in hollow sections (Gardner &
Nethercot 2004). However, the study on concrete-filled
stainless steel tubes (CFSST) is rather limited. Lam &
Gardner (2008) tested 12 CFSST short columns with
varying concrete strength and diameter to thickness ratios.
A comparison between the tested axial capacity and
predicted capacity based on current design codes for
concrete-filled carbon steel tubes indicates that these
codes can safely applied to CFSST design, though overly
conservative results were apparent. A comprehensive

1 INTRODUCTION
Concrete-filled tubes (CFT), which are composed of
core concrete and encased tubes, have been widely used
in civil engineering, such as high-rise buildings and
bridge piers. CFT exhibits large load-carrying capacity
and good seismic performance mainly due to the
confinement effect on core concrete provided by the
encased tube. Past researches (Zhao et al. 2010) have
indicated that the circular tube can provide substantial
strength enhancement and ductility comparing to the
square or rectangular tube. Therefore, in most of the
current design specifications, the confinement effect of
circular CFT is considered while that of square or
rectangular CFT is ignored. The loading conditions,
including on the concrete and tube simultaneously, on
concrete only and on tube only, can significantly affect
the structural behaviours of concrete-filled stub columns
(Johansson & Gylltoft 2002). For CFT loaded on
concrete and tube simultaneously, the encased tube is
under the bi-axial stress condition and the confinement

335

Li et al.
experimental study on CFSST columns were carried out
by Uy et al. (2011). The test results indicated that the
axial load-strain curves for stub columns can be classified
into three types and CFSSTs showed more ductile
behaviour and higher residual strength than carbon steel
CFSTs.
The hybrid section composed of concrete and fibre
reinforced polymer (FRP) can be classified into two types:
one is concrete-filled FRP jacket, in which the
longitudinal strength of FRP jacket is ignored, and the
other is concrete-filled FRP tubes (CFFT), where the
longitudinal strength of FRP tube cannot be ignored.
Most of the researches were focused on concrete-filled
FRP jacket (or CFFT loaded on core concrete only) and
numerous stress-strain models, which are generally
divided as design-oriented model and analysis-oriented
model, on FRP-confined concrete have been proposed
(Ozbakkaloglu et al. 2013, Teng & Lam 2006).
Nevertheless, the studies on CFFT loaded on both tube
and core concrete are rather limited. Fam & Rizkalla
(2001a, b) conducted the experimental investigation on
axially loaded concrete-filled circular fibre reinforced
polymer tubes and proposed a confinement model.
Because the axial compressive stress can reduce the hoop
strength of FRP tubes, a biaxial strength failure criterion
was adopted in their study to account for the combined
stresses.
This paper mainly focuses on the experimental
investigation on the structural behaviour of axially
compressed SWSSC-filled SS or GFRP circular stub
columns. The load was applied on both core concrete and
encased tubes simultaneously. The tests on hollow
sections and material tests are also conducted in this
research. Finally, a comparison is made between the
tested results and predicted results based on existing
design methods. This forms part of a large research
program on hybrid SWSSC tubular construction being
carried out at Monash University in collaboration with
The Hong Kong Polytechnic University and Southeast
University, China.

added with mixing water. The concrete mixture

proportions are reported in Table 1.
Table 1. Concrete mixture
Constituents

weight (kg/m3)

Slag

360

Seawater

190

w/b

0.53

Seasand

830

Coarse aggregate

1130

Sodium meta-silicate

38.4

Hydrated lime slurry

14.4

The slump of the fresh concrete was 120mm by

standard slump test. Three identical concrete cylinders
with diameter of 100mm and height of 200mm were
casted in the same batch. All the specimens and cylinders
were cured in the curing room with relative humidity
of >90% and temperature of 20 C and were tested at
282 days. The averaged 28-day strength, Elastic
modulus and Poissons ratio of the concrete are 29.8MPa,
33.2GPa and 0.24 respectively. The typical stress-strain
curves are also given in Figure 1 (compressive strain is
negative and tensile strain is positive).

Figure 1. Stress-strain curves of concrete cylinder 2

2.2 Stainless steel

The 316 austenitic stainless in accordance with Coldformed stainless steel structures (2001) was used to
fabricate the SS tubes. Two coupons, whose dimensions
are in comply with AS 1391 (2007) , were cut from each
size of sections. The ends of the coupon were flattened in
order to be gripped by the test machine. The flattening
occurred far away from the necked area, which is
believed would not affect the material properties of the
stainless steel.
The coupon tensile test was conducted based on
Metallic material tensile testing at ambient
temperature (2007) with loading rate of 1.0mm/min. The
averaged test results are summarized in Table 2, where
EO is initial elastic modulus, f0.2 is 0.2% proof stress, fu is
ultimate strength, Agt is total elongation, n is RambergOsgood parameter, and fp is proportional limit. It should

2 MATERIAL

2.1 Seawater and sea sand concrete (SWSSC)

Alkali activated slag concrete with seawater and sea
sand was used in this research. 3% (percentage weight of
slag) sodium meta-silicate activator, which is composed
of 47% SiO2 and 36% Na2O, was pre-blended with slag
in the dry form before mixing. The seawater and sea sand
were from the coastal beach near Melbourne. The
fineness modulus of sea sand was 2.39 which is slightly
finer than the river sand. The coarse aggregate consisted
of 14 maximum size basalts with a specific gravity of
2.95. In order to improve the concrete workability, 1%
(percentage weight of slag) hydrated lime slurry was

336

Li et al.
be noted that the EO, f0.2, n, fp are determined based on
strain gauges, which are attached on both concave and
convex sides of coupons. The typical full-range stressstrain curve (from extensometer) and the stress-strain
curve during the initial stage (from averaged strain gauge
readings) are plotted in Figure 2. It should be mentioned
that the stress-strain behaviours of stainless steel in
tension and compression are slightly different, but in this
paper this difference was ignored and the material
properties obtained from tensile coupon test are used for
the analysis of SS tubes in compression.

method used in ASTM D2290 (2012) . Two 13mm wide

rings were cut from each size of GFRP tubes. The test
setup is shown in Figure 3, which is consisted of Ushaped headers and semi-circular steel cylinders with the
same curvature as the tested rings. All the rings were
failed at the gap area between the semi-circular cylinders
and two strain gauges in hoop direction were fixed at
these expected failure locations.

Table 2. Average material properties of stainless steel

EO
f0.2
fu
fp
Agt
n
(GPa) (MPa) (MPa)
(MPa)
177.9

295

605

55%

8.3

217

Figure 3 Test setup for GFRP hoop strength

The test results are summarized in Table 3, in which

fu,h is the hoop strength of GFRP, Eh is the elastic
modulus of GFRP in hoop direction and u,h is the
ultimate hoop strain. As shown in Table 3, the test results
are scattered possibly due to the following reasons: 1)
bending effect cannot be avoided at the failure locations,
especially for rings with small diameters; 2) the layout of
fibres are irregular and the strain gauge results are very
local. In this paper, due to the scattering of the results,
the material properties of GFRP are taken as the averaged
values of all the tested specimens.

(a)

Table 3. Hoop strength and elastic modulus of GFRP

(b)
Figure 2. Typical stress-strain curves of stainless steel: (a) full
range; (b) initial stage

2.3 Glass fibre reinforce polymer (GFRP)

The GFRP tubes were fabricated by filament winding
process with different glass fibre orientations. Based on
the manufacture data, 20%, 40%, and 40% fibres were in
the angles of 15, 40 and 75 with respect to
longitudinal axis of tubes. Therefore, the GFRP tube can
provide strength and stiffness in both hoop and
longitudinal directions.
The hoop strength of GFRP tubes were obtained by
the disk-split method, which is similar to the test

Specimen

fu,h
(MPa)

Eh
(GPa)

u,h
()

503-1

282.3

503-2

263.5

1013-1

352.5

50.8

8030

1013-2

383.4

59.5

8210

1143-1

341.0

48.8

9721

1143-2

333.6

56.5

6891

1653-1

268.7

38.3

12363

1653-2

265.4

31.3

8257

Mean
fu,h
(MPa)

E
(GPa)

u,h
()

311.3

47.5

8912

With respect to the longitudinal direction, the tensile

strength was not obtained at the current stage. The
longitudinal compressive strength of GFRP was
determined by the reference test on GFRP hollow
sections, which will be introduced later.

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Li et al.
3 EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATION

were automatically collected by a data acquisition system.

A typical test setup is shown in Figure 4.

3.1 Specimens
A total of 8 concrete-filled circular stub columns and
correspondingly 8 hollow stub columns under axial
compression were tested in this paper. All the specimens
are about 400mm long to avoid the global buckling and
the influence of end effects. The measured dimensions of
tested specimens are reported in Table 4, in which Do, t,
and L are the outer diameter, thickness and length of the
tube respectively.
The label of concrete-filled tubes is composed of tube
material (SS or FRP), concrete (C), and outer
diameters. For hollow sections, the label only consists of
tube material (SS or FRP) and outer diameters.
Table 4. Measured dimensions of specimens

Figure 4. Test setup of specimen SS-C-114

Specimen

Tube

Do (mm)

t (mm)

L (mm)

Nt (kN)

SS-C-50

SS

47.9

2.8

387

198.9

SS-C-101

SS

101.2

2.8

398

729.1

SS-C-114

SS

113.9

2.9

399

791.2

SS-C-165

SS

168.2

3.2

398

1456.2

SS-50

SS

47.9

2.8

398

117.9

SS-101

SS

101.2

2.8

400

334.5

SS-114

SS

114.0

2.9

400

355.4

SS-165

SS

168.3

3.2

400

544.8

FRP-C-50

FRP

51.1

3.1

384

243.6

FRP-C-101

FRP

100.1

3.1

385

670.3

FRP-C-114

FRP

115.2

3.1

384

813.8

FRP-C-165

FRP

158.2

3.1

398

1338.0

FRP-50

FRP

51.2

3.2

399

97.9

FRP-101

FRP

100.2

2.9

398

198.9

FRP-114

FRP

115.3

3.0

398

205.7

FRP-165

FRP

158.0

3.0

397

213.4

3.3 Test results

The ultimate capacity (Nt) of tested stub columns is
the maximum load they can reach during the test. For
some concrete-filled SS tubes, no obvious descending
part of the load-shortening curves was observed, and Nt is
taken as the first peak load. The Nt of concrete-filled
tubes and hollow tubes are summarized in Table 4.
The outward folding at mid-height was observed for
concrete-filled SS tubes when reaching the peak load.
This outward folding was probably caused by the plastic
local buckling and concrete expansion. After reaching the
peak load, concrete-filled SS tubes could still carry the
load constantly. The test was terminated when the end
shortening is close to the drive of the test machine, which
is about 60mm. One typical load-end shortening curves
and failure mechanisms of concrete-filled SS tubes are
summarized in Figure 5. For SS hollow sections, the
elephant foot was formed near the loading plate.

3.2 Test setup

The concrete-filled specimens were tested on the
5000kN Amsler test machine, whilst all the hollow
sectional specimens were tested on the 500kN Baldwin
machine. The axial compressive load was directly applied
upon the specimens. For concrete-filled specimens,
cement paste was used to fill the gap caused by concrete
shrinkage to assure the load was applied on the tube and
the concrete simultaneously. The loading rate is
0.5mm/min with displacement control.
Three linear variable displacement transducers
(LDVTs) were equally placed around tested tubes to
measure the axial end shortening and the axial end
shortening was taken as the averaged value of the
readings from LDVTs. Three longitudinal and three
circumferential strain gauges were affixed to all columns
at mid-height. All the loads, displacements and strains

Figure 5. Load-end shortening curve and failure mechanism of

concrete-filled SS tube SS-C-101

For concrete-filled SS tubes and SS hollow tubes with

diameter of 50mm, as the length to diameter ratio is about
338

Li et al.
8, some sort of global bulking shape was observed during
the test, which slightly reduced the squash capacity.
The failure modes of concrete-filled GFRP tubes are
different from those of concrete-filled SS tubes. With the
increase of applied load, the GFRP tube buckled along
the longitudinal direction. However, after a slightly drop
of load, the concrete-filled GFRP tube can still
increasingly carry the load until the rapture of GFRP tube
along hoop direction suddenly occurred with a big sound
(as shown in Figure 6). Once the rapture occurred, the
applied load dramatically dropped to almost zero. In
general, the concrete-filled GFRP tube displayed less
ductile behaviour than that of concrete-filled SS tubes.
The failure mode of GFRP hollow section was the local
buckling crushing near the loading plate. Similar failure
modes have been reported by other researchers (Farley &
Jones, 1991).

(a)

(b)
Figure 7. Load-strain curves of: (a) concrete-filled SS tubes and
hollow SS tubes; (b) concrete-filled FRP tubes and hollow FRP
tubes
Figure 6. Load-end shortening curve and failure mechanism of
concrete-filled GFRP tube FRP-C-101

4 DISCUSSION

4.1 Comparison of test strength with design strength of

concrete-filled SS tubes

The load-strain curves of the tested specimens are

summarized in Figure 7, in which the strain is the end
shortening divided by specimen length. As shown in
Figure 7, the infilled concrete significantly enhances the
load carrying capacity and ductility of SS and FRP tubes.
The capacity enhancement ratios (capacity of concretefilled tube to that of hollow tube) are 1.69, 2.18, 2.23 and
2.67 for SS tubes with nominal outer diameter of 50, 101,
114 and 165 respectively. The ratios for FRP tubes are
2.49, 3.37, 3.96 and 6.27 respectively, which indicates
that the FRP tubes can confine the concrete more
effectively that SS tubes. However, the ductility of
concrete-filled SS tubes is much higher than that of
concrete-filled FRP tubes.

As there is no design code for concrete-filled SS tubes,

the codes for concrete-filled carbon steel tubes will be
used in this section to estimate the un-factored design
strength of concrete-filled SS tubes. The Chinese code
DBJ13-51 (2003) and simple superposition method are
adopted herein.
The design formulas in DBJ13-51 (2003) are listed in
Equation 1 and 2
(1)
NDBJ=(1.14+1.020)fcu(As+Ac)
0= Asfy/ Ac fcu
(2)
where is stability factor, 0 is confinement factor, As is
steel cross-section area, Ac is concrete area, fy is yield
strength of steel, which is taken as 0.2% proof stress for
stainless steel (f0.2), fcu is cubic concrete strength, which is
fc divided by 0.79.
It should be emphasized that the stability factor () of
concrete-filled tubes with nominal diameter of 50mm is
slightly less than 1.0 due to the influence of global
buckling. For tubes with other diameters, the influence of
global buckling can be ignored during the calculation.

339

Li et al.
The comparison between the tested strength and
predicted strength of concrete-filled SS tubes are
summarized in Table 5, in which Nsup is determined by
simply superposition method as list in Equation 3:
Nsup=Asfy+Acfc
(3)
All the calculations are based on measured geometry and
measured material properties. Because the maximum
diameter to thickness ratio is about 50 for SS tubes, based
on AS/NZS 4673 (2001) , all the cross-section is effective
for stainless steel tubes.

concrete confined by FRP jacket. So the ultimate capacity

of concrete-filled FRP jacket (denoted as N1) can be
determined by Equation 6:
N1=Ac(fc+3.3fl)
(6)
where fl is determined by Equation 4.
For concrete-filled FRP tubes, it is believed that the
strength of the FRP tube in the hoop direction will be
reduced by the presence of axial compression. Fam &
Rizkalla (2001a) suggested using biaxial strength failure
criteria, which is based on the interactive tensor
polynomial theory, to account for the combined stresses.
This theory needs the basic material properties of FRP,
such as Poissons ratios, Elastic modulus in both
longitudinal and hoop directions. Because of the lack of
those basic material properties in this paper, a simplified
formula is proposed herein to calculate the ultimate
capacity of concrete-filled FRP tubes (denoted as N2):
N2=Ac(fc+3.3fl)+Afrpu,l
(7)
fl=2u,ht/D
(8)
where Afrp is the cross-section area of FRP tubes, u,l and
u,h are the reduced ultimate strength of FRP in
longitudinal and hoop directions under biaxial stress
condition. The reduction factors are manually set as 0.1
and 0.9 in longitudinal and hoop directions respectively.
Therefore u,l and u,h can be calculated by Equation 9
and 10:
u,l=0.1fu,l
(9)
u,h=0.9fu,h
(10)
where fu,l is the ultimate strength of FRP along
longitudinal direction. It should be emphasized that
because of the anisotropy properties of FRP with fibres in
various orientations, it is difficult to correctly derive the
reduction factors. More researches are needed in this
aspect.
As mentioned in Section 2.3, the tensile coupon test
for FRP was not conducted at this stage. fu,l is calculated
from the compressive test results of GFRP hollow
sections. fu,l is taken as 205.6MPa, which is the averaged
ultimate compressive stress of specimens FRP-50, FRP101 and FRP-114. FRP-165 is excluded in order to avoid
the influence of local buckling. The hoop strength (fu,h)
for each size of GFRP tubes are obtained by disk-split
test as introduced in Section 2.3.
Three different approaches are used to calculate the
ultimate capacity of the concrete-filled GFRP tubes: 1)
the tubes contribution in the longitudinal direction is
ignored and the ultimate capacity (N1) is determined by
Equation 6; 2) the tubes contribution in both longitudinal
and hoop directions are considered and the ultimate
capacity (N2) is determined by Equation 7; 3) the simple
superposition method is used to estimate the ultimate
capacity as shown in Equation 11.
N3=Acfc+Afrpfu,l
(11)
The predicted strength of concrete-filled GFRP tubes
using the above approaches is summarized in Table6.

Table 5. Comparison of tested strength and design strength of

concrete-filled SS tubes
Nt
t
Nt
Nsup
NDBJ
Nsup DBJ
Specimen (kN)
(kN)
(kN)
SS-C-50

198.9

162.5

224.3

1.22

0.89

SS-C-101

729.1

497.2

670.3

1.47

1.09

SS-C-114

791.2

545.1

745.2

1.45

1.06

SS-C-165

1456.2

1070.6

1458.5

1.36

1.00

Mean

1.38

1.01

COV

0.07

0.08

As shown in Table 5, DBJ13-51 (2003) generally can

estimate the capacity of concrete-filled SS tubes
accurately. The prediction result by simple superposition
method is much more conservative as the confinement
effect is not accounted in this method. In general, at this
stage, the design codes for concrete-filled carbon steel
tubes can be safely applied to concrete-filled SS tubes.

4.2 Design methods for concrete-filled GFRP tubes

The structural behaviour of concrete confined by FRP
jacket has been extensively studied by scholars. Because
of the linearity of FRP, the core concrete is actively
confined, which is different from the passive confinement
in concrete-filled steel tubes. The stress condition in the
concrete and FRP jacket is shown in Figure 8, in which
the FRP jacket only provides the strength and stiffness in
hoop direction. The confinement stress (fl) can be
determined by Equation 4:
fl=2fu,ht/D
(4)
where fu,h is the hoop strength of FRP.

Figure 8. Stress condition: concrete (left) and FRP jacket (right)

The ultimate compressive strength (fcc) of confined

concrete can be written as:
fcc=fc+kfl
(5)
where k is the confinement coefficient. Based on the
study of Lam & Teng (2003), the k is set to 3.3 for

340

Li et al.
Table 6. Comparison of tested strength and predicted strength of concrete-filled GFRP tubes
Specimen

fu,l (MPa)

fu,h (MPa)

Nt (kN)

N1 (kN)

N2 (kN)

N3 (kN)

Nt /N1

Nt /N2

Nt /N3

243.6

243.3

233.2

142.5

1.00

1.04

1.71

670.3

650.3

625.4

402.0

1.03

1.07

1.67

813.8

797.9

768.5

504.1

1.02

1.06

1.61

1338.0

1279.0

1236.5

854.2

1.05

1.08

1.57

Mean

1.02

1.06

1.64

COV

0.02

0.01

0.03

FRP-C-50
FRP-C-101
FRP-C-114

205.6

311.3

FRP-C-165

permission to obtain seawater and sea sand from Brighton

Beach in Melbourne.

As shown in Table 6, Approach 1 and 2 can estimate

the strength of concrete-filled GFRP tubes accurately.
The superposition method (approach 3) is much
conservative because the confinement effect is significant
for concrete confined by FRP tubes. It is reasonable to
assume that the contribution of FRP tube on the
longitudinal strength and stiffness is very limited. This
assumption is also verified by the test observation. Based
on the test observation, after tubes buckling along
longitudinal direction, concrete-filled GFRP tube can still
increasingly sustain the load until the rapture of GFRP
tubes in hoop direction.
Up to now, the failure criterion of FRP shells under
biaxial stress condition has not been fully understood.
More studies are needed to assess the reasonability of the
reduction factors in Equation 9 and 10.

REFERENCES

5 CONCLUSIONS
A total of 8 concrete-filled stainless steel and FRP
circular stub columns and 8 corresponding hollow
sections were tested in this paper. Based on the analysis
of the test results, the following conclusions can be drawn:
1) The infilled concrete can significantly enhance the
strength and ductility of stainless steel and FRP tubes.
2) The current design methods for concrete-filled
carbon steel tubes can be safely applied to concrete-filled
SS tubes.
3) Based on the test results of this paper, it is
reasonable to ignore GFRP tubes contribution on
longitudinal strength and stiffness. The design method for
concrete confined by FRP jacket can be used for
concrete-filled GFRP tubes. However, more studies are
needed on the structure behaviour of FRP tubes under
biaxial stress condition.
Research is being conducted on the durability of
SWSSC-filled SS tubes and FRP tubes.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The authors wish to acknowledge the financial
support provided by the Australian Research Council
(ARC) through an ARC Discovery Grant (DP160100739).
The tests were conducted in the Civil Engineering
Laboratory at Monash University. Thanks are given to Mr.
Long Goh and Mr. Jeff Doddrell for their assistance. We
thank Mr. Damian Carr of Bayside City Council for his

341

AS/NZS 4673:2001. 2001. Cold-formed stainless steel

structures
DBJ13-51. 2003. Technical specification for concrete-filled
steel tubular structures
AS 1391-2007. 2007. Metallic materials-Tensile testing at
ambient temperature
ASTM D2290-12. 2012. Standard test method for apparent
hoop tensile strength of plastic or reinforced plastic pipe
Fam, A.Z. & Rizkalla, S.H. 2001a. Confinement Model for
Axially Loaded Concrete Confined by Circular FiberReinforced Polymer Tubes. ACI Structural Journal 98(4),
451-461.
Fam, A.Z. & Rizkalla, S.H. 2001b. Behavior of axial loaded
concrete-filled circular fiber-reinforced polymer tubes. ACI
Structural Journal 98(3), 280-289.
Farley, G.L. & Jones, R.M. 1991, Crushing characteristics of
continuous fiber-reinforced composite tubes, Journal of
Composite Materials 26(1), 37-50.
Gardner, L. & Nethercot, D.A. 2004. Experiments on stainless
steel hollow sectionsPart 1: Material and cross-sectional
behaviour. Journal of Constructional Steel Research 60,
1291-1318.
Johansson, M. & Gylltoft, K. 2002. Mechanical Behavior of
Circular Steel Concrete Composite Stub Columns.
Journal of Structural Engineering 128(8), 1073-1081.
Lam, D. & Gardner, L. 2008. Structural design of stainless steel
concrete filled columns. Journal of Constructional Steel
Research 64(11), 1275-1282.
Lam, L. & Teng, J.G. 2003. Design-oriented stress strain
model for FRP-confined concrete. Construction and
Building Materials 17(6-7), 471-489.
Mohammed, T.U.T., Hamada, H. & Yamaji, T. 2004.
Performance of seawater-mixed concrete in the tidal
environment. Cement and Concrete Research 34(4), 593601.
Ozbakkaloglu, T., Lim, J.C. & Vincent, T. 2013. FRP-confined
concrete in circular sections: Review and assessment of
stress strain models. Engineering Structures 49(2013),
1068-1088.
Teng, J.G. & Lam, L. 2006. Behavior and Modeling of FRPConfined Concrete: A State-of-the-Art Review. ACI Special
Publication 238, 327-346.
Uy, B., Tao, Z. & Han, L. 2011. Behaviour of short and slender
concrete-filled stainless steel tubular columns. Journal of
Constructional Steel Research 67(3), 360-378.
Zhao, X.L., Han, L.H. & Lu, H. 2010. Concrete-filled tubular
members and connections. New York : Spon Press

11th International Conference on

Advances in Steel and Concrete Composite Structures
Tsinghua University, Beijing, China, December 3-5, 2015

PRELIMINARY STUDY ON DURABILITY OF FRP AND

STAINLESS STEEL IN SEAWATER AND SEA SAND CONCRETE
(SWSSC) ENVIRONMENT
F. Guoa, W. Khooa, S. Al-Saadib, Y.L. Lia, R.K. Singh Ramanb & X.L. Zhao*a
a

Department of Civil Engineering, Monash University, Clayton, Victoria, Australia

E-mails: fguo16@student.monash.edu, wkho13@student.monash.edu, yinglei.li@monash.edu, ZXL@monash.edu
(*corresponding author)
b

Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, Monash University, Clayton, Victoria, Australia
E-mail: saad.al-saadi@monash.edu, Raman.Singh@monash.edu
ABSTRACT
Keywords:
Durability, seawater sea sand
concrete (SWSSC),
fiber-reinforced polymer (FRP),
Stainless steel (SS), accelerated
aging test, concrete filled steel
tubes (CFST)

This paper presents an accelerated aging test of durability of 3 different materials-glass fiber
reinforced polymer (GFRP), carbon fiber reinforced polymer (CFRP) and stainless steel (SS)
type AISI304-with combined use of seawater sea sand concrete (SWSSC) within ocean
environment. Figure (a) and Figure (b) illustrate different exposure environments of Concrete
filled tubes (CFST) and Concrete filled double skin tubes (CFDST). The accelerated aging is
achieved by elevating temperatures (i.e. 40oC and 60oC). Rectangular coupon and cylindrical
tube specimens were immersed in 4 different solutions-alkaline seawater solution (i.e.
simulation of SWSSC pore solution), alkaline solution (i.e. simulation of normal concrete (NC)
pore solution), saline solution (i.e. simulation of seawater) and distilled water (i.e. reference
solution)-for 15, 30, 60, and 90-days. The corrosion rate for stainless steel was calculated based
on weight loss while degradation rates of GFRP and CFRP were determined by mass gain and
weight loss. In addition, scanning electron microscopy (SEM) test was carried out to examine
the surface/microstructure change. The results evidenced that SS AISI304 and CFRP have good
durability performance over GFRP especially in SWSSC and NC at elevated temperature.
However, in saline environment, no sign of degradation was observed for FRPs and only
minimal corrosion was noticed for SS specimens in SEM results.

breakdown, initiating a localized attack of the underlying

metals (Sato, 2012). It has been reported that pH value,
temperature, chloride concentration of exposure
environment, exposure time, chemical composition and
microstructure of stainless steel have influences over
formation and breakdown of this passive film (Srensen et
al., 1990; Freire et al. ,2011; Luo et al., 2012).
L. Freire et al. (2011) revealed that the film resistance
of AISI304 reduces when chloride concentration
increases or pH value decreases (i.e. from 13 to 9), and
similar results were found in the research of H. Luo et al.
(2012) for 2205 duplex stainless steel and the research of
L. Li et al. (2014) for three different weldment zones. The
critical chloride concentration to initiate pitting corrosion
for austenitic steels was suggested to be at least 10 times
higher than carbon steel (Srensen et al., 1990). A
reduction of corrosion resistance was also observed when
immersion environment temperature increases from 20oC
to 40oC (Bertolini et al., 1996). As for alloy content,
generally, C, P, S and non-metallic inclusions have

1 INTRODUCTION
The research of Seawater Sea Sand Concrete (SWSSC)
was driven by the forecast of fresh water shortage, river
sand shortage and sea level rising in near future as a
result of population projection and economic
development (The Economist, 2009; Maddocks, 2009;
Deccan, 2013; Kochhar, 2014; Abs.gov.au, 2015). Aside
from the actual mechanical performance of SWSSC,
another major challenge for SWSSC is to find suitable
reinforcing/confining alternatives as commonly used
carbon steel has been proven chemically unstable due to
localized corrosion in the presence of chlorides.
Stainless steel was recommended as up to 50%
maintenance cost can be reduced over 100 years even
under some sever environment conditions (Cramer et al.,
2002). Its improved corrosion resistance mainly
contributes to a thin protective film formed on the
surface, and the formation process is called passivation
behavior. However, in the presence of aggressive ions
such as chlorides ions, the passive film on metal may

342

F. Guo et al.

found to have better performance in seawater solution

than polyester-based composites as polyester resin is
more susceptible to hydrolysis. Karbhari, V & Ghosh, K
(2009) revealed that salt water is more deteriorating to
bond strength than deionized water. Belarbi, A et al.
(2004) reported that GFRP-wrapped column experienced
more significant ultimate load and ductility reduction
when ex-posed to seawater solution while CFR-wrapped
columns dont. The moisture and expansion of salt
crystals in the microcracks are identified as contributing
factors.
Since the degradation rate of FRP mainly de-pends on
chemical reaction rate and diffusion rate (Chen et al.,
2007), both of which can be accelerated by elevating
temperatures, elevated temperature is commonly used for
aging test to obtain result within limited time frame.
However, one argument is concerning the assumption
that elevated temperature merely increases the
degradation rate without affecting the degradation
mechanism or introducing other degradation mechanisms
(Chen et al., 2007). Chen et al. (2006) proved that this
kind of accelerating test is reliable to evaluate the
durability of FRP composites with combined use of
concrete by using Arrhenius analysis.
It is worth noting that laboratory results tend to be
more conservative when compared with field study result
(Mufti et al., 2005; Chen et al. 2006).
Though extensive studies have been conducted to test
durability of FRP and SS within chloride contaminated
alkaline environment simulating aggressive environment
conditions (e.g. ingress of seawater from concrete
cracks), few of them considered the presence of chloride
ions in concrete pore solution coming directly from the
aggregate and mixing water (i.e. sea sand and seawater).
Moreover, the durability of confining material in another
kind of composite structure, Concrete Filled Steel Tubes
(CFST)/Concrete Filled Double Skin Tubes (CFDST)
(Zhao et al., 2010), which commonly used as building
columns and bridge piers, have seldom been investigated.
They might degrade/corrode at a faster rate as they are
exposed to two different exposure environments (i.e.
internal and external) while the conventional
reinforcement only has one. The present work forms part
of research on hybrid tubular construction utilizing
seawater, sea sand and industry wastes, aiming to
examine the durability of CFRP and SS with combined
use of SWSSC. A comparison between these three
materials and also a comparison between the result of
current work and that of previous ones will be provided.

negative effect on the pitting resistance, while Mo, Cr, Ni

are beneficial alloying elements (Luo et al., 2012).
It is worth mentioning that the corrosion development
process in simulated pore solutions was reported to be
different from those in structures, such as the availability
of corrosion rate control elements and the probability of
the attack onset (Bautista et al., 2006)
Fiber-reinforced polymer (FRP), as another reliable
alternative, has gained increasing popularity of
application in concrete structures due to its high stiffness
to weight ratio, good fatigue properties, ease of handling
and primarily resistance to corrosion (Uomoto, 2002).
Different from the corrosion of steel reinforcement, there
is no visible warning signs (e.g. cracking/spalling of the
concrete) caused by the deterioration of FRP, which has
been consider as a disadvantage (Al-Salloum et al.,
2013). Strength reduction factors are recommended by
design guidelines for FRP-reinforced concrete structures
because of insufficient supporting experimental data of its
long-term durability (ACI2001; JSCE1997). In order to
support the use of FRP, a number of studies have been
carried out to investigate the durability of different types
of FRP under various environmental conditions. The
degradation mainly occurs on three phases: fiber, resin
and the interphase between fiber and matrix. Widely used
fiber types are glass, carbon, and aramid, while most
commonly used resin types are polyester, vinyl ester and
epoxy. It was concluded that elevated temperatures,
alkalinity, salinity, moisture of the exposing environment
have influences on these three phases (Ber et al., 2013).
Moisture absorption is considered as the primary
attack to the polymer composites in fluid environment,
Karbhari VM et.al (1996; 2005; 2009) found that glass
and aramid fibers are subject to moisture absorption
while carbon fibers are relatively immune. Matrices are
the more vulnerable to humidity than two other phases,
and the moisture absorption by resin can lead to
plasticization, swelling, hydrolysis and fiber debonding
from matrix (Xian et al., 2010)
Concrete pore solution is the most likely source of
alkalinity, which tends to degrade the interface between
fiber and matrix (Karbhari et.al, 2001; Weitsman, 1995)
and change the chemical/mechanical properties of
polyester resin and E-glass fibers (Anderson et al., 1994).
Previous studies conducted under high pH environment
indicated that high pH is not the only reason contributing
to fiber degradation. It is rather a combination of
hydroxylation products and presence of moisture where
pH act as catalysis (Zhang et al., 1999). Rahman, A. H.,
et al. (1998) reported that glass fiber composites are
significantly damaged while carbon fiber composites only
exhibit invisible degradation after immersing in alkaline
solutions for 45days.
Saline solution is normally used as artificial sea-water
in laboratory testing. In the experiment of Kootsookos,
A & Mouritz, A (2004), vinyl ester based composites are

2 EXPERIMENTAL PROGRAM
2.1 Materials
Three types of material were involved in this study: Glass
fiber reinforced polymer (GFRP), carbon fiber reinforced
polymer (CFRP) and Stainless steel (SS).
343

F. Guo et al.

sodium hydroxide (NaOH), potassium hydroxide (KOH)

and calcium hydroxide (Ca(OH)2) was used to simulate
normal concrete (NC) pore solution. Solution 2 (Alkaline
seawater solution) was made with the exact same
combination as solution 1 with an addition of sodium
chloride (NaCl) used to simulate SWSSC pore solution
(Chen et al., 2007). Solution 3 (Seawater solution)
containing sodium chloride (NaCl) was used to simulate
seawater. Finally, as a control environment Solution 4
was made of just distilled water simulating high humidity
and moisture.

Pultruded GFRP hollow tubes (supplied by Xingya

China) was selected as one of testing materials as its
competitive advantages on pricing; Pultruded CFRP tubes
with 100% unidirectional carbon fibers and K51 matrix
resin (supplied by Australian Excel Composites
Company) were selected as the second testing material;
and Stainless steel type AISI 304 (in%, w/w: C0.05, Mn
1.61, Si 0.40, P 0.03, Cr 18.4) was chosen as it is one of
most commercial stainless steel types, offering an
acceptable mechanical properties, corrosion resistance
and suitable cost.
All materials were presented in a long cylindrical
hollow tubes which were cut into 4 long tubes as wells as
32 pieces of coupon specimen as shown in the Figure 1.
The dimensions of the specimens are specified in Table 1.

Table 2 Testing solutions

Solution
No.
Solution 1
Solution 2
Solution 3
Solution 4

NaCl
35.0
35.0
-

NaOH KOH Ca(OH)2

Quantities in g/L
2.4
19.6
2.0
2.4
19.6
2.0
-

pH
12-13.5
12-13.5
7.5-8.0
7.0

2.3 Testing Method

An accelerated aging test methods for cleaning after
testing method has been proposed for this study due to
limited time frame. It is one of the most commonly used
test method for researchers to obtain durability results in
a short amount of time. This test involves immersing the
sample in simulated environment under 40oC/60oC to
accelerate FRP degradation or stainless steel corrosion.
Temperature controlled water bath were set to 60oC to
provide constant immersion temperature for SS and
CFRP, two different temperature 40oC and 60oC for
GFRP. An example of water bath setup and immersion of
tubular specimens and rectangular specimens was
illustrated in the Figure 2 (a)-(c).
Eight rectangular specimens for each material were
immersed in each solution in glass containers and placed
in water bath at the controlled test temperature. For
FRP specimens, removing each specimen from solutions
and drying outer surface well by dry towel prior to taking
daily weight readings for mass gain measurements, and
two specimens were removed from each solution after 15,
30, and 60 days, rinsed with distilled water, dried by
compressed air and subjected for drying in conventional
oven for 48-72 hours at 60oC prior to re-weight
measurements for weight loss measurements. With
respect to stainless steel coupon specimens, two were
removed from each solution, rinsed and brushed gently
under cold tap water to remove the corrosion products,
cleaned with appropriate solutions according to ASTM
standard G1-03 (2003), scrubbed with fresh and
conditioned scouring pad, rinsed with distilled water and
dried before taking weight readings for weight change
based corrosion rate calculation.

Figure 1 Specimens of 3 different materials

(Left: GFRP, Middle: CFRP, Right: SS)
Table 1 Dimensions of specimens
Rectangular
Tubular
Specimens
Specimens
L*
W
T
D
H
T
(mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm)
SS
20
15
1.6
38
50
1.6
GFRP
15
10
4.3
45
51
4.3
CFRP
15
10
4.3
38.5
48
4.3
*Note: L=Length, W=Width, T=Thickness, D=Diameter,
H=Height

Prior to the start of the experiment, the FRP

specimens were cleaned with distilled water and left to
dry in the oven until a constant weight was attained, and
SS specimens were polished by SiC paper, measured to
nearest 0.01mm by digital vernier to determine
dimensions, cleaned ultrasonically in acetone and ethanol
baths (5mins for each) for decreasing, rinsed with
distilled water and dried.

2.2 Solutions
In order to study degradation of FRP in environment
typically found in civil engineering applications four
different solution were made for this experiment.
Compositions of these solutions are listed in Table 2.
Solution 1 (Alkaline solution) made of a combination of

344

F. Guo et al.
Table 3 Simulated combinations for tubular specimens
Tubular Specimens
Solution 1
Solution 2
Solution 3
T1
In*
Out
T2
Out
In
T3
In
Out
T4
Out
In
*Note: In=inside environment, Out=outside environment

(b)

(a)

(c)

Figure 2 Experiment setup of GFRP specimens (a) water bath

setup; (b) tubular specimens setup; (c) rectangular
specimens setup

Figure 3 Exposure environment of CFST (left) and CFDST

(right)

2.4 Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM)

The results of rectangular specimens provide an

insight of FRP/SS durability as conventional
reinforcement in each particular exposure environment,
and also complement the understanding of tubular
specimen results. It is worth mentioning that the
rectangular specimen result is supposed to be
conservative given that all faces of specimens were
exposed to designed solution while up to two faces
exposed to certain environment condition in real life
(Kootsookos& Mourits, 2004).
In terms of tubular specimens, one side of the tubular
specimens was sealed onto a cap with non-conductive
epoxy to simulate two different exposure environments
(i.e. internal, external) of CFST/CFDST. Good sealing
performance was validated by adding coloring to inside
solution and no leaking was found.
Four tubes for each material were utilized to simulate
the four exposure environment combinations of
CFST/CFDST, which have been illustrated in the Figure
3 and Table 3 (Note: the tubes are identified as T1-T4).
Tube 1 has alkaline seawater solution as internal exposure
environment and seawater solution as external exposure
environment to simulate CFST/inner tube of CFDST with
combined use of SWSSC. Tube 2 has seawater solution
as internal exposure environment and alkaline seawater
solution as external exposure environment to simulate
outer tube of CFDST with combined use of SWSSC.
Testing combinations for Tube 3 and Tube 4 are exact
same as Tube 1 and Tube 2 except replacing alkaline
seawater with pure alkaline solution to simulate
CFST/inner tube of CFDST and outer tube of CFDST
with normal concrete respectively. They immersed in
designed environment continuously for 90days without
taking out for periodically reading, only weight loss will
be taken at the end of 90days.

Surface morphology of stainless steel coupon specimens

that exposed to different solutions after 60days were
analyzed using JEOL 7001 scanning electron microscopy
equipped with energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy
(EDX). The accelerating voltage and working distance
were 15KV and 10mm respectively.

3 RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

3.1 Stainless Steel
3.1.1 Corrosion Rate
The corrosion rate was calculated for each SS coupon
specimens using the initial and final weights (i.e. mass
loss), surface area of coupons, density and exposure time
in the equation (ASTM G1-03, 2003):
Corrosion Rate= (KW)/(ATD)

(1)

where K=a constant where the corrosion rate can be

calculated in a variety of units; W=mass loss in g to
nearest 1mg; A= total exposure area in cm2 to the nearest
0.01cm2; T=time of exposure in hours to the nearest
0.01h and D=density in g/cm3.
No significant weight changes were observed for all
specimens within testing time frame (i.e. 90dyas), thus no
corrosion rate could be calculated by using the formula
above. One interpretation of this result could be:
corrosion may have initiated on the stainless steel
specimens in some solutions, however its effect on
weight change is not observable at this stage.

3.1.2 SEM Result

A SEM test was carried out for 60-days cleaned
specimens in alkaline seawater solution, alkaline solution
and seawater solution, as shown in the Figure 4. It can be

345

F. Guo et al.

M(%) = (M1 M0)/M0 100

clearly seen that no pit was found on the surface of

(2)

specimens in alkaline solution and alkaline seawater

where M0 is the initial mass of tested specimen and M1 is
the mass at the treated state. Mass gain for GFRP
rectangular specimens in four different testing solutions
and two designed temperatures were plotted as a function
of normalized immersion time (i.e. square root of
immersion days) as shown in Figure 5, and CFRP in
Figure 6.
As seen, except GFRP specimens in alkaline/
alkaline-seawater solutions, other GFRP specimens in
seawater solutions and distilled water (both 60oC and
40oC) and CFRP specimens (60oC) in all testing solutions
generally follow Ficks Second Diffusion Law: the mass
increased at a fast rate at beginning, then slowed down
after a certain period of immersion as a saturation stage
was approaching and eventually reached a plateau when
specimens are fully saturated. Similar non-Fickian
behavior of GFRP in alkaline/alkaline-seawater solutions
was found in previous studies, and explanation was given
that the material has experienced some form of physical
damaged or irreversible chemical degradation and as a
result of swelling and chemical decomposition of the
matrix, physical cracks were formed at the interfaces
between fiber and epoxy (Wei et al., 2011). These newly
formed cracks would lead to an increase in moisture
uptake.
Under 60oC, the mass gain pattern and eventual mass
gain percentage after 60days immersion of GFRP and
CFRP in seawater and distilled water are really close,
where seawater immersion environment (around 2.5%)
had lower mass gain percentage than distilled water
immersion environment (around 1.5%). This result is not
consistent with previous findings that salt water is more
deteriorating to distilled water (Karbhari & Ghosh, 2009).
Regarding to alkaline and alkaline-seawater immersion
environment, CFRP exhibited much better performances
than GFRP material as only around 2.5% mass gain for
CFRP while over 10% mass gain for GFRP, which
mainly attribute to alkaline sensitive nature of glass fiber
composites. Differences between CFRP in different
immersion environment are within 1%, indicating a good
performance of resisting both moisture absorption and
chemical attack, while huge differences between alkaline
based and non-alkaline based immersion environment
was found for GFRP material.
Comparing with 40oC environment, up to 80% mass
gain reduction can be found for GFRP specimens in all
testing solutions, suggesting elevated temperature had a
great influence on its mass gain behavior and did
accelerate the degradation rate.

solution, while a pit with diameter of approximate 2

micron was observed on the surface of specimen in
seawater solution.
The corrosion resistance of stainless steel specimens
immersed in alkaline based solutions attributes to the

Figure 4 SEM results for 60-days cleaned specimens in alkaline

solution (a), alkaline seawater solution (b) and seawater
solution (c)

formation of highly protective thin oxide film that cover

and strongly adherent to their surface (Freire et al., 2011).
According to the experiment of Bretolini et.al (1996),
both at 20oC and 40oC environment, the critical chloride
contents exceeds 10% for all types of stainless steel in the
solution of pH13.9, which suggested that high alkalinity
is beneficial to the chloride induced localized corrosion.
In the same experiment, results showed that corrosion
initiated above a threshold of (Cl-)/(OH-) ranging from
0.6 to 4. However, in this study, the chloride content is
3.5% for alkaline seawater solution as it was used to
simulate the natural salinity of seawater in SWSSC, and
the pH value measured is around 13.5 simulating the
alkalinity of normal concrete. In this case, the (Cl-)/(OH-)
value can be calculated as 0.26, which is insufficient to
initiate the pitting attack.

3.2 FRPs
3.2.1 Mass Gain
Mass gain as one of important parameters to identify
degradation of FRP material was calculated by using
equation shown below:

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F. Guo et al.

3.2.2 Weight Loss

Weight loss is another indicator of degradation rate of
FRP materials, characterizing the extraction of some

is the weight reading after cleaning and drying in

conventional oven for 48-72 hours prior to final weight
reading measurement.

Figure 5 60days mass gain curves for GFRP ((a) Alkaline solution (blue) and alkaline-seawater (red) under 60oC; (b) Distilled water
(blue) and seawater (orange) under 60oC; (c) Alkaline solution (blue) and alkaline-seawater (red) under 40oC; (d) Distilled water
(blue) and seawater (orange) under 40oC)

Figure 6 60days mass gain curve for CFRP under 60oC

(Alkaline (navy blue); Alkaline-seawater (red); distilled water (blue); seawater (orange))

Calculated mass loss for GFRP under 45oC and 60oC

were illustrated in Figure 7, and the result suggests that
after 15 days immersion those specimens that were
exposed to alkaline and alkaline-seawater (i.e. alkaline
based solutions) had a larger decrease in mass as
compared to those that were expose to seawater and
distilled water (i.e. non alkaline based solution). Similar
behavior was seen on the 30 days and 60 days but with a
larger loss of mass with prolonged exposure for

components from FRP structures due to hydrolysis

reaction or other chemical attack. They were carried out
for rectangular specimens after 15-, 30- and 60-days
pre-exposure to different solutions, and it can be
calculated by:
M(%) = (M2 M0)/M0 100

(3)

where M0 is the initial weight of tested specimen and M2

347

F. Guo et al.
Table 4 Weight change for CFRP
Weight Change (%)
Immersion environment
15 days
Seawater solution
+0.27%
Distilled water
+0.27%
Alkaline solution
+0.11%
Alkaline -seawater solution
+0.29%

specimens exposed to alkaline-based environment and no

change in mass loss for specimens exposed to
non-alkaline based environment. This would mean that
the presence of alkali causes chemical reaction within the
composite structure creating a soluble which diffusion out
of the composite resulting in mass loss. Also, the
presence of seawater content resulted in more weight loss
reduction in both alkaline based solutions and
non-alkaline based solutions, however, the effect in
alkaline-based solutions is more significant. A direct
correlation with mass gain and weight loss can be found.
Moreover, effects of temperature on mass loss in
non-alkaline based solutions were less significant than in
alkaline-based solutions.

30days
+0.34%
+0.33%
-0.27%
+0.17%

60days
+0.19%
+0.37%
-0.36%
+0.04%

4 CONCLUSION
In this preliminary study, CFRP and SS type AISI304
specimens both exhibited generally good durability
performance within simulated SWSSC environment for
60days, as no pitting corrosion was observed for SS and
eventual average mass gain of CFRP specimens is only
2.69%. Compared with corrosion/degradation behavior of
specimens in other testing solutions, it seems probable
that high alkalinity protect stainless steel from pitting
attack of chloride ions, and this selected type of CFRP
material is resistant to moisture absorption and chemical
attack even under elevated temperature environment.
However, high mass gain and weight loss observed for
GFRP specimens indicates an inferior durability
performance in alkaline-based environment, which
influenced by presence of seawater content and elevated
temperature considerably.
Further investigations, such as electrochemical
impedance spectroscopy (EIS) test for corrosion
resistance investigation of stainless steel, SEM test for
microstructure analysis of FRP material, are necessary
before definitive conclusion are drawn. Results of tubular
specimens will be covered in following report after
complete results being collected.
It is recommended for futures work to duplicate this
experiment for longer immersion times; high
performance concrete immersion environment (e.g.
geopolymer concrete) with lower alkalinity or test other
types of stainless steel with lower cost(e.g. low nickel
stainless steel) that might sustain sufficient corrosion
resistance and also FRPs with different fiber/resin types
and different manufacturing process.

(a)

(b)
Figure 7 Weight loss diagram of GFRP after certain period of
immersion, (a) 60oC; (b) 45oC

However, weight gain instead of weight loss for

CFRP material was observed for most of specimens
except 30- and 60-days specimens in alkaline solution, as
shown in Table 4. It is likely that absorbed moisture has
not been dissipated completely even after 72hours oven
dry.
To verify whether there are substances like organic
species leaching out of FRP composites, a chemical
analysis of solutions after 60days immersion times is
necessary. On top of that, a SEM test could help to
identify whether irreversible chemical degradation was
occurred on these specimens due to physical damage.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors wish to acknowledge the financial support
provided by the Australian Research Council (ARC)
through an ARC Discovery Grant (DP160100739).
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349

11th International Conference on

Advances in Steel and Concrete Composite Structures
Tsinghua University, Beijing, China, December 3-5, 2015

ANALYTICAL STUDY ON LONG-TERM PUSH OUT TESTS OF

STEEL-CONCRETE COMPOSITE SPECIMENS
Ruinian Songa, Yulin Zhana,b*, Renda Zhaoa, Zhaoyong Zoua & Dengyu Xuea
a

Department of Bridge Engineering, School of Civil Engineering, Southwest Jiaotong University, Chengdu, 610031
China
E-mails: ruinian.song@qq.com, yulinzhan@home.swjtu.edu.cn, rendazhao@163.com
b

National Engineering Laboratory for Technology of Geological Disaster Prevention in Land Transportation,
Southwest Jiaotong University, Chengdu, 610031 China
ABSTRACT
Keywords:
Long-term push out test;
composite structure; theoretical
study; creep; interfacial behavior

Although push out test is widely used to test the short-term performance of interface, the
research on long-term behaviors by push out test so far is still rare. Previous researches on
long-term performance of steel-concrete composite structures mainly focus on the entire
behaviors. Few literature of studying the interfacial long-term performance was reported.
Long-term performance of concrete plays an important role on the steel-concrete composite
structures which directly influences the using performance and safety of structures during
service period. This paper presents a theoretical research on long-term push out test. Test
specimens were designed according to EN1994-1-1. Studs were used as shear connectors. The
creep of concrete was mainly simulated by strain hardening model and time hardening model.
Time-dependent slip along the interface and structural strain distribution were studied. The
results show that the strain of concrete increased significantly over time. Although load applied
on concrete slab remained stable, the stress on concrete slabs redistributed a lot over time. It
might increase the maximum value of local stress. The results also show that slip at the top of
interface released while slip at the bottom increased. The choice of concrete creep model had a
significant influence on the slip properties. This study provides the discipline on the long-term
behavior of steel-concrete composite interface under shear stress condition. It is useful for
inspiring the design of long-term test of steel-concrete composite beams. Further research on
steel-concrete composite beams is still required to study the long-term performance as structural
members.

carried out (Al-deen 2011b). Besides, the results of

long-term experiment on composite structures were very
limited (Al-deen 2011c). Many works were done
theoretically based on the previous experimental result
(Nguyen et al. 2010, Tehami & Ramdane 2009).
This paper started with the introduction of importance
of long-term push out tests. Numerical simulations by
finite element method were carried out subsequently. The
long-term behavior of concrete was simulated by the
creep model of concrete material which could be
considered as the total deformation of concrete over time.
With the simulation results, design and suggestion of
long-term push out tests were proposed.

1 INTRODUCTION
Creep and shrinkage are the inherent properties of
concrete which may even lead to structure failure in some
cases. In the field of civil engineering, the creep and
shrinkage determine the long-term performance of
structures. Steel-concrete composite structures, in which
concrete structures are connected to steel structures by
shear connectors, are used more and more in many fields
of civil engineering including building columns, floors,
bridge decks, bridge towers, etc. (Johnson 2004). The
creep and shrinkage may cause slip on the interface,
therefor release the interfacial connection of composite
structures which may cause the redistribution of stress
and increase of deflection (Dezi 1998, Ranzi & Brandford
2006).
Previous research on long-term performance of steelconcrete composite structures mainly focused on entire
performance of composite beams (Al-deen 2011a). Very
few studies on the long-term interfacial performance were

2 IMPORTANCE OF RESEARCH ON
LONG-TERM PUSH OUT TEST
Composite structures can be classified as full and
partial shear connection according to the degrees of shear
connection. Creep of concrete propagates with time
which will release of interfacial shear connection. If the

350

Song et al.

entire shear connection was released, a composite beam

could be regarded as putting a concrete slab on a steel

girder directly only considering the friction on interface.

300

220

100

150

3000

110

150

Figure 1. Layout of steel-concrete composite beam (unit: mm)

The bending moment 100kNm was taken as an

example. The deflection of CB1, CB2 and CB3 are 4.00,
4.82 and 8.76, respectively. Comparing to CB1, CB2
reduced 42% of shear connection while its deflection
increased 20.5%. CB3 reduced 100% of shear connection
if neglecting the interfacial friction. Its deflection
increased 119%. The relationship was nonlinear. It shows
that the release of shear connection might significantly
enlarge the deflection of composite beam.
The long-term surveillance of practical composite
beams also showed the increase of deflection. It was the
combined result influencing by the time-dependent
property of concrete and the release of interfacial shear
connection. So it is necessary to study the long-term
release of shear connection individually in order to
analyze the entire long-term performance of composite
structures. Comparing to experiments on composite
beams, the research object of push out test directly
concentrates on the interfacial performances of composite
structures. Therefore, Long-term push out test might be
an effective method to study the long-term interfacial
performance of composite structures.

A steel-concrete composite beam was designed as

shown in Figure 1 and modeled by finite element
software.CB1, CB2 and CB3 were the steel-concrete
composite beams with complete shear connection, partial
shear connection and non-shear connection, respectively.
The degree of partial shear connection was 0.58. Only
friction was considered for CB3. The friction coefficient
was set to 0.4. Results of bending moment-deflection
relationship are shown in Figure 2. It shows that the
condition of shear connection influenced the entire
properties of composite beams significantly.
300

bending moment (kNm)

250
200
150
CB1

100

CB2
CB3

50

3 CREEP MODELS

10

20
deflection (mm)

30

In the analytical model, the environment temperature

and humidity remained constantly to diminish their effect
on creep. Creep could be simulated as Equation (1) and
(2) as follows, which are strain hardening model and time
hardening model, respectively (Ansys Inc. 10.0).

40

Figure 2. moment-deflection curve for composite beams with

different degrees of shear connection

The ultimate bending bearing capacities of composite

beams and the maximum deflections are summarized in
Table 1. It shows that the ultimate bending bearing
capacity of CB1 is similar to that of CB2 while it reduced
to 69.4% in CB3. The maximum deflection occurred in
CB3. It increased 29.5% comparing to CB1.

cr C1 C cr C

(1)

cr C1 C t C

(2)

Where, is the change in equivalent creep strain

with respect to time; is the equivalent stress; cr is the
equivalent creep strain; t is the time; C1-C3 are the
constants to adjust the creep curve.
The equation (1) is a combination of creep flowing
theory and creep hardening theory (Neville et al. 1983),

Table 1 Summary of ultimate bearing capacities and deflections

Model Number
CB1
CB2
CB3
Ultimate bearing capacity (kNm) 204.10 201.80 141.61
Maximum deflection (mm)
30.87
25.90
39.99

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Song et al.

in which the parameter C1 represents the creep rate and

varies with respect to time. The equation (2) is an
approach adopted by engineers which describes the creep
of materials (Leckie 1978). Parameter C1 is the creep rate
of concrete.
Three models were used to describe the materials
creep property and shown in Figure 3. The concrete creep
model 1 (ccm-1) based on Equation (1) was strain
hardening model. The ccm-2 and ccm-3 were both time
hardening models, in which the parameter C1 of ccm-3
was 2 times larger than that of ccm-2. The ccm-2 and
ccm-3 were more convenient for application than ccm-1
because the parameters C1, C2 and C3 remained
constantly during the whole process.

Table 2 Summary of material properties of concrete

Materials property
Compressive strength (MPa)
Elastic modulus (GPa)
Poissons ratio

Value
48
30.2
0.23

Table 3 Summary of material properties of steel

Materials property
Yield strength (MPa)
Elastic modulus (GPa)
Poissons ratio

ccm-1
ccm-2
ccm-3

3.5
3
2.5

Value
235
195
0.27

2
1.5

1800

1500

0.5

1200

force (N)

creep coefficient (t,7)

respectively. Element size was set to 50mm at each side.

Material properties are listed in Table 2 and Table 3.
Nonlinear spring elements were introduced to
simulate the shear connectors. The force-slip relationship
of spring elements were obtained by push out tests and
shown in Figure 5. There were totally 168 spring
elements arranged on the two interfaces of push out test
specimens.

0
0

50

100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450

time (d)

900
600
300

Figure 3. Concrete creep coefficients in the simulation

0
0

SIMULATION
Three points, P1~P3 from top to bottom, were chosen
to demonstrate the long-term performance of push out
test specimens. P1, P2 and P3 are at the edge of interface
in horizontal direction and at the studs level in vertical
direction. Push out load maintained 190kN.

260
100

The slips along with the interface were not identical

with each other in cause of the shear resistance of studs.
Figure 6-8 show the long-term slip results of different
creep models at different points. All the three simulations
illustrate the same discipline of long-term slip that the
slip on the top released while it increased on the bottom.
The larger the creep coefficient was, the greater the slip
developed.

650

200

5.1 Slip results

100

200

150

0.8

5 RESULTS OF LONG-TERM PUSH OUT TEST

100

260

0.6

Figure 5. Force-slip relationship of spring elements

The specimens of push out test were designed under

the conduction of the specifications of EN1994-1-1 (EN
1994-1-1 2004). Figure 4 shows the details of push out
test specimens. Stud shear connectors were designed to
combine the concrete slabs and the steel girder.

150

0.4
slip (mm)

4 LONG-TERM PUSH OUT TEST SIMULATION

0.2

600

Figure 4. Layout of push out test specimens (unit: mm)

The simulation was carried out by finite element

software ANSYS. Concrete slabs and steel girder were
formed by Solid65 elements and Shell63 elements,

352

Song et al.

8.5

division results (10-3 mm)

slip (mm)

0.08

ccm-1-P1
ccm-1-P2
ccm-1-P3

0.07

0.06

0.05
0

50

8.0
7.5
7.0
6.5

ccm-1
ccm-2
ccm-3

6.0
5.5
5.0
4.5
4.0

100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450

time (d)

Figure 6. Long-term slip results for creep model ccm-1

50

100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450

time (d)

Figure 9. Results over time of slip increments dividing by creep

coefficient

0.075

5.2 Strain distribution on the interface

The plane of interface was selected to study the strain
distribution and redistribution with respect to time. Thus,
the results were in two dimensions. The value and angle
of principle strain of both concrete and steel were
obtained.
The ccm-1 was taken as the creep model of concrete.
Figure 10-12 show the strain redistribution of concrete
slabs.

slip (mm)

0.070
ccm-2-P1
ccm-2-P2
ccm-2-P3

0.065

0.060

0.055
0

50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450

time (d)

40

principle strain 1 ()

Figure 7. Long-term slip results for creep model ccm-2

0.09

slip (mm)

0.08
ccm-3-P1
ccm-3-P2
ccm-3-P3

0.07

30
P1
P2
P3

20
10

0
0

0.06

50

100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450

time (d)

Figure 10. Fist principle strain of concrete

0.05

50

100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450

time (d)

-100

principle strain 2 ()

Figure 8. Long-term slip results for creep model ccm-3

-80

The increments of slip had the same tendency as the

creep coefficient curve as shown in Figure 9. When
dividing the increments of slip by the creep coefficients,
the results over time seemed to remain constantly. The
ccm-2 and ccm-3 were time hardening models with
different parameters. Their results coincided with each
other while differed to that of ccm-1. It shows that the
type of concrete creep model had more significant
influence on interfacial slip performances when
comparing to the values of parameters of each creep
model.

-60
-40
P1
P2
P3

-20

0
0

50

100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450

time (d)

Figure 11. Second principle strain of concrete

353

Song et al.

Figure 15, 16 show the initial and final stress state of

concrete slab graphically. The concrete slab in figures
was 1/4 of the concrete slab indicated by the arrow. The
results show that creep of concrete might cause the
redistribution of the stress on concrete slab. Both the
value and region of the tensile stress were diminished.
The high compressive stress region concentrated more
and more on the central bottom of concrete slab. The
value of compressive stress increased by130% after
427days of creep effect.

60

angle ()

50
40
30
20

P1
P2
P3

10
0
0

50

100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450

time (d)

Figure 12. Angle of principle strain

Significant increase of strain occurred with respect to

time on the concrete slab. But the angles of principle
strain did not change much as shown in Figure 12. This
phenomenon indicated that concrete creep would directly
cause the redistribution of strain. Relative to the changing
in angles of principle strain, the values were much more
sensitive to the concrete creep.
Figure 13, 14 represent the change of principle strain
on steel girder over time. Although the strain of concrete
increased significantly, the strain of steel remained still
which meant that the stress of girder did not change much
in spite of the stress of concrete slab changing a lot.
Figure 15. Initial state of 1/4 concrete slab (unit: MPa)

principle strain 1 ()

30

P1
P2
P3

20

10

0
0

50

100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450

time (d)

Figure 13. First principle strain of steel

principle strain 2 ()

-100
-80
P1
P2
P3

-60

Figure 16. Final state of 1/4 concrete slab (unit: MPa)

-40

6 CONCLUSIONS AND SUGGESTIONS

-20

This paper presents a theoretical study on the

long-term push out test of steel-concrete composite
structures. Finite element models were formed to evaluate
the whole process of long-term test. Different creep
models were introduced to simulate the time-dependent
performance of concrete.

0
0

50

100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450

time (d)

Figure 14. Second principle strain of steel

354

Song et al.
Materials and Structures. London: Applied Science
Publishers.
Neville A.M., Dilger W.H., Brooks J.J. 1983. Creep of plain
and structural concrete. London and New York:
Construction Press.
Nguyen Q.H., Hjiaj M., Aribert J.M. 2010. A space-exact beam
element for time-dependent analysis of composite members
with discrete shear connection. Journal of Constructional
Steel Research 66: 1330-1338.
Pomeroy C.D. 1978. Creep of engineering materials. London:
Mechanical Engineering Publication Limited.
Ranzi G. & Bradford M.A. 2006. Analytical solutions for the
time-dependent behaviour of composite beams with partial
interaction. Solids Struct 43(13): 3770-3793.
Tehami M. & Ramdane K.E. 2009. Creep behaviour modelling
of a composite steel-concrete section. Journal of
Constructional Steel Research 65: 1029-1033.

The results show that creep would significantly

enlarge the strain of concrete slab and redistribute the
stress. The interfacial slip was non-uniform along the
interface. Its long-term behavior varied with the position
of interface. At the top of interface, the slip decreased
with time while it increased at the bottom. It was essential
to choose the concrete creep model because it greatly
influenced the slip increments in the simulation. The
strain distribution of steel girder remained stable during
the whole simulation process. The redistribution of
concrete stress had little influence on steel girder under
the shear stress condition of push out tests.
The work in this paper could provide a guideline for
long-term push out tests in the future. The magnitude of
slip is quite small. The precision of dial gauges is
suggested to 1/1000mm at least. Strain gauges need to
pre-install before casting concrete. It is also advisable to
arrange strain gauges after casting and curing of concrete
to guarantee the quality of specimen and strain sensors.
The test is highly suggested to carry out in an isolated
environment to eliminate the influence of temperature
and humidity. Otherwise, temperature and humidity
should be recorded properly. Contrastive specimen
without loading needs to arrange under the same testing
environment in order to measure the effect of shrinkage.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The work in this article was supported by the
National Natural Science Foundation of China
(51208431) and Fundamental Research Funds for the
Central Universities Grant (SWJTU12CX064).

REFERENCES
Al-deen S., Ranzi G., Vrcelj Z. 2011a. Full-scale long-term and
ultimate experiments of simply-supported composite beams
with steel deck. Journal of Constructional Steel Research
67: 1658-1676.
Al-deen S., Ranzi G., Vrcelj Z. 2011b. Full-scale long-term
experiments of simply-supported composite beams with
solid slabs. Journal of Constructional Steel Research 67:
308-321.
Al-deen S., Ranzi G., Vrcelj Z. 2011c. Long-term experiments
of composite steel-concrete beams. The Twelfth East
Asia-Pacific Conference on Structural Engineering and
Construction. Procedia Engineering 14: 2807-2814.
Ansys Inc. (release 10.0). Chapter 2.5.12 Creep equations.
Documentation for ANSYS.
Dezi L., Leoni G., Tarantino A.M. 1998. Creep and Shrinkage
Analysis of Composite Beams. Progress in Structural
Engineering and Materials 1(2): 170-177.
EN 1994-1-1:2004. Eurocode 4-Design of composite steel and
concrete structures-Part1-1. Brussels: European Committee
for Standardization.
Johnson R.P. 2004. Composite structures of steel and concrete:
beams, slabs, columns, and frames for buildings (3rd ed.).
Malden: Wiley-Blackwell.
Leckie F. A. 1978. Constitutive equations of creep deformation
and rupture and their application. Creep of Engineering

355

11th International Conference on

Advances in Steel and Concrete Composite Structures
Tsinghua University, Beijing, China, December 3-5, 2015

ANALYTICAL BEHAVIOR OF CONCRETE-FILLED STEEL

TUBULAR COLUMNS UNDER SUSTAINED LOADS, CHLORIDE
CORROSION AND LATERAL IMPACT
C. C. Hou, L. H. Han & W. Li
Department of Civil Engineering, Tsinghua University, Beijing, 100084 China
E-mails: houcc12@gmail.com, lhhan@tsinghua.edu.cn, iliwei@tsinghua.edu.cn

ABSTRACT
Keywords:
Concrete-filled steel tube
(CFST); Column; Finite element
analysis (FEA); Sustained load;
Corrosion; Impact

The coupling effect of sustained loads, corrosion and impact on concrete-filled steel tubular
(CFST) column is studied in this paper. A finite element analysis (FEA) model is developed to
consider the corrosion of the outer steel tube and the impact from a moving objective, with
material properties and contact behavior well considered. The damage mode and force versus
displacement relationship of the column are then analyzed with the FEA model. The results of
the analyzed example show that the coupling of sustained load, corrosion and impact brings
noticeable deterioration to the loading capacity of the circular CFST column, and the second
order effect of the axial compression may intensify this deterioration.

around the impact location was crushed or cracked. Han

et al. (2014b) then obtained a simplified calculation
method for the flexural capacity of circular CFST beam
under impact.
Currently, the different actions have been
independently considered in the design of structures.
Take the Eurocodes for example, Eurocode 3 Part 2
(2006) designs steel bridges against corrosion with
protective paint system or appropriate corrosion
allowances, and Eurocode 1 Part 1-7 (2005) simplifies
impact as equivalent static force on structures based on
the type of traffic. It is possible that the two mentioned
hazards happen successively on the structures. A typical
example is the offshore bridge piers, which work under
chloride corrosion environment and the risk of ship
collision. Impact load from the ship will reduce the
loading capacity of the pier or even cause collapse of the
structure. If the column has been corroded prior to the
collision, the damage might be worse. With the
traditional design procedure, it seems that the coupling of
the two actions could be difficult to be considered.
This paper is an attempt to study the full-range
behavior of circular CFST column under the coupled
actions. Finite element analysis (FEA) is employed to
simulate the behavior of circular CFST column under
sustained load, corrosion and impact. The coupling effect
of corrosion and impact on the ultimate state and residual
strength of CFST columns is analyzed. The study herein
tries to analyze the structural behavior based on the whole
life-cycle design philosophy.

1 INTRODUCTION
The performance of concrete-filled steel tubes (CFST)
under various types of hazards, such as fire and seismic
loading, has been studied in the past. In recent decades,
two new types of hazard loadings are considered in the
analysis of CFST structures. The first is the long-term
sustained load and corrosion effect. For CFST structures
located in offshore or coastal environment, the chloride
corrosion of the outer steel tube will have noticeable
influence on the resistance of the composite member, as
has been studied by Han et al. (2012, 2014a) and Hou et
al. (2013). The influence of corrosion on the ultimate
axial and flexural strength of CFST was analyzed and
simplified calculation methods for estimating the residual
strength were obtained.
Another hazard is the impact loading during the
operation of the structures from some moving object with
a large amount of kinetic energy, such as a truck or ship.
Impact will bring permanent plastic deformation to the
CFST member and influence the residual loading
capacity of the structure. The behavior of CFST beams
under transverse impact have been experimentally studied
in the past, such as Bambach et al. (2008), Remennikov et
al. (2011), and Deng et al. (2012). Drop hammer was
employed in the tests to apply the impact force. The
authors have also done impact tests on CFST beams and
columns with drop hammer apparatus (Wang et al., 2013;
Han et al., 2014b). Test results clearly showed the
noticeable lateral deflection brought by impact. The
impacted specimens were bended globally and concrete
356

Hou et al.

2 LOADING PATH FOR THE CFST COLUMN

N0

An FEA model is established in this paper to model

the full-range behavior of circular CFST column under
successively applied concentric compression, corrosion
and impact.
A typical loading path is illustrated in Figure 1(a), in
which the impact force (F), time (t) and axial
compression (N) are used as (x, y, z) coordinates. Figure
1(a) treats the corrosion procedure and impact procedure
as time dependent parameters, while the short-term axial
loading is seen as independent of time. The
corresponding loading states of the column are shown in
Figure 1(b).
Stage (O-A): the column is axially compressed to a
certain level N0 to simulate the initial operation loading
state.
Stage (A-B): the column is then under sustained
compression and corroded. During a period of t1 (several
years to decades), the outer steel tube of the column will
be gradually corroded while the axial compression is kept
constant.
Stage (B-P-C): the column is then impacted by a
moving objective, which can be described with an impact
force curve. In Figure 1(a), the impact starts from point B
and there is usually a peak point P in the curve. It then
ends at point C and the impact duration is t3-t1, which is
generally a very short period (of order 102 milliseconds).
Stage (C-D): it is assumed that the column does
not collapse after the impact. To evaluate the residual
strength of the column, it is axially compressed to failure
in the final stage of the modeling and the obtained axially
compressive strength of the column is Nu.

(b) Loads on the column

Axial compression: implicit solution (Abaqus/Standard)

Corrosion process: implicit solution (Abaqus/Standard)

*Import
Impact process: explicit solution (Abaqus/Explicit)
*Import
Ultimate loading: implicit solution (Abaqus/Standard)
(c) Modeling strategies for each loading stage
Figure 1. A schematic view of the loading path for a CFST
column.

3 ESTABLISHMENT OF THE FEA MODEL

D (0, t3, Nu)

3.1 General description

In the past studies, FEA models for CFST members

under various types of static or dynamic loads have been
developed. For example, Han et al. (2004) modeled the
behavior of CFST columns under long-term sustained
load; Wang et al. (2013) and Han et al. (2014b) modeled
the behavior of CFST beams and columns under lateral
impact; Hou et al. (2013) and Han et al. (2014a)
developed FEA models for CFST stub columns and
beams under sustained load and corrosion.
The FEA model with the combined actions, as a
result, can be established by assembling the above models
with all the actions mentioned above considered. As long
as the modeling in each loading stage is reliable, the FEA
model is robust.

)0

3.2 Material properties

The outer steel tube is modeled with a five-stage

elastic-plastic model, as has been used by Han et al.
(2007). When the column is under impact, the strain rate

N0
A
(0, 0, N0) T
i

B (0, t1, N0)

O

0
t
e P C
,1
(Fp, t2, N0)

C (0, t3, N0)

(A
0

,( Time (t)

O m

t2

t30
t,

,0

Nu

Corroded

Nu

Impact force (F)

N0

Axial
compression (N)

Fp

N0

p
(a)
Loading path

0
)

,
N
N

N
0

357

Hou et al.

is relatively high and the strain rate effect of steel needs

to be accounted. The Cowper-Symonds model, as shown
in Equation (1), is able to predict the dynamic yield
strength of steel under dynamic loading. It has been
proved to be suitable in the simulation of CFST under
drop hammer impact by Wang et al. (2013) and Han et al.
(2014b).
f yd / f y 1 / D

1/ p

under tension, as shown in Equations (4) and (5),

respectively.
( / )1.026
f cd / f c d s 1/ 3
(d / s )

(1)

( / )
d 1s 1
f td / f t d s 1 / 3
d 1s 1
(d / s )

(2)

where, x=/0, y=/0, 0=fc, 0=c+8000.210-6,

c=(1300+12.5fc)10-6; fc is the cylinder strength of
concrete (Unit: MPa) and is the confinement factor
which is defined as =(Asfy)/(Acfck), where As and Ac are
the sectional area of the circular steel tube and core
concrete, respectively; fy and fck are the yield strength of
steel and characteristic strength of concrete, respectively.
The coefficient can be calculated as

0 (2.36 106 )[ 0.25( 0.5)

7 ]( f )0.5 0.12
c

(5)

where ft and ftd are the tensile strength of concrete

under static loading and dynamic loading with strain rate
as s and d, respectively. The strain rate of the static
loading s is set as 110-6 s-1. The coefficients and
can be found in Malvar and Ross (1998).
The compressive or tensile strain of concrete
corresponding to the peak compressive or tensile stress
will also have strain rate effect and the models in
CEB-FIP (1993) are used. It is assumed that the elastic
modulus and Poissons ratio are not influenced by the
strain rate effect.
The impact load is applied to the column with a
moving objective with a certain amount of kinematic
energy. In the modeling, a rigid body with a mass of m0
and velocity as V0 is used to impact the column laterally.

x 1
x 1

(4)

where, fc is the static cylinder strength of concrete

while fcd is the dynamic cylinder strength of concrete
under strain rate d. s is the strain rate of the static
loading, which is set as -3010-6 s-1. The coefficients
and can be found in CEB-FIP (1993).

where, fy is the static yield strength while fyd is the

yield strength of steel under strain rate . D and p are two
coefficients. In the current modeling where large strain
development of the steel tube is involved, the values are
set as 6844 s-1 and 3.91 for D and p, respectively
(Abramowicz and Jones, 1984).
The core concrete is modeled with the concrete
damage plasticity model in the FEA package Abaqus
(Hibbitt et al., 2005). The uniaxial stress-strain model
presented in Han et al. (2007) is used here, which is able
to consider the confinement effect of the outer steel tube
on the core concrete. For circular CFST, the model is
shown in Equation (2).
2x x2

x
y
2

0 ( x 1) x

d 30s 1
d 30s 1

3.3 Modeling strategies

Different numerical algorithms should be used for
different loading types. Implicit algorithms, such as the
Newton method in Abaqus (Hibbitt et al., 2005), are
generally used for solving static problems. So for the
simulation of the initial loading stage, corrosion stage,
and the ultimate loading stage, the implicit algorithm is
used, while for the simulation of impact process with
large kinetic energy, short period and complex contact
behavior, the explicit algorithm is a good choice.
As two different types of algorithms are used in the
simulation and they are not compatible in the same
model, the results need to be transferred between them.
Abaqus provides the commands *Restart and *Import
to transfer results between Standard and Explicit package
in the analysis. Regarding the loading path in Figure 1(a),
the initial loading stage and corrosion stage are simulated
with Abaqus/Standard package. The analysis results are
written to the restart file with *Restart command.
Abaqus/Explicit package is then used to simulate the
impact loading stage. The stress, strain and deformation
information of the initial loading stage are imported into
the current model with the command *Import prior to
the dynamic simulation.

(3)

The long-term sustained load will influence the strain

development of the core concrete while the corrosion will
change the confinement of steel tube on the core
concrete. Both effects should be considered in the
material model. The long-term effect of concrete is
considered by modifying the strain development of the
uniaxial stress-strain curve and the influence of corrosion
is considered by using different confinement factors for
concrete in the initial state and corroded state. More
details can be found in Han et al. (2014a). The tensile
behavior of concrete is described with the model
presented in Shen et al. (1993).
There will also be strain rate effect on concrete during
the impact stage. After reviewing the various models for
strain rate effects on concrete strength, Wang et al. (2013)
and Han et al. (2014b) chose the model presented in
CEB-FIP (1993) for concrete under compression and the
model developed by Malvar and Ross (1998) for concrete

358

Hou et al.

3.6 Simplification of the force curve

When the impact analysis is over, the results are again

written to a restart file, which is imported into the
ultimate loading model to predict the residual axially
compressive strength of the CFST column. The
simulation process is illustrated in Figure 1(c).

A representative axial compression (N) versus axial

displacement () relationship of CFST column under
combined axial compression and lateral impact is
presented in Figure 3(a). The curve shows that there is
noticeable fluctuation of axial compression in the impact
stage, although the axial load is kept constant in the FEA
model. The reason is that the impact process is a dynamic
process in which many factors, such as the strain wave
propagation, the inertial force and the development of
lateral deflection, will influence the force state of the
member. As the fluctuation of axial compression is in a
limited range, the force is simplified to be constant in the
figures for clearer presentation of the results, as shown in
Figure 3(b). Notice that in Figure 3(b) the lateral
deflection of the column rebounded a bit after the impact
was over.

3.4 Contact behavior

The contact behavior between different geometrical

parts in the FEA model should be well considered. First
the interaction between the steel tube and core concrete
should be simulated. Hard contact is applied in the
normal direction of the contact surfaces, which does not
allow penetration through the contact surfaces. Coulomb
friction model is used in the tangential direction and the
friction coefficient is set to be 0.6. The bond strength
between the steel tube and core concrete is considered
with the model developed in Han et al. (2007).
Another contact is the collision between the column
and impact objective during the impact simulation. Hard
contact is applied in the normal direction of the contact
surfaces and Coulomb friction model is used in the
tangential direction. The friction coefficient is set to be 0.
Surface to surface contact algorithm is used in the
implicit solution while general contact algorithm is used
in the explicit solution.
The corrosion of the outer steel tube is modeled with
the *Model change command in the software. The
corroded part of the steel tube is deactivated in the
corrosion step with the Model change command.

(a) Original

3.5 Elements, boundaries and imperfection

8-node 3D solid elements with reduced integration are

used to model both the outer steel tube and core concrete.
The impact rigid body is modeled with 4-node 3D rigid
element. Structural meshing technique is used to achieve
uniformly distributed mesh style. Higher mesh density is
used in the impact area of the column as there is very
complex contact behavior and large deformation.
Boundaries of the column are set to be simply supported.
Imperfection should be considered in the modeling of
columns with relatively large slenderness ratios. In the
current modeling, bow imperfection with amplitude as
L0/1000 is added to the CFST column. The established
FEA model for the impact stage is shown in Figure 2.

(b) Simplified
Figure 3. Simplification of the force curve.

4 RESULTS AND ANALYSIS

Impact rigid body

The established FEA model is used to do full-range

analysis of circular CFST column under sustained load,
corrosion and impact.

4.1 Basic parameters of the example

A CFST column example is used to shown the
analytical procedure. The basic parameters of the FEA
model for the example are set as follow:
D0tsL0=4009.34000 mm, where D0 and ts are the
sectional diameter and thickness of the steel tube, and L0

Core concrete
CFST column

Outer steel tube

Figure 2. FEA model for impact simulation.

359

Hou et al.

Case 2: the effect of sustained load and impact are

considered. The column is first loaded to N0, and then
impacted at mid-span.
Case 3: the effect of sustained load and corrosion are
considered. The column is first loaded to N0, and then is
corroded.
Case 4: the coupling effect of sustained load,
corrosion and impact are considered. The column is first
loaded to N0, and then is corroded. After the corrosion
stage, the column is impacted by the rigid body at
mid-span.
All the columns are loaded to failure in the final stage
to get the axially compressive strength.

is the length of the column; the yield strength of steel (fy)

is set to be 345 MPa and the cubic strength of concrete is
set as 60 MPa. Elastic modulus of steel (Es) and concrete
(Ec) are set as 201 GPa and 36.5 GPa, respectively.
The sustained axial compression N0 is determined
through the parameter axial loading ratio (n), as defined
in Equation (6).
n N0 / Nu
(6)
where N0 is the sustained axial compression and Nu is
the ultimate axially compressive strength of the column
under short-term static loading. The axial loading ratio
depends on the design load level in the engineering
structures. In the analysis, n is set as 0.4.
Han et al. (2004) showed that the long-term
deformation of CFST will stabilize after about 100 days.
As a result, the corrosion duration (t1) is set to be 120
days. In the FEA model, only even corrosion throughout
the outer surface of the steel tube is simulated. Uneven
corrosion such as pit corrosion is not considered here.
The corrosion rate is assumed to be constant. To better
observe the influence of corrosion, a relatively large
corrosion depth (ts) as 0.25ts is used in the simulations.
The impact energy is another important parameter to
be designed. As has been studied in Wang et al. (2013)
and Han et al. (2014b), impact will bring lateral
deflection to the column, which will increase with
increasing impact energy. It is reasonable to conclude that
the column will collapse due to the impact if the impact
energy is large enough and there should be a critical
impact energy for the axially compressed column, beyond
which the column will be damaged under the impact. The
calculation of the critical impact energy can be a future
topic for the analysis. In the current research scope it is
intended to analyze the influence of corrosion and impact
on the full-range behavior as well as residual axially
compressive strength of the CFST column. It is assumed
that the composite column doesnt fail during the impact
stage.
As a result, several trial-and-error calculations were
taken out to find an impact energy which is under the
critical energy for the current column. Finally, the mass
of the impact rigid body (m0) is set as 1000kg and the
initial velocity is set as 10m/s2, resulting in an impact
energy of 50kJ. The impact location is set at the mid-span
of the column. It was found that the column still stands
after the corrosion and impact stages.

4.3 Failure modes

First the failure mode of the CFST column in Case 4
is analyzed. The deformed CFST column in each loading
stage is presented in Figure 4, in which S33 stands for the
longitudinal stress in the steel tube (in Pa). The
corresponding loading stages can be found in Figure 1(a).
It shows that the steel tube is under compression in
the initial loading stage. The axial stress is lower than
the yield strength of steel, indicating that the steel tube is
in elastic state. Due to the presence of bow imperfection,
the distribution of longitudinal stress is not uniform along
the column section. The left side of the section has larger
stress level.
The longitudinal stress then has a 10%-20%
increment in the corrosion stage. The reason is that
25% of the tube thickness is corroded and the load carried
by the corroded part was gradually transferred to the
remaining section, resulting in higher longitudinal stress.
It should be noticed that as the core concrete carries part
of the axial compression, the stress increment of the steel
tube is not significant although 25% of the thickness has
been corroded. This is the composite effect of the CFST
column.
The column is then impacted at mid-span from the left
direction in stage. It can be seen that there is obvious
lateral deflection (u0) in the column and the stress level is
much higher at this stage, especially around the impact
area. Another effect of impact is that very clear bending
appears around the mid-span area. The left side of the
section is under compression while the right side is under
tension. It is quite natural that the column was under
bending when the rigid body was impacting the column
as it generated a lateral impact load on the column.
However, the bending moment still exists after the impact
was over.
The current moment actually comes from the second
order effect of the axial compression: as there is obvious
lateral deflection in the column, the axial compression
will bring an extra bending moment at the mid-span of
the column, which can be estimated as M0=N0u0, where
u0 is the lateral deflection of the column brought by
impact. This is the coupling effect between the axial

4.2 Simulation cases

The above parameters are used in the full-range
loading of the CFST column. To analyze the effect of
different actions on the structure behavior, several
different simulation cases are considered, each with a
different loading path.
Case 1: no sustained load, corrosion or impact load
are considered. The column is statically loaded to failure.

360

Hou et al.

compression and the lateral impact. The coupling of axial

compression and bending brings much higher axial stress
level in the column, as can be seen in the figure. It can be
expected that if the axial compression or the impact
energy is large enough so the moment brought by the
second order effect (M0) is high enough, the column
might be damaged at this stage of loading. It means that
the second order effect will have significant influence on
the ultimate strength of the column when axial load is
applied. This effect will be further presented in the next
section.
The column is axially loaded to failure in stage of
the modeling. It shows that the lateral deflection of the
beam kept increasing as it was axially compressed. The
column is under compression and bending in the final
state and the failure mode is global buckling.

Stage

Stage

Stage

10000

D1
D3

N/kN

7500
D2
5000

D4

2500

Case1
Case3

B
0 O
0

10

/mm

15

Case2
Case4
20

25

Figure 5. Axial compression (N) versus axial displacement ()

curves.

The four curves coincide with each other in the initial

loading stage (O-A), in which the columns are
generally under elastic deformation. The curves then
diverge dramatically in the following stages.
For the column under short-term loading (Case 1), it
was kept loaded till failure. The curve goes from elastic
stage to plastic and hardening stages, and then begins to
descend after the peak point. The axially compressive
strength of the column is obtained from point D1 as
9082kN.
In the other three cases, the axial compression (N0)
was kept constant while corrosion and/or impact
developed. It shows that the axial displacement values of
the columns keep increasing while the axial compression
is constant. For the column under corrosion (Case 3,
range A-B), the development of at this stage is 0.4mm,
while for the column under impact (Case 2, range A-C),
the development is 3.1mm. It shows that increment of
under impact is much larger than that under corrosion.
The reason is that the axial displacement of the columns
is caused by different mechanisms. For the corroded
column (Case 3), the axial displacement is due to the
axial strain development, which is the result of the axial
stress increment, as shown in Figure 4. While for the
impacted column (Case 2), the axial displacement
increment is mainly attributed to the lateral deflection of
the column, which is brought by the impact, as can be
seen in Figure 4. That is why impact brings larger axial
displacement than corrosion in the simulations.
For the column under corrosion and impact (Case 4,
range A-B-C), the axial displacement increment is
dramatically larger than that of the other cases. It is the
result of the coupling effect of the sustained load,
corrosion and impact. Han et al. (2014b) showed that the
impact resistance of CFST will decrease with decreasing
steel ratio (=As/Ac). As corrosion reduced the steel ratio
and thus reduced the impact resistance of the CFST
column, the lateral deflection of the column will increase
compared with the no-corrosion case. Simulation results
showed that the lateral deflection brought by impact is

Stage

Figure 4. Deformed CFST at the end of each loading stage.

4.4 Axial compression (N) versus displacement ()

curves
The axial compression (N) versus displacement ()
curves of the four simulation cases are illustrated in
Figure 5. The curves are calculated and analyzed stage by
stage.

361

Hou et al.

43.2mm for Case 2 while it is 72.5mm for Case 4. As the

axial displacement of the column increases with
increasing lateral deflection, a larger axial displacement
is observed in the column of Case 4.
The ratios of the ultimate strength of the columns (Nu)
to the ultimate strength of the column under short-term
loading (Nu0) are presented in Figure 6. It shows that
corrosion and impact cause different ratios of strength
deterioration to the columns. Corrosion causes 11%
reduction of the strength while impact causes 25%
reduction. For the column under combined corrosion and
impact, the strength reduction ratio is 45%, which is even
larger than the summation of the other two cases (36%).
The coupling of the two hazards causes higher
deterioration to the column strength compared with the
simple summation of deterioration ratios brought by the
individual actions.

an obvious lower axially compressive strength than the

columns in Case 1 and Case 3 and why the axially
compressive strength of column in Case 4 is lower than
that of column in Case 2.
The analysis shows that the coupling of sustained
load, corrosion and lateral impact brings reduction to the
ultimate axially compressive strength of the CFST
column. It can be summarized as below:
1) Corrosion will reduce the static as well as lateral
impact resistance of the CFST column.
2) As the impact resistance of the column is reduced,
a larger lateral deflection occurs in the column compared
with the no-corrosion situation under the same amount of
impact energy.
3) A higher bending moment will be generated at the
impact location of the column due to the second order
effect of the axial compression.
4) The ultimate strength of the column will be largely
reduced due to the reduction of section steel ratio as well
as the second order effect of the axial compression. The
analysis shows that the reduction percentage of ultimate
strength is higher than the summation of reduction
percentages brought by the individual actions.

Nu /Nu0

0.75
0.5

0.25

5 CONCLUDING REMARKS
0
Case1

Case2

Case3

This paper is an attempt to analyze the whole

life-cycle performance of CFST columns under different
types of hazards. An FEA model is developed to simulate
the full-range behavior of circular CFST columns under
the coupling of sustained load, corrosion and impact. The
model is used to do full-range analysis of circular CFST
column under coupled actions. The failure mode and the
axial compression (N) versus axial displacement ()
curve are analyzed in the study. It shows that the coupling
of sustained load, corrosion and impact brings noticeable
deterioration to the loading capacity of the circular CFST
column. Meanwhile, the second order effect of the axial
compression may intensify this deterioration.

Case4

Figure 6. Ultimate strength ratios for different cases.

This phenomenon can be explained by the second

order effect of the axial compression: the corrosion
reduces the axial loading capacity as well as impact
resistance of the column; the lateral deflection of the
corroded column brought by impact will be larger under
the same impact energy; larger lateral deflection means
larger mid-span bending moment due to the second order
effect. Table 1 lists the bending moments for different
columns in different loading stages. It shows that the
columns in Case 1 and Case 3, which were not impacted,
have lower bending moment at the ultimate state than the
columns in Case 2 and Case 4. It can be also noticed that
the impact on the corroded column (Case 4, Point C)
brings a much larger bending moment than the impact on
the no-corrosion column (Case 2, Point C).

NOMENCLATURE
Ac
As
D0
Ec
Es
F
fck
fcu
fc
fy
L0
m0
M
n
N
N0
Nu
t

Table 1. Bending moment of mid-span (Unit: kNm).

Cases

1
2
3
4

17.3
17.3
17.3
17.3

18.3
18.3

176.4
281.8

210.7
485.8
186.0
437.5

In these particular cases (under the axial load level of

0.4), the axially compressive strength of the column
decreases with increasing bending moment level. It then
can explain why the columns in Case 2 and Case 4 have
362

cross-sectional area of core concrete

cross-sectional area of steel tube
diameter of circular tube section
elastic modulus of concrete
elastic modulus of steel
impact force
characteristic compressive strength of concrete
cube strength of concrete
cylinder strength of concrete
yield strength of steel
length of CFST column
mass of impact body
bending moment
axial loading ratio
axial compression
initial axial compression
axially compressive strength
time

Hou et al.
ts
u0
V0

ts

steel tube thickness

lateral deflection brought by impact
velocity of impact body
steel ratio of CFST section (=As/Ac)
strain rate
axial displacement
corroded thickness of steel tube
confinement factor of CFST (=Asfy/Acfck)

Hibbitt, Karlsson & Sorensen Inc. 2005. ABAQUS/Standard

Users Manual (6.5.1 ed.). New York: Rhode Island.
Shen, J.M., Wang, C.Z. & Jiang, J.J. 1993. Finite element
analysis of reinforced concrete & Ultimate analysis of plate
and shell structures. Beijing: Tsinghua University Press (in
Chinese).
Comite Euro-International du Beton. 1993. CEB-FIP Model
Code 1990. Trowbridge, Wiltshire, UK: Redwood Books.
Malvar, L.J. & Ross, C.A. 1998. Review of strain rate effects
for concrete in tension. ACI Material Journal 95(6):
735-739.

ACKNOWLEDGEMETNS
The research reported in the paper is part of the Project
51178245 supported by the National Natural Science
Foundation of China (NSFC), as well as the Tsinghua
University Initiative Scientific Research Program (NO.
2013Z02). The financial support is highly appreciated.
REFERENCES
Han, L.H., Hou, C. & Wang, Q.L. 2012. Square concrete filled
steel tubular (CFST) members under loading and chloride
corrosion: experiments. Journal of Constructional Steel
Research 71(1): 11-25.
Han, L.H., Hou, C.C. & Wang, Q.L. 2014a. Behavior of circular
CFST stub columns under sustained load and chloride
corrosion. Journal of Constructional Steel Research 103:
23-26.
Hou, C., Han, L.H. & Zhao, X.L. 2013. Full-range analysis on
square CFST stub columns and beams under loading and
chloride corrosion. Thin-Walled Structures 68: 50-64.
Bambach M.R., Jama, H., Zhao, X.L. & Grzebieta, R.H. 2008.
Hollow and concrete filled steel hollow sections under
transverse impact loads. Engineering Structures 30(10):
2859-2870.
Remennikov, A.M., Kong, S.Y. & Uy, B. 2011. Response of
foam- and concrete-filled square steel tubes under
low-velocity impact loading. Journal of Performance of
Constructed Facilities (ASCE) 25(5): 373-381.
Deng, Y., Tuan, C.Y. & Xiao, Y. 2012. Flexural behavior of
concrete-filled circular steel tubes under high-strain rate
impact loading. Journal of Structural Engineering (ASCE)
138(3): 449-456.
Wang, R., Han, L.H. & Hou, C.C. 2013. Behaviour of concrete
filled steel tubular (CFST) members under lateral impact:
experiment and FEA model. Journal of Constructional Steel
Research 80: 188-201.
Han, L.H., Hou, C.C., Zhao, X.L. & Rasmussen, K.J.R. 2014b.
Behaviour of high-strength concrete filled steel tubes under
transverse impact loading. Journal of Constructional Steel
Research 92: 25-39.
EN 1993-2. 2006. Eurocode 3-design of steel structures, part 2:
steel bridges. Brussels: European Committee for
Standardization.
Draft prEN 1991-1-7. 2005. Eurocode 1-actions on structures,
part 1-7: general actions-accidental actions. Brussels:
European Committee for Standardization.
Han, L.H., Tao, Z. & Liu, W. 2004. Effects of sustained load on
concrete-filled hollow structural steel columns. Journal of
Structural Engineering (ASCE) 130(9): 1392-1404.
Han, L.H., Yao, G.H. & Tao Z. 2007. Performance of
concrete-filled thin-walled steel tubes under pure torsion.
Thin-Walled Structures 45(1): 24-36.
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363

11th International Conference on

Advances in Steel and Concrete Composite Structures
Tsinghua University, Beijing, China, December 3-5, 2015

BEHAVIOUR OF CIRCULAR CONCRETE FILLED STEEL

TUBULAR
(CFST)
BEAM-COLUMNS
SUBJECTED
TO
LONG-TERM LOADING AND CHLORIDE CORROSION
Y. X. Huaa, C. Houa, Q. L. Wangb & L. H. Hana
a

Department of Civil Engineering, Tsinghua University, Beijing, China

E-mail: huayx14@mails.tsinghua.edu.cn
b

School of Civil Engineering, Shenyang Jianzhu University, Shenyang, China

ABSTRACT

Keywords:
Concrete filled steel tube
(CFST), Beam-columns,
Long-term loading, Chloride
corrosion, FEA modeling,
Full-range analysis

This paper is an attempt to study the behaviour of circular concrete filled steel tubular (CFST)
beam-columns under both long-term loading and chloride corrosion. A finite element analysis
(FEA) model was established, taking into account the influence of concrete shrinkage and creep
as well as the corrosion of steel tube. The model was verified by experimental data. Based on
the simulation, the influencing of loading and chloride corrosion on the ultimate strength and
ductility of CFST beam-columns was discussed, comparisons with reference hollow steel tubes
were also conducted. Meanwhile, analysis on the load distribution through the cross-section was
conducted to study the full-range mechanism of the composite members.

focused on the stub columns and beam members, little

attention to beam-columns was paid previously,
corresponding investigations on the durability of such
members are thus of great significance.

1 INTRODUCTION
With the development of concrete filled steel tubular
(CFST) structures, the last several decades had witnessed
the extensive utilization of CFST in various area of
structural engineering. Since the composite effects
between the outer steel tube and the inner concrete can
sufficiently exploit the advantages of each material,
CFST structures have exhibited prominent behaviour
including high cross-sectional strength, favorable
ductility and excellent fire-resistant ability (Han et al.,
2014).
It is known that the combined effects of both internal
factors and external factors can lead to degradation of
infrastructures in service, the accumulated degradation
can cause deterioration of structural performance,
including reduction of bearing capacity and weaken of
ductility, hence, durability of engineering structures is a
critical issue for both research and practice. CFST
members often serve as main bearing components in
structures because of its high strength and excellent
mechanical behaviour, some of which served in corrosive
environment, e.g. chloride environment in offshore area.
Figs.1 (a) and (b) show an offshore electrical
transmission tower and an offshore bridge using CFST
members, respectively. The negative influence caused by
sustained load and corrosive environment is critical for
the durability of these CFST structures. Previous studies
on CFST members subjected to long-term loading and
chloride corrosion had been carried out (Han et al., 2012;
Hou et al., 2013; Han et al., 2014). These studies mostly

CFST

Ocean

Island
(a) An offshore CFST electrical transmission tower
CFST

Water
(b) CFST members used in offshore bridge
Figure 1. A schematic view of offshore CFST structures

A finite element analysis (FEA) model was

established in this paper to account for circular CFST
364

Hua et al.

beam-columns under both sustained load and chloride

corrosion. Accuracy of the model was verified by
corresponding test data. Full-range detailed analysis was
then conducted based on this model.

during the corrosion stage, whilst no mid-span load was

applied in this stage. The axial load were measured and
checked by the load transducers on the screws. After
long-term loading stage, mid-span loading was applied to
the specimen until it fails, whilst the axial load was
maintained by hydraulic jack. The tentative testing
results were used to verify the FEA model in this paper.

2 FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS MODELING

A FEA model based on software package of
ABAQUS was established to account for the long-term
effects on the inner concrete as well as the chloride
corrosion on the outer tube. Fig. 2 depicts the testing
setup for circular CFST beam-columns subjected to
long-term loading and chloride corrosion, where N is the
axial load, P is the mid span load in the damage loading
period. Previous research indicates that the shrinkage and
creep of inner concrete of circular CFST members under
sustained load would become stable after 100 days (Han,
2007), thus, the specimens sustained the combined axial
loading and electricity accelerated corrosion in sodium
chloride solution for 120 days before the
ultimate-strength testing. The method of corrosion test
was in accordance with (ASTM G31-72, 2004). The
long-term axial load was maintained by fastening bolts

Beam-column under
chloride corrosion

2.1 Element type and mesh

In order to account for the corrosion of outer tube
subjected to chloride environment, model change,
remove method was adopted to simulate the thickness
loss of tube surface (Hou et al., 2013). Therefore the
steel tube was modeled with 8-node 3D solid element
with reduced integration, which was adopted for the
inner concrete as well.
As shown in Fig. 3, the steel tube was meshed to two
layers along the thickness direction. Thickness for the
outer layer was defined by actual thickness loss in the
test. The mesh density in the FEA model was confirmed
by mesh convergence studies.

P
1

N
1

160 mm

ts

Section 1-1
Figure 2. A schematic view of the testing for circular CFST beam-columns subjected to chloride corrosion

P
1

N
1
Concrete

Steel tube

Corroded steel tube

(b) After corrosion

(a) Before corrosion
Section 1-1
Figure 3. A schematic view of the FEA modeling for circular CFST beam-columns subjected to chloride corrosion

365

Hua et al.

both ends, hinge constraints were set since the end plates
were connected to hinge support in the testing. The axial
displacement of one end is restrained while the other is
free for loading.
The initial imperfection was considered in this model
since the fabrication stage may affect the mechanical
behaviour. Eccentric loading method was used for the
simulation of initial imperfection. In this model, the
eccentric distance was set to be L/1000 as suggested by
Han (2007), where L is the effective length of the
specimen.
The interaction between the outer tube and the inner
concrete was considered with Coulomb friction model in
tangential direction and Hard contact in normal direction,
the fiction coefficient was taken as 0.6 (Han, 2007).

2.2 Material properties

Two different types of material properties for
concrete were used, one for short-term loading
simulation and the other for the consideration of
long-term loading effects. Damage plasticity model was
used for the simulation of short-term loading. To reflect
the influence of confinement effects between the core
concrete and the outer steel tube of the CFST members,
the stress-strain relationship proposed by Han (2007) was
adopted, which has been used in relevant studies and
proved reasonable. Fracture energy method was used to
simulate the tensile behaviour (Han, 2007). For
long-term loading, a material subroutine UMAT
proposed by Han et al. (2011) was adopted, which had
been verified by experiments on CFST members
subjected to long-term loading.
Elastic-plastic model was used to simulate the
behaviour of steel tube, which is also extensively used in
previous studies of CFST. Detailed information can be
found in Han (2007).

2.4 Simulation of long-term loading and chloride

corrosion
The inner concrete was subjected to sustained
compressive load in service, the shrinkage and creep of
the concrete will lead to load redistribution between
concrete and steel tube, which need to be effectively
considered. The corrosion of outer tube will be simulated
then, since the loss of the steel tube thickness develops
much slower than the long-term effects of inner concrete.

2.3 Boundary condition and interaction

Boundary conditions of the FEA model were set to be
consistent with the tested specimens conducted by the
authors recently, so that the model can be verified by the
test result.
The CFST specimens were welded with rigid plate in

Step 1

Initial loading

Initial imperfection considered

Step 2

Long-term loading

Shrinkage and creep considered

Step 1

Chloride corrosion

Loss of steel tube wall-thickness considered

Step 2

Destruction loading

Model 1

Import data

Model 2

Figure 4. A schematic view of the loading process of the FEA modeling

Table 1. Information of the tested CFST beam-column specimens

No.

L
(mm)

L'
(mm)

D
(mm)

ts
(mm)

t
(mm)

fcu
(MPa)

fy
(MPa)

fu
(MPa)

CBC1

1440

1600

160

3.92

0.58

15%

56.1

392.5

465.8

CBC2

1440

1600

160

3.92

1.18

15%

55.2

388.8

462.3

CBC3

1440

1600

160

3.92

0.61

30%

56.1

392.5

465.8

CBC4

1440

1600

160

3.92

0.59

56.1

392.5

465.8

Two models, i.e., model 1 and model 2 with the same

geometric features were developed for the simulation. As
shown in Fig. 4, two loading steps were set up in

model 1, the first step is for the application of axial load

of the circular CFST beam-column, while the second
step is for the axial loading to be long-term sustained.

366

Hua et al.

The material subroutine of concrete proposed by Han et

al. (2011) was adopted in model 1 for the consideration
of the long-term effects of inner concrete. After the
calculation of model 1, the results were exported into
model 2, where common damage plasticity model was
used for concrete. Two loading steps were set in model 2
as well, the model change, remove method was used in
the first step for the simulation of the thickness loss of
out tube caused by chloride corrosion. In the second step,
the circular CFST beam-column was loaded to failure
under the bending moment caused by mid-span load with
the long-term axial load sustained.

160

P (kN)

120

80

Test

40

FEA
0
0

10

20

30

40

50

(mm)

(c) CBC 3

3 VERIFICATIONS OF THE FEA MODEL

160

Experiments of circular CFST beam-columns

subjected to long-term loading and chloride corrosion
were tentatively conducted. Several typical specimens
were simulated using the FEA model. Based on the
comparison of the calculated results and measured results,
the reasonability of the FEA model was verified.
Parameters of the typical specimens were shown in
Table 1.
In Table 1, L is the actual length of the specimens; L
is the effective length of the specimens, which is the
distance between axes of the two hinge supports; D is the
external diameter of the steel tube; ts is the wall thickness
of the steel tube; t is the corroded wall thickness; m is
axial compression ratio, m=N/Nu, where N is the
sustained axial load, Nu is the axial load strength, fcu is
the characteristic concrete cube strength, fy and fu is the
yield and ultimate strength of the steel, respectively.

P (kN)

120

80

Test

40

FEA
0
0

10

20

30

(d) CBC 4

40

50

(mm)

Figure 5. Comparisons of load versus deformation curves

between predicted and test results

The mid-span load-displacement relationship curves

of the specimens are shown in Fig. 5, where the
comparison between calculation and experiment result is
shown as well. P is the mid-span load, is the mid-span
displacement. Fig. 5 indicates that the calculated load
versus displacement relationship curves matched well
with the tested curves.

160

P (kN)

120

80

Test

40

FEA

(a) Observed

0
0

10

20

30

40

50

(mm)

(a) CBC 1

160

(b) Predicted

P (kN)

120

Figure 6. Comparisons of failure mode between predicted and

observed results

80

Fig. 6 shows the comparison of the analyzed and

tested failure mode, which is consistent with each other.
No obvious local buckling of outer tube was observed in
the specimens.

Test

40

FEA
0
0

10

20

30

(b) CBC 2

40

50

(mm)

367

Hua et al.

1.4

4 ANALYTICAL BEHAVIOUR

CFST
1.2

Hollow steel tube

Based on the verified FEA model, further

investigations on the mechanical behaviour of circular
CFST beam-columns subjected to long-term loading and
chloride corrosion were conducted.

N /Nu

Short-term loading

0.8
0.6
0.4

4.1 Bearing capacity

Long-term loading
and chloride corrosion

0.2

Simulations of typical circular CFST beam-columns

were carried out to study the influence of sustained load
and corrosion on the bearing capacity. Corresponding
hollow steel tubes were also calculated for comparison
The geometric and physical parameters of the typical
circular CFST beam-column are as follows: L=1440mm,
L'=1600mm, D=160mm, ts=3.92mm, t=1.18mm,
fcu=55.2MPa, fy=388.8MPa, fu=462.3MPa.
Fig. 7 shows the comparison of the N-M curves for
the circular CFST beam-columns and the reference
hollow steel tube members under short-term loading as
well as combined long-term loading and chloride
corrosion, where M is the bending moment in the
mid-span section (M=P
L'/4+N
). As can be seen, the
sustained load and chloride corrosion causes obvious
reduction for bearing capacity of both CFST and hollow
steel tube members, whilst unapparent change happens
on the curve profiles. Fig. 8 shows the comparison of the
results after normalization. Table 2 shows the
comparison of the decreased percentage in the same
normalized load value, where Nu and Mu are the
axial compression and bending strength of the specimens
under short-term loading. Ms and Mc are the ultimate
bending moment values under short-term loading and
both long-term loading and chloride corrosion,
respectively. The decreased percentage of CFST member
is basically smaller than that of hollow steel tube member.
This is because of the confinement effects between the
outer tube and the inner concrete, which indicates that
CFST members have better durability than the
corresponding hollow steel tube members.

0
0

Specimen
N/Nu

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

N (kN)

Short-term loading
Long-term loading
and chloride corrosion

300

0
30

40

50

1.2

1.4

Ms/M

Mc/Mu

Reduction

types

CFST

1.000

0.748

25%

Hollow steel tube

1.000

0.780

22%

CFST

1.045

0.818

22%

Hollow steel tube

0.964

0.736

24%

CFST

1.017

0.774

24%

Hollow steel tube

0.856

0.565

34%

CFST

0.853

0.546

36%

Hollow steel tube

0.665

0.368

45%

CFST

0.470

0.010

98%

Hollow steel tube

0.348

ratio

As indicated in the previous section, the durability of

circular CFST beam-columns is more superior than that
of reference hollow steel tube members. Calculation and
analysis was then carried out for the study of the failure
mechanism of circular CFST beam-columns and its load
transfer mechanism under long-term loading and
chloride corrosion. Fig. 9 shows the N-M curves of
typical circular CFST beam-columns under three
different situations: short-term loading, long-term
loading, both long-term loading and chloride corrosion.
The N-M curves of circular CFST beam-columns are
similar to that of reinforced concrete beam-columns. The
curves can be obviously divided into two parts by the
points where highest M values are achieved: small and
large eccentricity, respectively. In the small eccentricity
stage, the flexural bearing capacity decreases with the
increasing of axial load. However the flexural bearing
capacity increases with the increasing of axial load in the
large eccentricity stage.
Typical numerical examples were selected for the
comparison of strain development law between small and

Hollow steel tube

20

4.2 Analysis on the mechanism

1200

10

0.8

Table 2. Comparison of reduction ratio under effect of

durability factors between CFST and hollow steel tube

CFST

0.6

Figure 8. Comparisons of normalized N-M curves of CFST and

hollow steel tube members under different situations

1500

600

0.4

M /Mu

1800

900

0.2

60

M (kNm)

Figure 7. Comparisons of N-M curves of CFST and hollow

steel tube members under different situations

368

Hua et al.

On this basis, normalization was conducted for

further study on the effects of long-term loading and
chloride corrosion, as shown in Fig. 11. There is one
characteristic point for each curve where the highest
bending moment value was achieved, which is called
balance point. Balance points of these curves which
represent the mechanical performance of circular CFST
beam-columns under different situation are compared.
The axial load corresponding to the balance point of the
curve rises when the member suffered long-term loading.
When the member suffers both long-term loading and
chloride corrosion, the axial load corresponding to the
balance point gains a further increase, while the outward
bulge phenomenon of the curve is more obvious. Base on
previous analysis, further discussions are as follows:
1) Due to the shrinkage and creep of the core
concrete under sustained load, the compression load
transfers from the concrete to the outer steel tube. Hence,
the small eccentricity failure caused by the concrete
crush in the compressive zone can be avoided in a certain
degree, which means the large eccentricity failure
happens more easily. And this explains the raise of the
normalized axial load corresponding to the balance point
under the effect of long-term loading.
2) On the basis of long-term loading, when chloride
corrosion causes wall thickness loss of the outer tube, the
tensile bearing capacity decreases in the tensile zone.
Thus, large eccentricity failure happens more easily ,
which is also induced by the load transfer effects under
long-term loading. These effects cause the raise of the
normalized axial load (N/Nu) corresponding to the
balance point. Due to the loss of wall thickness of outer
tube under chloride corrosion, the contribution of the
concrete increases, which leads to more obviously
outward bulge phenomenon of the curve.

large eccentricity circular CFST beam-columns. Obvious

differences between the strain versus mid-span
displacement relationships can be found in Fig. 10,
where is the strain of material in the mid-span section.
The strain development rate of the concrete in
compressive zone of small eccentricity case is much
faster than that of large eccentricity case, while the strain
development rate of the steel in tensile zone is slower.
The strain development rate of the steel in compressive
zone is similar. Generally, tensile failure happened in
tensile zone of the large eccentricity case, while concrete
crush happened in compressive zone of the small
eccentricity case.

1200
Short-term loading

900
N (kN)

Long-term loading

600
Long-term loading
and chloride corrosion

300

0
0

10

20

30

40

50

M (kNm)

Figure 9. Comparisons of N-M curves of CFST under three

different situations

40000
Ultimate strength

Steel in tensile zone

()

30000

20000
Steel in compressive
zone

10000
1.4

Concrete in
compressive zone

1.2

0
0

10

15 (mm)

20
1

N /Nu

(a) Large eccentricity members

40000

Long-term loading
and chloride corrosion

0.8
0.6

Short-term loading
Long-term loading

Ultimate strength
0.4

30000

()

Steel in compressive
zone

0.2
0

20000
Concrete in
compressive zone

Steel in tensile
zone

10000

0.2

0.4

0.6
0.8
M /Mu

1.2

1.4

Figure 11. Comparisons of normalized N-M curves of CFST

under three different situations

0
0

10

15

(mm)

20

4.3 Effects on ductility of the composite members

(b) Small eccentricity members

The effects of long-term loading and chloride

corrosion on ductility were also discussed through
simulation of typical CSFT beam-columns. A ductility

Figure 10. The strain versus mid-span displacement

relationship of large and small eccentricity members

369

Hua et al.

4.4 Analysis of characteristic points

index is adopted here to quantitatively describe the

ductility of circular CFST beam-columns, which can be
calculated as follows,

DI

m,85%
y

To evaluate the full-range performance of circular

CFST beam-columns under the effects of loading and
corrosion, a full-range comparative analysis for the
characteristic points in the N-M curve of circular CFST
beam-column was carried out. The point where the axial
load is 450kN was selected, the axial compression ratio
is about 0.4, which is close to the actual project load. The
specimen was calculated under the two conditions, i.e.,
short-term loading, both long-term loading and chloride
corrosion. Fig. 13 shows the mid-span load versus
displacement relationship of the specimen under different
situation and the strain versus displacement relationship
for tensile zone and compressive zone, respectively,
where is the strain of steel tube in the mid-span section.
The ultimate strength decreases when specimen suffers
long-term loading and chloride corrosion. The strain of
outer tube under both long-term loading and chloride
corrosion is slightly lower than that of the outer tube
under short-term loading at the same displacement, since
the stress is smaller for the specimen under corrosion.

(1)

Where y=75%/0.75, 75% is the mid-span

displacement when the load attains 75% of the ultimate
load in the pre-peak stage, m,85% is the mid-span
displacement when the load attains 85% of the ultimate
load in the post-peak stage.
100
CFST
Hollow steel tube

P (kN)

80

60

Short-term loading
40

Long-term loading
and chloride corrosion

20

0
0

10

20

30

40

(mm)

50

80
Short-term loading

Figure 12. The mid-span load versus displacement relationship

of CFST and hollow steel tube members
P (kN)

60

Table 3 Comparison of ductility index DI

40
Long-term loading
and chloride corrosion

CFST
Hollow
steel tube

situation

m,85%

DI

5.99

42.20

7.05

6.71

31.93

4.76

2.50

22.66

9.06

1.31

7.72

5.89

Reduction
ratio

20

32.4%

0
0

10

15

(mm)

20

(a) Mid-span load versus displacement relationship

35.0%

40000
Compressive zone

The mid-span load versus displacement relationship

of CFST and hollow steel tube members under two
different situations is shown in Fig. 12. The comparison
can reflect the effects of durability factors. The ductility
indexes for different specimens in different situations
were calculated in Table 3, where A represents the
short-term loading condition and B represents the
condition of combined long-term loading and chloride
corrosion.
According to the previous comparison, conclusions
can be reached as follows: (1) Under the effects of
long-term loading and chloride corrosion, the ductility of
circular CFST beam-columns decreases; (2) When
specimens are subjected to the same degree of corrosion
factors, the reduction ratio of circular CFST
beam-column is lower than that of reference hollow steel
tube member, which indicates the circular CFST
beam-columns have better durability.

Tensile zone

()

30000

Short-term loading

20000
Long-term loading
and chloride corrosion

10000

0
0

10

15

20
(mm)

(b) Strain versus displacement relationship

Figure 13. Analysis of characteristic points

The mid-span displacement under ultimate load

increases by 23% when specimen suffers long-term
loading and corrosion, while the strain of outer tube in
the tensile zone increases by 67%, hence, the effects of

370

Hua et al.
advanced applications of concrete-filled steel tubular (CFST)
structures: Members. Journal of Constructional Steel
Research 100: 211-228.

long-term loading and chloride corrosion can reduce the

stiffness of the specimen and increase the stress of outer
tube. The data for specimen when decreases to two-thirds
of ultimate load shows that the strain and mid-span load
all reduce when suffer long-term loading and chloride
corrosion.

5 CONCLUSIONS
Based on the current research of this paper, the
following conclusions can be drawn:
1) The FEA modeling considering long-term loading
and chloride corrosion can reasonably represent the
mechanical behaviour of circular CFST beam-columns
under the effects of durability factors.
2) The ultimate strength and ductility of circular
CFST beam-columns decreased when suffered both
long-term loading and chloride corrosion, whilst the
reduction ratio is obviously lower than the corresponding
hollow steel tube members.
3) Analysis on the effects and mechanism of
long-term loading and chloride corrosion on the bearing
capacity of circular CFST beam-columns were conducted.
The load transfer mechanism under the effects of
durability factors was revealed, which enables the CFST
members to show better durability compared with hollow
steel tube members.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The research reported in this paper is part of the
Project 51178245 supported by the National Natural
Science Foundation of China (NSFC) and General
Financial Grant 2015M570104 supported by China
Postdoctoral Science Foundation. The financial support
is highly appreciated.
REFERENCES
ASTM G 31-72. 2004. Standard practice for laboratory
immersion corrosion testing of metals. West Conshohocken:
ASTM International.
Han, L. H. 2007. Concrete-filled steel tubular structures-theory
and practice (2nd version). Beijing: China Science Press (in
Chinese).
Han, L. H., Li, Y. J. & Liao, F. Y. 2011. Concrete-filled double
skin steel tubular (CFDST) columns subjected to long-term
sustained loading. Thin-Walled Structures 49(12):
1534-1543.
Han, L. H., Hou, C. & Wang, Q. L. 2012. Square concrete filled
steel tubular (CFST) members under loading and chloride
corrosion: Experiments. Journal of Constructional Steel
Research 71: 11-25.
Hou, C., Han, L. H. & Zhao, X. L. 2013. Full-range analysis on
square CFST stub columns and beams under loading and
chloride corrosion. Thin-Walled Structures 68, 50-64.
Han, L. H., Hou, C. C. & Wang, Q. L. 2014. Behaviour of
circular CFST stub columns under sustained load and
chloride corrosion. Journal of Constructional Steel
Research 103: 23-36.
Han, L. H., Li, W. & Bjorhovde, R. 2014. Developments and

371

11th International Conference on

Advances in Steel and Concrete Composite Structures
Tsinghua University, Beijing, China, December 3-5, 2015

FATIGUE BEHAVIOUR
CONNECTORS

OF

CORRODED

STUD

SHEAR

W.L. Jin, J. Chen & A.Y. Jiang

a

Department of Civil Engineering, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China

E-mails: Jinwl@zju.edu.cn, Cecj@zju.edu.cn
ABSTRACT

Keywords:
Corrosion; Fatigue; Push-out
specimen; Stud shear connectors.

Experimental investigation was conducted on corroded composite push-out specimens to study

the behavior of shear studs subjected to fatigue loading. A total of eight standard EC4 push-out
specimens were tested. The expected corrosion rate of test specimens ranged from 0% to 50%.
The main purpose of these tests was to determine the fatigue life and the reduction effect caused
by the corrosion on the fatigue life. The effect of corrosion on the fatigue crack, load-slip curves
and failure modes were also studied. In addition, the test results were compared with current
Eurocode design predictions, which is only for specimen without corrosion. It is shown that the
current Eurocode design predictions are quite conservative for the test specimens in this study.
Design equations were also proposed for fatigue life of corroded composite push-out specimens.

Recent research has been carried out on the corrosion

fatigue behavior of reinforcing bar or steel beams in the
bridge (Apostolopoulos 2007)( Zhang & Yuan 2014)
(Kashani et al 2014) (Xu & Wang 2015). It is shown that
corrosion induced fatigue strength reduction have a large
effect on fatigue life. Fatigue life could reduce more than
60% for the low corrosion condition and more than 70%
for the medium and high corrosion condition. However,
there is lack of corrosion fatigue behavior of shear stud
connector for composite bridges. This paper deals with
the results of the experimental studies on the behaviour of
corroded headed shear studs subjected to unidirectional
cyclic loading. Based on the test results, load-slip curves
and ultimate strengths of specimens having different
corrosion rates were evaluated. In addition, the suitability
of current design equations for corrode stud shear
connectors was also evaluated.

1 GENERAL INTRODUCTION
Normally shear connectors are used at the steel and
concrete interface to provide interaction between the
concrete slab and steel girder. Headed stud shear
connectors are the most common type of shear connectors
and are used in steelconcrete composite bridges for its
economic and fast application. Especially in bridges due
to traffic actions these studs are subjected to high-cycle
fatigue loading. Most of the data on connectors have been
obtained from various types of push out test. Since the
1960s various researchers have conducted a great
number of cyclic push-out tests to determine the fatigue
life of shear connectors (Slutter & Driscoll 1965) (Akao
et al. 1982) (Oehlers 1989) (Johnson 2000) (Nakajima et
al. 2003) (Leea et al. 2005) (Veljkovic & Johansson
2006) (Feldmann et al. 2006) (Hanswille et al. 2007)
(Feldmann et al. 2008)
Although safety factor in initial design may delay
the occurrence of fatigue problems, the priori negligence
of corrosion pits in structural integrity analysis may lead
to significant overestimation of the damage tolerance
ability of existing steel structures (Petroyiannis 2005).
There is lack of protection between the concrete slab and
steel girder interface and also makes corrosion difficult to
be detected. The corrosion will damage the studs as well
as the steel girders.
Corrosion fatigue, which refers to the joint
interaction of corrosive environment and repeated
dynamic stressing, is more detrimental than that of either
one acting separately (Stephens et al. 2000). Bridges,
which serve as a major link component in the
infrastructure system, are extremely vulnerable to the
combined action of corrosion and fatigue. The action
could possibly bring major threats on structural safety
and lead to catastrophic failure, such as the tragedy of the
collapse of the Silver Bridge in 1967 (LeRose 2001).

2 EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATION
2.1 Test specimens
Test specimens were fabricated according to the
standard push test specimen specified in Annex B of
Eurocode 4 (2004). Slabs of 150 mm thickness were used
and bond at the interface between the flanges of steel
beam and the concrete slab was prevented by greasing the
flange. Each of both concrete slabs was cast in the
horizontal position, as is done for composite beams in
practice, and the push test specimens were air-cured. The
details of the specimens are shown in Figure 1. The test
specimens were labeled that the excepted corrosion rate
could be identified from the label. For example, the labels
SPS-10 and FPS-00-1 define the specimens as
follow:

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Jin et al.

2.3 Accelerating corrosion process

The first three letter SPS or FPS refer to static

push test specimen or fatigue push test specimen,
respectively.
The following two digits (00 and 20) indicate the
expected corrosion rates of stud in percentage.
The last digit 1, 2 or 3 indicates the test
specimens having the same corrosion rate but different
load amplitude.

All specimens, except the uncorroded one (control

specimen), were immersed in a 5% NaCl solution for
three days after cured for 28 days, then the direction of
current about 0.2 A/cm2 was arranged for accelerating
stud corrosion, studs worked as the anodes, while a piece
of stainless steel positioned in the solution served as
cathode, as shown in Figure 2. The I-section steel beam
was isolated by epoxy resins so that corrosion only
occurs at the stud and steel-concrete interface, as shown
in Figure 2. The corrosion time of each specimen was
determined based on the expected corrosion rate. The
faradays theory is used to calculate the corrosion time.
The calculated results are shown in Table 2. It should be
noted that the actual corrosion rates of test specimens
may differ from those expected corrosion rates.
Table 2. Excepted stud corrosion rate and actual corrosion time
of test specimens
Specimen
F series
FPS0-1
FPS0-2
FPS0-3
SPS-0
FPS10
SPS10
FPS20
SPS20
FPS30
SPS30
FPS40
SPS40
FPS50
SPS50

Figure 1. Details of push-out test specimens

2.2 Material properties and measurements

Three concrete cubic specimens were prepared at the
time of push test specimen casting, to determine the
concrete strength of the push test specimens. Table 1
summarizes the material properties of concrete at 28
days. Studs with the nominal diameter of 10.0 are used in
this study. Tensile tests for the stud material were
conducted. The yield stress from the tensile tests was
determined by 0.2% strain because the steel for studs
generally does not show clear yielding point. The yield
strength and tensile strength of stud material are 275MPa
and 392.3MPa respectively, while the elastic modulus is
1.94105MPa. Quality control of welding process is a
very important factor since the effect of welding quality
may cover the effect of corrosion. Therefore, welding
trials were carried out to obtain proper and reliable
welding quality.

Ec(MPa)
3.31104
3.36104
3.38104
3.35104

Excepted
corrosion
rate (%)

Corrosion
time
(days)

0.2

0.2

10

62

0.2

20

124

0.2

30

186

0.2

40

248

0.2

50

310

Figure 2. Electronic accelerating corrosion of push test

specimens

Table 1. Material properties of concrete

Specimen
1
2
3
Average

Electronic
density
(mA/cm2)

2.4 Loading test setup and procedure

fcu (MPa)
43.9
44.3
45.2
44.5

The experimental program consists of a total of 2

series test specimens. In the first series static tests were
performed to determine the ultimate static load PU of the
corroded push-out specimen, as shown in Table 3. The
static testing procedure complied with the method
specified in Eurocode 4 Annex B (2004). The ultimate

373

Jin et al.

steel flange to which the studs were welded, as shown in

Figure 3.

static load represents the relative values of loading

parameter required for cyclic tests for the second series
tests. Using the relative loading parameters, load
controlled cyclic test was performed to determine the
fatigue life Nu of the push-out specimen. The maximum
load (PF-max) and minimum load (PF-min) for the cyclic test
were 0.65PU and 0.45PU. The chosen maximum and
minimum load for each specimen are summarized in
Table 3.

3 TEST RESULTS
3.1 Measurement of stud corrosion rate
The corroded studs were retrieved from the failed
specimens and the corrosion product was cleaned using a
corrosion-inhibited HCl solution (Bertoa 2008), as shown
in Figure 4. It is shown that the corrosion is uneven
distributed. With increasing corrosion time, pits corrosion
gradually transformed to wide-shallow pit (Xu & Wang
2015). The area loss of the steel rebar (A) was estimated
afterwards by subtracting the post-corrosion area from the
measured pre-corrosion area. The post-corrosion area of
stud was calculated using the measured diameter of the
shank of the stud. The measured diameter of the shank
was used to calculate the corrosion rate of each stud ()
as: = (A-A)/A%. The average corrosion rate of eight
studs is taken as the corrosion rate of each push test
specimen, as shown in Table 4. It is shown that the
measured corrosion rates of push test specimens are
different from those expected corrosion rates. Although
all those studs failed at the bottom of the shank, the
corrosion rate along the whole length of the shank
provides a reasonable description of the corrosion state.

Table 3. Static ultimate strength and corresponding fatigue load

of test specimens
Specimen

Static ultimate strength

SPS0
SPS10
SPS20
SPS30
SPS40
SPS50

Fatigue test load

PU(kN)

PF-max (kN)

PF-min (kN)

344
326
299
270
241
215

222
211
193
176
158
140

160
146
134
122
109
97

Corroded push test specimens were loaded in an

Instron 8805 fatigue testing machine with loading
capacity of 1000kN, as shown in Figure 3. The slabs are
bedded onto the lower platen of the testing machine, and
load is applied to the upper end of the steel section. Slip
between the steel member and the two slabs is measured
using LVDTs. The data was obtained by a CRONOS
compact 400-08 acquisition instrument. The monotonic
tests were conducted at a displacement rate of 0.3
mm/min. The time taken to reach the ultimate load was
about 40 minutes. Cyclic tests were conducted with a
load frequency of 7 Hz.

Table 4. Measured corrosion rates of test specimens

Specimen

Excepted corrosion
rate (%)

FPS10
SPS10
FPS20
SPS20
FPS30
SPS30
FPS40
SPS40
FPS50
SPS50

10.0
10.0
20.0
20.0
30.0
30.0
40.0
40.0
50.0
50.0

Measured corrosion
rate
(%)
5.42
5.31
16.87
19.02
25.02
28.40
34.59
36.02
47.04
51.62

Figure 3. Test setup

(a) Studs of specimen FPS-10

During the tests the time, load from the actuator load
cell, ram displacement from the built-in transducer in the
actuator, longitudinal displacement between the concrete
slab and steel beam and uplift of the slabs were measured.
The ram displacement included movement due to the
compliance of the test rig, and therefore it was not used in
any subsequent data analysis. The longitudinal
displacements were measured by two LVDTs on each

(b) Studs of specimen FPS-30

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Jin et al.

Forced fracture zone

(c) Studs of specimen FPS-50

Figure 4. Corroded Studs of test specimens

Fatigue fracture zone

3.2 Static strength

Figure 6. Stud fracture surface of specimen FPS-40

In this study, the failure mode of all push test

specimens is stud failure. Figure 5 shows typical stud
failure of the test specimens. The ultimate strengths of
test specimen series are shown in Table 3. It is shown that
the ultimate strengths of test specimens decrease when
the corrosion rate increases. The maximum ultimate
strength reduction rate of test specimen SPS series is
62.5%. It means that the corrosion has significant effect
on the ultimate strengths of test specimens.

Fatigue life
It can be seen that the fatigue resistances of corroded
specimens gradually decreased and their fatigue life
ranged from 3080% compared with the uncorroded
specimens, as shown in Tables 5 and 6. This is much
better than the observations of other investigators (Xu &
Qiu 2015) who reported fatigue life reduction of about 6
8 times for pitted steel specimens under constant
amplitude tensiontension loading. The reason may be
that the applied cyclic load decreased when the corrosion
rate of specimens increased in this study. Another reason
may be that the fracture position always at the bottom of
the shank, where may not be the place of deepest
corrosion pit as specimen in tension.
Table 5. Comparison of fatigue life prediction with test results
of uncorroded test specimens

Specimens
FPS0-1
FPS0-2
FPS0-3

Figure 5. Stud fracture surface of specimen SPS-20

Nt

NR,EC4

NR,prop1

NR,EC4

NR,prop1
Nt

(N/mm )

(10 )

(10 )

(10 )

Nt

149.2
119.4
102.8

23.9
92.0
183.4

5.4
32.1
106.3

23.8
93.0
182.1

0.226
0.349
0.579

0.918
1.027
1.055

Mean
COV

0.385
0.381

1.000
0.059

3.3 Fatigue test results and discussion

Table 6. Comparison of fatigue life prediction calculated using

nominal stress with test results of corroded test specimens

Failure mode
To investigate the reasons for the reduction of the
fatigue life, the concrete slabs were separated from the
steel beam and the fractured surfaces at the foot of each
headed stud were examined. The examined fracture
surfaces consist of the typical dull fatigue fracture and
bright forced fracture zones, where in the fatigue tests the
former one is formed by cracks propagating to a critical
length and the second one due to forced shear fracture
(Van der Walde& Hillberry 2007). Typical fracture of
fatigue specimen FPS40 is shown in Figures 6. It is
different from the fracture surface of the stud in static test
as shown in Figure 5.

Specimens

FPS10
FPS20
FPS30
FPS40
FPS50

Nt

NR,EC4

NR,prop2

N/mm2

(104)

(104)

(104)

107.8
97.8
89.5
81.3
71.3

80
72
70.5
53.5
32

72.8
158.0
320.9
698.2
1985.2

N R,EC4

NR,prop2

Nt

Nt

94.8
74.7
60.1
47.3
34.3

0.910
2.195
4.552
13.050
62.036

1.185
1.038
0.852
0.884
1.072

Mean
COV

-----

1.006
0.123

Maximum slip at every load cycle

In case of cyclic loading the loaddeformation
behavior is characterized by an increasing slip and a
decreasing elastic stiffness. In Figure 7 the maximum slip
corresponding to the peak load at every cycle is plotted
against the number of cycles for fatigue test specimens.

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Jin et al.

using the cross section area of uncorroded stud

connectors. The real stress is calculated by using the
reduced cross section area of corroded stud connectors.
The fatigue life of corroded test specimens predicted
using the nominal stress was shown in Table 7 and Figure
8. It is shown that the fatigue life increased with the
increasing corrosion rate. This is caused by the reduced
nominal stress calculated using the reduced load but
unchanged cross section area of stud connectors. The
curve fitting equation of the nominal stress prediction
was shown in Equation 3, which is only for comparison
in Figure 8.
146.0 2.460
)
N R,prop2 (
200
R

(3)

The beginning and the end of the lifetime are associated

with a steep increase in the maximum slip with the
number of cycles while in the remaining part of the
lifetime a nearly linear increase of the maximum slip
occurs with the number of cycles. The steep increase in
the maximum slip at the end of lifetime occurs earlier for
specimens having larger corrosion rate. The maximum
slip value at each cycle increased with the increasing
corrosion rate. It may be explained that the corrosion
reduce the fatigue performance of the stud connectors.

The fatigue life of corroded test specimens predicted

using the real stress was shown in Table 7 and Figure 8.
It is shown that the fatigue life decreased with the
increasing corrosion rate which means that the corrosion
reduce the fatigue performance of the stud connectors.
The curve fitting equation of the real stress prediction
was shown in Equation 4. It is shown that the fitting
curve agree with the test results well, as shown in Figure
8. It is also shown that the Eurocode 4 predictions using
the real stress are very conservative. However, the load in
the practical engineering structures nominal remains
constant during the whole life of the structures. Thus the
real stress will increased with the increasing corrosion
rate of stud connectors which may result in the further
reduction of fatigue life.
98.7 5.838
)
N R,prop3 (
200
R

(4)

Figure 7. Maximum slip at each fatigue load cycle

4 DESIGN METHOD OF FATIGUE LIFE

Current Eurocode 4 (2004) provides design method
for the fatigue life of uncorroded stud, as shown in
Equation 1. The design shear resistance of a headed stud
in accordance with Eurocode 4 should be determined
from:

( R ) m N R ( c ) m N c

(1)

Where
NR is the fatigue life corresponding to the load
amplitude R;
C is the load amplitude at the reference point, C =
95.0 N/mm2;
Nc is the fatigue life at the reference point, Nc=
200,0000 ;
m is the parameter, m=8.
The design strengths predicted using Eurocode 4
(2004) are compared with test results of uncorroded
specimens in Tables 6. It is shown that the design
predictions are very conservative as it is stated in the
Eurocode 4. A new equation is proposed based on
Equation 1 by using curve fitting method, as shown
Equation 2. It is shown that the prediction from the
proposed equation agree with the test results well.
102.2 5.540
)
N R,prop1 (
200
R

(2)

Figure 8. Comparison of design prediction with test results

Table 7. Comparison of fatigue life prediction calculated using
real stress with test results of corroded test specimens

For the corroded specimens, Equation 1 was also used

to predict the fatigue life. However, two kinds of stress
amplitude were used, one is the nominal stress and the
other is real stress. The nominal stress is the calculated by

Specimens
FPS10

376

Nt

NR,EC4

NR,prop2

N R,EC4

NR,prop3

N/mm2

(104)

(104)

(104)

Nt

Nt

114.0

80

46.6

86.4

0.583

1.080

Jin et al.

FPS20

117.7

72

36.0

71.6

0.501

Feldmann, M., Hechler, O., Hegger, J. & Rauscher, S. 2008

Fatigue Behavior of Shear Connectors in High Performance
Concrete. Composite construction in steel and concrete 6:
39-51.
Hanswille, Ge., Porsch, Ma. & Ustundag, C. 2007. Resistance
of headed studs subjected to fatigue loading. Journal of
Constructional Steel Research. 63(3): 475484.
Johnson, R.P. 2000. Resistance of stud shear connectors to
fatigue. Journal of Constructional Steel Research 56(1):
101116.
Kashani, M.M., Lowes, L.N., Crewe, A.J. & Alexander, N.A.
2014 Finite element investigation of the influence of
corrosion pattern on inelastic buckling and cyclic response
of corroded reinforcing bars. Engineering Structures 75(1):
113-125.
Leea, P., Shimb, C. & Changc, S. 2005. Static and fatigue
behavior of large stud shear connectors for steelconcrete
composite bridges. Journal of Constructional Steel
Research 61(11): 12701285.
LeRose, C. 2001 The collapse of the silver bridge. West
Virginia Hist Soc Quart, XV(4).
Nakajima, A., Saiki, I., Kokai, M., Doi, K., Takabayashi, Y., &
Ooe, H. 2003. Cyclic shear forceslip behavior of studs
under alternating and pulsating load condition. Engineering
Structures 25(4): 537545.
Oehlers, D.J. 1989. A new approach to the design of stud shear
connectors in composite bridge beams. Research report
R82. University of Adelaide.
Petroyiannis, P.V., Kermanidis, A.T., Akid, R. 2005. Analysis
of the effect of exfoliation corrosion on the fatigue behavior
of the 2024-T351 aluminum alloy using the fatigue damage
map. International Journal of Fatigue 27: 817-827.
Slutter, R. & Driscoll, G.C. 1965. Flexural strength of
steel-concrete composite beams. Journal of Structural
Engineering, ASCE: 7199.
Stephens, R.I., Ratemi, A., Stephens, R.R. & Fuchs, H.O. 2000.
Metal fatigue in engineering. (2nd ed.) New York, NY:
John Wiley & Sons.
Van der Walde, K. & Hillberry, B.M. 2007 Initiation and
shape development of corrosion nucleated fatigue cracking.
International Journal of Fatigue 29(7): 12691281.
Veljkovic, M. & Johansson, B. 2006. Residual Static Resistance
of Welded Stud Shear Connectors. Composite construction
in steel and concrete. 5: 524-533.
Xu, S. & Wang, Y. 2015 Estimating the effects of corrosion
pits on the fatigue life of steel plate based on the 3D profile.
International Journal of Fatigue 72(1): 27-41.
Xu, S. & Qiu, B. 2013 Experimental study on fatigue behavior
of corroded steel. Mater Sci Eng, A 2013, 584(1):163169.
Zhang, W. & Yuan, H. 2014 Corrosion fatigue effects on life
estimation of deteriorated bridges under vehicle impacts.
Engineering Structures 74(1): 128-136.

0.994

FPS30

119.4

70.5

32.1

65.7

0.455

0.932

FPS40

124.2

53.5

23.4

52.2

0.437

0.976

FPS50

134.6

32

12.3

32.6

0.384

1.020

Mean

0.472

1.000

COV

0.142

0.049

5 CONCLUSIONS
Fatigue test of steel and concrete composite push test
specimens with corrosion deterioration was conducted in
this study. Static test was also conducted for ultimate
strength reference. The test specimens were firstly
electronic accelerating corroded then loaded to failure.
All specimens failed in stud connectors facture failure.
Based on the test results, the effect of corrosion on the
maximum slip at each load cycle and fatigue life was
studied. It is shown that the maximum slip value at each
cycle increased with the increasing corrosion rate. It is
also shown that the fatigue life increased with the
increasing corrosion rate at the similar load amplitude.
Test results obtained from the loading tests were
compared with fatigue life predicted by current Eurocode
4. It is shown that the fatigue life was very conservative
for uncorroded specimens. New design equation with
reasonably accuracy was proposed which enables the
designer to consider the effect of corrosion on the fatigue
life.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The research work described in this paper was
supported by National Key Technology R&D Program
(2011BAJ09B03) and research projects from Science and
Technology Department of Zhejiang Province
(2015C33005)

REFERENCES
Akao, S., Kurita, A. & Hiragi, H. 1982. Fatigue strength of stud
shear connectors with concrete deposited from different
placing directions. IABSE Fatigue, Lausanne.
Apostolopoulos CA. 2007 Mechanical behavior of corroded
reinforcing steel bars S500s tempcore under low cycle
fatigue. Constructional and Building Materials 21: 1447
1456.
Bertoa, L., Simionib, B., & Saettab, B. 2008 Numerical
modelling of bond behaviour in RC structures affected by
reinforcement corrosion. Engineering Structures 30(7):
13751385.
EN 1994-1-1: 2004. Eurocode 4: Design of composite steel and
concrete structures - Part 1-1: General rules and rules for
buildings.
Feldmann, M., Gesella, H. & Leffer, A. 2006. The Cyclic
Force-Slip Behaviour of Headed Studs Under Non Static
Service Loads Experimental Studies and Analytical
Descriptions. Composite construction in steel and concrete
5: 564-572.

377

11th International Conference on

Advances in Steel and Concrete Composite Structures
Tsinghua University, Beijing, China, December 3-5, 2015

STRUCTURAL BEHAVIOUR OF SHEAR CONNECTIONS WITH

SOLID AND COMPOSITE SLABS UNDER CO-EXISTING SHEAR
AND TENSION FORCES
K. F. Chunga, M. H. Shena & C. H. Yam
a

Department of Civil Engineering, the Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hong Kong SAR, China
E-mails: cekchung@polyu.edu.hk, stephanie.Shen@aecom.com
b
Department of Building and Real Estate, the Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hong Kong SAR, China
E-mail: micahel.yam@polyu.edu.hk
ABSTRACT
Keywords:
Shear connection; Push-out
test; Shear resistance;
Load-slippage characteristics;
Dowel Mechanism; Combined
shear and tension forces

In order to qualify and quantify structural of shear connections with different configurations
commonly adopted in building construction, a systematic experimental and numerical
investigation into a wide range of practical shear connections with both solid concrete slabs and
composite slabs was carried out. This paper presents key findings of the investigation on these
shear connections in both standard and modified push-out tests. It should be noted that while the
shear connections in standard tests were under direct shear forces, the shear connections in
modified tests were under combined shear and tension forces. The measured load-slippage
curves of these shear connections were rationalized to provide representative load-deformation
characteristics of the connections which exhibited various degrees of ductility at both small and
large deformations.
Moreover, advanced finite element modelling was also carried out to establish effective models
to examine the structural behaviour of shear connections with different configurations under
shear forces as well as under combined shear and tension forces. Based on the numerical
investigation into the structural behaviour of these shear connections, a dowel mechanism of
these shear studs embedded in solid slabs as well as in composite slabs were identified.
Detailed analyses were quantified and presented to provide detailed understandings on the
structural performance of these shear connections.

Type N shear connection is regarded to be

non-ductile as it is not able to sustain its shear
resistance.
According to various experimental investigations
(Oehlers & Johnson, 1987; Mottram & Johnson, 1989)
and fundamental studies (Oehlers & Bradford, 1995;
Yuan & Johnson, 1998), the deformation characteristics
of a shear connection was found to depend on the
following:
(a) compressive and tensile strengths of the concrete as
well as sizes of aggregates;
(b) yield and tensile strengths of headed shear studs as
well as their shapes and sizes;
(c) yield and tensile strengths of profiled steel deckings
as well as their cross-sectional shapes and
dimensions, if present;
(d) dimensions of longitudinal stiffeners in the troughs
of the deckings, if present;
(e) arrangement of headed shear studs within the troughs
of the profiled steel decking including positions and
spacing;

1 INTRODUCTION
In composite structures, shear connectors of various
forms are essential to transmit longitudinal shear forces at
steel-concrete interfaces of composite members, and their
structural behaviour is very important to effectiveness of
the composite members in acting as integral members in
resisting applied loads.
The most widely used shear connectors in building
construction are headed shear studs, typically with a
diameter of 19 mm, a height of 100 mm, and a tensile
strength of 450 N/mm2. Figure 1 illustrates three
representative load-slippage curves commonly found in a
wide range of practical shear connections. It should be
noted that:
Type D shear connection behaves in a ductile
manner over a large slippage;
Type S shear connection is only able to behave
in a ductile manner over a limited slippage; and

378

Chung et al.

Series SS, would give a direct measure on the structural

implication of the presence of deckings, or more
specifically, the absence of concrete within the trough
levels of the deckings in the composite slabs.

Test Series MS
It should be noted that the test specimens in this test
series were very similar to those in Test Series SS, except
that all the shear connections were under co-existing
shear and tension forces owing to the inclined
steel-concrete interfaces of the test specimens. As the
angle of inclination of the interface was 15o , the tension
force in each shear connection was equal to sin 15o or
about 0.25 of the corresponding applied shear force. Both
the measured load-slippage curves and the measured
shear resistances of the test specimens were readily
adopted as the reference data of the shear connections
under co-existing shear and tension forces for subsequent
comparison.

Test Series MCFr and MCUr

In these two test series of modified push-out tests on
shear connections with composite slabs, the test
specimens were similar to those in Test Series SCFr and
SCUr, except that all the shear connections were under
co-existing shear and tension forces. Both the measured
load-slippage curves and the measured shear resistances
of the shear connections would be compared with those
obtained from Test Series SCFr and SCUr.

Shear force (kN)

(f) spanning direction of the decking, if present;

(g) welding quality of shear studs and dimensions of
welding collars at stud roots;
(h) sizes and arrangement of steel reinforcements within
the concrete slab in the vicinity of the studs;
(i) orientation of the steel-concrete interface during
concreting;
(j) friction along the steel-concrete interface; and
(k) tilting and initial bedding of the test specimen in a
push-out test, if any.
Owing to the large number of factors which may
affect the deformation characteristics of shear
connections, significant variations in the test results
obtained from push-out tests are often encountered.

Type D: Ductile
Type S: Semi-ductile
Type N: Non-ductile
Q = Qm (1-e-s)
Slippage (mm)

Figure 1. Different types of shear connections

2 EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATION
In the present investigation, four series of push-out
tests with a total of 27 tests were carried out to obtain the
load-slippage curves of typical shear connections with
different configurations, as shown in Figure 2. It should
be noted that:

Test Series SS
In this series of standard push-out tests on shear
connections with concrete solid slabs, four pairs of
headed shear studs were installed in each test specimen,
and they were fully embedded into the concrete. Both the
measured load-slippage curves and the measured shear
resistances of the test specimens were adopted as the
reference data of the shear connections under direct shear
forces for subsequent comparison.

Test Series SCFr and SCUr

In these two test series of standard push-out tests on
shear connections with composite slabs, four pairs of
headed shear studs were installed in each test specimen,
and they were installed in either the favourable or the
unfavourable positions in the troughs of the profiled steel
deckings, owing to the presence of longitudinal stiffeners.
The differences in the measured load-slippage curves as
well as the measured shear resistances of the shear
connections, when compared with those obtained in Test

It should be noted that the testing method of the

standard push-out tests recommended by BS EN
1994-1-1 was adopted in the present investigation.
Moreover, the concrete slabs are 600 mm wide and 125
mm thick while the trapezoidal profiled steel deckings is
1.0 mm thick. Headed shear studs with a diameter of 19
mm and a height of 100 mm are used, and they are
welded through the deckings onto the flanges of the steel
sections in pairs. Detailed configurations of the shear
connections are presented in the paper. For further details
of the test series, refer to Shen (2013).

3 TEST RESULTS
All the tests were carried out successfully, and the
shear resistances of the shear connections per stud are
summarized in Table 1 for easy comparison. It should be
noted that all the test specimens with solid concrete slabs
failed in stud fracture while all the test specimens with
composite slabs failed in concrete conical failure in ribs,
as shown in Figure 3. Moreover, surface cracks were
always evident at the top surfaces of the concrete slabs,
originated from the vicinity of the studs. After data
analyses, representative load-slippage curves of shear
connections with different configurations are plotted onto
the same graphs for direct comparison, as shown in

379

Chung et al.

8P

= 15o

b) Test Series MS

8P

= 15o

d) Test Series MCFr

8P

= 15o

f) Test Series MCUr

220

30

20
90

8P
Tests

SS-01

SS-02

SS-03

SS-04

SS-05

SS-06

SS-07

a) Test Series SS

8P

Tests

SCFr-01

SCFr-02

SCFr-03

c) Test Series SCFr

8P

Tests

SCUr-01

SCUr-02

Q=P

s=

e) Test Series SCUr

Pm

25 cycles
0.40Pm

15min
0.05Pm

Time

Figure 2. Push-out test specimens

380

Tests
MS-01
MS-02
MS-03
MS-04
MS-05
MS-06

Tests
MCFr-01
MCFr-02
MCFr-03
MCFr-04
MCFr-05
MCFr-06

Qt

Tests
MCUr-01
MCUr-02
Q

Q = P cos15o
Qt = P sin15o
s = cos15o

10
50

Chung et al.

Series SS

s (mm)

fu = 500 N/mm2
fcu = 35 N/mm2

Series SCUr

12

15

18

fu = 500 N/mm2
fcu = 35 N/mm2

Q (kN)

Q (kN)

Figure 3. Concrete conical failure

150
Standard push-out tests

120

90

Series SCFr

60

30

0
3
6

150

Modified push-out tests

120

90

60
Series MCFr

30

0
0
3
6

Figure 4. Standardized load-slippage curves

Series MS

Series MCUr
9
s (mm)

381

12

15

18

Chung et al.

Figure 4. It should be noted that these curves have been

normalized according to the measured tensile strengths of
the headed shear studs at 500 N/mm2, and the measured
compressive cube strengths of the concrete at 35 N/mm2,
as appropriate. It should be noted that
a) The shear resistances of Test Series SS and MS
are found to be 114.4 and 101.4 kN per stud
respectively, and this corresponds to a reduction
of 0.89 owing to the presence of an additional
tension force in the shear connection, as shown in
Table 1. Moreover, the load-slippage curves of
both Test Series SS and MS may be regarded as
ductile as their deformation capacities, su , are
found to be at least 6 mm.
b) Among the standard push-out tests, the shear
resistances of the shear connections with
composite slabs are found to be significantly
smaller than that of the shear connections with
concrete solid slabs. As shown in Table 1, the
corresponding resistance ratios of Test Series
SCFr and SCUr are found to be merely 0.52 and
0.43, when compared with the shear resistances
of Test Series SS.
Similarly, the corresponding resistance ratios of
the shear connections in the modified push-out
tests, namely, Test Series MCFr and MCUr, are
found to be 0.39 and 0.34, when compared with
that of Test Series SS. This corresponds to an
additional reduction factor of 0.75 applicable to
the shear resistances of Test Series SCFr and
SCUr, owing to the presence of additional
tension forces in the shear connections.
c) The load-slippage curves of Test Series SCFr and
MCFr exhibit limited ductility with a ductility
limit smaller than 2 mm each. Hence, these
connections are regarded as non-ductile.
On the contrary, the load-slippage curves of Test
Series SCUr and MCUr are shown to be fairly
ductile, and their ductility limits are found to be
at least 8 mm.

SCUr 49.6 2.5

sm

Series (kN) (mm)

SS
SCFr

Qm/Qss

Test

Qm

sm

Series (kN) (mm)

Based on a number of successful finite element

modeling (Mirza & Uy, 2010; Qureshi & Lam, 2012;
Tahmasebinia et al., 2013) on shear connections using
different finite element types, material models and
solution techniques, a finite element investigation is
undertaken to simulate the following four shear
connections with different configurations, as shown in
Figure 5:
a) Model SS is established to model shear
connections in Test Series SS in which all the
headed shear studs are fully embedded into solid
concrete slabs. It should be noted that these
shear connections are subject to direct shear
forces.
b) Model MS is very similar to Model SS, except
that the shear connections are subject to
co-existing shear and tension forces.
c)

1.00

MS

101.4 7.5

0.89

59.4 1.2

0.52

MCFr

44.9 1.2

0.39

Model SC-110Fr is established to model shear

connections in Test Series SCFr in which all the
headed shear studs are fully embedded into
composite slabs through the deckings, and
installed in the favourable position in the troughs
of the deckings.

d) Model MC-110Fr is very similar to Model

SC-110Fr except that all the shear connections
are subject to co-existing shear and tension
forces.

4.1 Numerical Results

The numerical results of the four models have been
obtained successfully, and they are presented in Figure 5.
It should be noted that both the measured and the
predicted load-slippage curves of each of the four models
are plotted onto the same graphs for direct comparison,
and good agreement is found not only in the small
deformation ranges, but also in the large deformation
ranges. Moreover, the load-slippage curves of both
Models SS and MS may be regarded as ductile with a
ductility limit larger than 6 mm whilst the load-slippage
curves of both Models SC-110Fr and MC-110Fr are
considered to be non-ductile with a ductility limit at about
2 mm.
Figure 5 also illustrates the concrete tensile damage
plots of the four models at various deformation stages.
In ABAQUS, the concrete tensile damage is assessed in
term of a cracking displacement using a function of
DAMAGET. It should be noted that

Qm/Qss

114.4 6.0

0.34

4 FINITE ELEMENT INVESTIGATION

Table 1. Shear resistances and ductility limits

Qm

MCUr 38.6 2.5

Although testing of these shear connections are by no

means unique, they are effective to provide consistent and
reliable data for comparison on the structural behavior of
shear connections with similar material strengths and
geometrical dimensions under same loading procedures.

Test

0.43

382

Chung et al.

DAMAGET
1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.0

100
200
300
Cracking displacement (m)

2P
Support
L

a) Model SS

2P
Support
L

c) Model SC-110Fr

150
120

Solid concrete slabs

fu = 500 N/mm2
fcu = 35 N/mm2
Model SS
Model MS

90
60
30

00

2P
2P

2P
Support

C
L
b) Model MS

2P
2P

2P

Support

CL

d) Model MC-110Fr

fu = 500 N/mm2
90
Composite slabs

fcu = 35 N/mm2

60
Model SC-110Fr

Model MC-110Fr
30

0
12
9

3
6
0
Deformation, (mm)

f) Calibration for composite slabs

P (kN)

P (kN)

Test result
FEM result

3
6
9
Deformation, (mm)
e) Calibration for composite slabs

Figure 5. Finite element models and results

12

383

Chung et al.

+540 Nm at the stud root and its minimum value of

-400 Nm at a height of 40 mm.
As a whole, these internal forces and moments agree
well with the dowel mechanism in the shear connection
as follows:

i) In the presence of a shear force, the stiff portion of the

stud shank close to its stud root tends to take up
almost all of the applied shear force through bearing
against the surrounding concrete.

ii) The stud shank is required to deform with a double

curvature along its longitudinal axis in order to allow
for a consistent deformation in the shear connection
as it slips.

iii) Being constrained by the surrounding concrete, a

large tensile force is then readily mobilized in the stud
shank as double curvature takes place in the stud
shank.

i)

In Model SS, a longitudinal crack joining up the

two headed shear studs running along the line of
applied force towards the supported end is
identified.
ii) In Model SC-110Fr, two cracks are identified: a
crack running perpendicular to the line of applied
force across the width of the composite slab, and
a crack enclosing the bottom shear stud and the
recess end of the composite slab
iii) The concrete cracking patterns in both Models
MS and MC-110Fr are found to be very similar to
those in Models SS and SC-110Fr, given their
differences in the applied load levels.
All of these cracks have been observed in many
standard push-out tests reported by various researchers.
For further details of the finite element models and their
calibration, refer to Shen (2013).

4.2 Dowel mechanism of shear connections

The transfer of longitudinal shear force by a dowel
action of a headed shear stud shear connections was
investigated and described qualitatively by Oehlers and
Bradford (1995). An attempt is made here to describe
the dowel mechanism in various typical shear
connections with a detailed qualitative as well as
quantitative description. It is important to identify
internal shear and tensile forces as well as local bending
moments acting along the longitudinal directions of the
stud in a shear connection.

It should be noted that as the bearing zone of the

concrete is under a tri-axial restraint provided by the steel
section, the stud and the surrounding concrete, the
concrete bearing zone has to withstand high compressive
stresses. Thus, a high local bearing force exists in part of
the perimeter of the stud shank, inducing a large shear
force in the cross-section of the stud shank, as shown in
Figure 7a). At the same time, a moment is induced at the
stud root in order to attain moment equilibrium. Hence,
the stud shank is under co-existing bending moment and
shear force. Furthermore, a weld collar at the stud root is
able to increase the shear resistance of the shear
connection with an enlarged bearing zone in the concrete.
The weld collar is also able to increase the dowel
resistance by pushing up failure zones from the stud root
to the interface between the stud shank and the weld
collar.
In the finite element models, a concrete crushing zone
is identified in terms of a compressive equivalent plastic
strain, PEEQ. In Model SS, highly localized bearing
stresses in those concrete elements directly behind the
roots of the studs are identified, as shown in Figure 7a).
This may be explained by the fact that the applied load is
transferred from the steel section to the stud shanks
through shear action which are in turn transferred onto
the surrounding concrete through local bearing by parts
of the perimeters of the stud shanks. In order to quantify
the concrete crushing zone, it is assumed that those
concrete elements with a PEEQ value exceeding 0.005
have been crushed. Figure 8a) illustrates such concrete
elements of Model SS, and uncrushed concrete elements
are removed from the plot for clarity. It is evident that the
plot compares well with the commonly observed concrete
conical failure in shear connections with solid slabs.

4.2.1 Dowel mechanism of shear connections with solid

concrete slabs
Based on the numerical results of Model SS, Figure
6a) illustrates the distributions of these internal shear and
tensile forces as well as the local bending moments in a
stud of the shear connection. Both the shear and the
tensile forces are readily obtained after integrating both
the shear and the normal stresses of the solid elements
over the entire cross-section of the stud shank.
Similarly, by summing the first moment of the tensile
(and the compressive) forces of the solid elements over
the entire cross-section of the stud shank, the local
bending moments are obtained.
It should be noted that the shear force in the stud
shank varies in a highly non-linear manner, reducing
from its maximum value of 114.4 kN at the stud root to
about 63 kN at the interface between the weld collar and
the stud shank, and then to zero at a height of 40 mm of
the stud shank. At the same time, the tensile force in the
stud shank increases steadily from almost zero at the stud
root to its maximum value of about 35 kN at a height of
30 mm. The tensile force then remains fairly constant
over a length of 50 mm. Similarly to the shear force, the
local bending moment in the stud shank also varies in a
highly non-linear manner, with its maximum value of
384

11th International Conference on

Advances in Steel and Concrete Composite Structures
Tsinghua University, Beijing, China, December 3-5, 2015
a) Model SS

Fv,i

Fc,i

Mi

b) Model SC-110Fr

c) Model SC-110Ur

Figure 6 Internal forces and moments along the height of stud shear connections

and moments are considerably smaller than those in

Model SS.
In general, both the load transfer mechanism and the
concrete response in shear connections with composite
slabs are more complicated than those with solid concrete
slabs. As shown in Figures 7b) and 7c), the shear forces
are primarily transferred through shear action of the
concrete at the trough levels of the profiled steel decking.
The magnitudes of the shear forces depend heavily on the
widths of the concrete available at the back of the studs,
and this is directly affected by installation positions of the
studs in the troughs of the profiled deckings.

4.2.2 Dowel mechanism of shear connections with

composite slabs
Based on the numerical results of Models SC-110Fr
and SC-110Ur, Figures 6b) and 6c) illustrate the
distributions of the internal shear and tensile forces as
well as the local bending moments in the studs of the
shear connections. Owing to the absence of the concrete
in the troughs of the profiled deckings, the load paths of
in these shear connections (with concrete conical failure)
are very different from that in the shear connections in
Model SS (with stud shear failure). Hence, these forces

385

Chung et al.

a) Model SS
Fv,i-1
Fb,i = Fv,i - Fv,i-1
Fv,i

b) Model SC-110Fr

c) Model SC-110Ur

Figure 7

Dowel mechanism of shear studs in typical shear connections

386

Chung et al.

a) Model SS

Q = 114.0 kN

6.0 mm
Load-slippage curve of Model SS

b) Model SC-110Fr

Q = 66.5 kN

1.4 mm
Load-slippage curve of Model SC-110Fr

c) Model SC-110Ur

All concrete elements have been crushed when

their PEEQ values exceed 0.005. Uncrushed
concrete elements are not shown for clarity.

Q = 45.0 kN
6.0 mm
Load-slippage curve of Model SC-110Ur
Figure 8

Concrete crushing zones in typical shear connections

387

Chung et al.

studs along the height of the shear studs are

quantified. Thus, the dowel mechanism of shear
connection with both solid and composite slab is
quantified.
Consequently, the advanced finite element modelling
will be readily adopted to generate data on the shear
resistances of a wide range of practical shear connections
so that design rules will be developed to assist practical
design of shear connections with different configurations

Figures 8b) and 8c) illustrate the concrete crushing

zones in the shear connections, i.e. those concrete
elements with a PEEQ value exceeding 0.005 whilst
uncrushed concrete elements are removed from the plot
for clarity. It is evident that the plots compare well with
the commonly observed concrete conical failure in ribs
found in shear connections with composite slabs.

5 CONCLUSIONS
In order to qualify and quantify structural behaviour
of shear connections with different configurations
commonly adopted in building construction, a systematic
experimental and numerical investigation on a wide range
of practical shear connections with both solid concrete
slabs and composite slabs has been carried out. Key
findings of the investigation onto these shear connections
in both standard and modified push-out tests have been
presented as follows:
a) A systemic experimental and numerical
investigation on shear connections with different
configurations have been carried out with both
solid concrete and composite slabs under direct
shear forces as well as under combined shear and
tension forces. Hence, the shear resistances of
various shear connections may be directly related
to those of shear connections with solid concrete
slabs rather than to those of shear connections
with composite slabs. This prevents potential
errors in evaluating the shear resistances of some
composite connections with profiled steel
deckings having different shapes and sizes in the
troughs and the longitudinal stiffeners.
Moreover, it should be noted that the presence of
an additional tension force, Qt, in a shear
connection will retain at least 0.85 of its reference
shear resistance, Qm, provided that Qt is smaller
than or equal to 0.25 Qm.
b) It is demonstrated that various deformation
characteristics of shear connections observed in
tests, namely, i) ductile load-slippage curve, ii)
semi-ductile load-slippage curve, and iii)
non-ductile load-slippage curve, are readily
simulated with advanced finite element
modelling with measured material properties and
geometrical dimensions of various components in
the shear connections, in particular, of the
troughs and the longitudinal stiffeners of the
profiled steel deckings.
c) To identify the load-transfer mechanism of the
stud shear connections with both solid and
composite slabs, the dowel mechanisms of the
stud shear connections of various models are
evaluated as shown in Figure 8. Both concrete
crushing and cracking are captured, and the
internal forces and moments of the headed shear

REFERENCES
ABAQUS. (2010). ABAQUS Users Manual, Version 6.10,
Hibbitt, Karlsson and Sorensen, Inc., USA.
Mottram, J. T., & Johnson, R. P. (1989). Push tests on studs
welded through profiled steel sheeting. University of
Warwick, Department of Engineering.
Oehlers, D. J., & Johnson, R. P. (1987). The strength of stud
shear connections in composite beams. The Structural
Engineer, 65(2), 44-48.
Johnson, R. P., & Yuan, H. (1998). EXISTING RULES AND
NEW TESTS FOR STUD SHEAR CONNECTORS IN
TROUGHS OF PROFILED SHEETING. Proceedings of
the ICE-Structures and Buildings, 128(3), 244-251.
EN, B. (2005). 1-1: 2004, Eurocode 4: Design of composite
steel and concrete structuresPart 1-1: General rues and
rules for buildings. British Standards Institution, London.
Shen, M.H. (2013). Structural behavior of shear connections in
composite structures under complex loading conditions.
PhD thesis. The Hong Kong Polytechnic University.
Mirza, O., & Uy, B. (2010). Effects of the combination of axial
and shear loading on the behaviour of headed stud steel
anchors. Engineering Structures, 32(1), 93-105.
Qureshi, J., & Lam, D. (2012). Behaviour of headed shear stud
in composite beams with profiled metal decking. Advances
in Structural Engineering, 15(9), 1547-1558.
Tahmasebinia, F., Ranzi, G., & Zona, A. (2013). Probabilistic
three-dimensional finite element study on composite beams
with steel trapezoidal decking. Journal of Constructional
Steel Research, 80, 394-411.
Oehlers, D. J., & Bradford, M. A. (1995). Composite steel and
composite structural membersFundamental behavior.

388

11th International Conference on

Advances in Steel and Concrete Composite Structures
Tsinghua University, Beijing, China, December 3-5, 2015

BEHAVIOUR AND DESIGN OF CONNECTIONS

DEMOUNTABLE STEEL AND COMPOSITE STRUCTURES

FOR

B. Uy, V. I. Patel & D. Li

Centre for Infrastructure Engineering and Safety, School of Civil and Environmental Engineering, The University of
New South Wales Australia, Sydney, NSW 2052, Australia
E-mails: b.uy@unsw.edu.au, v.patel@unsw.edu.au, dongxu.li@unsw.edu.au
ABSTRACT
Keywords:
Composite structures;
Demountability; Steel structures,
Structural design.

This paper provides an overview of demountable connections and elements for steel and
composite structures. Demountable connections are generally assembled from prefabricated
structural members which can be reused after dismantling. This paper investigates innovative
connections which enable steel and concrete framed structures to be made demountable. Two
main themes of this paper are to reduce the use of structural steel through composite
steel-concrete approaches and to reuse structural steel by using innovative connections that
allow for demountability. New demountable beam connectors and column connectors are
proposed to promote the reuse of beam and column members in composite buildings. Finite
element models are developed to explore the effect of geometric and material properties.

1 INTRODUCTION
The concepts of demountable buildings and
prefabricated construction can be traced back two
millennia to the bible, Teutsh (2001). More recently in
Australia, the Green Building Council of Australia has
provided guidelines for best practice in the use of
structural steel and concrete in construction projects,
(Green Building Council of Australia (2009a, 2009b and
2010)). Furthermore, more recent discussion has centred
around construction and demolition waste where
demountable buildings which allow for the reuse of
materials, (Green Building Council of Australia (2012)).
Current estimates in Australia have determined that
approximately 40% of landfill waste is directly attributed
to building and construction, (Green Building Council of
Australia, 2009a). Methods for lowering this rate can be
achieved through changes in construction materials,
methods of construction and demolition. This paper will
review the use of innovative connectors between steel
and concrete elements that will allow structures to be
made demountable. Current Australian practice in steel
building construction encourage steps that structural
designers can take to maximise the potential for re-using
steel buildings including using bolted connections in
preference to welded joints and ensuring easy access to
connections, (Ng (2009)). Recent examples of this
concept include the Olympic Stadium project in Sydney
completed in 2000, (Figure 1). The end stands of this
stadium were made demountable using innovative blind
bolts and the structural steel was reused to upgrade the

Figure 1. Olympic Stadium Sydney, Australia.

Wollongong Stadium 80 km south of Sydney, (One Steel

(2004)). In addition to the economic and environmental
benefits that are promoted by demountable buildings,
proper design of connections that ensure buildings are
able to be systematically disassembled also promotes
safety in design, (Safework Australia (2012)).
The concept of demountable structures changes the
traditional construction technology which often does not
consider the reuse of structural members at the end of
their service life. Demountable structures are generally
able to be easily erected and dismantled, and are capable
of adaption to different situations. Structural steel is one
of the most promising materials for allowing structures to
be made demountable. Bolted connections can be utilised
to promote demountability in commercial composite
buildings. The erection procedures can be used in the
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Uy et al.

reverse order for dismantling of demountable structures.

For example, temporary supports used to erect the
structure can be utilised for dismantling the structures.
This procedure may prevent structural members from
being bent, distorted or overstressed during dismantling.
The deformation in a structural member may occur
during its service life. The deformed members can be
clearly marked for identification after dismantling a
structure. These members could be repaired before
reusing them. Demountable structures are generally
limited to short-term use such as travelling shows,
carnival structures and school classrooms. However, they
have not been implemented in megastructures for
long-term use. This paper looks at the specific
connections which may permit steel and steel-concrete
framed structures to be made demountable.
One of the major practical/technical impediments of
the reuse of steel is the ability to render structures
demountable and thus this paper will highlight the
development of innovative connectors for both beams and
columns that will promote the concepts of demountability.
Therefore, this paper explores the behaviour of
bolted-connectors for composite beams and columns
which allow structures to be made demountable.
Demountable connections considered in this paper
include:
Beam-beam connections,
Column-column connections,
Beam-slab connectors.
Finite element analysis is also conducted to compare
demountable structural elements with traditional
structural elements. The deterioration rate of structural
steels over their lifespan should be considered in the
structural design for reusing the components. The new
structures with reused steel could potentially be unsafe
without accounting for the deterioration rate into the
project design. Advanced structural health monitoring
methods could provide information about the strains and
deformations over a demountable structures life.

2 BEAM-BEAM CONNECTIONS

Figure 2. A typical beam-beam connection with web-side plate.

depth-to-beam depth (dc/d) ratio on the applied

load-deflection curves of coped beams in demountable
beam-beam connections. It can be seen from Figure 4 that
ultimate strengths of coped beams decrease as the coped
depth-to-beam depth (dc/d) ratio increases.
The demountability of a beam-beam connection
depends on the elasticity of the coped beam. The
elasticity of a coped beam is characterised by the ability
to sustain elastic deformation without undergoing
significant plastic deformation. The demountability of a
beam-beam connection cannot be achieved for the beam
with large plastic deformation. The finite element
analysis of a coped beam in demountable beam-beam
connections was conducted for predicting the amount of
plastic deformation in the coped region. It should be
noted that the elastic deformation can be represented by
zero equivalent plastic strain (PEEQ). Figure 5 illustrates
local web buckling of a coped beam and the applied
load-deflection curve for this coped beam is presented in
Figure 6. It can be observed from Figure 6 that the coped
beam can be demounted up to a load 320 kN where the
PEEQ is predicted to be zero in the coped region, which
is about 50% of the ultimate load and greater than typical
service loads which are usually less than 40%.

3 COLUMN-COLUMN CONNECTIONS

A finite element model employing ABAQUS has

been developed for coped beams in beam-beam
connections with web-side plates (WSP). The primary
beams and secondary beams in steel framed connections
are commonly connected by using web-side plates. The
use of web-side plates in beam-beam connections allows
steel framed buildings to be made demountable. Figure 2
depicts a typical beam-beam connection with a web-side
plate.
The finite element model for a coped beam in
demountable beam-beam connections is depicted in
Figure 3. A secondary beam is coped to allow clearance
for composing beam-beam connections. The finite
element model is utilised to examine the effects of coped

3.1 Design
Figure 7 presents proposed column-column splice
connections for concrete-filled steel tubular (CFST)
columns. The proposed connection allows CFST columns
to be connected at any location throughout the height.
These CFST columns have a pre-welded sleeve plate
extending past the base of the column. Blind bolts are
utilised to connect the sleeve plate with CFST columns
passing through pre-drilled holes. The wet concrete could
be pumped from the drilled holes or another opening.
Reinforcing bars are placed inside the concrete core to
achieve additional compressive and tensile capacity.
Furthermore, to ensure the discontinuity of the concrete

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Uy et al.

Figure 3. Finite element model for coped beam.

Applied load P (kN)

300

250

Figure 7. CFST column-column splice demountable connection.

dc/d=0.05

200

and reinforcement and subsequently easily dismantling of

this connection, a baseplate was welded to the bottom of
the top tube. Bolts can be removed as the bolt head is
arranged on the outside of the steel tube. The connection
must resist the applied tension load and axial
compression. This paper presents the design and analysis
of demountable connections under axial tension. Some
guidance on this connection under axial compression has
been provided by Li et al. (2015).
The column-column connection is subjected to axial
tension when a bottom column is removed after
exhibiting accidental damage (Eurocode 1). Figure 8
illustrates the column-column connection in a composite
steel-concrete frame. It can be seen from the figure that if
the column is removed from the frame after exhibiting the
damage, which reverses the loading pattern of the
connection from compressive to tensile.
The design equation given in AS1170 (2002) for
determining the ultimate tensile strength of a
column-column connection is expressed by

dc/d=0.1

150

dc/d=0.3

100
50
0
0

12

15

18

Vertical deflection (mm)

Figure 4. Effects of cope depth-to-bean depth (dc/d) ratio on the

behaviour of coped beams in demountable connections.

Tc N c

Figure 5. Local web buckling of coped beam in demountable

beam-beam connection.

where Nc represents the ultimate axial strength under

axial compression and reflects the factor which
accounts for the accidental damage and it is expressed by

Demountability

Applied load P (kN)

700
600
500
400
300

100
0
4

12

16

Vertical deflection (mm)

N1
No

(2)

in which No denotes the axial compression before the

accidental damage. An empirical equation for
determining this axial compression (No) of a column
without accidental damage is given in AS1170 (2002) as
follows:

PEEQ=0

200

(1)

20

N o 1 .2 G 1 .5 Q

Figure 6. Applied load-deflection with demountability in

beam-beam connections.

(3)

in which G represents the dead load in kPa and Q is taken

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and tensile strength of the reinforcement was 500 MPa

and 690 MPa, respectively. The Youngs modulus of the
steel reinforcement was 200 GPa. The reinforcement ratio
was taken as 0.8% in the analysis. The reinforcement
ratio was defined as the ratio between the cross-sectional
area of reinforcement and the area of the concrete core.
The base plate was 5 mm thick while the sleeve plates
were 10 mm thick.

3.2.1 Effects of sleeve length

Figure 8. Schematic composite steel-concrete frame showing

removing column under blast load.

The finite element model was employed to investigate

the effects of sleeve length on the axial load-strain curves
for column-column connections under axial tension. The
column-column connections with different sleeve lengths
are presented in Figure 9. The effect of the sleeve length
on the axial load-strain curves for the column-column
connection under axial tension is depicted in Figure 10. It
can be observed from Figure 10 that both the initial axial
stiffness and the ultimate tensile strength of the
connection tend to increase with an increase in the sleeve
length (L). This is due mainly to the steel contribution in
the connection which increases as the sleeve length
increases. The ultimate tensile strength is increased by 1%
and 7%, respectively, when the sleeve length in the
connection increases from 235 mm to 600 mm and 1200
mm.

as 3.0 kPa (AS1170, 2002). In Equation (2), N1 represents

the axial compression after the column exhibits the
accidental damage such as in a blast, fire or earthquake.
The axial compression (N1) can be determined by the
equation given in AS1170 (2002) and is given by
N1 G Q

(4)

in which represents the factor for live load after the

accidental damage. The factor () is taken as 0.3 for
cyclic loading and 0.4 for fire (AS1170, 2002). It is found
that the reduction factor () given in Equation (2) is
determined as 0.51 and 0.54 for cyclic loading and fire,
respectively. It should be noted that the column-column
connections are required to resist the tensile load up to
approximately half of the ultimate compressive strength
of column.
The reinforcement is embedded in the concrete for
increasing the ultimate tensile strength of column-column
connections. Figure 7 depicts the reinforcement in the
column-column connection. This reinforcement should
not be welded to the base plate to allow the connection to
be made demountable. This concept provides
discontinuous reinforcement at the connections instead of
the continuous reinforcement found in most conventional
connections in composite or concrete framed buildings.

3.2.2 Effects of bolt position

The finite element model developed was utilised to
examine the effects of bolt position on the axial
load-strain curves of column-column connections. Figure
11 shows the column-column connections with two
different bolt positions. The effects of bolt position on the
axial load-strain curves of the connection are illustrated
in Figure 12. It can be observed from Figure 12 that the
initial stiffness of the connection with a centrally bolted
position is less than that of the connection with an end
bolted position. The ultimate tensile strength of the
connection with a centrally bolted position is also lower
than that of the connections with an end bolted position.

3.2 Finite element model

The behaviour of column-column connections
subjected to axial tension is affected by the sleeve plate
length, bolt position and reinforcement ratio. The finite
element model using ABAQUS has been developed to
investigate the effects of these important parameters on
the axial load-strain curves of column-column
connections. The following parameters are held constant
in the present parametric study. A CFST column with a
square cross-section of 250 250 mm was considered.
The thickness of the steel tube was 4 mm so that its
depth-to-thickness ratio was 62.5. The yield and tensile
strengths of the steel tube were 350 MPa and 430 MPa,
respectively while its Youngs modulus was 200 GPa.
Normal strength concrete with a compressive strength of
32 MPa was filled into the steel tube. M20 blind bolts
were utilised for composing the connection. The yield

3.2.3 Effects of reinforcement ratio

The effects of reinforcement ratio on the axial
load-strain curves of the column-column connection with
different reinforcement ratio () were studied by the finite
element model. The column-column connection shown in
Figure 9(a) was utilised to examine the effects of
reinforcement ratio. Figure 13 depicts the effects of
reinforcement ratio () on the axial load-strain curves of
the column-column connections under axial tension. It
can be seen from Figure 13 that the initial axial stiffness
of the demountable connections is slightly affected by the
reinforcement ratio. The initial axial stiffness increases
with an increase in the reinforcement ratio. However, the
ultimate axial strength of the demountable connections
increases with an increase in the reinforcement ratio ().

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The ultimate tensile strength is increased by 9% and 21%,

respectively, when the reinforcement ratio () in the
demountable connection increases from 0.8% to 1.4%
and 2.1%.

Axial tension T (kN)

2500
2000
End position

1500

Central postion

1000
500
0
0

0.005 0.01 0.015 0.02 0.025

Strain

Figure 12. Effects of bolt position on the axial load-strain

curves for column-column connection under axial tension.

Axial tension T (kN)

2500

(a) L = 235 mm
(b) L = 600 mm
(c) L=1200 mm
Figure 9. Column-column connections with different sleeve
length.

= 2.1%
= 1.4%
= 0.8%

2000
1500
1000
500
0

0.01

Axial tension T (kN)

0.02
Strain

2500

0.03

Figure 13. Effects of reinforcement ratio on the axial load-strain

curves for column-column connection under axial tension.

2000
1500

L = 235 mm
L = 600 mm
L = 1200 mm

1000

4 BEAM-SLAB CONNECTORS
4.1 Basic concept

500

Steel-concrete composite beams are heavily utilised

for the construction of high rise steel residential buildings
and bridges. The shear connectors are used for providing
the interaction between the steel beam and the concrete
slab. The slip between the concrete slab and steel beam is
prevented by the shear connectors which are generally
welded to the top flange of a steel beam. The slabs can be
characterised as solid slabs and composite slabs which
use the steel sheeting. Composite slabs with profiled steel
sheeting have a number of advantages over solid slabs.
Rapid construction is obtained with the profiled sheeting
which provides a working platform. This construction
technique allows the structural erection to speed up from
fabrication to installation by speeding up each process
significantly. This technique also reduces the
constructional costs because it completely eliminates the
need for formwork support frames for the concrete. While
profiled composite slabs provide time benefits, they also
provide a safer construction method. Different shear
connectors such as bolted and welded studs can be
utilised for composite beams. The use of bolted shear
connectors instead of headed studs allows composite
steel-concrete beams to be made demountable.
A three-dimensional half model of a composite beam
was developed for the numerical analysis using the
ABAQUS finite element code (ABAQUS version 6.12-1).

0
0

0.005 0.01 0.015 0.02 0.025

Strain

Figure 10. Effects of sleeve length (L) on the axial load-strain

curve for connection under axial tension.

(a) Central position

(b) End position
Figure 11. Column-column connection with different bolt
position.

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Uy et al.

4.4 Material constitutive models

The corresponding finite element model was also

developed for composite beams with headed studs. The
finite element analysis was conducted by utilising the
ABAQUS/Implicit static general procedure. Material
stress-strain relationships, surface-to-surface interactions,
constraints and boundary conditions were assigned to
accurately simulate the push test specimens.

4.4.1 Structural steels

The structural steel generally follows the same
stress-strain curves under tension and compression. The
structural steel has an elastic stress-strain relationship up
to the yield strength which is followed by strain
hardening before failure. A two-stage linear stress-strain
relationship for steel under compression is shown in
Figure 15.

4.2 Geometry, element type and mesh

Steel concrete composite beam with profiled steel
sheeting is illustrated in Figure 14. A concrete slab was
used with a dimension of 600 mm width, 150 mm depth
and 600 mm length. Reinforcing bars of 12 mm diameter
were utilised in the model. The composite beams consist
of four bolts embedded in the concrete slab. Symmetry
for the composite beam is assumed at the centre of the
steel beam web along the longitudinal direction. The
model incorporates a bolted connector with 20 mm
diameter and 128 mm length. The profiled sheeting was 1
mm thick. Both eight node brick (C3D8R) and quadratic
brick elements (C3D20R) were employed to mesh the
shear connectors, slab and beam. A four node doubly
curved thin shell element (S4R) was utilised to model the
steel sheeting. The reinforcing bars were simulated with
two-node linear three dimensional truss elements (T3D2).

4.4.2 Concrete
The material behaviour of concrete in a composite
beam is modeled as an elastic-plastic stress-strain
relationship with strain softening. Figure 16 presents the
stress-strain curve for concrete in a composite beam. The
concrete stress for the stress-strain curve is determined
from the equations proposed by Carreira and Chu (1985)
as

4.3 Interactions, boundary conditions and loading

f c' c'

1 c'
c

(5)

in which c represents the concrete compressive stress, c

is the concrete compressive strain, fc denotes the cylinder
compressive strength of concrete, c is the strain
corresponding to fc and is given by

Surface-to-surface contact between individual

surfaces was created by defining the interaction
relationship. The finite sliding technique was assumed for
the interaction between the slab, bolt, sheeting and beam.
It is also assumed that the surfaces do not penetrate so
these surfaces are constrained by Hard Contact in the
normal direction. A penalty friction formulation was
selected to model the tangential behaviour of the
surface-to-surface contacts. A friction factor of 0.25 was
used in the present finite element model.

f'
c 1.55 (6)
32.4
in which c is taken as 0.002.
The concrete tensile stress varies linearly with the
tensile strain up to concrete cracking. After concrete
cracking, the concrete tensile stress is determined from
the fracture energy (GF) which is proposed by Baant and
Becq-Giraudon (2002)

f'
2
0.5d max 26 c
GF 0.0469d max
10

(7)

in which dmax represents the maximum coarse aggregate

size in mm and it is taken as 20 mm.

4.5 Verification
The finite element model for the composite beam is
verified by comparing the predicted results with
experimental data. The applied load-slip curves obtained
from the finite element model are compared with
experimental results given by Mirza et al. (2010). Figure
17 shows the comparison of the experimental and finite
element applied load-slip curves for a composite beam. It
can be seen from Figure 17 that the applied load-slip

Figure 14. Demountable composite beam with in situ concrete

slab on trapezoidal metal decking.

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700

Applied load (kN)

600
500
400
300
Test (Mirza et al. 2010)

200
100

Finite element model

Figure 15. Stress-strain curve for profiled steel sheeting, bolts,

steel beam and studs.

Slip (mm)

Figure 17. Comparison of experimental and finite element

results (Patel et al. 2015).

Figure 18. Demountable composite beam with bolt connectors

(Patel et al. 2015).

the bolt connection increases linearly up to a load level of

210 kN. The bolt experiences nonlinear stiffness
compared with the welded stud as shown in Figure 19.

Figure 16. Idealised stress-strain curves for concrete in

composite beam.

4.7 Parametric study

curves obtained from the finite element model agree well

with the experimental results. The initial stiffness of the
applied load-slip curves is identical up to the ultimate
load. However, the experimental curve deviates from the
computational results after reaching the ultimate load.

The performance of demountable composite beams is

typically characterised by considering the slip between
the concrete slab and steel beam. The slip can be
determined as the displacement at the steel beam and
concrete slab interface (Kwon et al. 2010). The slip
between the steel beam and the composite slab is due
mainly to the local concrete crushing and shear connector
bending (Viest et al. 1997). The performance of
demountable composite beams is affected by concrete
compressive strengths, steel sheeting thickness and shear
connector positions. It is expensive and time consuming
to experimentally evaluate the effects of every parameter
on the performance of demountable composite beams. In
this case, the finite element analysis treatment provides a
cost effective option for determining the performance of
demountable composite beams. In the present parametric
study, bolt connectors are inserted with a 1 mm clearance
in the oversized holes. Therefore, the initial 1 mm slip
can be observed before the bolt contact with the surface
of the hole.

4.6 Results and discussion

The typical failure mode of the concrete in the
composite beam is depicted in Figure 18. It can be
observed from the figure that the bolt rotates and the
inclination of the embedded nut pushes the concrete. This
results in a prying out force which is responsible for
concrete pull out of the AJAX bolt. Consequently, the
failure mode is concrete failure as the removal of the bolt
begins before yielding of the shank.
Figure 19 illustrates the comparison of applied
load-slip curves for welded stud and bolted connectors. It
can be observed from the figure that a bolt connector
exhibits lower stiffness at serviceability loads compared
with a welded stud. The bolt connector initially
experiences a slip of 1 mm at low loads because the
oversized hole for easily demounting the composite
beams. The bolt connector was simulated to sit on the
steel flange with no pretension, however in practice after
fastening, the bolt would experience some tensile forces
which would result in a higher initial stiffness until full
bearing in the hole is achieved. Once closure in the
bolt-to-hole clearance has been achieved the stiffness of

4.7.1 Effects of concrete compressive strengths

The effects of concrete compressive strengths on the
applied load-slip curves for demountable composite beam
were studied. Figure 20 illustrates the applied load-slip
curves with different concrete compressive strengths. It

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1000

800

800

Applied load (kN)

Applied load (kN)

Uy et al.

600
Bolted connectors

400

Headed connectors

200
0
0

fc'=32 MPa

600

fc'=25 MPa

400
200
0

Slip (mm)

Slip (mm)

Figure 19. Effects of connectors on the load-slip curves for

composite beams (Patel et al. 2015).

Figure 20. Effects of concrete compressive strengths on the

applied load-slip curves for composite beams (Patel et al. 2015).

can be observed from the figure that ultimate strengths of

demountable composite beams increase as the concrete
compressive strengths increase. The initial stiffness of the
composite beams with profiled steel sheeting increases as
the concrete compressive strength increases. Increasing
the concrete compressive strength from 25 MPa to 32
MPa results in an increase of the ultimate strength by
20%.

Applied load (kN)

2000
1600
Solid slab

1200
800

Profiled slab

400
0

4.7.2 Effects of profiled slab and solid slab

10

Slip (mm)

The finite element model is employed to study the

effects of profiled slab and solid slab on the performance
of composite beams. The effect of the profiled slab and
solid slab on the applied load-slip curves for composite
beams is depicted in Figure 21. It can be observed that
both initial stiffness and ultimate strength of the solid slab
are higher than that of the profiled slab.

Figure 21. Effects of slab types on the applied load-slip curves

for demountable composite beams (Patel et al. 2015).

equivalent plastic strain (PEEQ). It was found that the

beam-beam connections can be dismantled until the
coped region maintains its elasticity without any plastic
damage. A design procedure for demountable
column-column connections under axial tension was
discussed. Parametric studies were conducted to examine
the effects of sleeve length, bolt position and
reinforcement ratio on the performance of demountable
column-column connections under axial tension. It was
demonstrated that an increase in the sleeve length and
reinforcement ratio increases the ultimate tensile
strengths of a column-column connection. Finally, a finite
element model was developed for modelling of a
demountable composite beam. The effects of concrete
compressive strength, sheeting thickness and connector
types on the behaviour of a composite beam were
investigated using the developed finite element model. It
was shown that the strength of composite beams
increases with increasing concrete compressive strength
and sheeting thickness. It was also found that using a bolt
connector in a composite beam tends to improve its
performance.

4.7.3 Effects of shear connectors (headed vs bolted)

The effect of shear connectors on the performance of
demountable composite beams is examined by using the
finite element model. Figure 19 shows the effects of shear
connectors on the applied load-slip curves for
demountable composite beams with steel sheeting. It can
be seen from Figure 19 that the use of bolted shear
connectors tends to increase the ultimate strengths of
composite beams. This is due to the fact that the yield
strength of bolted shear connectors is higher than that of
headed studs. It can also be observed from the figure that
the initial 1 mm slip is noted with the use of bolted shear
connectors. This is because the oversized hole
arrangement is initially provided to achieve
demountability in composite beams.

5 CONCLUSIONS
This paper is concerned with the adequacy of
demountable connections used for steel and composite
structures. The finite element analysis of coped beams,
column-column connections and composite beams was
discussed to make the structures demountable. For
beam-beam connections, plastic deformation in the
vicinity of the coped web was characterised using the

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The research described in this paper is financially
supported by the Australian Research Council (ARC)
under its Discovery Scheme (Project No: DP140102134).
The financial support is gratefully acknowledged.

396

Uy et al.

REFERENCES
AS/NZS 1170. 2002. Structural design actions Part 0: General
principles. Standards Australia Limited/Standards New
Zealand.
Baant, Z.P. & Becq-Giraudon, E. 2002. Statistical prediction of
fracture parameters of concrete and implications for choice
of testing standard. Cement and Concrete Research. 32(4):
529-556.
Carreira, D. J. & Chu, K. H. 1985. Stress-strain relationship for
plain concrete in compression. ACI Journal, 82(6): 797-804.
Eurocode 1. 1991. Actions on structures, Part 1.7 Accidental
actions, DDENV 1991-1-7. European Committee for
Standardisation (CEN).
Green Building Council of Australia. 2009a. Green star
overview, April, (URL:www.gbca.org.au).
Green Building Council of Australia. 2009b. Green star steel
credit, September, (URL:www.gbca.org.au), (2010).
Green Building Council of Australia. 2010. Green star concrete
credit, November, (URL:www.gbca.org.au).
Green Building Council of Australia. 2012. Construction &
Demolition Waste Management in Green Star: Discussion
Paper, November, (URL:www.gbca.org.au).
Know, G., Engelhardt, M. D. & Klingner, R. E. 2010. Behavior
of post-installed shear connectors under static and fatigue
loading. Journal of Constructional Steel Research, 66(4):
531-541.
Li, D., Uy, B. & Patel, V. I. 2015. Behaviour of demountable
CFST column-column connections. In Uy B. and Lam D.:
The 2015 International Conference on Steel and Composite
Structures, August 25-29, 2015, Korea.
Mirza, O., Uy, B. and Han, L. 2010. Time-dependent analysis of
composite steel-concrete beams with innovative deep
trapezoidal
decks.
Steel
&
Composite
Structures-Proceedings of the 4th International Conference.
Ng, A. (2009) Design for deconstruction, Design Note No. D6,
One Steel.
OneSteel. 2004. Why is recycling steel not the best option ?,
World Steel Dynamics.
Patel, V. I., Uy, B., Pathirana, S. W., Wood, S., Singh, M. &
Trang, B. T. 2015. Finite element analysis of demountable
composite beams. Steel and Composite Structures, An
International Journal (submitted).
Safework Australia. 2012. Safe design of structures, Code of
Practice, July.
Teutsh, M. 2001. Building in the bible - Biblical buildings,
Concrete Precasting Plant and Technology, 67 (12), 12-21.
Viest, I. M., Colaco, J. P., Furlong, R. W., Griffs, L. G., Leon, R.
T. & Wylie, L. 1997. Composite Construction: Design for
Buildings, McGraw-Hill, New York, United States.

397

11th International Conference on

Advances in Steel and Concrete Composite Structures
Tsinghua University, Beijing, China, December 3-5, 2015

MECHANICAL BEHAVIOR OF END CROSS-GIRDER

COMPOSITE BRIDGE WITH INSPECTION HOLES

IN

E. Yamaguchia & H. Tsujia

a

Department of Civil Engineering, Kyushu Institute of Technology, Kitakyushu, Japan

E-mails: yamaguch@civil.kyutech.ac.jp

ABSTRACT
Keywords:
Composite bridge; End
cross-girder; corrosion;
Inspection hole; Load-carrying
capacity.

The gap between a cross girder located at the end of a main girder in a composite bridge and a
parapet is often so small that inspection for bridge maintenance is very difficult if not
impossible. An expansion joint located at the end of a bridge is one of the most susceptible
elements of the bridge to damage because of the impact loads of vehicles. The damage of the
expansion joint causes water leakage, creating a corrosive environment between the end crossgirder and the parapet. As a result, a severely corroded end cross-girder is found occasionally.
The end cross-girder plays an important role for bridge safety under seismic loading: in fact,
bridges without end cross-girders had been constructed in Chile and many of them were badly
damaged in the 2010 Chile Earthquake. Therefore, the prevention of the end cross-girder
against corrosion is considered one of the most important issues for the maintenance of a
composite bridge. Against the background of the above information, the present study aims at
improving the inspectability of an end cross-girder. Inspection holes are set up in the web of
the end cross-girder to that end. Various models of inspection holes are considered. The
influence of the holes on the load-carrying capacity under horizontal load that represents
seismic load is then studied by the nonlinear finite element analysis. It is found that the size,
the shape and the location influence load-carrying capacity. Reinforcement methods for making
up for the reduction of load-carrying capacity are also investigated at the end.

1 INTRODUCTION
The gap between a cross girder located at the end of a
main girder in a composite bridge and a parapet is often so
small that inspection of the end cross-girder for bridge
maintenance is very difficult if not impossible. An
example of such a bridge is shown in Figure 1. An
expansion joint located at the end of a bridge is one of the
most susceptible elements of the bridge to damage because
of the impact loads of vehicles. The damage of the
expansion joint causes water leakage, creating a corrosive
environment between the end cross-girder and the parapet.
As a result, a severely corroded end cross-girder is found
occasionally (Fig. 2). Corrosion leads to the reduction of
load-carrying capacity (Yamaguchi et al. 2014), which is
reviewed briefly later in this paper.
The end cross-girder plays an important role for bridge
safety under seismic loading (Japan Road Association
2012b). In fact, bridges without end cross-girders had been
constructed in Chile and many of them were badly
damaged in the 2010 Chile Earthquake (Chen et al. 2010).
Therefore, the prevention of the end cross-girder against
corrosion is one of the most important issues for the

Figure 1. Steel bridge with little gap between main-girder end

and parapet.

maintenance of a steel bridge in a seismic zone such as

Japan.
Against the background of the above information, the
present study aims at improving the inspectability of an
end cross-girder. Inspection holes are set up in the web of
the end cross-girder to that end. Various models of

398

Yamaguchi et al.

400
a
600
b

(a) Model A

Figure 2. Corroded end cross-girder.

400

17

600
b

1450

1700

(b) Model B
Figure 4. Inspection-hole models.

29
349

2210

cross-girder. The book intends to provide a standard design

procedure so that the girder is a typical one. The material
properties of Young's modulus E, Poisson's ratio and the
yield stress Y for the steel of the girder are 2.0105
N/mm2, 0.3, 235 N/mm2, respectively. The uniaxial
material behavior of steel is of bilinear type with the
second slope of E/100.
The load-carrying capacity of an end cross-girder
under seismic loading is of much interest, as the end crossgirder is expected to resist earthquake. To this end, static
horizontally-distributed load is applied to the upper flange,
as indicated by the arrows in Figure 3 (a), in order to
investigate basic characteristics of the mechanical
behavior of the end cross-girder. The load represents an
inertia force associated with the concrete slab.

170 9 170

(a) Side view

10

290
9

1450
9
9
290

10
220

(b) Cross section

Figure 3. End cross-girder model (unit: mm).

2.2 Inspection hole

inspection holes are constructed and their influences on the

load-carrying capacity under horizontal load that
represents seismic load are studied numerically.
Reinforcements for making up for the reduction of the
load-carrying capacity due to the inspection holes are then
investigated.

According to Nakai et al. (1996), the most common

size of a manhole is 400 mm wide and 600 mm high: more
than 95% of the manholes in existing bridges have this size
in Japan. The widely used shapes are two types: a rectangle
plus two half circles and a rectangle with rounded corners.
The investigation has revealed that 62% of the manholes
are of the former and the remaining 32% are of the latter.
Referring to those practices, two inspection-hole
models are constructed in the present study. They are
presented in Figure 4. The radius of each circle of Model
A is 200 mm while the radius of each corner of Model B
is 100 mm. As Figure 4 indicates, each model has two
inspection holes located symmetrically with respect to the
transverse stiffener at the center.

2 ANALYSIS MODEL
2.1 End cross-girder
Referring to a composite bridge model employed in the
book by Japan Bridge Association (2005), the end crossgirder model shown in Figure 3 is employed for the present
investigation. The end cross-girder model includes part of
the main girder, 100 mm long on each side of the end

399

Yamaguchi et al.

Y
Y

0.3Y

0.3Y

WEB

LONGITUDINAL
STIFFENER

LONGITUDINAL
STIFFENER

Figure 6. Corrosion model.

to this end is found by a trial-and-error method.

The end cross-girder is simply supported. Moreover, in
the bridge, the upper flange of the end cross-girder is
connected to the concrete slab, which restricts the torsional
rotation and the lateral displacement normal to the girder
axis of the upper flange. Therefore, in the present girder
model the constraints are imposed on the upper flange of
the end cross-girder so that the upper flange does not rotate
torsionally and does not cause out-of-plane displacement.

Figure 5. Residual stress distribution.

Nine different inspection-hole locations are taken into

account for each of Models A and B, combining the
horizontal position a = 25, 350, 675 mm and the vertical
position b = 25, 135, 245 mm. The values of a and b herein
are used also to identify an end cross-girder model with
inspection holes in such a way that for example, A25135
is the end cross-girder model with the inspection holes of
Model A with a = 25 mm and b = 135 mm. Including the
end cross-girder model with no holes, therefore, 19 end
cross-girder models are to be dealt with.

4 REDUCTION IN LOAD-CARRYING
CAPACITY DUE TO HOLES
The influence of corrosion on the load-carrying
capacity of an end cross-girder under horizontallydistributed load was investigated previously (Yamaguchi
et al. 2014). The same end cross-girder model as that
employed in the present study has been used. The load, the
boundary conditions and the analysis procedure were also
the same. Out of various corrosion models, the one
developed in a triangular region and located at the bottom
corner of the web (Fig. 6) is found most influential. When
h/h0 (h0: the web height) is 75% and the thickness loss of
the web plate is 2/3 of the original thickness, the reduction
in the load-carrying capacity becomes about 28% of the
original capacity. While the intact end cross-girder
develops two clear tension diagonal fields, the presence of
the corrosion alters the deformed configuration (Fig. 7).
The corrosion development that causes holes in the web
(Fig. 2) is likely to have an even larger influence.
Corrosion should be prevented therefore for the safety of a
steel bridge. The inspection holes should be of much help
to that end.
The influence of the inspection holes on the loadcarrying capacity evaluated by the nonlinear finite element
analysis is presented in Table 1, in which P0 is the loadcarrying capacity of the cross girder with no holes.
The reduction of the load-carrying capacity is clearly
observed. As for Model A, the load-carrying capacity
varies from 58% to 77%. The value of a is found more
influential in the load-carrying capacity than the value of
b. Figure 8 shows the contours of the out-of-plane
displacement. The diagonal tension fields are formed, but

3 ANALYSIS PROCEDURE
The load-carrying capacity of each end cross-girder
model is evaluated by the nonlinear finite element analysis
with material and geometrical nonlinearities. Initial
imperfections of the steel girder can influence the loadcarrying capacity. Initial imperfections are therefore taken
into account: the effects of initial deformation and residual
stress are included in the analysis. All the analyses are
conducted by ABAQUS (2008). 4-node shell elements are
employed to model the whole structures.
To find the relevant initial deformation, the eigenvalue
analysis is conducted first to obtain buckling modes. The
initial deformation mode is made identical to the mode of
the smallest buckling strength. The initial deformation is
then constructed so as to have the maximum displacement
within the range of the fabrication tolerance specified in
Japanese Specifications for Highway Bridges Part 2 Steel
Bridges (Japan Road Association 2012a).
Referring to residual stress distributions given in the
literature by Usami (2005), the distribution shown in
Figure 5 is employed in the present analyses. Since the
residual stress distribution is in a state of self-equilibrium,
the residual stress is given to the analysis model by
conducting thermal stress analysis. The analysis is done by
assuming temperature distribution so as to insert the stress
distribution desired. The relevant temperature distribution

400

Yamaguchi et al.

(a) No corrosion

(a) A2525

(b) With corrosion

Figure 7. Contours of out-of-displacement (Model A).

(b) A35025

Table 1.

Influence of inspection holes.

Model
A25245
A25135
A2525
A350245
A350135
A35025
A675245
A675135
A67525

Pmax/P0
0.76
0.77
0.77
0.66
0.65
0.66
0.60
0.58
0.58

Model
B25245
B25135
B2525
B350245
B350135
B35025
B675245
B675135
B67525

Pmax/P0
0.72
0.72
0.72
0.62
0.60
0.64
0.55
0.55
0.54

(c) A67525
Figure 8. Contours of out-of-displacement (Model A).

5 REINFORCEMENT
To counter the reduction of the load-carrying capacity,
the end cross-girder with the inspection holes need to be
reinforced. For the reinforcement of a manhole, three
remedies are employed in practice in Japan: the attachment
of a steel plate, the attachment of additional stiffeners and
the combination of the two. The first one is usually called
simply "doubling" and so is it in this paper. These remedies
are used for the reinforcement of the optimum holes,
A2525 and B2525. The size of the plate of the doubling is
twice of the hole size (Fig. 9). The locations of the
additional transverse stiffeners are right next to the hole
(Fig. 10).
To be specific, six reinforcements of ReA-ReF are
tested for A2525. The thickness of the doubling plate and
the size of the transverse stiffener are presented in Table 2.
It is noted that the thinner plate (ReA, ReE) and the smaller
stiffener (ReC, ReE) are standard for the reinforcement of
a manhole.

the deformation mode depends largely on the locations of

the inspection holes. The out-of-plane displacement
appears to be suppressed by the main girders when the
value of a is small: the main girders play a role of a
transvers stiffener and the reduction of the load-carrying
capacity is mitigated.
The reduction of the load-carrying capacity is slightly
greater in case of Model B. This is attributable to the
difference in the area of the inspection hole. Otherwise, the
same tendency as that of Model A regarding the influence
of the inspection hole is observed.
The least influential inspection-holes turn out to be
A2525 for Model A and B2525 for Model B. Although the
reduction in the load-carrying capacity is smaller for
A2525, B2525 can be considered a good choice as well,
since the difference in the capacity between the two is not
so significant and the area of the inspection hole in B2525
is larger, implying better inspectability.

401

Yamaguchi et al.

Table 2. Reinforcement.

800
400

ReA
ReB
ReC
ReD
ReE
ReF

600

1200

Model

Method
Doubling
Stiffener
Combination

Stiffener
Thickness
18
27
18
27

Width
100
100
100
100

Table 3. Effectiveness of reinforcement.

(a) Model A
800

Model

400

No reinforcement
ReA
ReB
ReC
ReD
ReE
ReF

600

1200

Doubling
Thickness
9 mm
18
9
18

(b) Model B
Figure 9. Doubling plates.

Pmax / P0
A2525
0.77
0.98
0.98
0.87
0.87
0.99
0.99

B2525
0.72
0.90
0.79
1.00
-

6 CONCLUDING REMARKS
While holes in the web of an end cross-girder improve
the ispectability, they would reduce the load-carrying
capacity under horizontal load. By the present inspectionhole models, the capacity could reduce to as low as 54%.
The reduction dependeds on the location of the hole. The
least influential inspection hole turned out to be the one
located close to the main girder and to the lower
longitudinal stiffener. Yet more than 20% of the capacity
reduction has to be expected.
The reinforcement to recover the load-carrying
capacity was then investigated. The doubling was found
more effective than the stiffener, and the standard
reinforcement used for a manhole was sufficient. The full
recovery of the load-carrying capacity could be achieved
by setting up the inspection holes in optimum positions
together with appropriate reinforcement.
The present study concludes that the end cross-girder
with inspection holes is recommended. Needless to say, it
improves inspectability, yet it can possess sufficient
resistance to seismic loading.

Figure 10. Additional transverse stiffeners.

The effectiveness of the reinforcement is evaluated by

the nonlinear finite element analysis. The results are given
in Table 3. The doubling is found more effective than the
stiffener, and the smaller reinforcement is sufficient, as the
thicker doubling plate and the larger transverse stiffeners
make little difference. Almost full recovery of the loadcarrying capacity is achieved by the doubling and the
combination of the two reinforcements.
Based on the results of A2525, three reinforcements of
ReA, ReC and ReE are tried for B2525. The results are
given in Table 3. The improvement by ReC is not
significant also for B2525. On the other hand, the loadcarrying capacity is fully recovered by ReE, and the B2525
with ReA achieves 90% recovery, which is possibly good
enough in many practical cases.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The financial support for the present study, Grant-inAid for Scientific Research (C) (KAKENHI, No.
23560570), is gratefully acknowledged.
REFERENCES
ABAQUS 2008. User's Manual, ABAQUS Ver. 6.8. Dassault
Systemes Simulia Corp.
Chen, G., Yen, P.W., Buckle, I., Allen, T., Alzamora, D., Ger, J.
& Arias, J.G. 2010. Chile Earthquake implications to the

402

Yamaguchi et al.
seismic design of bridges. Proceedings of the 26th US-Japan
Bridge Engineering Workshop: 203-216.
Japan Bridge Association 2005. Design Example and
Commentary of Composite girder.
Japan Road Association 2012a. Specifications for Highway
Bridges Part 2 Steel Bridges. Maruzen, Tokyo.
Japan Road Association 2012b. Specifications for Highway
Bridges Part 5 Seismic Design. Maruzen, Tokyo.
Nakai, H., Horie, Y., Kitada, T., Iwai, K. & Suzuki, I. 1996.
Investigation of stiffened plates with opening under
compression. Bridge and Foundation 30 (9): 31-38.
Usami, T. (Editor) 2005. Guidelines for Stability Design of Steel
Structures (2nd ed.). JSCE, Tokyo.
Yamaguchi, E., Akagi, T. & Tsuji, H. 2014. Influence of
corrosion on load-carrying capacities of steel I-section maingirder end and steel end cross-girder. International Journal
of Steel Structures 14 (4): 831-841.

403

11th International Conference on

Advances in Steel and Concrete Composite Structures
Tsinghua University, Beijing, China, December 3-5, 2015

EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATION ON CYCLIC BEHAVIOR OF

STIFFENED JOINTS BETWEEN CONCRETE FILLED STEEL
TUBULAR COLUMN AND STEEL BEAM WITH NARROW
OUTER DIAPHRAGM AND PARTIAL JOINT PENETRATION
WELDS
C.Y. Quana,b , W. Wanga,b , J. Zhouc, R. Wangc & F. Wangd
a

State Key Laboratory of Disaster Reduction in Civil Engineering, Tongji University, China

Department of Structural Engineering, Tongji University, China

East China Architectural Design & Research, Shanghai, China

China Construction Eighth Engineering Division Corp. Ltd., Shanghai, China

E-mails: chunyanquan_tongji@163.com, weiwang@tongji.edu.cn, zj0466@ecadi.com, wr0802@ecadi.com.
ABSTRACT

Keywords:
Narrow outer diaphragm;
Concrete filled tubular column;
Joint; Inner and outer stiffening;
Failure mode; Cyclic behavior.

This paper chose a stiffened joint in practical engineering which was between concrete filled
steel tubular column and steel beam with narrow outer diaphragm and partial joint penetration
welds as the research object. Through the low-frequency cyclic loading test, the cyclic behavior
and failure mode of the specimen can be investigated. The results of the test indicate that the
failure mode and bearing capacity of the specimen were greatly influenced by the axial
compression ratio of the concrete filled tubular column. There was no hysteresis damage
fracture on the narrow outer diaphragm connected to the concrete filled steel tubular column
with partial joint penetration welds. Because of good ductility and energy dissipating capacity,
this kind of joint can be applied to the seismic design of high-rise buildings in high intensive
seismic region, but high axial compression ratio should be controlled to avoid unfavorable
failure mode.

2004) and Technical specification for structures with

concrete-filled steel tube (DBJ13-51-2003) specify design
formulas and structural measures for steel beam to
concrete filled steel tube with regular sized outer
diaphragm. But sometimes in practical engineering, due
to the limitation of wall thickness and edge distance of
concrete filled steel tubular column, narrow outer
diaphragm is usually adopted, and the weld between the
outer diaphragm and column face cannot be fully
penetrated. This kind of connection is unconventional.
There is no further study about its mechanical properties
and failure modes. Shim et al.(1995), Fujimoto et
al.(2000), Li, et al.(2009), and Shin, et al.(2008)
investigated seismic performance of regular sized outer
diaphragm, but there has been a lack of researches on the
influence on mechanical properties of joint with narrow
outer diaphragm.
Therefore, as for this special kind of joints, reasonable
understanding of mechanical properties of each
component in the structural system, experimental study
and theoretical analysis are very necessary. In view of
this, this article selects a joint between concrete filled

1 INTRODUCTION
Researches on steel-concrete composite structure are
prevalent in China and abroad. Mainly because people
realize that steel-concrete composite structure has
excellent seismic performance. It is more suitable for
application in long-span bridges or high-rise buildings.
For example, US and some west European countries,
such as Germany and UK, mainly study concrete filled
circular or square tube and composite structure with
encased steel. However, the study on stiffened joints
between concrete filled steel tubular column and steel
beam with narrow outer diaphragm is few.
As for this kind of joints, the connection with outer
diaphragm or interior diaphragm is often used.
Experimental results show that the connection with outer
diaphragm is more reasonable, because force
transmission is clear, stress distribution of joint region is
homogeneous and it is easy to be constructed. It has big
stiffness, good plasticity, and high bearing capacity
(Choi, et. al, 1995). Technical specification for structures
with concrete-filled rectangular steel tube (CECS154:

404

Quan et al.

prototype and specimen are shown in Table 1, details of

specimen are shown in Fig. 1. Concrete in the tube was
proposed to use C80, and steel was Q345C. dctc are
diameter and thickness of column; hb bbtwtf are
height, width, web thickness, and flange thickness of steel
beam; hobbobtowtof are height, width, web thickness,
and flange thickness of steel beam at the place of outer
diaphragm; tif is thickness of interior diaphragm; and tstt is
thickness of vertical stiffening rib. The specimen is a
cross-shaped joint. It is composed of 3.47-meter-high
column and 4.5-meter-span deep beam. The special part
of this joint is that, in practical project, due to the
limitation of wall thickness and edge distance of column,
the diameter of the column is 1200mm, but the width of
outer diaphragm is only 200mm. It is less than the width
calculated by relevant rules, so it is a special joint with
narrow outer diaphragm. Moreover, the thickness of tube
is only 30mm, but the thickness of the ring is 80mm, so
the weld at the connection cannot be fully penetrated.
According to the above two points, this joint is
unconventional, and the experimental investigation on its
cyclic performance is necessary.

steel tubular column and steel beam with narrow outer

diaphragm and partial joint penetration welds in a
practical project as the research object. Scale model
experiment is tested. Cyclic performances under cycle
loads are investigated.

2 EXPERIMENTAL PROGRAMME
2.1 Design of test specimens
Table 1.

Dimension of the specimen

Section
Prototype
Circular tube column
120030
(dctc)
H950600
H-section steel beam
2580
(hbbbtwtf)
H-section steel beam
H9501075
at outer diaphragm
2580
(hobbobtowtof)
Thickness of
60
interior diaphragm (tif)
Thickness of
80
outer diaphragm (tof)
Thickness of
25
vertical stiffening rib (tstt)

Specimen
48012
H380240
1032
H380410
1032
24
32

2.2 Material test

10

The results of steel material test are shown in Table 2.

Tested steel specimens have obvious yield platform, and
the elongations of most of them are about 20%, and their
strength-yield ratios are all greater than 1.30. Concrete
samples are standard cubes, and their average strength is
about 64 MPa.

Column end
Column
48012

13

Outer diaphragm

Table 2.
E

Material properties of steel

fyb
ta
fuc
Sample
(mm) (MPa) (MPa)

W
H-beam3802401032

Column
Beam flange
Inner diaphragm
Outer diaphragm
Beam web
Outer diaphragm
t=32 S
Inner diaphragm
t=24
full penetration
weld

Fig. 1. Details of specimen

12
32
24
32
10

455
4409
438
435
364

621
607
588
591
523

t: Thickness of plates.

fy: Yield strength.

fu: Ultimate strength.

U/Y: Ratio of ultimate strength to yield strength.

: Elongation.

U/Yd

e
(%)

1.37
1.38
1.34
1.36
1.44

22
21
20

32

2.3 Test setup and loading

This test selects a joint between concrete filled steel

tubular column and steel beam with narrow outer
diaphragm and partial joint penetration welds in a
practical project as the research object. Because the
horizontal space under laboratory testing machine is too
short, according to the similarity theory, 1:2.5
reduced-scale model was designed. Dimensions of

An overall view of typical test setup is shown in Fig.

2. Boundary conditions of top and bottom of the column
and beam end were hinge joints. In order to prevent the
lateral buckling, two out-of-plane braces should be set. At
the top of the column, there was a vertical actuator to
provide constant pressure 160kN (axial compression ratio
was about 0.01). The specimen was loaded by

405

Quan et al.

synchronous controlling antisymmetric displacement of

beam end. The specimen was tested pseudostatically
according to the AISC cyclic loading protocol
(ANSI/AISC 341-10). The amplitudes of relative drift
angle were 0.375% (3 circles), 0.5% (3 circles), 0.75% (3
circles), 1% (3 circles), 1.5% (2 circles), 2% (2 circles),
3% (2 circles) and so on. The specimen was equipped
with displacement transducers and strain gauges to
measure
deformation
contributions
and
strain
distributions at critical points.

(a) crack of column wall below the bottom outer diaphragm

Reaction frame

Horizontal
actuator

Hinge at top
of column

Horizontal
brace
Column
H-beam

Actuator
Horizontal
brace

(b) crack of column wall above the top outer diaphragm

Hinge at bottom
of column

Fig. 2. Test setup

3 EXPERIMENTAL PHENOMENA
After applied the axial pressure 160kN, the specimen
did not appear obvious deformation. In each cycle, the
east actuator went up first, then the sign was plus, and in
the opposite direction, the sign was minus. Below the
bottom outer diaphragm, in the first cycle at 0.75% rad,
east of tube column wall yielded, and in the first cycle at
1% rad, west of tube column wall yielded. Above the top
outer diaphragm, in the first cycle at -1% rad, east and
west of tube column wall yielded, and at the same time,
west of top outer diaphragm near the column yielded. In
the first cycle at 2% rad, west of top outer diaphragm
near the beam yielded, and at -2% rad, east of top outer
diaphragm near the beam and west of bottom outer
diaphragm near the beam yielded. In the first cycle at -3%
rad, east of bottom outer diaphragm near the beam
yielded. In the first cycle at 5% rad, south of tube column
wall above the outer diaphragm yielded. In the first cycle
at -6% rad, total cross-section of steel tube column
yielded, and the tube column wall failed in a brittle
manner, with a crack at west of column wall below the
bottom outer diaphragm, and then the load of west
actuator decreased. In the second cycle at -6% rad, half of
the cross-section of the tube column wall below the outer
diaphragm cracked, meantime east of the tube column
wall above the top outer diaphragm cracked, and then the
test was stopped.

(c) buckling of vertical stiffening rib

Fig. 3. Failure mode of the specimen

The failure mode of test specimen is shown in Fig. 3.

The tube column wall near the outer diaphragm cracked,
and the local buckling of vertical stiffening rib also can
be seen. During the test, the tube column wall near the
outer diaphragm yielded first, and two ranks later outer
diaphragms near the beam yielded. Besides, outer
diaphragms near the beam also entered into plastic early
and dissipated energy together. Because the axial
compression ratio was too small (about 0.01), the tube
column wall failed in yielding by tension, and this was
confirmed by the results of finite element analysis. By
means of the finite element analysis, when the axial
compression ratio increased (to about 0.5), the failure
mode changed into column wall buckling by
compression.

406

Quan et al.

4 RESULTS

from this curve. In Fig. 5, Mp (1267 kNm) means full

plastic moment of beam end calculated with results of
material test. When the hysteretic curve does not maintain
straight, closed area is the dissipated energy through the
plastic deformation of joint region. In the cycle at 1%
rad, the curve of east beam end moment-rotation was no
longer a straight line, and formed a closed hysteretic loop.
It indicates that at this loading rank, the joint region
began to dissipate energy through the plastic deformation.
The maximum story drift was 6% rad, while the
maximum bending moment did not reach Mp.

4.1 Cyclic behavior

900

Load, PE (kN)

600
300

east actuator

Pub
Puc

-300

-900
-150 -100 -50
0
50 100
Displacement, E (mm)

900

Load, PW (kN)

600
300

west actuator

Puc
Pub

4.2 Shear deformation of joint region

150

1.5
Relative shear force, V/Vy

-600

Pub
Puc

-600
-900
-150 -100 -50
0
50 100
Displacement, W (mm)

Puc
Pub

Relative moment, Mb/Mp

-1

-1.5
-0.08

150

-0.04
0
0.04
Rotation, (rad)

deformation

Pc
east beam

0.5

P
P

P
P
Pc

-0.5
-1
-0.08

0.08

Fig. 6. Relative shearing force of panel zone versus shear

Fig. 4. Loading-displacement hysteretic curves of actuator

Relative moment, Mb/Mp

0.5

-0.5

-300

joint region

-0.04
0
0.04
Rotation, (rad)

(a) deformation caused by

(b) deformation caused by

bending of beam, b

bending of column, c

0.08

west beam

s
P

0.5

-0.5
-1
-0.08

-0.04
0
0.04
Rotation, (rad)

(c) deformation caused by

(d) deformation caused by

shear of joint region, s

rigid body rotation, r

Fig. 7. Composition of measured beam-end displacement

0.08

Fig. 5. Relative moment of beam end versus story drift curves

The curve of joint region shearing force-shear

deformation was plumper. In Fig. 6, Vy means theoretical
value of shear capacity of this kind of joint calculated
with results of material test and by formulas from the
article (Qin, 2009). As seen in Fig. 6, the negative
amplitude of shear angle of joint region was close to the
negative amplitude of story drift -6% rad. This illustrates

Loading-displacement hysteretic curve of actuator are

shown in Fig. 4. The curve appeared antisymmetric till
the end. The moment-rotation relationship obtained from
the test is presented in Fig. 5, and the time when the
specimen began plastic energy dissipation can be seen
407

Quan et al.

can be used, where u is the ultimate displacement of

specimen, and y is the yield displacement.

that in the composition of story drift, the shear angle of

joint region took up a big percentage. The positive
amplitude of this curve was less than the negative
amplitude. And they differed bigger for the following
reasons. As seen in Fig. 7, the measured beam-end
displacement was comprised of the following four parts:
(1) the deformation caused by the bending of beam b; (2)
the deformation caused by the bending of column c; (3)
the deformation caused by shear of joint region s; (4) the
deformation caused by rigid body rotation r. As seen in
Fig.2, there was a horizontal brace connected to the
reaction frame at the east side of the top of column. When
the east actuator moved up, namely the sign of the story
drift plus, the horizontal brace at top of the column was in
tension, so the displacement of the top of column was
larger than in the negative direction of loading. That led
to the increase of beam-end displacement caused by rigid
body rotation r, in other words, the proportion of the
shear angle of joint region in total story drift decreased,
and also the residual shear plastic deformation after
unloading. From the loading level of joint region
producing shear plastic deformation, to the displacement
of actuator unloading to 0, residual shear deformation
must existed. With the increase of loading level, the
contribution of residual shear deformation to the
asymmetry of total shear deformation sent up. With the
loading loops constantly accumulated, ultimately the
measured shear angle presented obvious asymmetric. In
addition, the west of tube column wall below the outer
diaphragm cracking first also can affect the asymmetry of
curve.

u
y

At present, there are no universal standards for

determining the ultimate displacement and yield
displacement. More commonly used are graphic method,
energy method, two-tangent method and so on. The
principle of the method used in this paper was shown in
Fig. 8. Take the secant stiffness of a line from the origin
of the curve to the point corresponding to one third of the
ultimate bearing capacity as the elastic stiffness. Draw a
horizontal line through the point corresponding to one
third of the ultimate bearing capacity and name the
intersection of this line and the loading-displacement
curve point A. Draw a slash OA through the origin, and
extend it to intersect with the horizontal line, which
passes the point of ultimate bearing capacity, then get the
intersection point C. Draw a vertical line through the
point C, and the intersection of it and curve is point B,
namely equivalent yield point. Take the displacement
corresponding to the loading decreased to 85% ultimate
loading in the curve as the ultimate displacement u.
While if the loading reduces, but not decreases to 85%
ultimate loading, take the displacement of termination
point of test as the ultimate displacement.
1.2

P
C

P1 u
Pc (kN)

0.85Pu
0.8
Py

4.3 Bearing capacity

In Fig. 4, Puc (593 kN) means theoretical value of the
actuator loading when the column became full plastic,
and Pub (760 kN) means theoretical value of the actuator
loading when the beam became full plastic. When the
tube column wall below the bottom outer diaphragm
cracked, the bearing capacity of this joint dropped a little
and the crack developed slowly. Loaded for some time,
until the crack went through most of the tube column
wall, the loading of actuator dropped significantly. At
that time, the crack was unstable, and it meant the failure
of the specimen. During the process, the maximum
loading of actuator was 682.5 kN, more than Puc, the
theoretical value of actuator loading when the column
became full plastic.

D
E

0.6
0.4

Pu/3

0.2
0

O0

0.5
y

1p

u1.5

Fig. 8. Diagram of defining the ultimate displacement and the

yield displacement

Relative load, P/Py

1.5

4.4 Ductility
Among the seismic performances of structures,
ductility is a very important property. The ductility of
structural elements or joints is often presented by
ductility coefficient. The higher the ductility coefficient
is, the better the ductility is. As for the calculation of
displacement ductility coefficient, the following formula

1
0.5
0
-0.5
-1
-1.5
-0.08

-0.04
0
0.04
Rotation, (rad)

Fig. 9. Skeleton curve

Table 3. Behavior index of the specimen

408

0.08

Quan et al.
direction
plus
minus

Pu
(kN)
677.8
682.5

y
(mm)
45.9
46.5

u
(mm)
129.6
133.4

2.82
2.87

max
(rad)
0.0576
0.0593

(rad)

among the beam-end loading and displacement curves

was chosen to calculate the equivalent viscous damping
coefficient and energy dissipation coefficient. The
hysteresis loop was shown in Fig. 11, and the values
calculated was shown in Table 4. Equivalent viscous
damping coefficient was 0.352, and energy dissipation
coefficient was 2.21.

0.0585

The curve of beam-end loading and story drift was

used to analyze the ductility of the specimen in this paper.
Skeleton curve is the ligature through peak point in the
first of all cycles at every loading level. Skeleton curve
was shown in Fig. 9, and ductility coefficient was shown
in Table 3. From the skeleton curve, the ductility
coefficient of specimen was close to 3, and the maximum
of story drift was 5.85% rad. In the AISC seismic
provisions, there are limitations of structural story drift
against the seismic force. When the moment of beam end
decreases to 80% of full plastic moment of beam end, the
story drift must be no less than 40% rad. As seen in Fig.
5, the ductility of specimen satisfied the requirements of
the code.

Load, PE (kN)

800

-400

-50
50
Displacement, (mm)

150

Fig. 11. Hysteresis loop when beam-end loading reaching the

ultimate bearing capacity

As seen in the macro experimental phenomena, the

deformation of joint region made up the large proportion
of story drift. This indicates that the joint region exhibited
strengths of the capacity of shear plastic dissipation.
Besides, the joint released energy by cracking on the
surface of column, and the intrinsic plasticity of material
was brought into fully realized. During the analysis of
seismic, equivalent viscous damping coefficient he and
energy dissipation coefficient Ce are often used to judge
the capacity of energy dissipation. Equivalent viscous
damping coefficient and energy dissipation coefficient
was shown in Fig. 10. The calculation method is as
follows.

1 S ABC CDA
2 S OBE ODF

Ce

-800
-150

4.5 Energy dissipation

he

400

Table 4. Equivalent viscous damping coefficients and energy

dissipation coefficients
S(ABC+CDA)
(kNmm)
1.63E+05

Ce

7.38E+04

0.352

2.21

By reference to Specificating of Testing Methods for

Earthquake Resistant Building, the strength degradation
coefficient on same loading level li or global strength
degradation coefficient lj are available to present the
strength degradation. li equals to the ratio of peak loading
in every cycle on the same loading level to the peak
loading in first cycle of corresponding loading level. lj
reflects the decreasing degree of global strength of the
specimen with increasing displacement, and it equals to
the ratio of peak loading on every loading level Pi to the
ultimate loading of the specimen Pmax. The change of
strength degradation coefficient on same loading level li
and global strength degradation coefficient lj with
changing displacement (/y) were shown in Fig. 12. It
indicates that after the specimen yielded, the strength
degradation on same loading level was not obvious, even
increased slightly sometimes. In the global strength
degradation curve, after the specimen yielded, the curve
still maintained longer horizontal interval length, and not
lost bearing capacity quickly. Even if the specimen
reached the failure load, it can still bear loads. The global
strength degradation trend of the specimen was flat, and it
shows that the ductility of the specimen in yielding and
failure stage was good.

(3)

S OBEODF

he

4.6 Degradation of strength and stiffness

(2)

S ABCCDA

S(OBE+ODF)
(kNmm)

P(V)

()

Fig. 10. Diagram of equivalent viscous damping coefficients

and energy dissipation coefficients

The hysteresis loop through ultimate bearing capacity

409

Quan et al.

Ki

Pi Pi

Stiffness degradation, Ki/K1

Stiffness can reflect the capacity of resisting

deformation. In elastic stage, the deformation is
recoverable without any residual deformation. In plastic
stage, the specimen presents nonlinear deformation, and
the stiffness will decrease with increasing displacement.
The phenomenon is called stiffness degradation. As for
the quantitative analysis of stiffness degradation, there
are many methods. Because when the specimen failed, it
produced obvious plastic deformation, and cannot recover
completely, it was reasonable to choose secant stiffness to
reflect the stiffness degradation in this paper (Wen &
Zeng, 2010 & Ichinohe, 1991). The calculation of
stiffness degradation of the specimen is as follows.

Strength degradation, li

1
0.5
0
-0.5
-1
-1.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
Displacement, /y

(a) strength degradation on same loading level

1.5

Strength degradation, lj

0.6
0.4
0.2
0
0

0.5

1
1.5
2
2.5
Displacement, /y

In this paper, the results of test on stiffened joint

between concrete filled steel tubular column and steel
beam with narrow outer diaphragm and partial joint
penetration welds were reported. The main conclusions
are as follows.
1. The main deformation features and failure modes
were: 1) shear plastic deformation of joint region; 2)
crack at heat-affected zone between the tube column
wall and the outer diaphragm; 3) buckling of vertical
stiffening rib; 4) buckling of the column wall beyond
the welds between the tube column and outer
diaphragm.
2. There was no hysteresis damage fracture on the
narrow outer diaphragm connected to the concrete
filled steel tubular column with partial joint
penetration welds.
3. With different axial compression ratio of the column,
the failure mode of the specimen was different too.
When the axial compression ratio increased, the
bearing capacity of joint would decreased.
4. Sometimes in practical engineering, due to the
limitation of wall thickness and edge distance of
concrete filled steel tubular column, narrow outer
diaphragm and partial joint penetration welds can be
used. This kind of joint can be applied to the seismic
design of high-rise buildings in high intensive
seismic region, but high axial compression ratio
should be controlled to avoid unfavorable failure
mode.

1.5

0.5

0.8

5 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

where Pi and -Pi are the peak loading in the ith time of
cyclic loading respectively, i and -i are corresponding
displacements. As seen in Fig. 13, take the ratio of
stiffness value in every cycle Ki to the stiffness value in
the first cycle K1 as y axis, and take /y as x axis, and
finish the curve. It can be seen that the stiffness of the
specimen went downward with increasing displacement.
The reason was the development of plastic deformation
after the joint yielded can lead to cumulative damage
(Tang, 2010), but the degradation was slow, which means
good seismic capacity.

Fig. 13. Stiffness degradation curve

i i

1.2

1
0.5

REFERENCES

[1] ANSI/AISC 341-10. Seismic Provisions for Structural Steel

Buildings.
[2] Choi, S.M., Shin, I.B., Eom, C.H., Kim, D.K. & Kim, D.J.
1995. ElastoPlastic behavior of the beam to concrete
filled circular steel column connections with external
stiffener rings In Building For The 21 st Century, Australia:
Griffith University Gold Coast CamPus.
[3] Fujimoto, T., et. al. 2000. Behavior of beam-to-column
connection of CFT column system In 12 Wcee 2000: 12th
World Conference on Earthquake Engineering. New
Zealand: New Zealand National Society for Earthquake
Engineering.
[4] Ichinohe, Y., Matsutani, T., Nakajima, M. 1991.

-0.5
-1
-1.5
0

0.5

1
1.5
2
2.5
Displacement, /y

(b) global strength degradation

Fig. 12. Strength degradation curves

410

Quan et al.
Elasto-plastic behavior of concrete filled steel circular
columns In Proceedings of the Third International
Conference on Steel-Concrete Composite Structures:
Special Volume. Japan: Association for International
Cooperation and Research in Steel-Concrete Composite
Structures.
[5] Li, X., Xiao, Y. & Wu, Y.T. 2009. Seismic behavior of
exterior connections with steel beams bolted to CFT
columns. Journal of Constructional Steel Research
2009(65): 1438-1446.
[6] Qin, G. 2009. Research on Behavior and Design of Steel
Beam to CFST Column Joints with External Stiffening Ring.
Lanzhou: Lanzhou University of Technology.
[7] Shim, J.S., Han, D.J., & Kim, K.S. 1995. An experimental
study on the structural behaviors of H-shaped steel
beam-to-concrete filled steel square tubular column
connections. In Building for the 21st Century. Australia:
Griffith University Gold Coast Campus.
[8] Shin, K.J., Kim, Y.J. & Oh, Y.S. 2008. Seismic behaviour of
composite concrete-filled tube column-to-beam moment
connections. Journal of Constructional Steel Research
2008(64): 118-127.
[9] Tang, K.K., Li, Z.X., He, D.D. & Zhang, Z.H. 2010.
Evolution of plastic damage in welded joint of steel truss
with pre-existing defects. Theoretical and Applied Fracture
Mechanics 54(2): 177-181.
[10] Wen, Y. & Zeng, Q.Y. 2010. A novel approach to
elasto-plastic finite element analysis of beam structures
using the concept of incremental secant stiffness. Finite
Elements in Analysis and Design 46(11): 982-991.

411

11th International Conference on

Advances in Steel and Concrete Composite Structures
Tsinghua University, Beijing, China, December 3-5, 2015

MECHANISM OF COMPOSITE PYLON WITH PERFOBOND

CONNECTORS UNDER AXIAL LOADS
X. Z. Wanga, S. J Zhenga, Y. Q. Liua, L. Tangb & Y. Gaob
a

Department of Bridge Engineering, Tongji University, Shanghai, China

E-mails: xizhi_w@163.com, sjzhengcn@gmail.com, yql@tongji.edu.cn

CCCC Highway Bridges National Engineering Research Centre CO., Ltd. & CCCC Highway Consultants CO., Ltd.,
Beijing, China
E-mails: 15010053806@126.com, gaoyuan@hpdi.com.cn
ABSTRACT
Keywords:
Composite pylons; Perfobond
connectors; Bearing capacity;
Axial compression test; Finite
element analysis

To investigate the load transfer mechanism of composite pylon, a new type of composite pylon
with perfobond connectors combining the hollow concrete pylon and steel plates was proposed.
A model test and finite element analysis were carried out based on design scheme of a
cable-stayed suspension bridge. The results show that the failure process can be divided into 3
stages, i.e. elastic stage, plastic stage, and failure stage. From upper pylon to the bearing base,
the load carried by steel plates was partially transferred to hollow concrete through perfobond
connectors. The vertical shear forces of perfobond connectors in upper pylon were higher than
those in lower pylon. After the composite pylon entered the plastic stage, the uplift resistance of
perfobond connectors became significant, which prevented the exfoliation and enhanced the
restriction effect between hollow concrete and steel plates. At the failure stage, the load carrying
proportion of steel plates was higher than that in the elastic stage, and the composite pylons
bearing capacity kept invariant though the deformation increased continuously, indicating a
favorable ductility.

1 INTRODUCTION

2 STRUCTURE PROPOSAL

The span of cable-stayed bridges and suspension

bridges keeps increasing, leading to the increasing height
of bridge pylons (Virlogeux 1999), which brings forward
more critical requirements of bearing behavior.
Composite pylons adopting steel and concrete structure
can exert advantages of these two materials, improve the
state of mechanism, and reduce costs, with a wide
application foreground.
Mechanism of composite pylon is influenced by
connection performance between steel and concrete (He
et al. 2014). The inevitable slip tendency at the interfaces
of steel and concrete is critical to load spread and transfer
in composite pylon (Liu & Liu 2015). Thus it is
significant to study the mechanical behavior of composite
pylon to help its popularization and application.
In this paper, a new type of composite pylon was
proposed, composed of hollow concrete, steel plates and
perfobond connectors combining these two components.
Based on design scheme of a cable-stayed suspension
bridge, a model test and finite element analysis were
carried out to research the mechanism of composite pylon
with perfobond connectors under axial loads.

Fig.1 shows the details of the composite pylon. Steel

plates are wrapped around the hollow concretes flank,
connected by perfobond connectors. Perforated bars in
perfobond connectors also work as reinforcing bars in
hollow concrete. A bearing plate is set at the bottom of
pylon steel plates to reduce the relative slip between steel
plates and the concrete and to ease the local compression
between steel plates end faces and bearing platform
concrete.
Perfobond connector
Steel plates
Hollow concrete

Perforated rebar

Bearing base

Bearing plate

Figure 1. Structure of a composite pylon

412

Wang et al.

3 EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH
3.1 Test specimen

Material
Steel plates
Steel rebar
Concrete

To investigate the mechanical behavior of composite

pylon, an axial compression bearing capacity test was
carried out on the specimen fabricated on the basis of
design scheme of a cable-stayed suspension bridge. Four
external steel plates were welded into a square steel tube
after the perfobond strips were welded onto each plate,
and then the hollow concrete was filled. Fig.2 shows
details of the pylon specimen. The pylon above the
bearing base was 1.3m high and the embedded length was
0.3m. The side length of pylon section and square hollow
were 400mm and 120mm respectively. Each perfobond
strip contained 8 holes with a diameter of 30mm along
the vertical direction at an interval of 200mm. Each hole
contained a perforated ribbed bar with a diameter of
12mm. The average compressive strength and Young's
modulus of three cube specimens at 28 days after
concrete casting were 67.8MPa and 3.82104MPa. All
steel components were made of Q345qE with tensile
yielding stress of 356.9MPa and Young's modulus of
2.20105MPa. The reinforcements adopted steel HRB335
with tensile yielding stress of 344.6MPa and Young's
modulus of 2.12105MPa. Properties of the adopted
materials are shown in Table 1.

3.2.1 Load-deformation relationship

200

The axial load was applied by a hydraulic loading

machine with a capacity of 30000kN. A distribution plate
was set on the top face of the pylon to spread load to steel
structure and hollow concrete simultaneously. Fig.3
shows the relationship of load and vertical deformation of
pylon top. The failure process of the composite pylon
specimen can be divided into 3 stages, i.e. elastic stage,
plastic stage, and failure stage. Before the load reached
8280kN, the deformation of pylon top was in linear
proportion to the applied load, which indicated that the
pylon was in the elastic stage. After the load exceeded
8280kN, the stiffness degradation of pylon became more
and more evident until the loading level of 13900kN,
which indicated that partial concrete cracked and exited
carrying load. After the applied load exceeded 13900kN,
the bearing capacity hardly increased though the
deformation grew, which indicated that the composite
pylons ductility was excellent. Two deformation
transducers were set on two perpendicular flank faces of
pylon, the data of which were in good agreement,
indicating that unwanted offset load was eliminated.

1600

300

1800

Es or Ec/GPa
220
212
38.2

3.2 Test results analysis

30

1300

Table 1. Properties of material

fy/MPa
fc/MPa

356.9

344.6
67.8

1000
(a) Outline of specimen

400
Figure 3. Load-vertical deformation relationship at pylon top

400

3.2.2 Stress distribution of steel plates

Two columns of strain gauges were laid on one flank
face of pylon to obtain the vertical strain of steel plates.
Fig.4 shows vertical stress distribution of steel plates at
elastic and plastic limit state. Vertical stress of steel
plates decreased gradually from pylon top to the bearing
base, indicating that the load carried by steel plates was
partly transferred to hollow concrete through perfobond
connectors. In upper pylon near the load end, the stress

120

(b) Section of pylon

Figure 2. Details of the pylon specimen/mm

413

Wang et al.

was slightly higher in the middle of plates than that at the

edge of plates, though stresses at these two typical places
were approximately the same. The stress distributed
uniformly in steel plates on the whole.

(a) Hollow concrete

(b) Steel structure
Figure 5. FEM model
(a) Elastic limit

4.2 FEA and test results comparison

4.2.1 Load-deformation relationship
Comparison of load-deformation relationship in FEA
and test results is shown in Fig.6. The curves coincided
with each other and revealed that pylons deformation
increased linearly with the applied load until the elastic
limit, but nonlinearly in the plastic stage. Entering the
failure stage, the bearing capacity kept invariant though
the deformation increased continuously, indicating a
distinct ductile failure.

(b) Plastic limit

Figure 4. Vertical stress distribution of steel plates

4 FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS

4.1 Finite element model
To further study the mechanism of composite pylon, a
finite element model based on the pylon test specimen
was built, as shown in Fig.5. Shell 63 elements, solid 45
elements and spring elements were applied to simulate
the steel plates, hollow concrete and perfobond
connectors respectively. The shear stiffness of spring
elements was referenced to others research results
(Oguejiofor & Hosain 1994; Zhao & Liu 2012). In
addition, contact elements were used to simulate the slip,
exfoliation and compression between steel plates and
hollow concrete. The FEM model was subjected to
uniformly distributed displacement load at the top face of
pylon, and fixed with the ground, in accordance with the
loading test.

Figure 6. Comparison of load- deformation relationship in FEA

and test results

4.2.2 Stress distribution of steel plates

Fig.7 shows the comparison of stress distribution of
one steel plate at elastic limit and plastic limit. The curves
reveal that the stress in steel plates distributed uniformly
on the whole, though decreasing slightly from the pylon
top to the bearing base. At the plastic limit, stress of steel
plates was close to yield limit, which indicated that the
pylon was entering the failure stage.

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Wang et al.

4.4 Behavior of perfobond connectors

4.4.1 Shear and uplift behaviors
The vertical distribution of shear and uplift forces at
elastic and plastic are shown in Fig.9. Fig.9(a) shows that
shear forces decreased from pylon top to the bearing
base. Shear forces of the upper 3 rows of perfobond
connectors decreased dramatically, the largest of which
was 21.2kN at the first row(shear capacity was 161kN),
whereas the rest 3 rows shear forces were all near 4kN,
indicating that the load from steel plates to hollow
concrete was mainly transferred in upper pylon.
As shown in Fig.9(b), uplift forces of perfobond
connectors were small at elastic limit, but increased
dramatically at plastic limit, especially the center rows,
with the greatest uplift force of 78.9kN. At plastic limit,
with local concrete exiting carrying load, steel plates
carried more load, which resulted in the tendency of local
buckling in steel plates. The uplift resistance of
perfobond connectors prevented the exfoliation and
enhanced the restriction effect between hollow concrete
and steel plates, which improved the ductility of the
composite pylon.

(a) Elastic limit

(b) Plastic limit

Figure 7. Stress distribution of steel plates

4.3 Load carrying proportion

Fig.8 shows the load carrying proportion of steel
plates and hollow concrete. The load carried by hollow
concrete increased from upper pylon to the bearing base,
whereas the load carried by steel plates decreased. The
proportion of load carried by steel plates at plastic limit
was higher than that at elastic limit, indicating that local
concrete exited carrying load.

(a) Shear force

(b) Uplift force

Figure 9. Vertical distribution of shear and uplift forces of
perfobond connectors

Figure 8. Load carrying proportion of steel plates and hollow

concrete

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Wang et al.

4.4.2 Effect of perfobond connectors on pylons

(4) After the composite pylon enters the plastic stage,

the uplift resistance of perfobond connectors became
significant, which prevent the exfoliation and enhance the
restriction effect between hollow concrete and steel
plates, with the ductility of pylon improved.

bearing capacity
To investigate perfobond connectors impacts on
pylon bearing capacity, a finite element model of
composite pylon without connectors was built, whose
load- deformation relationship was shown in Fig.10. The
bearing capacity of the pylon without connectors was
lower than that of the pylon with connectors and
decreased significantly in the failure stage with the
increase of deformation. It was indicated that perfobond
connectors helped the applied load spread uniformly in
the composite pylon and enhanced the restriction effect
between hollow concrete and steel plates, which
improved the capacity and ductility of the composite
pylon.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The research described in this paper is financially
supported by Ministry of Transport of the Peoples
Republic of China under Grant No. 2011318494160. The
support is gratefully acknowledged.
REFERENCES
He, J., Liu, Y. & Pei, B. (2014). Experimental study of the
steel-concrete connection in hybrid cable-stayed bridges
Journal of Performance of Constructed Facilities, 28(3),
559-570.
Liu, R. & Liu, Y. (2015). Analysis of auxiliary ribs in
steel-concrete joint of hybrid girder Journal of
Constructional Steel Research, 112, 363-372.
Oguejiofor, E. C. & Hosain, M. U. (1994). A parametric study
of perfobond rib shear connectors Canadian Journal of
Civil Engineering, 21(4), 614-625.
Virlogeux, M. (1999). Recent evolution of cable-stayed
bridges Engineering Structures, 21(8), 737-755.
Zhao, C. & Liu, Y. (2012). Experimental study of shear
capacity of perfobond connector Engineering Mechanics,
29(12), 349-354.

Figure 10. Comparison of load-deformation relationship of the

pylon with connectors and without connectors

5 CONCLUSIONS
(1) In this paper, a new type of composite pylon is
proposed, composed of hollow concrete, steel plates
wrapped on the flank of hollow concrete, and perfobond
connectors combining these two components. Based on
model test and finite element analysis, the failure process
of the composite pylon specimen can be divided into 3
stages, i.e. elastic stage, plastic stage, and failure stage. In
the failure stage, the composite pylons bearing capacity
keep invariant though the deformation increases
continuously, indicating a favorable ductility.
(2) From upper pylon to the bearing base, the load
carried by steel plates is partially transferred to hollow
concrete through perfobond connectors. Entering the
failure stage, local concrete cracked and exited carrying
load, leading to a higher load carrying proportion of steel
plates, compared with the elastic stage.
(3) Perfobond connectors bear shear forces in vertical
direction, and transfer the load from steel plates to hollow
concrete, leading to a more uniform stress distribution in
the composite pylon. Connectors in upper pylon carry
larger shear forces than those in lower pylon, which
indicates that the load is mainly transferred in upper
pylon.

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11th International Conference on

Advances in Steel and Concrete Composite Structures
Tsinghua University, Beijing, China, December 3-5, 2015

PROGRESSIVE COLLAPSE ANALYSIS OF CONCRETE-FILLED

STEEL TUBULAR COLUMN TO STEEL BEAM CONNECTIONS
USING MULTI-SCALE MODEL
W. D. Wang, H. W. Li & J.X. Wang
The Key Laboratory of Disaster Prevention and Mitigation in Civil Engineering of Gansu Province, Lanzhou University
of Technology, Lanzhou, Gansu Province, China
E-mails: wangwd@lut.cn, celihuawei@gmail.com, cewangjx@163.com
ABSTRACT
Keywords:
Steel beam to CFST column
connections; progressive
collapse; multi-scale model;
nonlinear static analysis;
nonlinear dynamic analysis.

The multi-scale model which combined the fiber model with the fine element method was used
to investigate the progressive collapse performance of steel beam to concrete-filled steel tubular
(CFST) column joints. By using the nonlinear static analysis method and taking into account the
influence of the adjacent framework of joints, the ability of progressive collapse, the failure
modes and the stress distribution revealed the progressive collapse resistance capacity of these
joints. And the vertical displacement time history curves of joints which displayed the
progressive collapse resistance demand of these joints were obtained with the nonlinear dynamic
analysis method. The relationship between resistance capacity and resistance demand of these
joints were obtained by comparing the nonlinear static analysis results with the nonlinear
dynamic analysis results. These comparisons showed that the frame structure with these joints
which enabled to form the bridge mechanism and new alternate path of unbalanced loads can
prevent the occurrence of progressive collapse after the failure of column connected to joints.
And the adjacent framework can improve the ability of anti-progressive collapse of these joints.

steel tubular (CFST) column connections. In order to

improve the understanding of the behavior of the steel
beam to CFST column connections to resist progressive
collapse, the multi-scale model which can reflect the
effect of the adjacent structures was used to investigate
the performance of these joints in this paper.

1 INTRODUCTION
It is important to predict the failure mechanism of
frame structures and provide an alternate load path for the
structure to resist progressive collapse under abnormal
accidental events. When the progressive collapse of
frame structures occurred, the joint areas connected with
the failure column generate the unbalanced load that are
able to disperse to adjacent areas by the beam resistance
mechanism and catenary resistance mechanism which
provided by the joints. It is significant that the
beam-column joints are key elements of frame structure,
and the performance of joints directly concern the ability
to resist progressive collapse.
Some experimental investigations have focused on the
performance of steel beam-column joints (Lee et al.
2010, Yang & Tan 2012, Yang & Tan 2013, Huo et al.
2014, Wang et al. 2014a, 2014b) and reinforced concrete
beam-column joints (He & Yi 2010, Qian & Li 2012).
The result of these studies suggested that the catenary
resistance mechanism developed in the beams and
connections plays a critical role in the resistance of
structure progressive collapse.
However, these experiments do not consider the
effects of the zone connected with the joints and there are
few studies focus on the steel beam to concrete-filled

2 INTRODUCTION OF THE CALCULATION

MODEL

2.1 The design model

In order to study the progressive collapse performance
of the joints in steel beam to concrete-filled steel tubular
frames under column loss, two 9-story and 4-span CFST
columns with I-shape steel beams planar frames were
designed. The circular and square sections column were
chose as the frame column respectively. However, the
two frames had the same size in story height and span.
The height of first story is 4.2m, and the height of other
stories is 3.6m. The span is 6.6m. Table 1 shows the
shape size of beams and columns in the frame structures.
The middle joint in the first story was the object to be
investigated. Figure 1 shows the types of the joints are
beam to CFST column connections with outside
stiffening ring plate and with penetrating ring plate,

417

Wang et al.

located at the midpoint of the beam, only one-half span of

the steel beam of the fine model was adopted. Figure 2
shows the multi-scale model.

respectively. Table 2 shows the symbol of the 4 designed

joint models.

Table 1.The size of beams and columns in the frame structure.

column
beam

Circular section /mm

50012
I 4502501216

Square section /mm

50012
I 5003001216

Outside stiffening ring plate

CFST column

Figure 2. The multi-scale model.

Beam

For the fine joint parts, the 4 nodes shell element S4

was used for steel beam and tube and the concrete in
columns employed the 8 nodes solid element C3D8. The
fiber model iFiberLUT (Li & Wang 2013) which was
developed in ABAQUS was used for other parts in the
frame structure. The detail information of concrete and
steel material constitutive model could be found in the
reference (Han 2007).
The nonlinear static analysis method and the
nonlinear dynamic analysis method were be used in the
progressive collapse analysis of the joint models. By
using the nonlinear static analysis method, the ability of
progressive collapse, the failure modes and the stress
distribution revealed the progressive collapse resistance
capacity of these joints. And the vertical displacement
time history curves of typical joints which displayed the
progressive collapse resistance demand of these joints
were obtained with the nonlinear dynamic analysis
method.

(a) Steel beam to CFST column connections with outside

stiffening ring plate.
Outside stiffening ring plate

Penetrating ring plate

CFST column

Beam

(b) Steel beam to CFST column connections with penetrating

ring plate.
Figure 1. Steel beam to CFST column connections.

Table 2.The symbol of the 4 designed joint models.

Symbol
CJ-O
CJ-P
SJ-O
SJ-P

Joint models
Steel beam to circular CFST column connections
with outside stiffening ring plate
Steel beam to circular CFST column connections
with penetrating ring plate
Steel beam to square CFST column connections with
outside stiffening ring plate
Steel beam to square CFST column connections with
penetrating ring plate

3 NONLINEAR STATIC ANALYSIS

The progressive collapse is a nonlinear dynamic
process, but the failure mode and the bearing capacity of
the resistance to collapse could be obtained visibly by
nonlinear static analysis. So the nonlinear static method
was used to investigate the steel beam to the CFST
column joints firstly.

2.2 Finite element model

The finite element models were built in ABAQUS.
The multi-scale model was used for the finite element
analysis in this paper.
The multi-scale model is a kind of method that
combine the cooperative connection with different finite
element types, this model can take into account the high
computational accuracy and the advantages of high
efficiency.
Considering the advantage of the multi-scale model, it
can be used in the steel beam to CFST column connection
finite element model. The joints part which should be
studied more thoroughly can use the fine element and
other parts like beams and columns can use the fiber
model. Because the inflection point of the beam was

Figure 3. The loading path of the nonlinear static analysis.

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Wang et al.

mechanism enhances gradually. CD phase is named as

failure in which the joints loss the anti-collapse ability.

In the nonlinear static analysis, the middle column

was removed firstly, then the vertical displacement U was
applied to the bottom of the residual column that
connected to the middle joint until the middle joint loss
resistance mechanism. Figure 3 shows the loading path of
the nonlinear static analysis. Through the nonlinear static
pushdown, the failure modes and the process of the
anti-progressive collapse of these joints could obtain.

Catenary mechanism

Beam mechanism

Failure

Mixed mechanism
C
B

3.1 The result of the nonlinear static analysis

Through the processes of the nonlinear static analysis,
the vertical bearing capacity P and the vertical
displacement U were obtained. Figure 4 shows the curves
of P-U which stands for the capacity of anti-progressive
collapse of these joints connected the frame structure.
Since the square shape frame had higher steel beam, the
joints with the square shape column provided better
performance than the circular shape column. Moreover,
compared with the penetrating ring plate joints, the
outside stiffening ring plate joints shows better
presentation in the nonlinear static analysis. The reason of
this result was that the outside stiffening ring plate had a
wider ring which leaded to dissipate the energy that
caused by the progressive collapse process to the adjacent
frame structure.

D
A

In figure 5, the point A is the bearing capacity of the

beam mechanism phase and point C is the bearing
capacity of the catenary mechanism phase. Combining
the figure 4 and figure 5, Table 3 shows the bearing
capacity of beam mechanism and catenary mechanism.
For every joints, the catenary mechanism improves the
anti-collapse ability of joints in different degree. If the
development of the catenary mechanism gives full play to
the resistance of progressive collapse, the frame structure
could provide robustness steadily. So the joint plays a
vital role in structural resistance to progressive collapse.

Table 3.The bearing capacity of the joints.

Load, P (kN)

7500

Items
A /kN
C /kN
C/A

5000
CJ-O
CJ-P
SJ-O
SJ-P
600
1200
1800
Displacement,U (mm)

CJ-O
3581.95
5110.66
1.43

CJ-P
3383.85
4783.04
1.41

SJ-O
4655.25
7899.81
1.70

SJ-P
4631.7
6714.28
1.45

3.2 The deformation and failure mode of joints

0
0

Figure 5. The anti-progressive collapse mechanism.

10000

2500

2400

Figure 6 shows the failure mode and the axial

direction stress S11 distribution at these joints. The
failure mode of CJ-O, SJ-O and SJ-P joint is alike, the
connection between the steel beam and ring plate
fractures at the bottom of the steel beam and extend to the
web. And the top flange presents bucking in different
degree. By the drag action of the steel beam, the steel
tube has a convex deformation. The top flanges of steel
beams in CJ-P joint are in compression status. From the
stress distribution figure, the joint fractures at the
connection between the web of steel beams and the tube.
The full section of steel beam is not in tension leads to
that the joint cannot contribute the catenary mechanism
adequately. This is also the reason that the C/A value of
CJ-P in table 3 is minimum.

Figure 4. The P-U curves for the anti-progressive collapse

performance of these joints.

In this result, the resistance mechanism of these joints

present similar trend in the nonlinear static analysis. The
resistance provided by these joints transferred from the
beam resistance mechanism to the catenary resistance
mechanism until these joints failure and cannot contribute
any resistance force.
The anti-progressive collapse mechanisms of these
joints are included in the figure 5. OA phase represents
the beam mechanism which is provided by the anti-bend
capacity of steel beams. BC phase stands for the catenary
mechanism, the tensile ability of steel beams provides
this mechanism in this phase and the full section of the
steel beam is in tension. AB phase, which is between the
OA and BC phase, indicates the mixed mechanism. In this
phase, the beam mechanism reduces and the catenary

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(a) CJ-O

(b) CJ-P

(b) CJ-P

(c) SJ-O
(c) SJ-O

(d) SJ-P
Figure 6. The failure mode and S11 distribution during
nonlinear static analysis.

(d) SJ-P
Figure 7. The Mises stress distribution and deformation of the
frame structure during nonlinear static analysis.

Figure 7 shows the Mises stress distribution and the

deformation of the frame structure in multi-scale model.
When the joint is pushed vertically downwards, the two
spans and stories beside the middle joint have obvious
stress redistribution. The Mises stress of the joints in the
fiber model is in a higher level. The columns above the
middle joint which modeling by fine elements have a
rigid body displacement and are in lower stress level. The
column at the first story tilt to the middle joint along with
the joint is pushed vertically downwards gradually.

4 NONLINEAR DYNAMIC ANALYSIS

4.1 The nonlinear dynamic analysis method
The nonlinear dynamic method could reflect the
characteristic of progressive collapse realistically.
Through this method, the progressive collapse resistance
demand of these joints was obtained. In order to achieve
the nonlinear dynamic analysis, there are 3 analytic steps
in this paper are listed below:
(1) Apply the entire regular load;
(2) Remove the middle column at the first story
rapidly during the middle column failure time; and
(3) Use the nonlinear dynamic method to analyze the
residual frame structure until the structure collapses or
keeps smooth.
The GSA2003 (The United States General Services
Administration 2003) has proposed a load combination
calculation method. For dynamic analysis purposes the
following vertical load shall be applied downward to the
structure under investigation: Load=DL+0.25LL. Where
DL and LL mean dead load and live load, respectively.

(a) CJ-O

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Wang et al.

The structure damping should be considered in the

dynamic analysis. And the damping ratio of frame
structure is intermediate between 0.02 and 0.05 generally.
The smaller the damping, the larger the dynamic respond.
Therefore, the damping ratio is taken as 0.02
conservatively.
The column failure time has a major influence on the
dynamic response of the residual structure. Different
causes of structural progressive collapse can result in the
different failure time of support column. When subjected
to fire, the column failure is in a slow process. But the
column of explosion is a transient process. Therefore, in
the nonlinear dynamic analysis, the column failure time
needs to have a reasonable value. The GSA2003
proposed that the support column should be removed
over a time period that is no more than 1/10 of the period
associated with the structural response mode for the
vertical column removal when using the dynamic analysis
method. Based on this criterion, 0.01s is chose as the
middle column failure time in the multi-scale model in
this paper.

When the sections of the CFST columns are same, the

result of the outside ring plate and the penetrating ring
plate do not show the difference obviously. This is
because the multi-scale frame structure do not collapse
during the analysis, the frame structure dissipates the
energy caused by the unbalanced load from the middle
column failure process. The joint connected the failure
column cannot develop their ability of anti-collapse
adequately.
From the result, we can also find that the trend of the
amplitude and variety are analogous for the same shape
of the CFST columns. The displacement of the joint
connected to the circular shape column is greater than the
square shapes. There are two reasons for this
phenomenon, one is that the damp of the circular section
CFST frame is lower. The lower the damp is, the greater
displacement arise. The other reason is that the square
section columns have bigger section moment of inertia,
and the square section CFST frame is able to provide
more horizontal constraint force which leads to smaller
vertical displacement of the joint.

4.2 The result of nonlinear dynamic analysis

4.3 The stress distribution and deformation of joints

Analyzing the multi-scale model by using the

nonlinear dynamic analysis method, the time-history
curve of vertical displacement U of the joints is obtained.
Figure 8 shows the time-history curve results.

Figure 9 shows the axial direction stress S11

distribution at these joints. The stress distributions of the
steel beam near the joint are similar in the 4 joints. The
top flange is in compression and the lower flange is in
tension. Comparing the outside ring plate and the
penetrating ring plate, it is obviously to find that the zone
of the maximum stress is smaller. When the outside ring
plate become wider, it is more effective to transmit the
unbalanced load during the progressive collapse.
The Mises stress distribution and the deformations of
the frame structure in multi-scale model are shown in
figure10. After the middle column is removed at the first
story, the joints vibrated vertically and the Mises stress of
the joints in the fiber model are in a higher level, which is
same with the nonlinear static analysis. Moreover, the
columns above the middle joint have a rigid body
displacement and bear lower loads.
Observing the deformation mode in figure 10, the
joints connected with the circular CFST column have a
greater vertical displacement and present a bent shape
mode obviously. However, the joints connected with the
square CFST column keep smaller vertical displacement.
Since the nonlinear dynamic analysis of the multi-scale
model demonstrates that the main resistance mechanism
is beam mechanism. The height of the steel beam in
square CFST column frame is higher, and the joints in the
frame can provide more resistance of beam mechanism.

0
Displacement, U (mm)

CJ-O
CJ-P

-250

-500

-750
0

2
Time, t (s)

(a) CJ-O/P

Displacement, U (mm)

0
SJ-O

-50

SJ-P

-100
-150
-200
0

2
Time, t (s)

(b) SJ-O/P
Figure 8. The time history curve of joints.

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Wang et al.

(a) CJ-O

(c) SJ-O

(b) CJ-P

(c) SJ-O

(d) SJ-P
Figure 10. The Mises stress distribution and deformation of the
frame structure during nonlinear dynamic analysis.

5 COMPARISON BETWEEN THE NOLINEAR

STATIC AND DYNAMIC ANALYSIS
By using the nonlinear static analysis method, the
results presented the bear capacity of progressive
collapse. By using the nonlinear dynamic analysis
method, the vertical displacement time history curves of
joints which indicated the resistance demand were
obtained. The relationship between resistance capacity
and resistance demand of these joints were obtained by
comparing the nonlinear static analysis results with the
nonlinear dynamic analysis results. The comparison
results are shown in figure 11. Since the maximum
dynamic displacements of joints at the frame with the
same sectional CFST column have little difference, the
maximum dynamic displacement of joints U-MAX
chooses the bigger displacement value as the criterion in
order to unify for the same shape column.
The maximum dynamic displacement of joints CJ-O
and CJ-P are located at the mechanism which is
dominated by the catenary mechanism. And for the SJ-O
and SJ-P joints, the maximum dynamic displacement are
in the mixed mechanism phase that the beam mechanism
declines and the catenary mechanism develops
preliminarily. From the progressive collapse analysis
result of these joints, the resistance demand is less than
the resistant when the middle column is removed.
These comparisons have showed that the frame
structure with the joints which enable to form the bridge
mechanism and new alternate path of unbalanced loads.
All these mechanisms delay and even avoid the

(d) SJ-P
Figure 9. The S11 distribution during nonlinear dynamic
analysis.

(a) CJ-O

(b) CJ-P

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(3) By using the dynamic analysis, the resistance

demand can be obtained. Comparing the nonlinear
dynamic analysis results with the nonlinear static analysis
results, it has showed that joints should have a strong
connection between the steel beam and CFST column to
give full play to the resistance of progressive collapse.

occurrence of progressive collapse after the failure of

column connected these joints. The bridge mechanism
could reduce the probability of progressive collapse. In
order to guarantee the resistance mechanisms develop
effectively, the steel beam to CFST column connection
should be firmer and cannot failure before they offer
sufficient resistance.

7 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

6000

The authors gratefully acknowledge the Natural

Science Foundation of China (No. 51268038) and The
Hongliu distinguished talents support program of
Lanzhou University of Technology (No. JQ201305).

Load, P (kN)

4500
3000

8 REFERENCES

CJ-O

1500

CJ-P

Han, L.H. 2007. Concrete-filled steel tubular structures-theory

and practice (2nd ed.). Beijing: China Science Press (in
Chinese).
He, Q.F. & Yi, W.J. 2011. Experimental study of the
collapse-resistant
behavior
of
RC
beam-column
sub-structures considering catenary action. China Civil
Engineering Journal 44(4): 52-59 (in Chinese).
Huo, J.S., Wang, N. & Chen, Y. 2014. Experimental study on
collapse resistance of welded beam-column connection
substructure of steel frame based on seismic design. Journal
of Building Structures 35(4): 100-108 (in Chinese).
Lee, C., Kim, S. & Lee, K. 2010. Parallel Axial-Flexural Hinge
Model for Nonlinear Dynamic Progressive Collapse
Analysis of Welded Steel Moment Frames. Journal of
Structural Engineering (ASCE) 136(2): 165-173.
Li, H.W. & Wang, W. D. 2013. Application of ABAQUS
secondary development in the finite element analysis of
concrete-filled steel tubular structures. Journal of Building
Structures 34(Sup1): 354-358 (in Chinese).
Qian, K. & Li, B. 2012. Experimental and Analytical
Assessment on RC Interior Beam-Column Subassemblages
for Progressive Collapse. Journal of Performance of
Constructed Facilities 26(5): 576-589.
The United States General Services Administration. 2003.
Progressive Collapse Analysis and Design Guidelines for
New Federal Office Buildings and Major Modernization
Projects. Washington, D. C: The U.S. General Services
Administration.
Wang, W., Li, L. & Chen, Y.Y. 2014. Experimental
investigation on progressive collapse behavior of WUF-B
connections between SHS column and H beam. Journal of
Building Structures 35(4): 92-99 (in Chinese).
Wang, W., Li, L., Chen, Y.Y. & Yan, P. 2014. Experimental
study on progressive collapse behavior of CHS column-to-H
beam connections with outer-diaphragm. Journal of
Building Structures 35(7): 26-33 (in Chinese).
Yang, B. & Tan, K.H. 2012. Numerical analyses of steel
beam-column joints subjected to catenary action. Journal of
Constructional Steel Research 70(3): 1-11.
Yang, B. & Tan, K.H. 2013. Experimental Tests of Different
Types of Bolted Steel Beam-Column Joints under a
Central-Column-Removal Scenario. Engineering Structures
54(9): 112130.

U-MAX
0
0

400
800
1200
Displacement, U (mm)

1600

(a) CJ-O/P
10000

Load, P (kN)

7500
5000

SJ-O
SJ-P

2500

U-MAX
0
0

600
1200
1800
Displacement, U (mm)

2400

(b) SJ-O/P
Figure 11. The comparison between resistance and resistance
demand.

6 CONCLUSIONS
This paper presented the progressive collapse analysis
of the steel beam to the CFST column connections by
using multi-scale model. In this investigation, the authors
used both the nonlinear static method and nonlinear
dynamic method to conduct analysis. Several conclusions
can be drawn in this paper:
(1) There are 4 phases of resistance mechanism of
joints: beam mechanism, mixed mechanism, catenary
mechanism and failure. The catenary mechanism plays a
vital role in the resistance of progressive collapse.
(2) By using the nonlinear static analysis, the failures
of joints are located at connection between the steel beam
and ring plate during the progressive collapse process.
Due to the tension function of the neighboring frame
structure, the joints can provide more resistance to
prevent the happening of progressive collapse.

423

11th International Conference on

Advances in Steel and Concrete Composite Structures
Tsinghua University, Beijing, China, December 3-5, 2015

FINITE ELEMENT SIMULATION OF TENSILE FAILURE OF

HIGH STRENGTH STRUCTURAL BOLTS
Y. Hua, B. Yanga, G. Xionga, J. Cuia & G.X. Daia
a

School of Civil Engineering, Chongqing University, Chongqing, P.R. China

E-mail: y.hu@cqu.edu.cn
ABSTRACT

Keywords:
High strength bolts; thread,
tensile failure; contact analysis;
finite element simulation.

Relying on the completed bolt tests, this study is focused on two failure modes, threads stripping
and bolt shank failure, for structural bolts under tensile loading conditions. In the numerical
simulation, a number of constitutive material relationships have been taken into account plus
considering the degree of fit between internal and external threads. This research work
demonstrated that the numerical model was capable of reproducing the failure of structural bolts
subjected to tensile loading. Their failure loads are closely associated with the failure pattern
achieved in the analysis. In addition, a comparative analysis has been executed for the preceding
material laws, demonstrating that constitutive models applied in the analysis have an influence
on load-displacement curves after steel yielding, and finally a simplified material model (the
Bilinear material law) has been recommended for further analysis.

that fire performance of assembled bolts and nuts would

be affected by these failure modes plus factors related to
the manufacturing process and variation in tolerance
classes. As a result, tensile performance of high strength
structural bolts in fire needs to be carefully examined
through application of finite element simulation in this
research work.

1 INTRODUCTION
In modern steel construction, bolted connections are
commonly in use for assembling steel beams and
columns for a steel-framed building, transmitting the
loads applied from one steel member to another. Based
on their stiffness, strength and rotational capacity, a
classification system has been proposed in the research
work of Nethercot et al. (1998) and four categories,
including fully connected, partially connected and pin
connected and non-structural connections, are specified
for both serviceability and ultimate limit states in the
classification. It ought to be worthy of understanding that
the rotational capacity of a bolted connection is rooted
from the deformation of its components and the
interactive mechanism between them (Kuhlmann and
Furch, 1997). In fire, mechanical performance of steel
connections may be variable due to deterioration of
material properties, i.e. strength and Youngs modulus.
Certainly, the interactive mechanism may be another
interesting point for these connections, which, however,
will not be discussed in this paper.
In addition, failure in structural bolts might be critical
in a fire situation, which has been found for bolted
connections in a series of experimental tests (Wang et al.
2010), discovering two primary failure mechanisms:
thread stripping and bolt shank necking. For engineers
and designers, failure in threads means reduction of
tensile resistance of structural bolts in a fire or non-fire
situation, which has been proved in the experimental tests
of Kirby (1995) and Hu et al. (2007). They also indicated

2 FINITE ELEMENT SIMULATION

2.1 Helical thread model for structural bolts
In simulation of bolt performance in tension, the
simplified approach was applying a two-dimensional FE
model to represent a three-dimensional problem (Chen
and Shih, 1999). However, this simplification would
result in stacking an appropriate number of threads in the
threaded portion for the FE models, unable to catch
helical effects in external and internal threads, e.g.
loosening phenomena of bolted joints. Therefore,
Fukuoka and Nomura (2008) highlight that, when
analyzing the mechanical behavior of bolted connections
with three-dimensional analysis, it has been a common
practice that using helical thread models for the threaded
portion of bolts has asymmetrical geometry. The general
details on geometrical dimension for a single fastener are
illustrated in Figure 1. In addition, as presented in the
research work of Kirby (1995) and Hu et al. (2011), the
tolerance class (the degree of fit) and over-tapping
process (for accommodating the extra zinc coating layer)
may have an influence on bolt performance in tensile
failure. So internal and external threads have been set up
for producing thread difference of tolerance classes in the
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Hu et al.

numerical analysis. General details on tolerance classes

for high strength hexagonal bolts are determined in
accordance with specification of BS 4190 (BSI, 2001),
BS 3692 (BSI, 1967) and BS EN ISO 4014 (CEN, 2001)
for the proposed helical thread model. Thread profile
details are available in the specification of BS 3643-1
(BSI, 1981) and ISO 965-5 (ISO, 1998).

Figure 2. Finite element mesh with boundary conditions.

Table 1. Detailed parameters of the finite element model.
Bolt group
Figure 1. Geometrical details for a single fastener.

Bolt
group A
Bolt
group A
Bolt
group C
Bolt
group C

2.2 Mesh generation and contact

Fukuoka and Nomura (2008) advised researchers to
use some sophisticated functions of commercial software
for an effective modeling. So the mesh generation scheme
proposed here may be executed with the help of
commercial software e.g. ABAQUS. The finite element
mesh for a single bolt with its boundary conditions is
illustrated in Figure 2, with applying 3D continuum
hexahedral elements in numerical analysis, recommended
by Sherbourne and Bahaari (1994 and 1997). Regarding
the FE model shown in Figure 2, for the bolt cylinder,
axial displacements are fully restrained at the bottom
surface of a bolt, and the axial force is applied as a
uniform displacement to a nut surface. For contact
simulation, there are two formulations (small sliding and
finite sliding) available for modeling the interaction
between two contacting surfaces. Comparison has been
performed for small sliding and finite sliding, and it has
been realized that the small sliding formulation is less
expensive in computation than the finite element sliding
approach (Abaqus, 2014). Regarding the contact friction,
Fukuoka and Nomura (2008) present that coefficients of
friction are varied from 0.05 to 0.20, with coefficient of
friction = 0.15 employed within this study. Master
surfaces and slave surfaces are specified for internal and
external threads, as illustrated in Figure 2. In addition,
general details for integration methods, element types,
contact formulations and applied displacements are
collected for the simulation in Table 1.

Integration
method

Element
type

Explicit

C3D8R

Implicit

C3D8I

Explicit

C3D8R

Implicit

C3D8I

Contact
Small
sliding
Small
sliding
Small
sliding
Small
sliding

Tolerance

6H/6g

7H/8g

2.3 Material Laws

It has been a common practice that structural bolts
and nuts are made from low alloy metals or carbon steels,
whose Youngs modulus and Possions ratio are 200 GPa
and 0.3, respectively. Four different constitutive
relationships, demonstrated in Figure 3, are represented
with engineering stresses and engineering strains for bolt
materials, proposed in the research work of Hu et al.
(2010), Bahaari & Sherbourne (1997) and Dessouki et
al.(2013). The von Mises yield criterion is commonly
applicable to the metal-based materials for prediction of
the onset of yielding, and the behavior on further yielding
is predicted by the associative flow rule and hardening
law. The bi-linear material model, shown in Figure 3 (a),
assumed the onset of yielding at the strain p
corresponding to the proof stress, and simply determining
the value of 5% as the ultimate strain for the bolt
material. Bahaari and Sherbourne (1997) presented a
trilinear stress-strain model displayed in Figure 3(b), the
yield stress was considered to take place at a strain of
0.006 and the ultimate strength presumed at a strain of 8p,
where p is the proof strain. Dessouki et al. (2013)
modified the previous trilinear stress-strain relationship
for the bolt material, as illustrated in Figure 3 (c), where
the yielding strain was assumed as 3.5p, corresponding to
the yielding strength (0.67fu +0.33f0.2p). The ultimate
strength and strain adopted are the same as previously
described. The final trilinear material model, as displayed
in Figure 3 (d), assumed a yielding plateau between p

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Hu et al.

3 NUMERICAL RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

and 3p , and the ultimate strength is specified at a strain

of 5% for the numerical analysis.

3.1 Failure mechanisms

Failure of structural bolts in the numerical simulation
has been illustrated in Figure 4, in comparison with bolt
failure mechanisms in experimental testing. It has been
observed that the failure mechanisms produced from the
numerical analysis are consistent with experimental tests,
including failure modes: bolt shank necking and threads
stripping for high strength bolts. As a consequence, the
numerical simulation is capable of addressing the failure
behavior for these structural components.

(a)

(a)

(b)

(b)
Figure 4. Failure mechanisms: a) bolt shank failure; b) threads
stripping.

3.2 Force-displacement curves

Previous discussion tends to be focused on producing
the failure of structural bolts in the numerical analysis.
Nevertheless, influence of various constitutive models on
bolt performance may be worthy of further investigation.
As a result, the force-displacement curves produced from
the numerical simulations considered different
constitutive material laws, as illustrated in Figure 3. In
accordance with the European Standards (CEN, 4014
/4017), the yielding and ultimate loads (161 kN and 203
kN) are derived analytically for structural bolts, displayed
in Figure 5. Then the numerical analysis has been
performed through implicit and explicit integration
procedures. From these numerical simulations, it should
be very clear that before the yielding limit (161 kN),
forces and displacements recorded are almost identical
for all the plotted curves in Figure 5. After the material
yielding, the load-deformation relationships for Bilinear
model and Trilinear model 3 are almost consistent in the
numerical analysis. In a similar way, the plotted curves
for Trilinear model 1 and Trilinear model 2 are in good

(c)

(d)
Figure 3. Material laws for structural bolts (a) Bi-linear model,
(b) Trilinear model 1, (c) Trilinear model 2, (d) Trilinear
model 3.

426

Hu et al.
BSI, 2001. BS 3692: 2001 ISO metric precision hexagon bolts,
screws and nuts Specification. British Standards
Institution, London
BSI, 2001. BS 4190: 2001 ISO metric black hexagon bolts,
screws and nuts Specification. British Standards
Institution, London
BSI, 1981. BS 3643-1: 1981 Specification for ISO metric screw
threads-Part 1: Principles and basic data. British Standards
Institution, London
CEN, 1999. BS EN ISO 898-1: 1999 Mechanical properties of
fasteners made of carbon steel and alloy steel Part 1:
Bolts, screws and studs. European Committee for
Standardization, Brussels
CEN, 2001. BS EN ISO 4014: 2001 Hexagon head bolts
Products grades A and B. European Committee for
Standardization, Brussels
CEN, 2001. BS EN ISO 4017: 2001 Hexagon head screws
Products grades A and B. European Committee for
Standardization, Brussels
Chen, J.J. & Shih, Y.S. 1999. A study of the helical effect on
the thread connection by three dimensional finite element
analysis. Nuclear Engineering and Design, 191(2):109-116
Dessouki, A.K., Youssef, A.H. & Ibrahim, M.M. 2013.
Behavior of I-beam bolted extended end-plate moment
connections. Ain Shams Engineering Journal,4(4):685-699
Fukuoka, T. & Nomura, M. 2008. Proposition of helical thread
modeling with accurate geometry and finite element
analysis. Journal of Pressure Vessel Technology, 130
(1):685-699
Hu, Y., Davison, J. B., Burgess, I. W. & Plbbank, R. J. 2007.
Comparative study of the behavior of BS 4190 and BS EN
ISO 4014 bolts in Fire. In Wang Y.C. et al.: 3rd
international conference on steel and composite structures,
July 29-31, 2007, Manchester, UK.
Hu, Y., Davison, J. B., Burgess, I. W. & Plank, R. J. 2010.
Multi-scale modeling of flexible end plate connections
under fire conditions. The open construction and building
technology journal, 4(1): 88-104
ISO, 1998. ISO 965-5 ISO general purpose metric screw
threads-Tolerances-Part 5: Limits of sizes for internal
screw threads to mate with hot-dip galvanized external
screw threads with maximum size of tolerance position h
before galvanizing. International Organization for
Standardization, Switzerland
Kirby, B.R. 1995. The Behavior of High-strength Grade 8.8
Bolts in Fire. Journal of Constructional Steel Research,
33(1): 3-38.
Kuhlmann, U. & Furch, A. 1997. Rotation capacity of steel
joints. In COST-C1-working group meeting, May 26th,1997,
Helsinki, Finland
Nethercot, D.A., Ahmed, T.Q. & Li, B. 1998. Unified
classification system for beam-to-column connections,
Journal of Constructional Steel Research, 45(1): 39-65
Sherbourne, A.N. & Bahaari, M.R. 1994. 3D Simulation of
End-Plate Bolted Connections. Journal of Structural
Engineering, 120(11): 3122-3136.
Sherbourne, A.N. & Bahaari, M.R. 1997. Finite Element
Prediction of End-Plate Bolted Connections Behaviour. I :
Parametric Study. Journal of Structural Engineering,
123(2): 157-164.
Wang, Y.C., Davison, J.B., Burgess, I.W., Plank, R. J., Yu,
H.X., Dai, X.H. & Bailey, C. 2010. The safety of common
steel beam/column connections in fire. Structural Engineer,
88(21):26-35

agreement with each other in the displayed figure below.

In addition to this, the numerical simulation discovered
that the bearing capacity of a single bolt was highly
dependent on its failure mechanism. The numerical
models with bolt shank failure overestimated their
bearing capacities in comparison with the theoretical
value calculated from the standards. For bolts failed with
threads stripping, the numerical models might
underestimate the peak values in the analysis.

Figure 5. Numerical results for different material laws.

4 CONCLUDING REMARKS
This research work investigated tensile performance
of high strength structural bolts with determined tolerance
classes in their threads in use of the numerical analysis. It
also considered the influence of different material laws
and numerical integration procedures on numerical
results. After comparison with experimental and analytical
results, it should be clear that the numerical simulation is
capable of predicting the failure modes of structural bolts.
Secondly, the bearing capacities of bolts are closely
dependent on their failure mechanisms achieved in pure
tension, confirmed by experimental testing and numerical
analysis. Thirdly, the numerical prediction on the bearing
capacity of a single bolt is generally in the acceptable
region compared with the theoretical value (203 kN).
Overestimation or underestimation might be observed in
the simulation relying on their failure modes produced.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The research work demonstrated in this paper is part
of Project No. 51578029 funded by National Science
Foundation of China and Chongqing University Scientific
Research Foundation (No. 0218001104410). This financial
support is gratefully acknowledged by the authors.

REFERENCES
ABAQUS, 2014. Standard users manual. Hibbitt, Karlsson and
Sorensen, Inc.

427

11th International Conference on

Advances in Steel and Concrete Composite Structures
Tsinghua University, Beijing, China, December 3-5, 2015

EXPERIMENTAL STUDY ON THE STRUCTURAL BEHAVIOR OF

H-BEAM TO CIRCULAR CFT COLUMN MOMENT
CONNECTIONS WITH EXTERNAL DIAPHRAGMS
K.S. Chunga, J.M.Choib & J.H. Yooc
a

Steel Business Division Steel Solution Marketing Dept., POSCO, Incheon, Korea
E-mails: chungks@posco.com

Architectural Engineering Research Group, POSCO E&C, Incheon, Korea

E-mails: colormoon@poscoenc.com

School of Architecture, Seoul National University of Science and Technology, Seoul, Korea
E-mail: happyjh@seoultech.ac.kr
ABSTRACT
Keywords:
Concrete filled steel tube;
Connections; Partial penetration
welding; Cover concrete; FEM
analysis; Design.

In this paper monotonic tests are performed to develop H-beam to circular CFT column full
strength moment connections for constructability. The main components are external diaphragm
plates bolted to the beam and partially welded to the whole circumference of the column.
External diaphragm plates have been used to transfer the beam forces around the column. The
inelastic behavior of the connections equipped with the diaphragm plates can be improved
compared with the direct connections. However, stress concentration in the diaphragm plates led
to fracture of the bolts in flange of the beam. In order to shift the fracture position from the
column surface toward the beam, the effect of covering concrete for outside of CFT column was
examined from tests, resulting in improvement of ultimate load capacity of connections.

excellent hysteretic response and ductility under cyclic

lateral loading. The use of CFT columns in moment
resisting frames, however, generally involves complex
detailing of the connections. In the case of connections
using inner diaphragms, the diaphragm plates are located
inside the tube and a hole is opened for concrete casting,
while there is no object sticking inside the tube to
interfere smooth casting of concrete, in the case of ring
stiffener and outer diaphragm.
In this paper, a constructional efficiency type of joint
detail as shown in the Fig. 1 is proposed and studied. The
composite steel and concrete moment resisting frame
system adopts bolted diaphragm connections with the
need for minimized job site welding. The joint details
included outer diaphragm first bolted to steel beam and
then welded to concrete filled steel tube columns on the
job site. Additional cover concrete with reinforced bars
are required to the CFT column outer for providing slip
resistance for connecting with bolt. In addition, in order
to shift the fracture position from the column surface
toward the beam, the effect of covering concrete for
outside of CFT column was examined from tests,
resulting in improvement of ultimate load capacity of
connections.

1 INTRODUCTION
CFT columns possess distinctive advantages over
conventional RC columns and have gained increasing
applications in high-rise buildings. The concrete-filled
steel tube column has been advantageous in that the steel
tube provides confinement, thus increasing the stiffness
and strength of the concrete, while the concrete reduces
the possibility of the local and global buckling of the tube
wall. Besides this, the steel tube column eliminates the
column formwork during construction.
A frame system consisting of concrete-filled steel
tube columns and H shaped beams has become very
popular, of which typical connections between a CFT
column and H shaped beams often used in Korea.
Beam-to-column connections are all fabricated by shop
welding, and the beams are bolted at site to the brackets.
More recent studies of CFT columns have focused on the
development of fully-restrained connections between
steel girders and CFT columns arranged as
moment-resisting frames. A variety of bolted and welded
connections for wide-flange girders framing into circular
CFT columns have been tested by Azizinamni (2004),
Cheng (2003), Li et al. (2010), Fukumoto (2005), Wang
(2015) and Zhang (2012) and. The studies indicated that
properly designed and detailed connections could provide

428

Chung et al.

Figure 1. CFT column-to-beam new connection with outer

diaphragm.

2 EXPERIMENTAL PROGRAM
2.1 Specimens
The tensile behavior of the outer diaphragm is critical
to the seismic performance of the beam-column
connection. The local tensile test on the proposed
beam-column connection is conducted. A test specimen is
shown in Figure 2, which represents an exterior column
segment. The specimen consisted of a concrete-filled
steel tube, a diaphragm, and a flared flange plate.
The tube was a 318.5x9 mm circular hollow section
of grade 235 (STK400). The 50mm thick plate of grade
325 (SM490) was curved as a diaphragm. The weld size
of diaphragm to steel tube is 8mm as shown in Figure 3.
The 16mm thick plate and 200mm width of flared flange
was fabricated from grade 325 plate (SM490) and shop
welded to the diaphragm. The tubes were filled with
concrete of 30MPa a characteristic compressive strength.
Tensile test specimen is circular CFT column with
single beam flanges, and tensile loads are applied to the
ends of flange plates, as shown in Figure 2. Two LVDTs
were installed on the flange so as to measure any
displacement of the diaphragm.
Three tensile coupon tests for each base component
member were performed to determine their material
properties. Table l lists the yield stress, ultimate tensile
strength, and elongation ratio obtained from the coupon
test. Three cylindrical-shaped concrete pieces were
fabricated to measure the average compressive strength.
The concrete compressive strength is 37MPa.

Table 1. Test results of steel.

Yield
Classification
strength
(Mpa)
Steel Tube
370
Diaphragm
373
Flange plate
377

Tensile
strength
(Mpa)
462
538
510

Figure 2. Specimen and setup of LDVTs.

Figure 3. Specimen failure mode after test.

Elongation
(%)
36
24
31

Figure 4. Tensile load-displacement relationships.

2.2 Test results

Specimen was shown failure by crack propagation in
the exterior diaphragm to which beam flanges are welded
as shown in Figure 3.

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Chung et al.

Tensile test result is illustrated in Figure 4, in which

load-displacement relationships is summarized. Figure 4
also included data for comparison with the calculated
strength and FEM analytical result is compared. FEM
analysis method and the proposed strength formula for
the exterior diaphragm are described in chapter 3 and
chapter 4.
This comparison reveals that the FEM analysis
method and the proposed strength formula are verified
reasonably. The yield strength of test was slightly 1.20
times higher than the calculated strength in accordance
with the proposed formula.

3.2 Verification
To verify the accuracy of the FEM analysis model,
numerical load-deformation curves under monotonic
loading are compared with the experimental curves, as
shown in Figure 4. The initial stiffness and yield strength
of the FEM models are in reasonable agreement with
those of the test specimen, which was a clear indication
that the FEM models had correct elastic-plastic behavior.
Therefore, the FEM analysis model was deemed adequate
for parametric studies.
In order to investigate effects of the diaphragm yield
pattern, equivalent von Mises stress contours on the
diaphragm surface are compared in Figure 5. The yielded
parts are observed on the line between steel tube centre
and beam flange width.

3 FEM ANALYSIS FOR CFT CONNECTIONS

3.1 Finite Element Modeling
The FEM method serves as a cost-saving alternative
to studying the performance of a composite frame. The
key factors for modeling a composite frame include
element type, connection between elements, material
constitutive law, boundary conditions and solution
method. Nonlinear finite element analysis of a CFT joint
with external diaphragm was performed using analysis
program ANSYS.
The FEM model of a composite frame consists of two
basic components: the CFT column and the steel beam. In
the refined three-dimensional FEM model, a 3D shell
element is used to model the steel tube. A solid element is
used to model the diaphragm and beam flange. The
concrete in the steel tube is modeled by a spring element,
which is only compressive resistance.
A multi-linear stress-strain relationship was adopted
to the steel plates of the steel tubes, diaphragm and the
steel beams in the FEM analysis. For the steel material in
the finite element model, the elastic modulus and
Poissons ratio were assumed as 2.05E+05 MPa and 0.3,
respectively. The isotropic hardening rule in
stress-resultant space was adopted to model the plastic
behavior of the steel material.
The boundary conditions of the FEM models same
with the experiment one in Figure 2. The symmetric
model was used for computational efficiency. The
monotonic analysis is conducted to make comparison.
The object top displacement of the monotonic analysis
was 150mm, which was slightly higher than the
maximum top displacement in the test. The geometric
nonlinearity lead to change in structural behavior and loss
of structural stability based on a total Lagrange
description was considered. The Newton-Raphson
equilibrium iteration method was used to solve the
nonlinear problems.
In these analyses, the effect of welding residual stress
is not taken into consideration.

Figure 5. Stress distribution of connection at yielding.

4 DESIGN FORMULAS FOR CFT

CONNECTIONS

4.1 Tensile strength of diaphragms

The diaphragm steel plate is necessary in order to
transfer the stresses caused in beams and columns and to
prevent excessive local deformation in a steel tubular
column. The diaphragm plate may be designed by
considering the effect of the filled concrete and the steel
tube wall, each restraining the deformation of the other.
Ultimate strength Pu of an outer diaphragm subjected
to tension from the adjacent beam flange is given by the
following AIJ formulas (2008):

0.83 2 sin 2 1 hd td Fyd 1.44 sin A2 Fys

(1)

A 0.63 0.88 f D t t t
2
s
d
s

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Chung et al.

diaphragm and the steel beams in the FEM analysis. For

the steel material in the finite element model, the elastic
modulus and Poissons ratio were assumed as 2.05E+05
MPa and 0.3, respectively. The yield strength for all
materials is 325 MPa. The tube was a 318.5x9 mm
circular hollow section. The 50mm in thickness by 50mm
in width plate was curved as a diaphragm. The thickness
of beam flange is 16mm.
Figure 7 compares the analytical results to the
calculated results in accordance to the proposed design
method. The analytical results were a good agreement
with the calculated results in accordance with the
proposed design, regardless of analytical parameters.
From comparison between analytical results and the
calculated results, it reveals that the proposed design
formulas can predict the connection ultimate capacity for
partially welded exterior diaphragm to steel tube (see
Figure 6).

where
hd= width of a diaphragm
td= thickness of a diaphragm
D= outer diameter of steel tube
ts=thickness of steel tube
bf=width of beam flange
=angle between center of steel tube and the side end
of beam flange
Fys, Fyd= design standard strengths of steel tube and
diaphragm, respectively
The ultimate strengths in Eq.(1) have been derived
based on the mechanism in which the diaphragm plate at
section line of the center steel tube and the side end of
beam flange yields in tension and shear, and the tube wall
with an effective width yields in tension.
In this study, the joint details was changed the outer
diaphragm partially welded to concrete filled steel tube
columns. Therefore, the influence of steel tube was not
considered.
The ultimate strength for connection is proposed as
follows:

2
2 sin 2 1 hd td Fyd
3
1

sin D min s, t s min Fyd , Fys

3

(2)

Where, s=weld size.

(a) Beam flange width

(b) Weld size at beam flange width 200mm

Figure 6. Configuration of outer diaphragm

4.2 Comparison with FEM analytical results

The FEM model described above was used to study
behavior and performance for variations in the
beam-column connection configuration. Variations were
made to the weld size of diaphragm to steel tube and
beam flange width. Thus, seven different cases were
considered.
An elastic-perfectly plastic stress-strain relationship
was adopted to the steel plates of the steel tubes,

(c) Weld size at beam flange width 100mm

Figure 7. Comparison between analytical results and design

431

Chung et al.
load.

4.3 Comparison with AIJ formula

The CFT recommendation of AIJ (2008) was used to
study behavior and performance for variations in the
beam-to-column connection configuration. Variations
were made to the diaphragm width and thickness, beam
flange width and thickness, steel tube diameter and
thickness. Thus, eighty different cases were considered.
Figure 8 compares the ratio of the proposed design
strength to the calculated strength based on the CFT
recommendation of AIJ. The mean and standard
deviation of the predicted to the calculated strength
accordance with the CFT recommendation of AIJ ratios
for all the parameters was 0.77 and 0.11 respectively. The
calculated strength based on the CFT recommendation of
AIJ was 1.29 times larger than the proposed design
strength. That is because the influence of steel tube was
not considered in design calculation method.

Figure 8. Ratio of the proposed design strength to AIJ formula.

4.4 Comparison with experimental results

To carry out tests about the connection of the circular
CFT and the H-shaped steel beam to make sure the
effects of the partially weld size to exterior diaphragm of
circular CFT columns and presence or absence of cover
concrete with the maximum strength respectively. The
tensile strength of exterior diaphragm is designed 19%
larger than the tensile strength of beam flange. In
addition, the loading conditions of the test are all the
simple beam conditions and the both sides of the column
are connected with beams.
Test specimens are all structures made of circular
CFT columns and H-shaped steel beams. The size of the
circular CFT column is 318.5x9mm, and that of the
H-shaped steel beam is H-340x250x9x14mm. Loading
condition is simple beam form and monotonic loading.
Although the loading condition used in this test doesnt
occur in the actual structure, this study is just a basic
research that focuses on the out-of-plane deformation of
the diaphragm and the flexural strength at the connection

of beam webs, for this reason, this loading condition was

adopted.
The shape of the specimen is shown in Figure 9 and
11. The material of steel tube is the STK400 and beams
is the SM490B, and the diaphragm is the plate whose
thickness is 50mm. The tensile test is performed to
investigate the material characteristics of steel. Tensile
tests are carried out by using the test pieces of KS No.1B
which is cut out from H-shaped steel beam and
diaphragm, respectively and by using test pieces of the
KS No.12C which is cut out from steel pipe. Table 1
shows the results of tensile test. The yield stress of steel
column is obtained by 0.2% offset method. The yield
strength of web and flange of beam are 340MPa and
370MPa, respectively. The cylinder test was carried out
by three test pieces for each test specimen. The concrete
compressive strength of each specimen is 37MPa.
Loading apparatus and the method of measurement are
shown in Figure 9 and 11. The vertical displacements of
two points at one end of the beams and a point at the
other end of the beam are measured.
Moment-rotational angle relations are shown in
Figure 10 and 12.
In all the test specimens, bolt slip, local buckling
occurred at the top beam flanges, and after bolting
fracture, the moment drops sharply. The crack did not
arise.
About the presence or absence of cover concrete, the
maximum moment of specimen with cover concrete is
slightly larger. Also the rotational angle at maximum
moment is not remarkable. The influence of cover
concrete on bolt slip moment is remarkable. The slip
moment of bolt without cover concrete is half that of the
specimen covered concrete.
The maximum moment of tests shows 1.05~1.11
times larger than the plastic moment of H-shaped beam.
All the experimental strengths are evaluated in the safe
side.

Figure 9. Flexural test setup and diaphragm detail for CFT

column-beam connection.

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Chung et al.

(2) Classification by strength

A connection can be classified as full-strength,
nominally pinned, or of partial strength in terms of
strength by comparing its moment resistance with the
plastic moment resistance of the beam.
Full strength, if Mu> Mbp;
Nominally pinned, if Mu < 0.25 Mbp;
Otherwise, it is partial strength.
Mbp is the design plastic moment resistance of the
beam.
According to the above classification method of
connections, the test results for non-sway are shown in
Figure 11 and 12. Figure 10 and 12 show that the
connections in the specimens presented herein may be
classified as semi-rigid and of full strength. It is also
found that the rotation capacities of the specimens satisfy
the ductility requirement of no less than 3 % radian for
earthquake resistance suggested by FEMA-350.

Figure 10. Moment-rotation angle relationship.

5 CONCLUSIONS

Figure 11. Flexural test setup and diaphragm detail for CFT
column covered concrete -beam connection.

Based on the experimental and FEM numerical results

of the CFT column-to-beam connections, the following
conclusions can be drawn:
1. Ultimate strength Pu of the partially welded outer
diaphragm subjected to tension from the adjacent
beam flange is proposed by the following
formulas:
2

2 sin 1 hd td Fyd
3
1

sin D min s, t s min Fyd , Fys

3

2.

Figure 12. Moment-rotation angle relationship.

The classification of connections in EC4 Part 1-1 has

been made consistent with the approach in EC3 Part 1-8.
EC4 Part 1-1 is restricted to the composite connections in
braced frames only. A connection can be classified in
terms of its rigidity and strength as follows:
(1) Classification by rigidity
A connection can be classified as rigid, nominally
pinned, or semi-rigid according to its rotational stiffness
by comparing its initial stiffness with classification
boundaries suggested in EC3 Part 1-8 as:
Rigid, if Sj,ini > kbEIb/Lb; where kb=8 for non-sway
frames and kb=25 for sway frames.
Nominally pinned, if Sj,ini < 0.5EIb/Lb;
Otherwise, it is semi-rigid.
EIb is the flexural stiffness for the beam and Lb is the
beam span.

The proposed tensile strength of partially welded

outer diaphragm for CFT column model produces
good correlation with the experimental tests
available for comparison. The predicted to
experimental strength ratios from 0.8 to 0.93.

3. The proposed tensile strength of partially welded

outer diaphragm for CFT column model produces
good correlation with the experimental tests
available for comparison. The predicted to
experimental strength ratios from 0.8 to 0.93.

4.

433

The calculated strength based on the CFT

recommendation of AIJ (2008) was 1.25 times
larger than the proposed formula strength. This is
because the influence of steel tube was not
considered in proposed design calculation.

Chung et al.

REFERENCES
Azizinamini, A. & Schneider, S.P. 2004. Moment connections
to circular concrete-filled steel tube columns. Journal of
Structural Engineering 130(2): 213-222.
CEN. Eurocode 3: Design of steel structures-Part 1-8: Design of
joints. ENV 1993-1-8. Brussels: CEN; 2005.
CEN. Eurocode 4: Design of composite steel and comcrete
structures-Part 1-1: General rules and rules for buildings.
ENV 1994-1-1. Brussels: CEN; 2004.
Cheng, C.T. & Chung, L.L. 2003. Seismic performance of steel
beams to concrete-filled steel tubular column connections.
Journal of Constructional Steel Research 59(3): 405-426.
FEMA-350, Recommended seismic design moment-frame
buildings. Federal Emergency Management Agency; 2000.
Fukumoto, T. 2005. Steel-beam-to-concrete-filled-steel-tubecolumn moment connections in Japan. International Journal
of Steel Structures 5(4): 357-365.
KS B 0801 [in Korean].
Li, W.Q., Chen, Y.Y., Wang, W., Xu, Y.J. & Lv, X.D. 2010.
Experimental study of external diaphragm joint connecting
CHS column and H-shaped beam. Advanced Steel
Construction 6(1): 578-588.
Wang, N. & Lee, M.J. 2015. Structural behavior of
beam-to-column connections of circular CFST columns by
using mixed diaphragm. International Journal of Steel
Structures 15(2): 347-364.
Zhang, D., Gao, S. & Gong, J. 2012. Seismic behavior of steel
beam to circular CFST column assemblies with external
diaphragms. Journal of Constructional Steel Research
83(4): 155-166.
Recommendations for design and construction of concrete-filled
steel tubular structures: Architecture Institute of Japan,
2008.

434

11th International Conference on

Advances in Steel and Concrete Composite Structures
Tsinghua University, Beijing, China, December 3-5, 2015

ANALYSIS ON UPLIFT BEHAVIOR OF NOTCHED PERFOBOND

CONNECTOR
Y. Q. Liu, Y. Q. Liu & S. J. Zheng
Department of Bridge Engineering, Tongji University, Shanghai, China
E-mail: lyq_solar@163.com, yql@tongji.edu.cn, sjzhengcn@163.com
ABSTRACT
Keywords:
Composite bridge; Perfobond
connector; Uplift behavior; Finite
element modeling; Notch.

To study the uplift transfer mechanism of notched perfobond connector, the uplift behavior of
the notched perfobond connector was investigated by 3 uplift model tests. A nonlinear finite
element model was established based on the ABAQUS software to simulate the uplift test of
perfobond connector. The calculated results of the model agreed well with the experimental
results. The uplift transfer mechanism of the perfobond rib and the concrete dowel was analyzed
by the model. Research results show that notched perfobond connector has great uplift strength
and stiffness. With the increase of the uplift force, firstly the perfobond yields at the intersection
of the notch and the hole. Then the variation of uplift force is small while the separation between
concrete and steel increases. Until most of the concrete dowel exceeds the ultimate bearing
capacity, the uplift force begins to fall.

used as an effective method to observe and analyze the

whole loading process (Nguyen et al. 2009).
In this paper, the uplift behavior of notched perfobond
connector was investigated by model tests. Considering
the geometrical and material nonlinearity, and contact
interaction, a 3-dimensional nonlinear finite element
model was established to simulate the uplift test of
perfobond connector. The accuracy of the finite element
model was verified by comparison with the experimental
results. Finally, the stress characteristics of the main
components were analyzed to study the uplift bearing
mechanism of notched perfobond connector.

1 INTRODUCTION
In steel and concrete composite structures, shear
connectors are usually used to ensure load transfer
between steel and concrete components. Perfobond
connectors are increasingly used as shear connector at
large span composite bridges due to simple structure and
favorable shear behavior (Liu et al. 2009). At the joint of
the hybrid girder, hybrid pylon, hybrid arch rib and other
composite structures, perfobond connectors are usually
installed on the top, bottom and side ribs of the steel cells
(He et al. 2014). The small size of the cells and the multi
ribs arrangement lead to difficulties of perforating rebars
through the hole from one side. In practical application,
perfobond connectors bear both the shear force parallel to
the joint surface and the uplift force in vertical direction.
It is important to investigate the shear and uplift behavior
of perfobond connectors.
In recent years, many scholars have studied the shear
perfomance of perfobond connectors by model tests. The
influence factors of shear behavior include hole diameter,
number of holes, spacing of ribs and holes, diameter of
rebars, strength of concrete, etc (Ahn et al. 2010; Vianna
et al. 2013; Martins et al. 2010). Zheng and Liu (2013)
proposed the structure of setting a notch at the edge of the
hole, and studied the shear and uplift behavior of notched
perfobond connectors through model test. Based on
model test, limited data can be obtained to evaluate the
uplift behavior of perfobond connectors. It is difficult to
observe the stress distribution, the deformation and the
failure mode during the test. Finite element model can be

2 UPLIFT BEHAVIOR TEST

2.1 Configuration of specimens
A total of 3 notched perfobond connector specimens
of uplift behavior tests were designed. One specimen was
subjected to monotonic loading, while the other two
specimens were subjected to repeated loading. Except for
the different loading methods, the hole diameternotch
width, thickness and height of plate, diameter of rebar
kept consistent for these 3 specimens. Figure 1 shows the
geometry of notched perfobond connector. The hole
diameter d was 75 mm, the plate height h was 150 mm,
the plate thickness t was 20 mm, the diameter of rebar ds
was 20 mm, and the notch width c was 37.5 mm.

435

Liu et al.

and the upper steel beam flange. When the specimens

were loaded, the two jacks synchronously lifted the
I-shaped beam and the uplift force was applied to the
perfobond connector. The displacement gauges were
arranged on the upper ribs to measure the relative
separation between steel beam and concrete block.

Figure 1. Geometry of notched perfobond connector (mm).

The same material parameters and testing method

were used in all the specimens. The yield strength of steel
fy was 335 MPa and the prism compressive strength of
concrete fc was 40.5 MPa.
Figure 2 presents the configuration of the uplift
behavior model test specimens. The perfobond connector
with the perforated steel bar was welded below the lower
flange of the I-shaped beam. Two rectangular grooves
were cut on both sides of lower flange to install the
hydraulic jacks. Distribution reinforcements were
embedded in the concrete block to improve the crack
resistance of concrete.

Figure 3. Model test setup and instrumentation.

2.3 Test results and analysis

Table 1 shows the uplift test results of notched
perfobond connectors, including uplift bearing capacity
Tu, uplift stiffness kn and peak separation dp. The secant
slope at the point with the separation of 0.2 mm was used
as the uplift stiffness (Zheng & Liu 2014). Notched
perfobond connector has great uplift behavior.

Table 1. Results of uplift behavior test.

Tu(kN)
kn(kNmm-1)
Specimen
Test
Avg
Test
Avg
PT-1

294.2

PT-2

279.8

PT-3

274.1

662.5
282.7

674.0
637.5

dp(mm)
Test

Avg

1.15
658.0

1.06

1.19

1.35

Figure 4 shows the uplift force-separation curves

under monotonic loading and repeated loading. The
envelope curve of the repeated loading specimens uplift
force-separation curve is similar to the monotonic loading
curve, which mainly includes two stages of elasticity and
plasticity. At the initial stage of loading, the uplift force
increased linearly with the increase of the separation.
When the load kept increasing, the specimens went into
plastic stage and the uplift stiffness gradually decreased.
After the load reached the uplift bearing capacity, the
variation of uplift force was small within a certain range
of separation. When the separation reached about 2mm,
the uplift force began to fall.

(a) Elevation

(b) Side

(c) Plan
Figure 2. Configuration of model test specimens (mm).

2.2 Setup and instrumentation

Figure 3 shows the setup and instrumentation of uplift
model test. On both sides of the I-shaped beam, two jacks
were symmetrically installed between the concrete block
436

Liu et al.

Stress, (MPa)

Uplift Force, T(kN)

250
200
150

2.5

30
20
10

2.0
1.5
1.0
0.5
0.0

2
4
6
-3
Strain, (10 )

0.0

0.3 0.6 0.9

-3
Strain, (10 )

1.2

(a) Compression
(b)Tension
Figure 6. The constitutive model of concrete.

0
1
2
Separation, s(mm)

40

50

3.0

PT-1
PT-3

100

50
Stress, (MPa)

300

ABAQUS default values were used for the

compression plastic damage parameters. The material
dilation angle and eccentricity were set as 30and 0.1.
The ratio of biaxial to uniaxial compressive strength was
set as 1.16. The ratio of the stretching to the compression
meridian planes second stress invariant was taken as
0.667. The viscosity coefficient was taken as 0.
The parts of the perfobond and the I-shaped beam
used the ideal elastic-plastic constitutive model. The yield
strength was 335 MPa. An ideal elastic-plastic
constitutive model with strain hardening stage was used
for the parts of the distribution reinforcements and the
perforated steel bar. The initial stage of the constitutive
model was assumed to be elastic, followed by the stages
of yielding and strain hardening.

Figure 4. Uplift force-separation curves.

3 FINITE ELEMENT MODEL

3.1 General
The 3-dimensional nonlinear finite element model of
notched perfobond connector uplift test is shown in
Figure 5. The geometry and material parameters of the
model were in accordance with the test specimens. The
material nonlinearity, geometric nonlinearity and contact
interaction were considered in the model.
The model consists of an I-shaped beam, a notched
perfobond connector, a perforated steel bar, a concrete
block and distribution reinforcements. The distribution
reinforcements used the 3-dimensional 2-node linear truss
element T3D2. The rest of the components used the
8-node linear hexahedron reduced integration element
C3D8R.

3.3 Contact interaction

Surface to surface contact interaction was set up
between the lower flange and concrete block, the surface
of perfobond and concrete block, the hole of perfobond
and the concrete dowel. The normal and tangential
behaviors of the contact property were hard and
frictionless, respectively.

4 NUMERICAL RESULTS ANALYSIS

4.1 Uplift force-separation curve
Figure 7 shows the comparison between the
calculated uplift force-separation curve and the test
results of the monotonic loading specimen.

Figure 5. Nonlinear finite element model of uplift test.

3.2 Material constitutive model

Figure 6 shows the concrete constitutive model used
in the model, which is defined by the stress-strain
relationship. The stress-strain curve referred to the
calculation formula of Code for design of concrete
structure (GB 50010-2010).

437

Liu et al.

intersection, the stress of perfobond was redistributed

along the edge of hole.

300

Uplift Force, T(kN)

250
200
150
Test
FEA

100

50

Figure 8. Mises stress distribution of perfobond.

0
0

1
2
Separation, s(mm)

Figure 9 shows the principal stress direction and

distribution of notched perfobond when the load reached
the uplift bearing capacity. The principal tensile stress
with the direction along the edge of the hole was mainly
distributed in both sides of the hole. The maximum
principal tensile stress appeared at the top of the left and
right semi-circular arc. Then the stress transmitted to the
edge of perfobond close to the flange at different angles.
At the notched edge of the perfobond, the principal
tensile stress was small. Some principal tensile stress
transmitted from the top of the two semi-circular arcs to
the corners of the perfobond.

Figure 7. Comparison between calculated and test results.

The uplift bearing capacity of the test and calculated

results were 282.7 kN and 281.0 kN, respectively. The
uplift stiffness were 658.0 kN/mm and 672.6 kN/mm,
respectively. The general trends of the calculated and
experimental curve were similar to each other. With the
increase of the uplift force, the stiffness degradation of
the numerical model was slower than the test specimen.
When the load reaches the uplift bearing capacity, the
variation of the uplift force was small within a certain
range of separation.
There were two peaks in the calculated curve. The
first peak appeared in the separation of about 1 mm,
corresponding to the state that perfobond locally yielded
at the intersection of the rectangular notch and the hole.
At this state, the strain of the concrete dowel in the
vicinity of the intersection exceeded the ultimate strain.
After the first peak, the variation of the uplift force was
small with the increase of the separation. The stress of the
perfobond was redistributed to the edge of the hole.
Meanwhile the strain of concrete dowel increased rapidly.
When the separation increased to about 2 mm, the uplift
force reached the second peak. On the lower side of the
concrete dowel and in a certain area along the
longitudinal direction of the perforated steel bar, the
concrete strain all exceeded the ultimate strain. At this
point, the structure failed and the uplift force began to
fall.

(a) Principal tensile stress

(b) Principal compressive stress

Figure 9. Principal stress transfer path of perfobond.

4.2 Perfobond uplift mechanism analysis

The principal compressive stress concentrated at the

intersection of the rectangular notch and the hole. The
stress was mainly in the radial direction. The local
principal compressive stress exceeded the yield stress.
The principal compressive stress transmitted along the
notched edge from the intersection to the perfobond edge
which was parallel to the direction of uplift force.

Figure 8 shows the Mises stress distribution of the

notched perfobond when the load reached the uplift
bearing capacity. The stress was mainly distributed in the
edge region near the left and right sides of the hole, and
transmitted to the notched edge of perfobond in the
direction of about 45. Along the vertical direction of the
uplift force, the stress transmitted to the perfobond edge
whose direction was parallel to the load. With the
increase of the uplift force, the stress of the perfobond
concentrated at the intersection of the rectangular notch
and the hole. After the steel locally yielded at the

4.3 Concrete dowel uplift mechanism analysis

Figure 10 shows the principal compressive strain
distribution on the cross section of the concrete dowel

438

Liu et al.

ultimate strain, the notched perfobond connector is

loaded to the uplift bearing capacity.
(2) The stress of notched perfobond is mainly
distributed near both sides of the hole and concentrates at
the intersection of the rectangular notch and the hole. The
principal tensile stress transmits to the edge of perfobond
close to the flange at different angles. The principal
compressive stress transversely transmits along the
notched edge.
(3) The maximum principal compressive strain of the
concrete dowel appears near the intersection of the
rectangular notch and the hole. The strain symmetrically
degrades upward on both sides of the perforated steel bar.
When the load reaches the uplift bearing capacity, the
principal compressive strain of about 3/4 area of the
concrete dowel and half of the notch exceeds the ultimate
strain. The calculated concrete degraded region is
consistent with the concrete stripping area in the test.

when the load reached the state of the steel initial yield
and uplift bearing capacity. Because of the nonlinear
constitutive model, the material property degraded and
the concrete strength reduced greatly when the concrete
strain exceeded the peak strain.

(a) state of steel initial yield

REFERENCES
Ahn, J.H., Lee, C.G. & Won, J.H. 2010. Shear resistance of the
perfobond-rib shear connector depending on concrete
strength and rib arrangement. Journal of Constructional
Steel Research 66(10): 1295-1307.
Cndido-Martins, J.P.S., Costa-Neves, L.F., & Vellasco,
P.C.G.S. 2010. Experimental evaluation of the structural
response of perfobond shear connectors. Engineering
Structures 32(8): 1976-1985.
GB 50010-2010, Code for design of concrete structure. Beijing:
China Architecture & Building Press.
He, J., Liu, Y.Q. & Pei, B.Z. 2014. Experimental study of the
steel-concrete connection in hybrid cable-stayed bridges.
Journal of Performance of Constructed Facilities 28(3):
559-570.
Liu, Y.Q., Pei, B.Z. & Zhao, C. 2009. Application and
development of perfobond connector in bridge structures.
Journal of China & Foreign Highway 29: 112-116.
Nguyen, H.T. & Kim, S.E. 2009. Finite element modeling of
push-out tests for large stud shear connectors. Journal of
Constructional Steel Research 65: 1909-1920.
Vianna, J.C., Andrade, S.A.L. & Vellasco, P.C.G.S. 2013.
Experimental study of perfobond shear connectors in
composite construction. Journal of Constructional Steel
Research 81: 62-75.
Zheng, S.J. & Liu, Y.Q. 2013. Experimental investigation on
shear and uplift behavior of notched perfobond connector.
China Journal of Highway and Transport 26(4): 119-124.
Zheng, S.J. & Liu, Y.Q. 2014. Experiment of initial shear
stiffness of perfobond connector. China Journal of Highway
and Transport 27(11): 69-75.

(b) state of uplift bearing capacity

Figure 10. Compressive principal strain distribution of concrete
dowel.

At the state of steel initial yield, the distribution of

principal compressive strain concentrated near the
intersection of the rectangular notch and the hole. The
local strain exceeded the ultimate strain and the local
regions connected in the transverse direction. The
principal compressive strain of the concrete dowel
symmetrically degraded upward on the left and right
sides of the perforated steel bar. Concrete strain was
small in the notch region.
When the load reached the uplift bearing capacity, the
principal compressive strain of about 3/4 area of the
concrete dowel and half of the notch exceeded the
ultimate strain. Most of the concrete in the dowel
degraded and the uplift force reduced. The calculated
concrete degraded region was consistent with the
concrete stripping area in the test.

5 CONCLUSION
(1) With the increase of the uplift force, the notched
perfobond first yields at the intersection of the
rectangular notch and the hole. Meanwhile the concrete
dowel has local failure. Then the stress of the perfobond
is redistributed to the edge of the hole. The strain of the
concrete dowel increases rapidly. With the separation
increases, the variation of the uplift force is small. Until
the strain of most concrete dowel area exceeds the
439

11th International Conference on

Advances in Steel and Concrete Composite Structures
Tsinghua University, Beijing, China, December 3-5, 2015

EXPERIMENTAL STUDY ON ULTIMATE CAPACITY OF

GROUTED CONNECTIONS IN TRIPOD SUPPORT STRUCTURE
OF OFFSHORE WIND TURBINES
W. Pana, J. Fana & W. Lib
a

Department of Civil Engineering, Tsinghua University, Beijing, China

E-mails: panwenhao13@tsinghua.org.cn, fanjsh@tsinghua.edu.cn (corresponding author)

POWERCHINA HUADONG Engineering Corporation, Hangzhou, China

E-mail: li_w@ecidi.com
ABSTRACT
Keywords:
Offshore wind turbine;
Tripod support structure; Grouted
connection; Shear key;
Ultra-high performance grout;
Ultimate axial capacity

Substructures of offshore wind turbines are connected to the foundation piles by grouted
connections with ultra-high performance grout. The experimental study was conducted on the
ultimate capacity of axial loaded grouted connections to support the design of the tripod support
structure of a real offshore wind turbine project. A total of five tests were carried out. One
integral model was 1/6 reduced scale model of the prototype structure, and four segmental
models were segments of the integral model. In these test models, an ultra-high performance
grout was used and it can largely improve the bearing behavior of the grouted connections. In
the integral model test, the ultimate state of the integral model was caused by buckling of the
inner steel tube. Additionally, measurements showed that the axial deformation of the inner steel
tube contributed a large proportion of the total axial deformation of the integral model. Thus, it
can be concluded that the grouted connection of the integral model had much higher axial
capacity and stiffness than the inner steel tube. In the segmental model test, the reference
segmental model with shear key had much better axial capacity and ductility than segmental
models without shear key. The segmental model after fatigue cycle had nearly the same ultimate
capacity as the reference model, though its ductility behavior had deteriorated. Therefore, shear
key is recommended for axial loaded grouted connections to ensure its ultimate capacity and
fatigue performance. Finally, the test results were compared with empirical formulae for the
ultimate axial capacity of grouted connections, recommended by the DNV and NORSOK
standards. Comparisons indicated that the ultimate axial capacity of grouted connections was
underestimated by the two standards in case of using ultra-high performance grout.

connection, shear keys weld at the opposite grouted

surfaces of the connection were commonly used.

1 INTRODUCTION
Nowadays, the monopile support structure is the most
widely used support structure in offshore wind turbines
(Klose et al. 2008). However, for offshore wind turbines
in deeper waters or with more rated power, other types of
support structure maybe more suitable choices than the
monopile (Schaumann et al. 2010). One of them is the
tripod support structure (Byrne & Houlsby 2003), in
which the three piles can provide large stiffness and high
stability against overturning.
As shown in Figure 1, the tripod support structure
consists of a central column, bracings, and pile sleeves.
Through each sleeve is placed a pile, which is driven into
seabed and connected to the pile sleeve with a grouted
connection (Det Norske Veritas 2013). To provide
additional mechanical interlocks in the grouted

Figure 1. Tripod support structure and its grouted connection.

440

Pan et al.

(GC-1 and GC-4) and two without shear key (GC-2 and
GC-3) were designed. GC-1 and GC-4 had three shear
keys at a spacing of 100 mm. In addition, to study the
axial loaded performance of grouted connections after
fatigue, GC-4 had gone through a design-level fatigue
cycle (10-80 kN over two million times) before static
load.

80

165

9100=900

90 80

In the tripod support structure, the grouted

connections are prevailing axial loaded. Since 1970s,
many empirical design formulae (Billington & Lewis
1978; Billington & Tebbett 1980; Sele et al. 1989) for the
ultimate axial capacity of grouted connections were
proposed by the researchers, and some were suggested by
the offshore standards (Det Norske Veritas 2013, 2014;
NORSOK 2013). These formulae were derived based on
the test results years ago, therefore their validity for wider
ranges of structural parameters is to be studied. For
example, in the current engineering practice, shear key
with high height-to-spacing ratio and grout with
ultra-high performance were commonly used. In these
cases, the ultimate axial capacity of grouted connections
may be underestimated.
Based on a real offshore wind turbine project, the
ultimate axial capacity of grouted connections was
studied by an integral model test and four segmental
model tests. Then, the test results were compared with
empirical design formulae recommended by the DNV and
the NORSOK standards. The test results and comparisons
with the offshore standards in this paper are useful for the
design of grouted connections in similar types of support
structure.

2 EXPERIMENTAL PROGRAM

(b) Segmental models GC-1 &

(a) Integral model
GC-4
Figure 2. Details of test models.

2.1 Details of Test Models

Based on the prototype tripod support structure shown
in Figure 1, a total of five test models were designed,
including one integral model and four segmental models.
The geometry of the tripod support structure is shown in
Table 1.

Table 2. Details of segmental models.

Table 1. Geometry of the tripod support structure.

Outer
diameter
/mm
Thickness
/mm

Tower

Upper
diagonal
bracing

Lower
diagonal
bracing

Pile

3000~
5200

2200~
3200

1200~
1600

2450 2800

35~85

25~50

25~30

40

Pile
sleeve

Model

Length (mm)

Shear key arrangement

GC-1

300

3 sk @100mm

GC-2

188

No sk

GC-3

295

No sk

GC-4

300

3 sk @100mm

Loading plate

35~65

Details of the integral model were shown in Figure

2a. The integral model was a 1/6 reduced scale model of
the prototype structure. After scaling, the inner and outer
steel tube had an outer diameter of 377 mm and 457 mm,
and a thickness of 8.5 mm and 10.5 mm, respectively.
The thickness of grout was 29.5 mm. In the grouted
surface of each steel tube, ten 3-mm height shear keys
were arranged at a spacing of 100 mm.
Details of the segmental models were shown in Figure
2b, additional details were shown in Table 2. To ensure
push-out failure of the segmental model test, the
segmental models were designed as segments of the
integral model. In the test, two models with shear key

Loading plate

Stiffener

(a) Integral model

Figure 3. Test setup.

441

(b) Segmental models

Pan et al.

2.2 Loading Method and Measurements Arrangement

grout to steel interface was 0.6. As shown in Table 4, the

ultra-high performance grout had high compressive and
flexure strengths. Additionally, more than 80% of the
grout strengths were developed at an early age of 8 days.

Figure 3 shows the test setup. The axial load was

uniformly applied to the inner tube of the test models by a
loading plate. To obtain the descending branch of the
load-displacement curve, the displacement-controlled
loading method was implemented.
Figure 4 shows the measurements arrangement. For
the integral model, five displacement gauges were
applied: hy1 and hy2 were used to measure the relative
displacement between the inner and outer tubes (i.e. the
slip deformation); zt1 and zt2 were used to measure the
total axial deformation in the grouted length; zt3 were
used to measure the axial deformation in the inner tube.
For the segmental models, only two displacement gauges
were applied, as shown in Figure 4b.
hy1

3 INTEGRAL MODEL TEST

3.1 Test Observations
Test observations in the integral model test are shown
in Table 5. As the load increased gradually, a small sound
was observed, which was probably caused by local
compressive failure of the grout material. At a load of
2900kN, when the interface shear stress was 2.12MPa
and the compressive stress in inner tube was 294.7MPa,
failure occurred after buckling of the inner steel tube, as
shown in Figure 5. After test, no relative displacement
between the inner and outer tubes was observed.
Therefore, it can be concluded that the grouted
connection of the integral model had higher axial
capacity than the inner steel tube.

hy2

hy3

Table 5. Test observations in integral model test.

Load

2100 kN

Test observations
Small sound probably caused by local
compressive failure of the grout material
Small sound occurred continuously

2900 kN

Buckling of inner steel tube

1200 kN

zt1

zt2

(a) Integral model

(b) Segmental models
Figure 4. Measurements arrangement.
Table 3. Material properties of steel.
Thickness (mm)
8.5
10.5

Diameter (mm)
377
457

fy (MPa)
311.8
369.8

fu (MPa)
433.8
458.3

Figure 5. Buckling of inner steel tube in integral model test.

Table 4. Material properties of grout

Age (d)
fcu (MPa)
fr (MPa)
2
81.6
7.2
8
101.3
8.8
15
100.5
10.8
61
113.7
10.8
Note: fcu = cubic compressive strength of grout determined by
70 mm 70 mm 70 mm specimens; fr = flexural strength of
grout determined by 40 mm 40 mm 160 mm specimens.

2.3 Material Properties

Figure 6. Load-deflection curves of the integral model.

Material properties with respect to steel and grout are

summarized in Table 3 and Table 4, respectively. In the
tests, an ultra-high performance grout was applied in the
grouted connection. The modulus of elasticity for the
grout was 35,000MPa, and the friction coefficient of

3.2 Test Results

The load-deflection curves of the integral model are
shown in Figure 6. Before load reached 2000kN, hy1 and
hy2 for the slip deformation and zt1 and zt2 for the total
442

Pan et al.

axial deformation in the grouted length were all very

small compare to zt3. This is because the axial
deformation of the inner steel tube contributed a large
proportion of total axial deformation of the integral
model. Therefore, it can be concluded that the grouted
connection of the integral model had higher stiffness than
the inner steel tube.

4 SEGMENTAL MODEL TEST

4.1 Test Observations

(a) GC-1

The segmental models were divided into two

categories, according to whether or not shear key was
applied. Test observations of models with shear key
(GC-1 and GC-4) are similar, as shown in Table 6.
Before the ultimate load, no obvious phenomenon was
observed except for the small sound caused by local
compressive failure of the grout material. Then, a huge
sound happened with a sudden decrease in the applied
load. The huge sound was caused by failure of the grout
compression strut. Because of the good confinement of
grout by the inner and outer tubes, the load rose back
after the sudden decrease. After test, only a slightly slip
deformation was observed, as shown in Figure 7a.
Because no additional mechanical interlock was
provided, test observations of models without shear key
(GC-2 and GC-3) are different from GC-1 and GC-4, as
shown in Table 7. Their failure mode was slip failure
between grout and steel tube. After test, a complete slip
deformation of the inner steel tube was observed, as
shown in Figure 7b.

(MPa)

(b) GC-2
Figure 7. Segmental models after test.

Table 6. Test observations in segmental model GC-1 test.

Load
1200 kN

Test observations
Small sound

2200 kN

Small sound occurred continuously

Huge sound happened with a sudden
decrease in the applied load
Load rose back after the sudden decrease

Slip 2~2.5mm
Afterwards

Figure 8. Interface shear stress-slip curves of segmental models

Note: Interface shear stress = load / interface area between the
inner tube and grout; Slip = average of displacement gauge 1
and 2.

Table 7. Test observations in segmental model GC-2 test.

Load
300 kN
Afterwards

4.2 Test Results

Test observations
Huge sound
Huge sound occurred continuously;
Obvious slip deformation was observed;
Fluctuation of applied load between
300kN~400kN

The interface shear stress-slip curves of the segmental

models are shown in Figure 8. The ultimate axial capacity
and interface shear strength of the segmental models are
shown in Table 8. As shown in the table, models with
shear key (GC-1 and GC-4) had considerably higher
interface shear strength than models without shear key
(GC-2 and GC-3). Additionally, GC-1 had better ductility
than GC-2 and GC-3. Therefore, it can be concluded that
shear key was able to increase both the strength and
ductility of the grouted connections.
To study the axial loaded performance of grouted
connections after fatigue, GC-4 had gone through a
design-level fatigue cycle before static load. Figure 8
suggests that the ductility behavior of GC-4 had

443

Pan et al.

deteriorated. Nevertheless, GC-4 had nearly the same

ultimate capacity as the reference model GC-1.
Therefore, shear key is recommended for axial loaded
grouted connections to ensure its ultimate capacity and
fatigue performance.

0.8
800
h
140 k 0.6 f cu0.3
Dp
s

u =

Where Dp = outer diameter of the pile; k = a radial

stiffness factor defined by the standard.

Table 8. Ultimate axial capacity and interface shear strength of

segmental models.

5.2 Comparisons of Test results with Empirical

Formulae

Model
Pu (kN)
u (MPa)
GC-1
2974.4
8.37
GC-2
428.5
1.92
GC-3
739.7
2.12
GC-4
2856.7
8.04
Note: Interface shear strength u = maximum interface shear
stress.

Comparisons of the interface shear strength test

results with the empirical formulae are shown in Table 9.
The interface shear strength test results were
underestimated by the two empirical formulae. For the
interface shear strength of grouted connections without
shear key, the ratios of the predicted results by the two
formulae to the test results are both less than 55%, which
is too conservative. For the interface shear strength of
grouted connections with shear key, the predicted results
by the two formulae vary considerably: the new DNV
standard gives a 55% prediction of the test results, which
was also too conservative, while the old DNV standard
gives a better prediction of 82% of the test result.

5 COMPARISONS WITH EMPIRICAL

FORMULAE

5.1 Empirical Formulae

Investigators
have
developed
empirical
or
semi-empirical formulae for the ultimate axial capacity of
grouted connections since 1970s. Among these formulae,
the formulae recommended by the DNV (Det Norske
Veritas 2013, 2014) and the NORSOK standard
(NORSOK 2013) are widely used.
In 1989, research group in DNV (Sele et al. 1989)
proposed a semi-empirical formula for the interface shear
strength of grouted connections, as shown in Equation 1.
The proposed model for the semi-empirical formula
utilized a friction factor to transfer the contact pressure
between steel tube and grout to the interface shear stress.
This equation was recommended by Det Norske Veritas
(Det Norske Veritas 2013) until 2013.

u =

h 0.4 tp s
+
f cu
N
F Rp 21s
Rp Lg

(2)

Table 9. Comparison of interface shear strength test results with

empirical formulae.
Without Predicted /
sk (MPa) Test
Test results 2.02
\
DNV-2013 1.04
0.52

With sk
(MPa)
8.21

Predicted /
Test
\

6.70
0.82
DNV-2014 0.90
0.45
4.52
0.55
Note: The test results for models without shear key were taken
as the average of GC-2 and GC-3; the test results for models
with shear key were taken as the average of GC-1 and GC-4.

(1)

Where u = interface shear strength in MPa; fcu = cubic

compressive strength of grout in MPa; = the friction
coefficient of grout to steel interface; E = modulus of
elasticity for steel; F = a radial flexibility factor defined
by the standard; = height of surface irregularities to be
taken as 0.07 mm for rolled steel surfaces; h = shear key
height; s = shear key spacing; N = number of shear keys;
Rp = outer radius of the pile; tp = thickness of pile; Lg =
length of the grouted connection.
In 2014, the new DNV standard (Det Norske Veritas
2014) recommended a different formula, as shown in
Equation 2. The formulation of this equation was based
on the experimental and theoretical study of Billington &
Lewis (1978) and Billington & Tebbett (1980). This
formula was also recommended by the NORSOK
standard (NORSOK 2013).

Figure 9. u-fcu relations by the empirical formulae.

The main reason for the underestimation of the test

results was the use of ultra-high performance grout.
Figure 9 shows u-fcu relations of the test models with
shear key predicted by the two formulae. Additionally,
the test results were also shown in the figure. The two
formulae suggested that u is proportional to the 0.4th
and 0.3th power of fcu, respectively. However, according
to Billington & Lewis (1978) and Billington & Tebbett
(1980), the influence of fcu may be greater. The

444

Pan et al.

REFERENCES

compressive strength of grout in the test was 113.7MPa,

while the compressive strength of grout in the database
for the two formulae was only around 50MPa. Therefore,
the test results will be underestimated by the two
standards in case of using ultra-high performance grout.
For a wider application in the current engineering
practice, the design formulae should be reexamined, and
a new database considering wider ranges of structural
parameters should be applied.

Billington, C.J., & Lewis, G.H.G. 1978. The strength of large

diameter grouted connections. Tenth Annual Offshore
Technology Conference, May 8-11, 1978. Houston, USA.
Billington, C.J., & Tebbett, I.E. 1980. The basis for new design
formulae for grouted jacket to pile connections. Twelves
Annual Offshore Technology Conference, May 5-8, 1980.
Houston, USA.
Byrne, B.W., & Houlsby, G.T. 2003. Foundations for offshore
wind turbines. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal
Society of London. Series A: Mathematical, Physical and
Engineering Sciences 361(1813): 2909-2930.
Det Norske Veritas (DNV). 2013. DNV-OS-J101 Offshore
Standard: Design of offshore wind turbine structures.
Barum, Norway: Det Norske Veritas.
Det Norske Veritas (DNV). 2014. DNV-OS-J101 Offshore
Standard: Design of offshore wind turbine structures.
Barum, Norway: Det Norske Veritas.
Klose, M., Faber, T., Schaumann, P., & Lochte-Holtgreven, S.
2008. Grouted Connections for Offshore Wind Turbines.
Proceedings of the Eighteenth International Offshore and
Polar Engineering Conference, July 6-11, 2008. Cupertino,
USA.
NORSOK. 2013. Design of Steel Structures. Barum, Norway:
Standards Norway.
Schaumann, P., Bechtel, A., & Lochte-Holtgreven, S. 2010.
Fatigue Design for Prevailing Axially Loaded Grouted
Connections of Offshore Wind Turbine Support Structures
in Deeper Waters. Proceedings of the European Wind
Energy Conference, April 20-23, 2010. Warsaw, Poland.
Sele, A.B., Veritec, A.S., & Kjeoy, H. 1989. Background for the
new design equations for grouted connections in the DnV
draft rules for fixed offshore structures. 21st Annual
Offshore Technology Conference, May 1-4, 1989. Houston,
USA.

6 CONCLUSIONS
In this paper, the ultimate capacity of axial loaded
grouted connections was studied by an integral model test
and four segmental model tests. The test results were
compared with the DNV and NORSOK standards. The
main conclusions in the present study are summarized as
follows:
(1) In the integral model test, the grouted connection
of the integral model had much higher axial capacity and
stiffness than the inner steel tube.
(2) In the segmental model test, shear key was able to
increase both the strength and ductility of the grouted
connections. After fatigue cycle, the ductility behavior of
the segmental model had deteriorated while the ultimate
capacity was nearly the same as the reference model.
(3) In case of using ultra-high performance grout, the
ultimate axial capacity of grouted connections was
underestimated by the DNV and NORSOK standards.
For a wider application in the current engineering
practice, the design formulae should be reexamined.

445

11th International Conference on

Advances in Steel and Concrete Composite Structures
Tsinghua University, Beijing, China, December 3-5, 2015

SIMULATION OF BEAM TO CONCRETE-FILLED ELLIPTICAL

STEEL TUBULAR COLUMN CONNECTIONS
J. Yang, T. Sheehan, X. Dai & D. Lam
Faculty of Engineering and Informatics, University of Bradford, Bradford, UK
E-mails: j.yang14@student.bradford.ac.uk, t.sheehan@bradford.ac.uk, x.dai@bradford.ac.uk, d.lam1@bradford.ac.uk
ABSTRACT
Keywords:
Concrete-filled columns;
Elliptical hollow section; Beam
to column connections; Finite
element modeling.

Elliptical Hollow Sections (EHSs) have been utilized in construction recently because of their
visual appearance as well as potential structural efficiency owing to the presence of the two
principle axes. However, little information currently exists for the design of beam to elliptical
column connections, which are an essential part of a building structure. Thus, to ensure the safe
and economic application of EHSs, a new research project has been initiated. Rotation behavior
of simply bolted beam to concrete-filled elliptical steel column connections was investigated
experimentally. Various joint types were considered and the benefits of adopting core concrete
and stiffeners were highlighted. This paper covers the experimental studies and simulation
methods using the ABAQUS standard solver. Comparisons of failure modes and moment vs.
rotation relationships of the connections between numerical and experimental results were
given. Good agreement has been obtained which means that the finite element model obtained
could be used to carry out further parametric studies.

plates in columns were studied. The studied joint types are

illustrated in Figure 1, from type-AC to DC. An
experimental study (Yang et al. 2015) was carried out to
verify the obtained preliminary findings and also to
provide better understanding of the structural behavior of
these joints, including an additional joint type-EC (Fig. 1,
EC) which was embedded in a stiffener plate in the major
axis direction of EHS column. Corresponding connections
with EHS columns, i.e. without concrete in-fill, were also
tested to highlight the benefit of using the concrete infill.
This paper herein presents the experimental program and
description of a finite element modeling method to
simulate the concrete-filled connections.

1 INTRODUCTION
Concrete-Filled Steel Tubular (CFST) columns are
well-known for their superior structural properties thanks
to the mutual complementation of steel tube and concrete
core. The most popular common cross sectional shapes of
CFST columns are circular, square and rectangular. A new
range of Elliptical Hollow Sections (EHSs) has become
available recently in the manufacturing industry, which
adds diversity to the sectional shape and fulfils the
aesthetics demand by designers. However, limited
information exists to enable safe and economic design of
EHS components/connections in structures, which might
limit its widespread application. Efforts have been made
on researching structural behavior of elliptical columns
(Zhao & Packer 2009, Dai & Lam 2010), beams (Law &
Gardner 2012), welded truss EHS connections (Shen et al.
2013), etc. However, beam to concrete-filled elliptical
column connections, which are essential in a frame
structure, remain unfamiliar to designers. The fabrication
of such connections could be complicated and
cumbersome owing to the curved face of the column. Fin
plate connections thus have been widely adopted owing to
the merits of easier-erection, faster-construction and
lower-cost. A series of fin plate beam-column connections
considering different joint assemblies was investigated by
Lam & Dai (2012) through numerical modeling methods,
aiming to find out their moment-rotation behavior.
Connections with and without concrete core and stiffener

Figure 1. Joint types.

446

Yang et al.

2 DESCRIPTION OF EXPERIMENTAL

Table 1. Mean measured dimensions of EHS columns (mm).

PROGRAM

Specimen
ID
Joint-A
Joint-AC
Joint-B
Joint-BC
Joint-C
Joint-CC
Joint-D
Joint-DC
Joint-E
Joint-EC

2.1 Test arrangements

Details of the experiments can be found in the previous
paper (Yang et al. 2015), so only a brief summary is given
in this section. A total of ten specimens (of which five are
connections with a concrete core in the column and the
other five are corresponding to hollow connections) were
tested to failure with the column under a constant
downward compressive force (approximate 40% of the
column capacity) and the beams subjected to upward
concentrated forces at the beam ends, replacing the slabfloor load that would occur in a real structure. Three
hydraulic actuators were employed to exert these forces.
Test arrangements and a typical beam to elliptical column
specimen can be found in Figure 2 in which some
dimensions of the connection are also illustrated. All EHS
columns (200 100 5, 1500 mm in length, mean
measured dimensions are listed in Table 1) are made of
S355 steel with a tested average yield strength of 355.3
MPa and an ultimate strength of 522.1 MPa, respectively.
The unconfined average cube strengths of the infilled
concrete (C30) were 37 MPa on 28 days and 42 MPa on
test dates. M20 Gr. 8.8 bolts (for type-D, DC, E, EC
connections, where type-D, for example, means typeDC connection without infilled concrete) or Gr. 10.9 bolts
(for type-A, AC, B, BC, C, CC connections) were used to
connect the beams (305 127 48 UB, 900 mm in length)
to fin plates (220 110 10 mm), while the fin plates were
welded to external faces of EHS columns using fillet
welds. Bolt holes in both fin plates and through plate had
a diameter of 22 mm. Stiffener plates/through plates (10
mm in thickness) ran through either the minor or major
axes of the EHS columns with an extended length of 20
mm on each side. Vertical deflections of the beams and
lateral deflections at the positions of the top and bottom
bolts were measured by LVDTs during tests, to calculate
rotations of each connection.

2a 2b t
mm mm mm
198.43 99.52 5.05
198.60 101.89 4.97
200.01 101.51 4.92
198.47 101.57 5.01
198.50 100.50 4.88
198.21 101.42 5.02
197.78 102.03 4.54
198.50 101.62 5.05
197.82 102.10 4.75
198.11 101.58 5.17

L
mm
1500
1499
1487
1498
1498
1498
1497
1500
1495
1495

2.2 Test results

Summarized moment vs. rotation curves were
illustrated in Figure 3, where the moment of each fin-plate
connection is equal to the force at the beam end (recorded
automatically by a data logger) multiplied by the
functional distance (0.8 m) from the loading point to the
rotation center. Curve ECR represents the result of a
repeat test of concrete-filled type-E connection, replacing
M20 Gr. 8.8 bolts by M20 Gr. 10.9 bolts after the bolts
fractured in the initial test. To improve the clarification of
the comparison between the curves, only the phases before
the failure points were plotted in this figure. The initial
stage of the curves was found to be linear, and the slope
was determined by the friction force that existed between
the fin plates, beam webs and bolts. Slippage occurred in
all cases before the bolt shanks touched the edges of bolt
holes. The duration of this phase varied owing to the 2 mm
clearance between the bolt shanks and holes. With the
increase of rotation, slopes of the curves increased
especially for concrete-filled column connections. The
reason is that, the top flange of each beam touched the EHS
column face at some stage during the tests, while the
transverse stiffness of the EHS was significantly enhanced
by core concrete. Summarized failure moment and the
corresponding rotations are listed in Table 2. The main
findings in regards to the moment capacity are: 1) the
moment resistance of simply bolted fin plate connections
can be improved considerably by infilling concrete to the
EHS column, enhancing moment ratio ranges by a factor
ranging from 1.91 to 5.19; 2) the minor axis through plate
connection, type-CC, had much higher stiffness and better
moment capacity and is thus to be recommended for minor
axis beam to EHS column connections.
Typical failure modes of connections with hollow
columns and concrete-filled columns are illustrated in
Figure 4 (a) and (b), respectively. For all joint assemblies,
connections with hollow EHS columns failed by inward
local buckling although stiffeners were used in some cases.
However, this phenomenon was eliminated by using core
concrete. Large concave (in the upper portion of the
connection, caused by direct compression of beam flange)

Figure 2. Test arrangements & Plan connection dimensions.

447

Yang et al.

3 FINITE ELEMENT MODELING METHOD

or convex (in the lower portion, caused by tensile force

transferred from fin plates) deformations that had occurred
in the hollow columns were prevented when concrete infill
was employed. Consequently, bolts fractured (shear
failure) at the final stage of the tests. In contrast to the other
hollow column specimens, the through plate connection,
type-C, failed by bolt shear failure in the final stage of the
test owing to the contribution of through plate to transverse
stiffness of the connection.

3.1 Geometric model

Three dimensional Finite Element (FE) models of
beam to elliptical column connections were developed
using ABAQUS software to analyze and simulate the
moment-rotation behavior of such connections. Mean
measure dimensions of EHS columns illustrated in Table
1 were used to create geometric models. Bolt hole
positions of both beam web and fin plates are shown in
Figure 2. As the two fin plates were welded on the face of
the EHS column, they were thus to be merged with the
column to become one part. Fillet welds were not
considered in all of the models. The actual gap between
end of the beam flange and the EHS column face was not
exactly equal to the design value of 10mm after assembling
the connection, owing to the imperfections of the bolt hole
positions and the 2 mm clearance between the bolts and the
holes. Therefore, the actual gap was considered in the FEM
accordingly. In order to simplify the FE model, all the bolts
were positioned centrally in the bolt holes. A steel plate
with dimensions of 125 mm in length and 14 mm in width
was inserted into the 10 mm gap to extend the beam flange,
and consequently to adjust the gap (by changing the plates
thickness).
During the tests, plastic deformation of the bolts
increased with the increasing external load. As pre-load
existed in the bolts, bolt heads/nuts may have twisted and
become embedded into the fin plates/beam web. To avoid
possible convergence problem when calculating using
ABAQUS/standard solver, hexagon bolt heads and nuts
were simplified as cylinders. This simplification was also
adopted by other researchers (Sarraj et al. 2007, Wang &
Spencer 2013). Bolt head, nut and shank were merged to
be one single part in the model. The geometric model of a
bolt is illustrated in Figure 5. Washers were not included
in this analysis.

60

AC
Moment (kN.m)

50

40

BC
C

30

CC
20

D
DC

10

0
0

0.04

0.08 0.12
Rotation (rad)

0.16

EC

0.2

ECR

Figure 3. Summarized moment vs. rotation relationships.

Table 2. Failure moment and corresponding rotation.

Specimen ID
Joint-A
Joint-AC
Joint-B
Joint-BC
Joint-C
Joint-CC
Joint-D
Joint-DC
Joint-E
Joint-EC
Joint-ECR

Failure
moment
kN.m
22.3
43.8
16.0
49.6
30.0
57.2
8.4
43.6
13.3
33.8
41.4

Rotation
mrad
200
110
100
120
110
110
120
110
180
130
130

Mfilled
/Mhollow
/
1.96
/
3.10
/
1.91
/
5.19
/
2.54
3.11

Figure 5. Geometric model of a bolt (mm).

3.2 Materials
To obtain the tensile strength of EHS column, eight
longitudinal coupons cut from different regions along EHS
parameter direction were tested to failure in accordance
with BS EN 6892-1 (CEN 2009). The obtained average
elastic modulus was 205000 MPa, yield stress was 355.3
MPa and ultimate stress was 522.1 MPa. The main
material properties of fin plates, stiffeners and bolts

Figure 4. Typical failure modes: (a) hollow connection (JointA); (b) concrete-filled connection (Joint-AC).

448

Yang et al.

this paper for the following contact pairs: beam-fin plate,

beam/fin plate-bolt, stiffener plate/through plate-concrete,
rigid plate/roller (described in the next section) -concrete,
EHS-concrete. Hard contact in the normal direction was
defined to fully transfer the load from beam to column
through fins and bolts; a friction coefficient of 0.3 was
assumed for all of the contact surfaces in the tangential
direction.

adopted in the FE model are listed as follows: fin plate,

stiffeners and through plate had an elastic modulus of
205000 MPa, a yield strength of 275 MPa, a yield strain of
0.002, and ultimate strength of 330 MPa and
corresponding strain of 0.15. The bolts, they had an elastic
modulus of 210000 MPa, a yield strength of 640 MPa
(M20 Gr. 8.8 bolts) or 900 MPa (M20 Gr. 10.9), a
corresponding strain of 0.002, an ultimate strength of 800
Mpa (Gr. 8.8) or 1000 MPa (Gr. 10.9) and a corresponding
strain of 0.15. A bilinear stress-strain model was adopted
in this study for the above mentioned components. In
contrast, a trilinear model was used for the bolts with an
additional portion extending from the ultimate strength to
a strength of 100 MPa with corresponding strain of 0.2, as
bolts failure was observed in the concrete-filled
connections. A four part stress-strain model provided by
Dai & Lam (Dai & Lam, 2010) was adopted for the EHS
confined concrete, and the calculated compressive stressstrain curve is shown in Figure 6 (b); key parameters are
listed below: maximum unconfined compressive cylinder
strength was 33.2 MPa; initial elastic modulus was 30826
MPa; maximum confined compressive strength was 43
MPa. A GFI option was selected to define the tensile
behavior of concrete, with a failure stress of 2 MPa
(approximately equal to 0.1 times the corresponding
compressive stress) and a fracture energy of 0.08 N/mm
which was obtained through linear interpolation between
0.04 N/mm for C20 concrete and 0.12 N/mm for C40
concrete (Han 2007).

3.4 Loading and boundary conditions

A pre-tightening load of 20 kN was applied to each bolt
of the BC, CC, DC and EC connections, while a value of
40 kN was found to be more suitable for Joint-AC when
comparing finite element results with corresponding
experimental results. The possible reasons for the variation
in the pre-load were that it was applied manually in
experiments and that the actual friction factor between
components, e.g. beam web and fin plate may have
differed between connections. To apply bolt load in
ABAQUS, an interior surface was selected and the bolt
axis needed to be defined (as illustrated in Fig. 7).
Bolt axis
Interior surface

Bolt load

50

Stress (MPa)

40

Figure 7. Pre-load definition of a bolt.

30

With the rotation of the beams, the loading point at

beam ends moved slightly during the tests. Therefore, a
curved steel piece (roller, assumed as rigid part) used in
the tests was simulated, as shown in Figure 8 (a), to which
a reference point, located underneath, was coupled.
Constraints were applied through this point and all
freedoms were fixed except for displacement in the
vertical direction. Upward load was applied by applying a
displacement boundary condition. On top of the EHS
column, a slotted steel plate, which was used to apply
compressive load and also constrain the column end, was
simulated as well, shown in Figure 8 (b). A similar
technique of adopting a reference point was used, and the
top column end was restrained except for the vertical
direction. The degrees of freedom of the bottom column
end were fixed in all directions to assume a fixed boundary
condition. Before running a job, several steps were defined
to avoid possible convergence problems. The initial step
was used to create contact interactions, then certain values
of the bolt loads were applied during the second step after
which the downwards compressive load was applied by
using a concentrated load at the top column end and finally

20
10
0
0

0.02

0.04

0.06

0.08

0.1

Strain
Figure 6. Stress-strain curves of EHS confined concrete.

3.3 Contact
Contact interaction is complicated when conducting
the nonlinear analysis of concrete-filled bolted
connections by using the ABAQUS standard solver.
Proper definitions of master and slave surfaces in contact
pairs (in accordance with the below two criteria: 1) stiffer
material is normally set as the master surfaces; 2) a surface
should not be used as slave surface in two or more different
interactions) and contact properties were essential to avoid
possible convergence problems and to successfully capture
the moment-rotation behavior of the connections. Surfaceto-surface contact with a finite sliding option was used in

449

Yang et al.

surface was defined as slave surface in one of the contact

pairs. FE model and meshes are illustrated in Figure 9.

upwards loads were applied at the beam ends

simultaneously using displacement until the joint rotation
reaching a certain value when the specimens failed.

a
Roller

Reference points

b
b
Figure 8. Boundary conditions (Rigid parts).

3.5 Mesh elements and size

C3D8, an 8-node linear brick element, was adopted to
establish the FE model. Incompatible mode was selected
for steel component elements to avoid possible hourglass
phenomenon while reduced integration was used for the
concrete core elements to reduce computational cost.
For the tested specimens, failure normally occurred
around the connection, thus a finer mesh was used to
obtain accurate simulation while a coarser mesh was
adopted far away from the connection area to save
computational time. No global buckling of EHS column
was observed during the tests, therefore the following
mesh size recommendations for elliptical stub concretefilled columns could be followed: 5-10 mm for EHS and
10-20 mm for concrete; the concrete element size could be
set as twice as the EHS column where applicable (Dai &
Lam 2010). Also, a mesh size of 20 mm was employed for
both steel and column of a through-plate concrete-filled
connection (Mollazadeh & Wang 2014), which gave
sufficiently accurate results with quick convergence and
reasonable computational time. Thus, taking the above
findings into consideration, global mesh sizes of both EHS
and concrete core ware adopted as 20 mm while mesh sizes
of 10 mm and 5 mm were used in the connection area for
concrete and EHS, respectively. The hoop direction of the
EHS column was meshed using a single bias meshing
method with a minimum mesh size of 10 mm (curved side
of EHS) and maximum of 20 mm (flat side, this value may
be reduced accordingly); the same technique was used in
the longitudinal direction of the EHS column. Steel
components have two layers meshes in their thickness
directions. A bolt mesh size of 3 mm was recommended
by Yu et al. (Yu et al. 2008) and was thus used in this
paper. In particular, mesh size was minimized to 2 mm
along part of the bolt shank longitudinal edges where the

Figure 9. FE model & meshes: (a) Joint-D; (b) concrete core; (c)
connection; (d) bolt.

4 VERIFICATION OF DEVELOPED FE MODEL

Based on the above described FE simulating method,
moment vs. rotation relationships of concrete-filled
connections were obtained and were then compared with
corresponding test results, see Figure 10 (a)-(e), where
dotted lines with hollow circles represent the test results
while solid lines denote the corresponding FE results; the
dotted line with filled circular data points and the thicker
dashed line in Figure 10 (e) refer to test result and FE result
of the repeat experiment of Joint-EC (replacing Gr. 8.8
bolts by Gr. 10.9 bolts), respectively.
In general, the whole experimental moment vs.
rotation curves before decreasing point (caused by bolt
shear failure) can be well captured by the FE modeling,
especially for Joint-AC, CC, DC. The friction and slippage
between beam and fin plate can be predicted reasonably
based on the (closely correlating) initial stages of these
moment vs. rotation curves from the FE simulation and
experimental data. Nevertheless, there was a gentle
transition phase in the experimental curve before the bolt
shanks fully touched the surface of the bolt holes rather
than a sudden change in the simulation curve. The reason
may be that the relative positions of bolts in the holes were

450

Yang et al.

not ideally located in the center of holes, as adopted in the

FE models to simplify the modeling. The bolts almost
touch the edges of holes simultaneously with the
increasing of beam rotation in the FE modeling, while the
bolts in the experiments may have made contact with the
holes at different times due to the imperfection of the
installation. In particular, for the repeat test of Joint-EC,
the curve slope of Joint-ECR was noticeably smaller than
the initial test result as critical regions of the fin plate/EHS
column experienced yielding phase after the first test.
However, the FE model did not take this into
consideration. The gap between beam end and column face
affected the slope of the curve in the later stage: a smaller
gap caused the slope to change at an earlier stage. But the
influence of gap on ultimate moment capacity of concretefilled connections is still ambiguous and hence needs to be
investigated in a parametric study. The gaps used in the FE
models are listed as follows: AC, 9.1 mm; BC, 8.0 mm;
CC, 8.5 mm; DC, 7 mm; EC, 13mm, ECR, 11mm.

60

Moment (kN.m)

30
20

0
0

0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08

0.1

0.12 0.14

0.1

0.12 0.14

0.1

0.12 0.14

Rotation

(c) Joint-CC
60
TEST-DC
FEM-DC

50
Moment (kN.m)

TEST-AC
Moment (kN.m)

40

10

60
50

TEST-CC
FEM-CC

50

FEM-AC

40

40
30
20

30
10
20
0
10

0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08

Rotation

0
0

0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08

0.1

0.12 0.14

(d) Joint-DC

Rotation
60

(a) Joint-AC

TEST-EC
50

FEM-EC

60

Moment (kN.m)

Moment (kN.m)

TEST-BC
50

FEM-BC

40
30

TEST-ECR

40

FEM-ECR
30
20
10

20

10

0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08

Rotation

0
0

0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08

0.1

0.12 0.14

(e) Joint-EC & ECR

Rotation
Figure 10. Comparisons of moment vs rotation relationships.

(b) Joint-BC
Figure 11 (a)-(c) shows the comparisons of typical
failure modes of concrete-filled connections between

451

Yang et al.

5 DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS

experimental result and FE result, e.g. Joint-BC. As can be

seen from these comparisons, the obtained FE models
could reasonably simulate the failure of the connections
which proves the validity of the described FE modeling
method.

This paper gives a basic description and the main

findings of ten experiments on the moment-rotation
behavior of beam to elliptical column connections and
presents a verified finite element simulation method in
regard to concrete-filled connections. It is found from the
experimental results that the concrete core increased the
moment behavior significantly, enhancing the moment
ratio ranges from 1.91 to 5.19 (compared with
corresponding hollow connections); typical failure of
concrete-filled connections was observed to be bolt shear
failure while that of hollow connections was inwards local
buckling, which occurred in the EHS column face near the
connection area.
Based on the comparisons between experimental result
and FE analysis prediction, the mentioned simulation
method/FE model could predict the ultimate moment
capacity of concrete-filled connections to within a
satisfactory error value of 9 % and could also capture the
typical failure mode of these connections. Thus, the
developed FE models could be adopted to conduct further
parametric studies. To improve the accuracy of prediction,
material tests of fin plates and bolts will be conducted in
the near future. Moreover, it may be worth choosing a
suitable damage criterion to simulate the fracture of bolts
and thus obtain more accurate predictions of connection
failures.

Mesh distortion

Figure 11. Comparison of failures (Joint-BC): (a) connection

rotation; (b) bolt hole bearing failure in fin plate; (c) bolt shear
failure.

Table 3 shows a comparison of ultimate moment

between those obtained from experiments and FE
simulation, where MTEST represents the ultimate moment
obtained from the experiments and MFEM refers to the
corresponding moment (at the same degree of rotation
which the specimens failed) provided by FE simulation.
Good agreement has been obtained which means that the
developed FE model could reasonably predict the moment
capacities of the concrete-filled connections involved in
this paper with a satisfied accuracy within 9 %. Possible
reasons causing moment capacity prediction error could be
the error in measuring the gaps between the beam end and
column face and errors in the assumed fin/stiffener plate
and bolts material properties which need to be tested in the
near future.

REFERENCES
CEN. 2009. Metallic materials-tensile testing-Part1: Method of
test at ambient temperature. EN ISO 6892-1.
Dai, X. H. & Lam, D. 2010. Numerical modelling of the axial
compressive behaviour of short concrete-filled elliptical steel
columns. Journal of Constructional Steel Research 66(7):
931-942.
Han, L.H. 2007. Concrete-filled steel tubular structures-theory
and practice (2nd ed.). Beijing: China Science Press (in
Chinese).
Lam, D. & Dai, X. H. 2012. Finite Element modelling of beam
to concrete filled elliptical steel column connections. Tubular
Structures XIV. Gardner (Ed.) Taylor and Francis Group,
London, ISBN 978-0-415-62137-3: 289-296.
Law, K. H. & Gardner, L. 2012. Lateral instability of elliptical
hollow section beams. Engineering Structures 37: 152-166.
Mollazadeh, M. H. & Wang, Y. C. 2014. New insights into the
mechanism of load introduction into concrete-filled steel
tubular column through shear connection. Engineering
Structures 75: 139-151.
Sarraj, M., Burgess, I. W., Davison, J. B. & Plank, R. J. 2007.
Finite element modelling of steel fin plate connections in fire.
Fire Safety Journal 42(6-7): 408-415.
Shen, W., Choo, Y. S., Wardenier, J., Packer, J. A. & van der
Vegte, G. J. 2013. Static strength of axially loaded EHS Xjoints with braces welded to the narrow sides of the chord.
Journal of Constructional Steel Research 88: 181-190.
Wang, J. & Spencer, B. F. 2013. Experimental and analytical
behavior of blind bolted moment connections. Journal of
Constructional Steel Research 82: 33-47.

Table 3. Comparison of ultimate moments from experiments

and FE simulations.
Specimen ID
Joint-AC
Joint-BC
Joint-CC
Joint-DC
Joint-EC
Joint-ECR

MTEST
kN.m
43.8
49.6
57.2
43.6
33.8
41.4

MFEM
kN.m
45.4
46.0
56.0
42.8
37.0
42.4

MTEST
/MFEM
0.97
1.08
1.02
1.02
0.91
0.98

452

Yang et al.
Yang, J., Sheehan, T., Dai, X. H. & Lam, D. 2015. Experimental
study of beam to concrete-filled elliptical steel tubular
column connections. Thin-Walled Structures 95: 16-23.
Yu, H., Burgess, I. W., Davison, J. B. & Plank, R. J. 2008.
Numerical simulation of bolted steel connections in fire using
explicit dynamic analysis. Journal of Constructional Steel
Research 64(5): 515-525.
Zhao, X. L. & Packer, J. A. 2009. Tests and design of concretefilled elliptical hollow section stub columns. Thin-Walled
Structures 47(6-7): 617-628.

453

11th International Conference on

Advances in Steel and Concrete Composite Structures
Tsinghua University, Beijing, China, December 3-5, 2015

EXPERIMENTAL BEHAVIOR OF FLANGE-WELDED/WEBBOLTED STEEL TUBULAR CONNECTIONS UNDER POSTEARTHQUAKE FIRE

Q. Y. Songa,b*, A. Heidarpoura, X. L. Zhaoa & L. H. Hanc
a

Department of Civil Engineering, Monash University, Melbourne, Australia

E-mail: soujy.qy@gmail.com, amin.heidarpour@monash.edu.cn, zhao.xiao.ling@monash.edu.au
b

China Southwest Architectural Design and Research Institute Corp.LTD, Chengdu, China

Department of Civil Engineering, Tsinghua University, Beijing, China

E-mail: lhhan@tsinghua.edu.cn
ABSTRACT
Keywords:
flange-welded/web-bolted
steel connection; cyclic loading;
pre-damage; ISO-834 fire curve;
post-earthquake fire; hollow
column

Extreme events such as earthquake and fire can cause severe damage to building structures.
Besides the extreme events themselves, the coupling of multiple extremes such as earthquake
followed by fire is more destructive. As fire is a common event appeared in or subsequently
after earthquakes, it is necessary to capture the behavior of building structures subjected to
post-earthquake fire (PEF) for buildings with high-level safety requirement. This study aims to
investigate the behavior of steel connections subjected to the PEF scenario. In the experimental
investigation, a group of flange-welded and web-bolted steel connections was tested in fire by
using transient state method after subjected to various seismic loadings. It was found that the
duration time of the connections with pre-damage decreased significantly under fire, which
indicated the time available for evacuation, search and rescue become shorter than the original
buildings without pre-damage. The findings are useful for engineering practice when PEF needs
to be considered.

which survive through earthquake, are much vulnerable

under secondary actions such as fire (Chen et al. 2004).
For the possible post-earthquake fire (PEF) events,
fire-resisting capacity of various structural connections
would be affected by seismic loading significantly. In
recent years, several investigations were carried out to
explore PEF behavior of structures such as those by
Zaharia & Pintea (2009a,b), Della Corte et al. (2005),
Faggiano and Mazzolani (2011), Yassin et al. (2008),
Alderighi et al. (2008), Bursi et al. (2008a,b), Pucinotti et
al. (2011a,b) and Demonceau et al. (2009). It was found
from these researches about steel and composite
structures that the pre-damage caused by earthquake is a
key factor which influences the behavior of steel or
composite structures. However, the pre-damage
considered in above researches was only the residual
deformation while seismic loading process was even
ignored in the investigations but simulated residual
deformations were used as pre-damage. It concluded
from the investigation of composite connection that when
the residual deformation is not large enough, the
connection behavior under fire would not be obviously
affected by pre-damage (Pucinotti et al. 2011b). Different
with above literatures, fracture was found one of the main

1 INTRODUCTION
Natural disasters such as earthquake and fire can
cause severe damage to cities and properties. The ground
motion of earthquake often causes wide damage to
building structures. Depending on different earthquake
intensity, steel structures would survive with various
degrees of damage after earthquakes (Kato et al. 1980,
Tremblay et al. 1996, Youssef et al. 1995). Damage of
steel structures induced by earthquake is complex and it
could be residual deformation, loss of fire protection
material, fractures, etc. It was also shown that the cyclic
loading or high-strain loading would affect the
mechanical properties of mild steel at elevated
temperature (Hosseini et al. 2015, Mirmomeni et al.
2015, Sinaie et al. 2014). Cumulative fracture damage
process of simple welded and double-angle bolted steel
tubular connections under seismic loading tests was
presented by Song et al. (2013, 2015a & 2016). Different
damage patterns were also shown from cyclic loading
tests of other types of steel and composite connections
(Han et al. 2009, Li et al. 2013). The partially damaged
structural components, connections or even systems,

454

Song et al.

BcBc=200mm200mm made of the Grade 350 steel, are

adopted. The tubular column of the thickness (tc) of 5mm
are used for fabrication. The adopted steel angle is
65mm65mm6mm whilst 8.8M10 bolts are used. The
end plates on the columns are 8mm thick steel plates
while the stiffeners are welded on the I-beams at 1m
away from the column panel surface where the point load
is exerted on the beam. The group of connections is
labelled as CCH5 while the connection CCH5F with
postfix F indicates the fire loading scenario and the
connection CCH5EF20 with postfix EF indicates PEF
loading scenario. The number in the end of the label
indicates the cyclic loading cycles in the seismic loading
phase.

seismic-induced damages that significantly affected the

performance of welded steel connection behavior under
fire in a recent research reported by Song et al. (2015b).
Although above mentioned investigations are related
to structural behavior of steel or composite structures
under PEF, since various structures and complex factors
might be involved, the PEF behavior of structures has not
been fully explored. In this study, experimental
investigation was carried out on the thermal-mechanical
behavior of one group of flange-welded/web-bolted steel
I-beam to hollow steel column connections. Two loading
phases were contained in this study, in which cyclic
loading phase was used to produce pre-damage of the
connections; while fire loading phase was used to
investigate the influence of the pre-damage on the fire
performance of the connections. The experimental results
in this study would provide understanding of the behavior
of the chosen steel connections under PEF scenarios.

2.2 Loading protocols and setup

In the group, the 4 connections were tested under
different loading scenarios. One connection was tested
under fire without seismic loading phase and it was taken
as control test for comparison. The other 3 connections
were first loaded by cyclic loading process and then
subsequently tested at elevated temperature. The cyclic
loading protocol recommended by AISC-341 (ANSI
2005) was adopted in this research as shown in Figure 2a.
The ISO-834 fire curve was adopted for the fire test as
shown in Figure 2b (ISO 1975). The seismic loading
cycles determined for pre-damage purpose and the
constant load exerted on the connection beam (30% of the
ultimate monotonic strength) during the fire tests are
listed in Table 2.

2 EXPERIMENTAL TESTS
2.1 Specimens and fabrication
The flange-welded/web-bolted steel connections were
fabricated for the experimental investigation in this study.
The connection group contains 4 connections with the
same configuration details, as shown in Figure 1. All
I-beams are made of 200UB22.3 of the Grade 250 steel
(Onsteel 2003), the geometric properties such as the
flange width (Bf), beam height (H) and thicknesses of
beam flange and wed (tf, tw) are shown in Table 1. The
square tubular columns, with the cross-section of

Stiffeners

1000

200UB22.3

SHS 200200

Angle
656

A C

2502508

Stiffeners

65
35 30
Angle 656

B-B

2502508
Beam web
30

SHS 200200

380

Angle
TYP Angles 656

TYP

760
C

Welds return on top of the

angles: 14mm

C-C

Beam Flange
380

200UB22.3

536

180

100

11

Gap 5
Details

Column wall

SHS 200200
A-A

Figure 1. Configuration details of flange-welded/web-bolted connections (Unit: mm).

horizontally with the left side welded on the furnace wall.

A relatively constant axial load of 50kN is exerted on the
right side of the column by a build-in hydraulic jack and
kept constant during the whole test. The constant column

The setup used for the fire tests is shown in Figure 3.

The setup was also used for cyclic loading phase at
ambient temperature to form pre-damage. For all
connections, the tubular column is fixed into the furnace

455

Song et al.

2.3 Gauges and material properties

load is not an issue in this study since the exerted load is

relatively small. The I-beam is set vertically while only
part of the I-beam, of the length of about 500mm, is set
inside the furnace. Another part of the I-beam of about
600mm long is exposed to ambient temperature outside
the furnace stretching through a hole located at the
middle of the furnace lid. The size of the hole on the lid
center is 500mm 500mm and it is sealed carefully
before the fire tests. The beam end, 1m from the column
panel surface, is connected to an Instron actuator which is
used to exert seismic loading before fire testing and a
constant load during fire testing. The heat flow is only
from left bottom of the furnace. During the cyclic loading
phase displacement controlled method was used while
fire test was conducted under load control condition. The
fire tests were terminated when the travel limit was
reached or the pre-exerted static load applied to the
I-beam drops suddenly. The maximum travel rotation
limit for the connections according to the furnace setup
was recorded as 0.210rad.

In the experiments, the loads were measured by load

cells while the beam displacement at loading point was
measured by two string pots from which joint rotation
was calculated. Thermocouples were attached to the
surface of the connections to monitor temperature
distributions in different regions. Twenty one
thermocouples were attached around 5 cross-sections,
shown in Figure 4. The thermocouples were labelled from
1# to 26#, however, due to the limit of the data channels
available at the moment of testing four of them (2#, 4#,
8#, 9#) were removed. Thermocouples No. 1# and 3#
were set at the center of I-beam flanges at both sides of
the Section i-i while thermocouples No. 5# to 7# were
attached on the web leg of one of the angles at the same
cross-section. The thermocouples No. 11# to 26# were set
at the center of the column walls from the Sections ii-ii to
v-v. Moreover, another 4 thermocouples were set at the
middle of the furnace about 150mm away from the
column wall faces to monitor the furnace temperature
during fire test. The damage phenomena during the
pre-damage cyclic loading phase and after the fire tests
were observed. The material properties of the tubular
column wall, beam flange, beam web, steel angle and bolt
from tensile tests at ambient temperature are listed in
Table 3, including the yield strength (fy), ultimate
strength (fu), Elastic modulus (Es) and Poissons ratio (vs).

Table 1. Geometric properties of the connections (mm).

No.
Bc
tc
Bc/tc
BfH
tf
tw

Column

Beam
Bf/Bc
0.15
Rotation (rad)

0.1

CCH5 group
200x200
5.07
39.45
131.6x203.0
6.64
5.14
0.658

Table 2. Loading specifications applied on the connections.

2 cycles

4 cycles

6 cycles

0.05
0

-0.05
-0.1

Seismic
loading cycles

Pre-exerted
beam load
(kN)

Beam load
ratio

CCH5F
CCH5EF22
CCH5EF30
CCH5EF38

0
22
30
38

11.41

30.0%

3 EXPRIMENTAL RESULTS

-0.15
0

10

15 20 25 30
Loading cycles

35

40

3.1 Pre-damage loading tests

45

According to the results of cyclic loading tests (Song

2015), the pre-damage induced to the connections, mainly
the fracture and residual deformation, increased
cumulatively with the increase of the loading cycles. The
moment vs. rotation relationships of the pre-damage
loading phase in this investigation and the corresponding
skeleton curve of this type of connection obtained from
the cyclic loading tests (Song 2015) are shown in Figure
5. For the group of connections, the connection subjected
to 22 loading cycles for pre-damage purpose followed the
reference skeleton curves well. The connections
CCH5EF30 and CCH5EF38 subjected to 30 and 38
loading cycles were got more conservative behavior than
the reference skeleton curve. The seismic loading result
of CCH5EF30 was below the peak point of the reference

a)
1000
Temperature ()

Specimen

800
600
400
200

ISO-834 standard fire

0
0

500

1000

1500 2000
Time (s)

2500

3000

b)
Figure 2. Loading protocols: a) Cyclic loading sequences; b)
ISO-834 standard fire curve.

456

Song et al.

Such that the pre-damaged connections of three levels

from low to severe were formed for the following fire
testing.

skeleton curve while the seismic loading result of

CCH5EF38 already exceeded the peak point of the
corresponding skeleton curve and was in declining stage.

Member Index:

10

1000mm

1. Reaction frame
3. Uniform joint
5. Connection beam
7. Furnace lid
9. Axial hydraulic jack
11. Heat flow source

2.
4.
6.
8.
10.

Hydraulic jack
Connection I-beam
Furnace
Window on the lid
Load cell

11

Figure 3. Schematic view of the furnace setup.

iv

19# ii

Pre exerted constant load

200 mm
20# i
12#
1# iii
5#
6#
13#
7#
3# iv
200 mm
21 i
14#
22#
v
Tubular column

15#

Moment (kNm)

iii

11#

I beam

Thermocouple

CCH5C-skeleton
CCH5EF22
-0.1

-0.05
0
0.05
Rotation (rad)

0.1

0.15

0.1

0.15

a)
20
15
10
5
0
-5
-10
-15
-20
-0.15

CCH5C-skeleton
CCH5EF30
CCH5EF38

Moment (kNm)

ii

20
15
10
5
0
-5
-10
-15
-20
-0.15

23#

16#
24#
17#
25#
18#

-0.1

26#

-0.05
0
0.05
Rotation (rad)

b)
Figure 5. Moment vs. rotation curves of the pre-damage phase:
a) CCH5EF22; b) CCH5EF30 & CCH5EF38.

Figure 4. Thermocouples arrangement of the connections.

Table 3. Steel material properties at ambient temperature.

Components
Thickness (mm)
fy (MPa)
fu (MPa)
Es (MPa)
s

Column
5.07
401.43
472.02
200433
0.293

Beam-web
5.14
361.85
507.87
198250

Beam-flange
6.64
337.97
496.92
198750

457

Angle
5.96
340.95
488.24
202900

Bolt

1042.77
1164.05
235392
0.3

Song et al.

standard fire curve, furnace setup fire curve and the

average furnace temperature curves from the fire tests.
Although the setup values of the furnace exactly follow
the ISO-834 standard fire curve, the average temperatures
measured at the center region of the furnace show
relatively lower than the target temperature after about
460C due to uncontrollable heat leakage. However, the
furnace temperature curves measured from all the tests in
the group look relatively the same such that a stable fire
scenario was established.

As shown in Figure 6, there is no visible defect

caused by fabrication on the connection CCH5F. Besides
the residual deformations, After 22 loading cycles,
CCH5EF22 experienced micro surface cracks on the
column panel around the welds along the I-beam flange.
After 30 loading cycles, the CCH5EF30 experienced
cracks extending longer on the column panel along the
beam flange welds and the welds of the angle legs. After
38 loading cycles, the fracture phenomenon of
CCH5EF38 was shown more severe than above
connections with less loading cycles. The shear fracture
of the column panel along beam flange and angle leg of
CCH5EF38 extended to about 1/4 of the corresponding
beam flange width and the outstanding angle leg length
on each side. Considering these pre-damages, the
behavior of the connections under subsequent extreme
loads (e.g. fire) would be affected significantly.
Similar to the damage analysis of the simple welded
steel connections under cyclic loading by Song et al.
(2015a), among all available damage indexes, Park-Angs
index was found predicting the cumulative damage of the
flange-welded/web-bolted connection well (Song 2015).
Although there are minor discrepancy between the
pre-damage loading test results here and the previous
fully cyclic loading test, the normalized damage indexes
(ld) calculated from the Park-Angs model (Eq. 1) on the
basis of the exceeding travel amplitudes and energy
dissipation from the fully cyclic loading tests (Song
2015) were adopted as shown in Figure 7.
n

Ei
b

i 1 Fy u ,mon

CCH5EF22

CCH5EF38
CCH5EF30
Figure 6. Seismic loading induced local pre-damage.
1.2

(1)

Damaage index (ld)

D ml

max si
u ,mon

CCH5F

CCH5C

0.8
0.6

in which b=0.05 was adopted after a series of trails. The

parameter b takes into account the contribution of energy
dissipation to damage and the value could be various for
different types of structures. The u,mon represents the
ultimate displacement of the same specimen under
monotonic loading. Fy is the connection yield strength. In
the calculation, the displacement and generalized force
were replaced by joint rotation and moment values.
The damage indexes obtained for the pre-damage
loading tests are presented in Table 4. Compared to
CCH5F with the damage indexes of 0, the damage level
of CCH5EF22 is still quite small after 22 loading cycles;
however, after 38 loading cycles, the damage index of
CWH5EF38 increases to 0.618.

0.4
0.2
0
0

20
40
Loading Cycles

60

Figure 7. Damage index (ld) after pre-damage loading.

Table 4. Normalized damage index of the connections.

3.2 Fire tests

Connection

Damage index

CCH5F

CCH5EF22

0.047

CCH5EF30

0.225

CCH5EF38

0.618

Neglecting the heat penetration differences caused by

steel fracture, the temperature distributions over the
connections were considered similar. For instance, the
temperature distribution over the connection CCH5F
measured during the fire test is shown in Figure 9. It can
be seen that the measured average temperatures of the
sections iii-iii and iv-iv of the column at the joint regions

This study mainly focuses on the mechanical behavior

of the pre-damaged connections at elevated temperature,
such that constant fire environments should be
established to make the comparison available. The
established furnace fire scenarios are shown and
compared in Figure 8, including the target ISO-834

458

Song et al.

the softening of the steel connections under fire occurs

when the furnace temperature exceeds to 500C (Fig.
10b). Considering the duration time when the rotation of
the connections achieves the travel limit as the
fire-resisting capacity, it is apparent that the fire-resisting
capacity of the connections decreases significantly with
the increase of the pre-damage level.
The damage phenomena of the connections after fire
testing are shown in Figure 11. Under fire, not only the
steel material would be subjected to hardening and
softening with residual stress/strain states but also the
pre-damages such as the cracks or fractures would
evolve. The fractures of all the connections were
observed to occur on the tubular column panel along the
flange welds and angle welds. It was observed that after
fire testing the damage phenomena and failure modes
between the connection CCH5EF22 and the connection
CCH5F without pre-damage were similar except a little
bit more severe steel fracture on the column panel of
CCH5EF22; however the fracture became much severe
when the pre-exerted cyclic loading increased.

are higher than the beam section i-i which was affected
by the double-angle and bolts. The average temperature
of the sections ii-ii and v-v of the column far from the
joint regions is seen the lowest among the sections.
With the increasing temperature and the extending
fracture, the load-carrying capacity of the connections
deteriorated in the form of the increasing displacement
under the constant beam load. The time vs. rotation and
the furnace temperature vs. rotation relationships of the
connections from the fire tests are shown in Figure 10.
Considering the initial rotation under the same static load,
it is seen that the initial stiffness of the pre-damaged
connections has significantly decreased after cyclic
loading. The rotation of the connection CCH5F without
pre-damage is around 0.035rad under the static preload.
The rotation of the connection CCH5EF22 under the
static preload reduces a little to 0.033rad due to the
reasonably low damage level and material hardening
caused by the cyclic loading. With further increase of
fracture pre-damage, the rotation of CCH5EF30 increases
to 0.050rad under the static preload while that of
CCH5EF38 achieves the value of 0.091rad which is
about 2.5 times of that of CCH5F without pre-damage.

0.25
limit: 0.210rad
Rotation (rad)

Temperature ()

1000
800
ISO fire curve
Furnace setup
CCH5F
CCH5EF22
CCH5EF30
CCH5EF38

600
400
200
0
0

500

1000

1500 2000
Time (s)

2500

0.2
0.15
0.1

CCH5F
CCH5EF22
CCH5EF30
CCH5EF38

0.05
0
0

3000

300

600
900
Time (s)

1200

1500

a)
0.25

Figure 8. Furnace fire scenarios of the connection tests.

limit: 0.210rad
Rotation (rad)

800
Temperature ()

CCH5F
600
i-i
ii-ii
iii-iii
iv-iv
v-v

400
200
0
0

300

600
900
Time (s)

1200

0.2

CCH5F
CCH5EF22
CCH5EF30
CCH5EF38

0.15
0.1
0.05
0
0

1500

200

400
600
Temperature ()

800

b)
Figure 10. Behavior of the connections under fire: a) Time vs.
rotation relationships; b) Furnace temperature vs. rotation
relationships.

Figure 9. Temperature distribution over the connections:

average section temperature.

It is worth noting that the maximum travel rotation

limit according to the furnace setup was 0.210rad. The
connection already subjected to 38 loading cycles lost its
load-carrying capacity significantly before it achieved the
rotation limit as shown in Figure 10a. It can be seen that

4 CONNECTION BEHAVIOR UNDER PEF

The critical failure time of each connection was
defined when the rotation limit was achieved since the
temperature started elevating. Comparison of the
fire-resisting capacity of the connections is shown in
459

Song et al.

Figure 12 in terms of time ratio and temperature ratio

between each connection and the connection CCH5F
without pre-damage. As reference data, the duration time
of the CCH5F connection was 950s while the maximum
furnace temperature was about 681C at the failure time
of the test.
It shows from Figure 12 that the connection
CCH5EF22 pre-damaged by 22 loading cycles prior to
fire test experiences a similar fire-resisting performance
to that of the connection without pre-damage since the
induced pre-damage is insignificant while importantly the
cyclic loading causes material hardening at this stage. It
indicates that for seismic load of low intensity would not
affect the duration time of the steel connections under fire
apparently, although the fracture failure phenomena are
observed a little more severe. The duration time of
CCH5EF30 pre-damaged by 30 loading cycles reduces to
92% of the corresponding connection without
pre-damage. For CCH5EF38 experiencing more severe
pre-damage than the other connections, the duration time
reduced to 86% of the connection without pre-damage.
The decreasing trend of the maximum furnace
temperature achieved during the tests is also depicted in
Figure 12; however, it is not as significant as the time
ratio due to the increase gradient of the fire curve used in
the tests become small with the increase of time.

CCH5F

CCH5EF22

CCH5EF30

CCH5EF38

The results implies that when the chosen connection

is already subjected to seismic loading and damaged to
about 60% of its load-carrying capacity at ambient
temperature, the fire-resisting capacity would reduce
about 15%, such that the valuable time for evacuation,
search and rescue would decrease to only 85% of the
original design without considering pre-damage. In
addition, investigation of simple welded connections was
reported by Song et al. (2016), in which duration time of
the connection with 5mm tubular column wall decreased
to about 75% of that without pre-damage when the
damage index increased to about 0.5. Compared to it, the
coverage of double-angle of the joint regions in this study
helped to alleviate the heating of the column panel
connecting with the I-beam which resulted in relatively
less effect of the pre-damage on the fire-resisting capacity
of the connections.

5 CONCLUSIONS
In the study, different with many other researches in
the field of PEF, steel fracture is found one of the main
factors which affect the fire-resisting performance of the
chosen
flange-welded/web-bolted
steel
tubular
connection significantly. Although the connection
subjected to only 22 loading cycles had similar fire
resistance with the undamaged connection due to
insignificant pre-damage degree and material hardening
caused by cyclic loading, for the connection damaged by
38 seismic loading cycles (ld= 0.618), the fire-resisting
capacity, in terms of duration time, is found decreasing to
85% of the original value without pre-damage. The
decreased duration time of structures would make
evacuation of people and properties more difficult. Since
there are negative effects of seismic induced pre-damage
on fire-resisting capacity of structures and PEF is a
normal extreme event, building structures with high level
safety requirements should consider it in design. Through
this investigation, it indicates the necessity to further
investigate and evaluate the behavior of existing
structural
components
under
PEF
scenarios
systematically where rational fire analysis and design are
required.

Figure 11. Connection damage phenomena after fire.

Deterioration ratio

1.2
1

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461

11th International Conference on

Advances in Steel and Concrete Composite Structures
Tsinghua University, Beijing, China, December 3-5, 2015

POST
FIRE
CONNECTION
STRUCTURES

BEHAVIOUR
OF
INNOVATIVE
SHEAR
FOR
COMPOSITE
STEEL-CONCRETE

O. Mirzaa, F.R. Mashiria, C. Canutoa & D. Lam b

a

School of Computing, Engineering and Mathematics, Locked Bag 1797, Penrith 2175, New South Wales, Australia
E-mails: o.mirza@uws.edu.au, f.mashiri@uws.edu.au, 17035893@student.uws.edu.au
b

Bradford Centre for Sustainable Environments, University of Bradford, Bradford, West Yorkshire, BD7 1DP, UK
E-mail: D.Lam1@Bradford.ac.uk
ABSTRACT
Keywords:
Fire, Composite structures,
shear connectors, Push-out test

Steel-concrete composite structures are commonly used in buildings and bridges because it takes
advantage of tensile strength of steel and compressive strength of concrete. The two components
are often secured by shear connectors such as headed studs to prevent slippage and to maintain
composite action. In spite of its popularity, very little research was conducted on steel-concrete
composites particularly on headed stud shear connectors in regards to its post-fire behaviour.
This research investigates the post-fire behaviour of innovative shear connectors for composite
steel and concrete. Three type of connectors were investigated. They are headed stud shear
connectors, Blind Bolt 1 and Blind Bolt 2 blind bolts. Push-out test experimental studies were
conducted to look at the behaviour and failure modes for each connector. Eighteen push tests
were conducted according to Eurocode 4. The push test specimens were tested under ambient
temperatures and post fire condition of 200C, 400C and 600C. The results in ambient
temperature are used to derive the residual strength of shear connectors after exposing to fire.
Findings from this research will provide fundamental background in designing steel-concrete
composites where there is danger of fire exposure.

tests were carried out at ambient temperature and post fire

condition of 200oC, 400oC and 600oC. The results at
ambient temperature are used to determine the residual
strength of steel-concrete composite structures after
exposure to fire.

1 INTRODUCTION
Steel-concrete composite beam/slab construction is
common practice in bridges and multi-storey buildings
due to the combination of compressive strength of
concrete and tensile strength of steel (Heidarpour &
Bradford 2010). The two components are often secured
by shear connectors that greatly influence its strength and
ductility (Mirza & Uy 2009). Despite its popularity in
these type of constructions, composite members are still a
subject of continuous development (Rodrigues & La
m
2011). One of the areas of interest in the development of
composite structures is the shear connectors that bond
concrete and steel (Rodrigues & Lam 2011). Interests in
these developments are however limited due to the high
cost in setting up in a laboratory environment (Ellobody
& Young 2006).
This paper focuses on the behaviour of steel-concrete
composite structures using innovative shear connectors
under post fire. Post-fire behaviour of steel-concrete
composite structures is investigated with a focus on
failure in push tests made up of three types of shear
connectors; headed studs, Blind Bolt 1 and Blind Bolt 2.
Eighteen push-out tests were carried out. The push-out

2 EXPERIMENTAL STUDY
2.1 Experimental set-up and specimen
The test specimens were based on the Eurocode 4
standard and were fabricated in a similar manner as
outlined in the standard. However, due to the size
limitation of the furnace, all specimens were modified to
fit in the furnace. The steel section adopted was a
200PFC and two 200PFC configured as shown in Figure
1. The width of the slabs for the specimens were also
been downsized from 600mm specified by the Eurocode
4 to 400mm. The only exception is the reinforcing bars
where all the bars were upsized to N12 (12mm diameter)
instead of 10mm diameter specified in Eurocode 4. The
spacing and size of the shear connectors were kept the
same to the Eurocode 4 dimensions. A typical specimen
using headed studs is shown in Figure 1. Specimens using

462

Mirza et al.

obtaining the desired temperature. Prior to the preheating

of the specimens, a 40% preload was applied to all the
post-fire specimens to reflect the specimens service
loading. A total of two specimens were heated at each
temperature regime (200C, 400C, and 600C) for every
type of shear connector. In order to achieve the desired
temperature, a temperature controlled furnace was used.
The furnace uses three gas burners in heating the
specimens with two on one side and one at the other.
When the heating reached the desired temperature,
heating was continued for 1 hour of soaking time before
the furnace was switched off.

Blind Bolt 1 and 2 bolts as shear connectors were also

used.

Figure 1. Push out test specimen using headed stud shear

connectors

Push out tests of specimens using headed studs, Blind

Bolt 1 and Blind Bolt 2 as shear connectors were carried
out for specimens at ambient temperature and post fire
condition of 200 oC, 400 oC and 600 oC. The push out test
followed the Eurocode 4 testing protocol although some
ambient tests were also tested without the application of
25 cycles for comparison.
Following the Eurocode 4 push out test protocol, the
load was applied in increments up to 40% of the expected
failure load and then cycled 25 times between 5% and
40% of the expected failure load. The application of 25
loading cycles between 5% and 40% of the estimated
failure load gives a response that is close to elastic but
enables the specimen to settle and therefore stabilize for
the loading to failure thereafter. Subsequent incremental
loads were then applied to prevent the failure of the
specimens in less than 15 minutes. In order to prevent the
specimens from failing in less than 15 minutes, a loading
rate of 0.01 mm/s was used. The loading rate of 0.01
mm/s ensures that the specimen will simulate a static
loading condition. Part of the requirement for Eurocode
4 push test is to determine the relative slip between the
steel and concrete continuously during loading. In order
to achieve this requirement, linear variable displacement
transducers (LVDT) were attached to the steel and the
concrete (see Figure 2). Data of slip versus load was
recorded and the failure modes noted. The data and
failure modes at ambient temperature serve as the
baseline for comparison with post-fire test specimens.
The collection of data was ceased when the load dropped
to 20% of the maximum load.
The preheating of all specimens subjected to post-fire
analysis followed the ISO834 standard fire curve in

Figure 2. Push out test set up for ambient and post fire test
specimens

The cooling process used in this experiment was the

natural air cooling leaving the specimen overnight to
reach ambient temperature. The cooling method has an
effect on residual compressive strength of concrete.
Compressive strength loss is generally higher for rapid
cooling or quenching using water compared to relatively
slow cooling in air. Rapid cooling generally causes the
development of detrimental micro-cracking as a result of
temperature differentials between the outer and inner
layers of concrete (Balendran et al 2001).
The push out test procedure used to determine the
residual strength of post fire specimens was the same as
that for specimens tested at ambient temperature.

2.2 Material and Geometric Properties

Three types of shear connectors were used in this
investigation; the headed studs, Blind Bolt 1 and Blind
Bolt 2. The headed studs used have a diameter of
19mm, length of 100mm and ultimate tensile strength of
410MPa, while the Blind Bolt 1 used have a diameter of
20mm, length of 100mm and ultimate tensile strength of
463

Mirza et al.

failure splitting of the concrete slab as shown in Figure

4. This type of failure occurred because of the weaker
compressive strength of concrete and therefore no
yielding of the shear connector was observed. The
specimens tested under 25 and no cycles showed similar
failure modes.

390MPa. On the other hand the Blind Bolt 1 bolts used

have a diameter of 20mm, length of 100mm and ultimate
tensile strength of 830MPa.
The 200PFC sections used in this investigation had
flange width of 200mm, flange thickness of 12mm, web
thickness of 6mm, yield strength of 300MPa and ultimate
tensile strength of 440MPa.
The concrete used in the concrete slab had a 28 day
compressive strength of 30MPa and Youngs Modulus of
36690MPa. The reinforcing bars used in the concrete
slabs had a diameter of 12mm and yield strength of
500MPa.

3 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

The three types of push out test specimens using
headed studs, Blind Bolt 1 and Blind Bolt 2 were tested at
ambient temperature and at post fire condition of 200 oC,
400 oC and 600 oC. For each type of specimen, the
specimens tested at ambient temperature were also tested
by applying either 25 cycles as per EC4 testing protocol
while others were tested without cyclic loading for
comparison.

3.1 Behaviour of headed stud shear connector

Figure 3 shows the load-slip relationship for the
headed stud shear connector specimens tested at ambient
temperature under 25 and no cycles. Despite the cycle
loading, headed studs that were tested under 25 cycles
showed greater slip and loading capacity compared to the
specimen that was tested with no cycle loading. However,
both specimens experienced a sudden drop in load
capacity. The weaker compressive strength of concrete
leading to concrete failure was the primary factor in the
sudden drop of the load as shown in Figure 3.

Figure 4. Failure mode of headed stud shear connector

specimens at ambient temperature

The post fire push out tests, for headed stud shear
connector specimens were also carried out. Figure 5
shows the load versus slip graphs of the headed stud
specimens at post fire condition of 200 oC, 400 oC and
600 oC. A sudden drop in load is more evident in post-fire
conditions of 200 and 400C. Despite the low rigidity at
the start of testing, the test at 200 oC showed greater
ductility and maximum load compared to the tests at 400
o
C and 600 oC.
Headed shear studs post-fire 200, 400, and 600C
specimens all showed a similar type of failure mode as
shown in Figure 6. All the post fire headed stud
specimens failed through splitting of the concrete slab or
concrete failure. The spalling of concrete after exposure
to high temperature had a significant impact on the
strength of concrete making the slab the weakest part of
the steel-concrete composite specimens. After heating,
the steel sections did not show any signs of deformation
except the minor expansion of the fire protection coating.
Minor cracks on the concrete slab were observed on most
of the post fire headed stud specimens as part of the
thermal damage caused by the fire. A separation between
steel and concrete slab was also observed on some of the
specimens prior to the testing.

800

700

Load (kN)

600
500
400
300
200
Headed Studs 25 Cycles
Headed Studs No Cycle

100
0
0

4
6
8
Slip (mm)

10

12

Figure 3. Load Slip relationship for headed stud shear

connector specimens at ambient temperature

Failure modes of headed stud specimens at ambient

temperature were mainly dominated by the concrete

464

Mirza et al.

the end of the Blind bolt 1. The sleeve that secures the
grip into the steel section of the Blind Bolt 1 forms petals
which can create stress concentrations in the surrounding
concrete.

600

400

600

300

500
Headed Stud at Postfire 200C
Headed Stud at Postfire 400C
Headed Studs in Postfire 600C

200

100

Load (kN)

Load (kN)

500

0
0

Slip (mm)

400
300
200
Lindapter Bolts 25 Cycles

100

Lindapter Bolts No Cycles

Figure 5. Load Slip relationship for headed stud shear

connector specimens post fire

2
3
Slip (mm)

Figure 7. Load Slip relationship for Blind Bolt 1

Figure 6. Failure mode of headed stud shear connector

specimens post fire
Figure 8. Failure mode of Blind Bolt 1 specimens at ambient
temperature

3.2 Behaviour of Blind Bolt 1

Figure 7 shows the results of load versus slip for the
Blind Bolt 1 specimens tested at ambient temperature
under 25 cycles and no cycles respectively. As illustrated
in Figure 7, the difference between two testing conditions
was very minimal.
The push-out tests conducted for the Blind Bolt 1
specimens tested at ambient temperature failed through
concrete failure as shown in Figure 8. The Blind Bolt 1
specimens showed a different concrete failure mode to
the headed stud and Blind Bolt 2 specimens. Instead of
splitting the concrete slab in half, the specimen failed by
pulling out a portion of concrete closer to the steel
section, see Figure 8. The possible cause of this type of
failure mode may be due to the geometric arrangement at

The post fire push out tests for Blind Bolt 1

specimens was also carried out. Figure 9 shows the load
versus slip of the Blind Bolt 1 specimen push out tests at
post fire condition of 200 oC, 400 oC and 600 oC. The
Blind Bolt 1 specimens that were tested tend to reach the
ultimate capacity followed by a drop in load before
another increasing trend in loading before final failure.
The ductility shown by all the specimens that were tested,
is similar to the strain hardening phenomenon of steel.
The post-fire 200C and 400 oC specimens showed
greater ductility compared to specimen at post-fire
condition of 600oC, see Figure 9.
The failure mode of Blind Bolt 1 specimens at
post-fire conditions was due to concrete failure. However,

465

Mirza et al.

Figure 12 shows the typical failure of the Blind Bolt 2

specimens tested at ambient temperature with 25 and no
cycles. As illustrated in Figure 12 failure modes were
mainly dominated by the concrete failure. The Blind Bolt
2 specimen subjected to 25 cycles showed yielding of the
reinforcement bars which occurred when the splitting of
the slab crossed the bars. This type of failure led to the
higher maximum slip compared to the specimen tested
without cycling.

350

800

300

700

250

600
Load (kN)

Load (kN)

all Blind Bolt 1 specimens tested at post-fire conditions

of 200, 400, and 600C failed due to the splitting of the
concrete slab. This was unlike the concrete failure of the
Blind Bolt 1 specimens at ambient temperature which
tended to be localized at the position of a Blind Bolt 1. In
general, the failure modes for the post fire Blind Bolt 1
specimens were mainly due to concrete failure and
separation between the steel and the concrete as shown in
Figure 10.

200

150
100

2
3
Slip (mm)

300

AJAX Bolts 25 Cycles

AJAX Bolts No Cycles

100
0

0
0

400

200

Lindapter Bolts at Post-fire 200C

Lindapter Bolts at Post-fire 400C
Lindapter bolts at Post-fire 600C

50

500

10
15
Slip (mm)

20

25

Figure 11. Load Slip relationship for Blind Bolt 2

Figure 9. Load Slip relationship for Blind Bolt 1 specimens

post fire

Figure 12. Failure mode of Blind Bolt 2 specimens at ambient

temperature

Figure 10. Failure mode of Blind Bolt 1 connector specimens

post fire

The push out tests for Blind Bolt 2 specimens was

also carried out at post fire conditions of 200 oC, 400 oC
and 600 oC. Figure 13 shows the load versus slip of the
Blind Bolt 2 specimens tested at post fire conditions. The
Blind Bolt 2 specimens tested showed a drop in load
followed by a gradual increase in loading before a sudden
drop in load. The loading capacity behaviour was similar
to the strain hardening of a steel material in a tensile test.
The ductility of the Blind Bolt 2 specimens was more

3.3 Behaviour of Blind Bolt 2

Figure 11 shows the load-slip relationship for the
Blind Bolt 2 specimens tested at ambient temperature
under 25 and no cycles. The specimen subjected to 25
cycles showed more stability and achieved a greater load
and slip before failure.

466

Mirza et al.

3.4 Comparison of Results at Ambient Temperature

evident at the post-fire condition of 200C compared to

post-fire conditions of 400 and 600C.
The failure modes for all the Blind Bolt 2 specimens
tested at post fire conditions of 200, 400, and 600C were
all concrete failures, see Figure 14. Furthermore, minor
separation of steel and concrete was observed for
post-fire 400and 600C before the test was conducted.
The separation between the steel and concrete prior to the
test was caused by the thermal expansion of the steel and
the concrete which in turn resulted in a reduction in load
capacity.

Standards such as Eurocode 4, AISC (2005) and the

Australian Standard AS2327.1-2003 can be used to
predict strength of the shear connectors.
The failure load of a shear connector based on
Eurocode 4 can be predicted using the lesser of Equations
1 and 2 as follows:
= (0.29 2 )
= (0.8

where = modification factor, 0.2(h/d + 1) < 1.0,

d = diameter of shear connector (mm)
h = 100mm
fck = concrete cylinder compressive strength (MPa)
Ec = static elastic modulus of concrete
fu = ultimate tensile strength of the shear connector
FL = failure load (N).
Equations 3 and 4 are used by the American Institute
of Steel Construction, AISC (2005) to estimate the failure
load of shear connectors. The lesser value of Equations 3
and 4 are used to predict the failure load of shear
connector.

500
450
400
350

Load (kN)

2
)
4

300
250
200
150
100

AJAX Bolts at Post-fire 200C

50

AJAX bolts at Post-fire 400C

=
= 0.5

AJAX bolts at Post-fire 600C

0
0

3 4 5
Slip (mm)

(1)
(2)

where, FL - failure Load (N)

As = shank cross sectional area of the shear connector
(mm2),
fu = ultimate tensile strength of the shear connector (MPa)
fck = compressive strength of concrete (MPa)
Ec = elastic modulus of concrete (MPa)
Equations 5 and 6 are used by the Australian Standard
AS2327.1-2003 (SAL 2003) to estimate the failure load
of the shear connectors. The lesser value of Equations 5
and 6 are used to predict the failure load of shear
connector.

Figure 13. Load Slip relationship for Blind Bolt 2 specimens

post fire

= 0.632

(5)

= 0.312

(6)

where, FL - failure Load (N)

d shank diameter of the shear connector (mm),
fu = ultimate tensile strength of the shear connector (MPa)
fck = compressive strength of concrete (MPa)
Ec = elastic modulus of concrete (MPa)
Table 1 shows the experimental failure loads as well
as the predicted failure loads based on different standards
for the push out tests at ambient temperature. Table 2
shows the ratios of the average test load to predicted
failure loads for push out test specimens using different
shear connectors at ambient temperature.

Figure 14. Failure mode of Blind Bolt 2 connector specimens

post fire

467

Mirza et al.
Table 2. Ratios of Average Test to Predicted Failure Loads for
push out test specimens using different shear connectors.

From Tables 1 and 2, AISC (2005) significantly

overestimated the failure capacity of all the shear
connectors in the push out test specimens, as shown by
the average ratio of test failure load to predicted failure
load in Table 2. Eurocode 4 and the Australian standard
were comparatively better in predicting the failure
capacity of the different shear connectors.
Based on the materials properties, the American
standard, AISC (2005), Australian Standard (SAL 2003)
and Eurocode 4 see Table 1, predicted failure of the
headed studs and Blind Bolt 1 to be dominated by the
shear connector failure (i.e. Equation 2, 3 and 5 had the
lesser value). The predicted failure mode for the headed
studs and Blind Bolt 1 by the standards contradicts the
failure mode observed in the specimens. Most of the
specimens tested failed by concrete failure splitting of
the section of concrete around the shear connector and
through the specimen.
Based on theoretical analysis of Eurocode 4, AISC
(2005) and AS2327.1-2003, all three standards correctly
predicted the failure mode of Blind Bolt 2 specimens as
concrete failure. Despite the correctly predicted failure
mode, the standards predicted failure loads are
considerably different to the experimental test failure
loads.
Based on the analysis of the predictions by the three
different standards (Eurocode 4, AISC 2005, and
AS2327.1-2003), Eurocode 4 followed by the Australian
Standard can be considered to be reasonable in predicting
the shear capacity of all the specimens tested at ambient
temperature (see Table 2). From the result of this analysis
Eurocode 4 can be considered to be a more reliable basis
for determining the residual strength in post-fire analysis.

Shear Connectors

Test
25
Cyc.
(kN)

Test
No
Cyc.
(kN)

EC4
(kN)

AISC
2005
(kN)

SAL
2003
(kN)

Headed Stud

778

688

744#

930#

Blind Bolt 1

601

626

784#

Blind Bolt 2

712

629

974

Average
Test
Load/AISC
Predicted
Load
0.79

Average
Test
Load/SAL
Predicted
Load
0.98

Blind Bolt 1

0.78

0.63

0.78

Blind Bolt 2

0.69

0.51

0.64

Mean Ratio

0.82

0.64

0.80

3.5 Comparison of Results at Post Fire

Table 3 shows the summary of test results for headed
stud specimens. Table 3 shows the test failure loads,
average test failure loads and residual strength for the
headed studs specimens tested at ambient temperature
and post-fire conditions of 200, 400 and 600C. The
residual strength, defined as the ratio of the average
failure load for post-fire specimens to average failure
load for ambient temperature specimens indicated that 25,
43, and 60% loss in load capacity were reached for
post-fire conditions of 200, 400, and 600C respectively.
Table 3. Comparison of Headed studs test results for ambient
and post-fire.

Temperature(C)
Ambient 25
Cycles
Ambient No
Cycles
Post-fire 200 - 01

Table 1. Test and Predicted Failure Loads for push out test
specimens using different shear connectors.
Shear
Connectors

Headed Stud

Average
Test
Load/EC4
Predicted
Load
0.99

Test
Failure
Load
(kN)

Residual
Strength

750

1.00

561

0.75

426

0.57

297

0.40

809
691
561

Post-fire 200 - 02
Post-fire 400 - 01

389

746#

Post-fire 400 - 02

463

980#

786#

Post-fire 600 - 01

314

1318

1040

Post-fire 600 - 02

280

# - Shear connector failure predicted

- Concrete crushing predicted

Average
Test
Failure
Load
(kN)

Table 4 shows the test results for Blind Bolt 2

specimens tested at ambient and post-fire. From Table 4,
the residual strengths for the Blind Bolt 2 had dropped on
average by 33, 56, and 63% for post-fire conditions of
200, 400, and 600Celsius respectively.
The summary of the loading capacity of Blind Bolt 1
specimens ambient and at post-fire condition of 200, 400,
and 600C is shown in Table 5. From Table 5, the
ambient temperature loading capacity was the baseline
for all post-fire analysis. For the post-fire condition of
200C, a 33% drop in loading capacity was observed;
468

Mirza et al.

similar to the result obtained from the Blind Bolt 2 (see

Table 4). For Blind Bolt 1 bolt specimens at post-fire
conditions of 400 and 600 Celsius, the load capacities
dropped by 57 and 66% respectively.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This project was sponsored by the Advanced
Materials and Smart Structures (AMSS) Research Group
and University of Western Sydney Research Grant
Scheme (RGS). The authors wish to thank the technical
support of Dr Mithra Fernando, Mr Robert Marshall, Mr
Murray Bolden and Mr Mitch Quirk.

Table 4. Comparison of Blind Bolt 2 test results for ambient and

post-fire.

Temperature (C)

Test
Failure
Load
(kN)

Ambient 25 Cycles

765

Ambient No Cycles

654

Post-fire 200 - 01

464

Post-fire 200 - 02

491

Post-fire 400 - 01

265

Post-fire 400 - 02

357

Post-fire 600 - 01

298

Post-fire 600 - 02

232

Average
Test
Failure
Load
(kN)

Residual
Strength

710

1.00

478

0.67

311

0.44

265

0.37

REFERENCES
AISC. 2005, Specification for Structural Steel Buildings,
ANSI/AISC 360-05, American Institute of Steel
Construction, Chicago, Illinois 60601-1802
Balendran B.V., Maqsood T. and Nadeem A.2001. Effect
of cooling method on residual compressive strength of
high strength concrete cured for 28 days and 180 days
and heated to elevated temperatures, 26th Conference
on
OUR
WORLD
IN
CONCRETE
&
STRUCTURES,August 27-28,2001.Singapore
Ellobody, E. 2011. Nonlinear behaviour of unprotected
composite slim floor steel beams exposed to different
fire conditions, Thin-Walled Structures 49(6):
762-771.
Eurocode 4 2004, EN 1994-1-2: - Design of composite
steel and concrete structures - Part 1-2: General rules Structural fire design
Heidarpour, A. & Bradford, M.A. 2010. Nonlinear
Analysis of Composite Beams with Partial Interaction
in Steel Frame Structures at Elevated Temperature,
Journal of Structural Engineering136(8): 968-977.
Mirza, O. & Uy, B. 2009. Behaviour of headed stud shear
connectors for composite steelconcrete beams at
elevated temperatures, Journal of Constructional
Steel Research 65(3): 662-674.
Rodrigues, JPC. & La
m, L. 2011. Behaviour of
Perfobond shear connectors at high temperatures,
Engineering Structures 33(10): 2744-2753.
SAL. 2003. Australian Standard AS2327.01-2003,
Composite Structures, Part 1 Simply Supported
Beams, Standards Australia Limited, Sydney,
Australia.

Table 5. Comparison of Blind Bolt 1 test results for ambient and

post-fire.

Temperature (C)

Test
Failure
Load
(kN)

Ambient 25 Cycles

597

Ambient No Cycles

625

Post-fire 200 - 01

474

Post-fire 200 - 02

340

Post-fire 400 - 01

278

Post-fire 400 - 02

244

Post-fire 600 - 01

191

Post-fire 600 - 02

224

Average
Test
Failure
Load
(kN)

Residual
Strength

611

1.00

407

0.67

261

0.43

208

0.34

4 CONCLUSIONS
1. The experimental test failure loads of headed studs
and Blind Bolt 2 specimens tested at ambient temperature
were of the same magnitude. Blind Bolt 1 specimens,
however, showed less failure capacity due to the stress
concentrations around the casing of the bolts.
2. Headed studs performed well compared to Blind
Bolt 1 and 2 in ambient and all post-fire target
temperature.
3. The residual strength of the headed studs in all
post-fire target temperatures was better compared to the
Blind Bolt 1 and 2.

469

11th International Conference on

Advances in Steel and Concrete Composite Structures
Tsinghua University, Beijing, China, December 3-5, 2015

BEHAVIOUR OF NOVEL BLIND-BOLTED JOINTS

DIFFERENT STRENGTHENING COMPONENTS

WITH

Z. B. Wanga, Z. Taob, D. S. Lia & L. H. Hanc

a

College of Civil Engineering, Fuzhou University, Fuzhou, China

E-mails: wangzhibin@fzu.edu.cn, lids0820@163.com

Institute for Infrastructure Engineering, University of Western Sydney, Penrith, Australia

E-mail: z.tao@uws.edu.au

Department of Civil Engineering, Tsinghua University, Beijing, China

E-mail: lhhan@tsinghua.edu.cn
ABSTRACT

Keywords:
Blind bolts; Blind-bolted
joints; Beam-column joints;
Strengthening; Ductility; Energy
dissipation.

Steel-concrete composite structures with concrete-filled steel tubular (CFST) columns have been
widely used for multi-storey and high-rise buildings owing to their high structural efficiency and
significant economy. Because of the difficulty of accessing the inside of the hollow section,
emerging technology using blind bolts has been recently developed for fabricating connections
to CFST columns. However, two issues limit the structural benefits of this joint system
including the limited transfer of hogging moment and high susceptibility of the steel tube to
local failure. Therefore, the authors proposed four different strengthening methods for the CFST
column, namely, using inner binding bars, welding two internal rings, externally welding two
C-shaped channels, and internally embedding a short segment of I-section in the steel tube. A
total of 6 blind-bolted joints were tested under cyclic loading accordingly. The experimental
results are analysed in this paper to evaluate the efficiency of different strengthening methods. It
indicates that the C-shaped channels and embedded I-section are very effective in enhancing the
performance of the joint, and its strength and deformation capacity can be significantly
improved with large bending deformation developed in the end plate.

In recent year, blind bolted joints to CFST columns

were proposed to improve the constructability since blind
bolts can be easily inserted and fastened from outside the
tube whilst normal standard bolts are only applicable for
open sections (Loh et al. 2006). In the last decade, Loh et
al. (2006) and Wang et al. (2009) conducted a series of
tests to investigate the monotonic and cyclic behaviour of
blind bolted end-plate joints with CFST columns. They
found that joints with square CFST columns often failed
by cracking at the corner of the steel tube in the panel
zone and/or development of serious outward deformation
of the steel tube, whilst only slight deformation of the end
plate and column face could be observed for joints with
circular CFST columns. The measured flexural stiffness
and resistance for blind bolted joints with circular CFST
columns were also higher than those of the joints with
square CFST columns. It highlights that the square steel
tube and plane end plate are much easier than the circular
steel tube and curved end plate to develop plastic
deformation at the locations of tension bolts.
To enhance the performance of blind bolted joints,
Goldsworthy & Gardner (2006) studied the tensile

1 INTRODUCTION
Concrete-filled steel tubular (CFST) columns have
been widely used in multi-storey and high-rise buildings
in many countries owing mainly to the high structural
efficiency, significant savings of cost and construction
time of this type of construction (Han et al. 2014). Due to
the difficulty of accessing the inside of the hollow
section, many different types of joints have been
developed and used to connect steel/composite beams to
CFST columns including fully-rigid/fully-welded joints
and pinned/fin-plate joints (Ding & Wang 2007).
However, for fully-welded joints, the fabrication costs are
quite high and the in-situ welding quality can vary
considerably depending on the weather conditions,
difficulties of high-altitude operation and the skill of the
welder. For pinned/fin-plate joints, however, the flexural
stiffness and flexural resistance of the joints are relatively
limited, which will result in a high beam deflection and
low load-carrying capacity of the whole structure.

470

Wang et al.

2 EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATION

behaviour of the joint to circular CFST column where a

straight or hooked reinforcing bar was welded as an
extension to the blind bolt. They found that this
strengthening method could effectively improve the
strength and stiffness of the T-stub to CFST column joint
under tension, but special care should be taken to avoid
the weld failure between the extension and the bolt head.
Meanwhile, anchorage failure of a straight extension
would still happen if the length of the extension was too
short (60 mm). This was further confirmed by the test
results reported by Wang & Guo (2012), where
50-mm-long straight extensions were used for the blind
bolts. Tizani et al. (2013) proposed to use modified blind
bolts to replace normal blind bolts in CFST columns,
where the original bolt shank was replaced by a longer
one and a tailor-made anchor head was attached to the
end of the new bolt shank to enhance the anchorage. They
found that the failure mode changed from bolt pull-out to
bolt shank tensile fracture.
To eliminate the need to modify commercially
available blind bolts, the authors of this paper previously
proposed a strengthening method using binding bars to tie
the opposite surfaces of the steel tube together, and some
preliminary test results have been reported by Li et al.
(2015). Those tests were conducted on 6 flush end-plate
connections and tensile load was applied to the steel
beam to pull out the blind bolts. Compared with the
reference specimen without binding bars, the ultimate
tensile load increased by 32.2% and 42.9% when 4 and 8
binding bars with a diameter of 15.8 mm were installed,
respectively, in the square steel tube with a width of 200
mm and a thickness of 5 mm. In contrast, the influence of
the binding bars on the joint performance was not
obvious when circular CFST columns with a diameter of
200 mm and a thickness of 3.6 mm were used.
The above studies indicate that the strength, stiffness
and deformation capacity of joints with normal blind
bolts are relatively low, especially when square CFST
columns are used. Suitable methods should be adopted to
improve the performance of blind bolted joints with
square CFST columns. Apart from using binding bars, the
authors recently further proposed three additional
methods to enhance the performance of blind-bolted
joints, namely, welding two internal rings, externally
welding two C-shaped channels, and internally
embedding a short segment of I-section in the steel tube.
A patent has been granted to the authors for those novel
joints (Wang et al. 2014).
To prove the effectiveness of the proposed
strengthening methods, a total of 6 blind-bolted joints
were tested under cyclic loading. Based on the test
results, the effectiveness of different strengthening
methods is evaluated in this paper.

2.1 General
In total, six blind bolted flush end-plate joints were
designed to connect steel beams to square CFST
columns. Each joint encompasses a square CFST column
and an I-shaped steel beam. The steel tubes adopted in the
columns were square cold-formed tubes with a
cross-section of 2005.77 mm. The cross-sectional
dimensions for the I-beams were 3001506.238.56
mm, and the thickness of the end plates was 13.8 mm.
As presented in Figure 1, five types of joint
specimens were prepared: (1) Reference specimen C1
without any strengthening measure (Figure 1a); (2)
Specimens C2a and C2b with 4 binding bars to tie the
opposite surfaces of the tube (Figure 1b). They were
duplicate specimens designed to check the repeatability
of the test results; (3) Specimen C3 welded with two
internal rings (Figure 1c); (4) Specimen C4 externally
welded with two C-shaped channels (Figure 1d); and (5)
Specimen C5 embedded with a short segment of I-section
in the steel tube (Figure 1e). The diameter of the binding
bars was 15.59 mm. The same steel sheet with a thickness
of 7.5 mm was used to fabricate the C-shaped channel,
embedded I-section and internal rings. Other specimen
details are shown in Figure 1.

2.2 Preparation of joints

The blind bolted joints were prepared in the following
steps. The square cold-formed steel tube was firstly cut to
a length of 1410 mm. The strengthening components
such as binding bars, internal rings, C-shaped channels
and embedded I-section were installed in different
specimens as shown in Figure 1. After that, two
40040020 mm square steel plates were welded to the
ends of the tube. The top plate had a circular hole with a
diameter of 120 mm to enable the concrete filling. Then
the steel beam was fabricated and a flush end plate was
welded to one end of the steel beam. Six grade 8.8 M20
blind bolts (Lindapter Hollo-bolts) were adopted to
connect the square steel tube with the steel beam.
According to the instruction provided by Lindapter
International, a torque of 300 Nm was adopted to tighten
all blind bolts. Finally, the concrete was cast into the steel
tube after the installation of all steel components.

2.3 Instrumentation and loading procedure

The test setup is shown in Figure 2. Two supports
were installed and fastened to the strong floor through
four vertical steel rods with a diameter of 60 mm. The
CFST columns were horizontally installed using two
hinges to connect to the supports. The effective length of
the CFST column (Lc) was 1,780 mm, which was defined
as the horizontal distance from the left hinge to the right
one. A constant axial load of 567 kN was applied to the

471

Wang et al.

Square CFST
-2005.77

100
100
M20 blind bolt
15.59
binding bars

Steel beam

Steel beam

(b) C2a and C2b

M20 blind bolt

C-shaped
channel
Steel beam
100

100

Steel beam

Fillet weld
7.5 mm

Butt weld
7.5 mm

(c) C3

(d) C4

End plate

CFST column Horizontal support

Hinge

Beam

20

160
LVDT1
LVDT2
Strain gauge
End plate

1 2 3 4 5
LVDT3

CFST column
75

100

100

120
188

(f) Internal ring

LVDT4

In conducting the test, the predetermined axial load

was firstly applied to the CFST column by means of a
hydraulic jack and maintained throughout the test. The
protocol proposed by SAC-97 (1997) was then adopted to
apply the lateral cyclic load to the beam as presented in
Figure 4, where the drift ratio is referred to as the ratio of
the lateral displacement of the beam () to Lb.

40 100 40

(e) C5

Blind bolt

Figure 3. Layout of strain gauges and LVDTs (unit: mm).

65 100 100 65

100

Steel beam

35

M20 blind bolt

Embedded I-section
I1861807.57.5

110

360

100

100

Square CFST
-2005.77

MTS Actuator

Lateral support

As shown in Figure 3, two vertical displacement

transducers (LVDT1 and LVDT2) were used to monitor
the rotation of the beam [b=(12)/160, where 1 and
2 are the vertical displacements measured by LVDT1
and LVDT2, respectively] and two horizontal
displacement transducers (LVDT3 and LVDT4) were
used to monitor the rotation of the column
[c=(34)/110, where 3 and 4 are the horizontal
displacements measured by LVDT3 and LVDT4
respectively]. In order to measure the strains of the beam
near the end plate, strain gauges were mounted at
different locations of the beam as shown in Figure 3.

M20 blind bolt

Internal ring

Beam

Figure 2. Test setup.

100

360

100

End plate

100

Fillet weld
7.5 mm
End plate

Square CFST
-2005.77

100

Square CFST
-2005.77

320

Horizontal support

Jack

Load cell
60
mm
rod

100

100
M20 blind bolt

(a) C1

predicted by the finite element model developed by Tao

et al. (2013)] was 0.2 for the CFST column. A 500 kN
MTS hydraulic actuator mounted on a reaction wall was
utilised to apply the cyclic lateral load to the end of the
beam. To avoid the out-of-plane instability of the beam,
lateral support was provided at the mid-span of the beam.
The vertical distance (Lb) from the column face
connected to the end plate to the load point of the top end
of the beam was 1,190 mm.

End plate

320

100

End plate

100

Square CFST
-2005.77

(g) End plate

Figure 1. Dimensions of joints (unit: mm).

column using a hydraulic jack. The corresponding axial
load ratio [(n=N0/Nu, where N0 is the applied load, and Nu
is the load carrying capacity of the CFST column

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Wang et al.

15
Drift ratio (%)

10
5
0

0.375
0.5

-5

-10

6 cycles per drift

-15
0

1.5

0.75

1
4 cycles
per drift

10

11

Fractured steel tube

6

8
10
2 cycles per drift
12

20
30
Cycle number

40

Figure 5. Failure modes of specimen C1.

50

3.2

Figure 4. Loading protocol.

The duplicate specimens C2a and C2b demonstrated

very similar behaviour and failure patterns. Therefore,
only specimen C2b is used as an example to illustrate the
influence of binding bars on the failure mode. Compared
with the reference specimen C1, no obvious behaviour
difference was observed for specimen C2b with binding
bars. Under the action of the pull-out force from the blind
bolts, slight deformation of the column face was observed
when the drift ratio reached 0.75%. The gap between the
column face and the end plate increased with increasing
drift ratio. The peak load was reached at a drift ratio of
1.5%. When the drift ratio reached 3%, fracture of the
weld between the steel tube and the binding bars
occurred, as shown in Figure 6. Despite the weld fracture,
the tube deformation in the panel zone mainly developed
in the section between the binding bars. After the test, it
was found that binding bars and blind bolts were kept
intact, and anchorage failure occurred for the blind bolts.

2.4 Material properties

Steel coupon tests were conducted to determine the
following properties of different steel components: elastic
modulus (Es), yield stress (fy), ultimate strength (fu), and
yield strain (y), which are presented in Table 1. The
nominal values of fy and fu for the Grade 8.8 blind bolts
are 640 MPa and 800 MPa, respectively. The concrete
was designed to achieve a nominal cubic strength at 28
days of 40 MPa. The mix proportion of concrete is water:
cement: sand: aggregate=0.54: 1: 1.3: 2.6. At the time of
testing, the cubic strength (fcu) and modulus of elasticity
(Ec) of concrete were 47.9 MPa and 35,390 MPa,
respectively.
Table 1. Material properties of steel.

t
(mm)
Steel tube
5.77
Beam flange
8.56
Beam web
6.23
End plate
13.80
Binding bar
15.59
C-shaped channel, 7.50
embedded
I-section
and inner ring
Steel type

fy
(MPa)
376.7
241.9
275.0
266.7
334.3
230.7

fu
(MPa)
456.5
398.9
412.0
428.7
479.7
357.9

y
()
2106
1378
1412
1401
1729
1339

Specimen C2b with binding bars

Es
(MPa)
1.97105
1.96105
1.93105
1.98105
2.04105
1.96105

tube
Fractured steel
Weld fracture

Figure 6. Failure modes of specimen C2b.

3.3 Specimen C3 with internal rings

During the testing, the phenomena observed in
specimen C3 were quite similar to those of the reference
specimen C1. The influence of the internal rings on the
failure mode was not obvious. After the test, the
condition of the internal rings was checked, and it was
found that the welds between the rings and the side of the
tube with blind bolts fractured. Despite this, the tube
deformation in the panel zone mainly developed in the
section between the internal rings.

3 FAILURE MODES
3.1 Reference specimen C1 without strengthening
Only slight flexural deformation of the end plate was
found for specimen C1 after test. When the drift ratio
reached 0.75%, an obvious gap between the column face
and the end plate was observed due to the deformation of
the column face. After the beam was removed, severe
outward deformation of the steel tube was found,
especially near the bolt holes as shown in Figure 5. For
this reason, steel fracture was observed near one of the
bolt holes. After partial of the steel tube was removed, it
was found that all blind bolts remained in good condition.
However, severe cracking and fracture of the core
concrete near the left or right rows of blind bolts was
found. It is clear that anchorage failure occurred for the
blind bolts, resulting in the large deformation of the steel
tube.

3.4 Specimen C4 with C-shaped channels

Due to the use of C-shaped channels, specimen C4
demonstrated significantly improved ductility compared
with previously described specimens. The failure mode
changed from the excessive outward deformation of the
steel tube to the end plate failure in bending. The ultimate
load of the specimen was reached at a drift ratio of 8%.
Although C-shaped channels were provided, outward
deformation at a reduced level still developed for the steel

473

Wang et al.

4 TEST RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

tube in the panel zone. At a drift ratio of 12%, fracture of

the transverse weld between the steel tube and C-shaped
channel occurred as shown in Figure 7(a). At this
moment, the beam load dropped below 85% of the peak
load. After the test, slight bearing deformation was found
around the bolt holes in the C-shaped channel and steel
tube in Figure 7(b). Meanwhile, concrete failure was
observed in the left or right row of blind bolts due to the
excessive deformation of the end plate. Some sleeve legs
were sheared off and longitudinal shear failure was
observed for the sleeves. However, the bolt shanks
remained intact, which ensured the high rotation capacity
of the joint.

4.1 M- hysteretic curves

M (kNm)

M (kNm)

M (kNm)

M (kNm)

The measured moment (M=PLb, P is the lateral load

applied to the end of the beam) versus relative rotation
(=bc) hysteretic curves for all joints are given in
Figure 9. Obvious pinching effect can be found, which is
attributed to the fact that severe deformation of the
column face and/or the end plate generated an irregular
gap between the column face and end plate, thus the
effective contact area between the column face and end
plate was significantly reduced. The pinching effect
increased with increasing drift ratio, which was more
significant in the two specimens C4 and C5 with
improved deformation capacity. Compared with
specimen C1, the joints reinforced with binding bars
(specimens C2a and C2b) and internal rings (specimen
C3) had very similar M- curves, indicating the moderate

strengthening effects of the two measures. As shown in

Longitudinal shear failure of
Weld fracture
Figure 9(e) and (f), the joints with externally welded
sleeves

C-shaped channels (specimen C4) or an embedded

(a) Fractured weld
(b) C-shaped channel
I-section (specimen C5) have higher flexural resistance,
Figure 7. Failure modes of specimen C4.
better ductility and higher energy dissipation capacities
than the reference specimen C1. It can be attributed to the
3.5 Specimen C5 with embedded I-section
fact that the failure mode changed from the brittle failure
Similar to specimen C4, specimen C5 also
(steel fracture or severe outward deformation of the
demonstrated very high deformation capacity due to the
square steel tube) to the ductile failure (flexural
use of the embedded I-section in the steel tube. The end
deformation of the end plate) due to the adoption of the
plate deformed significantly in bending. When the
C-shaped channels or embedded I-section.
ultimate load was reached, the drift ratio was 3%, which
110
110
was smaller than the corresponding drift ratio of 8% for
55
55
specimen C4, but was larger than the corresponding drift
0
0
ratio of 2% for the reference specimen C1. At a drift ratio
-55
-55
of 8%, steel fracture occurred at the corner of the steel
-110
tube for C5 due to the large deformation of the steel tube
-110
-140 -70
0
70 140
-140 -70
0
70 140
at the locations of the left and right rows of blind bolts, as
(mrad)
(mrad)

presented in Figure 8(a). After the testing, it was found

(a) C1
(b) C2a
that only one blind bolt demonstrated shear failure. This
may be attributed to the steel fracture occurred in the
110
110
steel tube, which reduced the deformation demand on the
55
55
blind bolts. When the embedded I-section was taken out,
0
0
it was found that significant distortion occurred due to the
-55
-55
sleeve bearing against the flange of the I-section at the
-110
-110
bolt holes, as shown in Figure 8(b).
-140 -70
0
70 140
-140 -70
0
70 140
(mrad)
(mrad)

(c) C2b

(d) C3

Fractured steel tube

(a) Steel tube

Significant distortion

110

M (kNm)

M (kNm)

110
55
0
-55

-110

(b) Embedded I-section

-140

0
-55

-110
-70

70

(mrad)

Figure 8. Failure modes of specimen C5.

55

(e) C4

140

-140

-70

70

(mrad)

140

(f) C5

Figure 9. Moment (M) versus rotation () hysteretic curves.

474

Wang et al.

4.2 M- envelope curve and evaluation of connection

connections, even when stiffening methods were

provided. This is owing to the use of flush end plates.

classification

4.3 Flexural stiffness

Comparable positive and negative M- envelope

curves were obtained for each specimen. For comparison
purposes, the curves are averaged and only the average
one is plotted in Figure 10. Compared with the reference
specimen C1, specimen C2b with binding bars and
specimen C3 with internal rings had quite similar M-
envelope curves. However, specimens C4 and C5
demonstrated increased strength and ductility due to the
presence of the C-shaped channels or embedded
I-section.

The M- envelope curves in Figure 10 are initially

linear up to about 0.4Mu (Mu is the measured flexural
resistance), followed by nonlinear response. The secant
stiffness of the M- response at a moment level of 0.4Mu
could be a reasonable approximation for the joints'
flexural stiffness (Ki). The calculated Ki are presented in
Table 2 and compared in Figure 11. The values are
retrieved from the M- envelope curves shown in Figure
10.

Rigid sway frame

120

Full strength

Rigid non-sway frame

Table 2. Test results.

Mbp

C5

Specimen
Ki
label
(kNm/rad)

90

C3

60

C1

C4

C2b

30

0.25Mbp

Nominally Pinned

0
0

30

60

90

(10-3 rad)

120

Figure 10. Comparison of M- envelope curves.

Eurocode 3 Part 18 (2005) provides rules to classify

connections in terms of stiffness and strength.
Considering the stiffness, a connection is rigid connection
if the initial stiffness of the connection (Ki) is larger than
kbEIb/Lb0 (kb is taken as 8 and 25 for non-sway and sway
frames, respectively; E and Ib are the elastic modulus and
second moment of area of the steel beam; and Lb0 is the
span of the steel beam, which is taken as 6 m in this
paper). If Ki is less than 0.5EIb/Lb0, the connection is
nominally pinned. If the initial stiffness falls between the
two boundaries, the connection is classified as semi-rigid.
Based on the connection strength, a connection can be
classified as full-strength, partial-strength and nominally
pinned. A connection is full-strength connection if the
flexural resistance of the connection (Mu) is larger than
the design plastic flexural resistance of the beam
(Mbp=As,ffy,f(hw+tf)+0.25As,wfy,whw, where As,f, fy,f and tf are
the area, yield stress and thickness of a beam flange
respectively; and As,w, fy,w and hw are the area, yield stress
and height of the beam web). When Mu0.25Mbp, it is
classified as nominally pinned connection. A connection
with the flexural resistance that falls between the two
boundaries is classified as partial-strength.
The above classification limits given by Eurocode 3
Part 18 (2005) are presented in Figure 10. The stiffness
limits corresponding to rigid sway frame, rigid non-sway
frame and pinned frame are 5.5104 kNm/rad, 1.7104
kNm/rad and 1.04103 kNm/rad, respectively. From the
comparison, it is clear that the stiffness of all connections
was higher than the limit of rigid sway frame, but lower
than the limit of rigid non-sway frame. Meanwhile, all
connections could be classified as partial-strength

Mu
(kNm)

u
(rad)

C1

1.84104

66.5

0.057

15.9

C2a

2.84104

71.4

0.034

13.5

C2b

2.2610

69.8

0.039

12.7

C3

1.8610

70.0

0.045

12.0

C4

2.48104

89.9

0.124

34.3

C5

96.7

0.106

35.3

3.2310

Ki (103 kNm/rad)

40
30

C1
C4

C2b
C5

C3

20
10

120
90

Mu (kNm)

M (kNm)

150

C2b
C5

C3

60
30

Figure 11. Flexural stiffness.

C1
C4

Figure 12. Flexural resistances.

Compared with the reference specimen C1, Ki-values

increased by 22.9%, 35.1%, and 76% for specimens C2b
with binding bars, C4 with C-shaped channels and C5
with embedded I-section, respectively. However, the
internal rings had negligible influence on Ki which may
be attributed to the premature weld fracture between the
internal rings and steel tube. The test results indicate that
using embedded I-section is the most effective way to
improve the flexural stiffness of this type of composite
connection, followed by welding C-shaped channels.

4.4 Flexural resistance (Mu)

Figure 12 compares the measured flexural resistances
(Mu) of different specimens, which are the average values
of the positive and negative maximum flexural
resistances. Compared with the reference specimen C1,
the values of Mu increased by 5%, 5.2%, 35.2% and
45.4% when binding bars (specimen C2b), internal rings
(specimen C3), C-shaped channels (specimen C4) and
embedded I-section (specimen C5) were applied to

475

Wang et al.

strengthen the steel tube, respectively. Apparently, the

last two measures were more effective in improving the
flexural resistance of the joint, whilst only minor
improvement was observed for the first two measures. As
mentioned earlier, Li et al. (2015) found that using four
binding bars could increase the ultimate load by 32.2%
when a tensile load was applied to the beam. The design
of joints C2a and C2b was based on the preliminary test
results reported by Li et al. (2015). The joint
configuration was similar to the previous one, except that
bending moment rather than tensile load was applied to
the beam of the current specimen C2a or C2b. The test
results indicate that four binding bars were not enough to
restrict the outward deformation of the steel tube since
only two bars were effective when the beam was
subjected to bending. Plus, the longitudinal distance
between the axes of the binding bar and the closest blind
bolt in the same column was chosen to be 60 mm to allow
the installation of the blind bolts. Therefore, the pull-out
force applied to the blind bolts was not effectively
transferred to the binding bars. Similar reasons can be
used to explain the moderate influence of the internal
rings on the joint performance. More research is required
to improve the effectiveness of using binding bars and
internal rings.

where y=Mu/(M0.4/0.4), M0.4=0.4Mu, and 0.4 is the

connection rotation corresponding to 0.4Mu.
40

C3

30

90
60

C1
C4

C2b
C5

C3

20

30

10

(b) Ductility ratio

Figure 13. Rotation ability and ductility ratio.

Figure 13(b) compares the ductility ratios of different

specimens. In general, the influence of different
strengthening methods on is similar to that on u, as
discussed earlier. It is noticed that, however, the -values
of specimens C4 and C5 are comparable, whilst u of
specimen C5 is smaller than that of specimen C4. This is
because specimen C5 has higher flexural stiffness,
resulting in a decreased y when compared with specimen
C4.

4.6 Strength degradation

Figure 14 shows the strength degradation coefficients
(i) of the joints as a function of the drift ratio, where i is
expressed as follows (Wang et al. 2009):

The connection rotation (u) when the moment

decreased to 0.85Mu is used to represent the rotation
ability of a joint in this paper. The u-values of the test
specimens are presented in Table 2 and compared in
Figure 13(a). All u-values are higher than the ductility
limitation of 30 mrad required for earthquake design as
specified by FEMA-350 (2000). Compared with the
reference specimen C1, the values of u increased by
115.9% and 84.2% when C-shaped channels (test C4) and
embedded I-section (test C5) were used, respectively.
Therefore, the two strengthening methods are very
effective in enhancing the connection rotation capacity.
This is essential to improve the robustness of structures
when subjected to extreme events, such as fire, impact
and blast. However, compared with the reference
specimen C1, the values of u decreased by 31.5% and
21.4% while binding bars (specimen C2b) and internal
rings (specimen C3) were applied to strengthen the tube,
respectively. This is because the two methods increased
the flexural resistance of the joint slightly, but lost their
influence on the residual strength owing to the premature
weld fracture.
The ductility ratio () is used to evaluate the ductility
of the joint as follows:

u
y

120

C2b
C5

(a) Rotation ability

4.5 Rotation ability and ductility ratio

C1
C4

u (10-3rad)

150

Pj2

(2)

Pj1

in which P2j and P1j are the peak loads applied to the
beam in the 2nd and 1st cycles of the jth drift,
respectively.
1.1

C1
C3
C5

C2b
C4

0.9
0.8
0.7
-12

-8

-4

0
4
Drift ratio (%)

12

Figure 14. Strength degradation.

Compared with the reference specimen C1, the effect

of the binding bars (specimen C2b) or internal rings
(specimen C3) on strength degradation was quite
moderate. However, the strength degradation was less
significant when C-shaped channels (specimen C4) or
embedded I-section (specimen C5) was used to
strengthen the steel tube. This comparison further
confirms the effectiveness of the last two methods in
improving the joint performance.

(1)

476

Wang et al.

4.7 Stiffness degradation

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Figure 15 exhibits the stiffness degradation

coefficient (Kj) versus drift ratio curves, where Kj is
expressed as follows (Wang et al. 2009):

This work is supported by the Discovery Project of

the Australian Research Council (ARC) (Grant No:
DP120100971) and is also supported by China
Scholarship Council (CSC).

Kj

P
i 1
n

u
i 1

i
j

(3)

REFERENCES

i
j

Ding, J. & Wang, Y.C. 2007. Experimental study of

structural fire behaviour of steel beam to concrete
filled tubular column assemblies with different types
of joints. Engineering Structure 29(12): 3485-3502.
Eurocode 3. 2005. Design of steel structures Part 18:
Design of joints. ENV 1993-1-8. Brussels: CEN.
FEMA-350. 2000. Recommended seismic design
moment-frame buildings. Federal Emergency
Management Agency.
Goldsworthy, H.M. & Gardner, A.P. 2006. Feasibility
study for blind-bolted connections to concrete-filled
circular steel tubular columns. Structure Engineering
Mechanics 24(2): 463-478.
Han, L.H., Li W. & Bjorhovde R. 2014. Developments
and advanced application of concrete-filled steel
tubular (CFST) structures: Members. Journal of
Construction Steel Research 100(9): 211-228.
SAC Joint Venture (SAC) 1997. Protocol for fabrication,
inspection,
testing,
and
documentation
of
beamcolumn connection tests and other experimental
specimens. Rep. No. SAC/BD-97/02, SAC Joint
Venture, Sacramento, Calif.
Tao, Z., Wang, Z. & Yu, Q. 2013. Finite element
modelling of concrete-filled steel stub columns under
axial compression. Journal of Construction Steel
Research 89(8): 121-131.
Tizani, W., AL-Mughairi, A., Owen, J.S. & Pitrakkos, T.
2013. Rotational stiffness of a blind-bolted connection
to concrete-filled tubes using modified Hollo-bolt.
Journal of Construction Steel Research 80(1):
317-331.
Li, D.S., Tao, Z. & Wang, Z. 2015. Experimental
investigation of blind-bolted joints to concrete filled
steel columns. Journal of Hunan. University (Natural
Sciences) 42(3): 42-49. (In Chinese)
Loh, H.Y., Uy, B. & Bradford, M.A. 2006. The effects of
partial shear connection in composite flush end plate
joints Part Iexperimental study. Journal of
Construction Steel Research 62(4), 378-390.
Wang, J.F. & Guo, S.P. 2012. Structural performance of
blind bolted end plate joints to concrete-filled
thin-walled steel tubular columns. Thin-walled
Structure 60(11): 54-68.
Wang, J.F., Han, L.H. & Uy, B. 2009. Behavior of flush
end plate joints to concrete-filled steel tubular
columns. Journal of Construction Steel Research
65(4): 925-939.
Wang, Z.B., Li, D.S., Tao, Z. & Han, L.H. 2014. Blind
bolted connections between the concrete-filled
rectangular steel tubular column and steel beam.
Chinese Patents No. ZL 2014 20528325.2. State
Intellectual Property Office of the PRC, December 31.
(In Chinese)

in which Pij and uij are the peak load applied to the beam
in the ith circle of the jth drift and its corresponding
displacement, respectively; and n refers to the cycle time.
The effects of different strengthening methods on the
stiffness degradation are similar to those on the strength
degradation. The effect of binding bars (specimen C2b)
and internal rings (specimen C3) on the stiffness
degradation is moderate, whilst the use of C-shaped
channels (specimen C4) and embedded I-section
(specimen C5) can delay the stiffness degradation.

Kj (kN/m)

10000

C1
C2b
C3
C4
C5

8000
6000
4000
2000
0
-12

-8

-4

0
4
Drift ratio (%)

12

Figure 15. Stiffness degradation.

5 CONCLUSIONS
An experimental study was carried out to investigate
the feasibility of four different strengthening methods in
improving the performance of blind bolted flush
end-plate joints between square CFST columns and steel
beams. The following conclusions can be obtained based
on the current study.
(1) Welding binding bars or internal rings has only
moderate influence on the joint performance. To improve
the current design, the number of binding bars or internal
rings should be further increased if the beam is subjected
to bending moment.
(2) When C-shaped channels or embedded I-section is
provided, the joint performance can be significantly
improved in terms of the flexural resistance and stiffness,
rotation ability, strength degradation and stiffness
degradation. The joint failure is mainly controlled by the
end plate failure in bending.
(3) According to Eurocode 3, all tested blind-bolted
connections are partial-strength connections, and their
stiffness is higher than the limit for rigid sway frames but
lower than the limit for rigid non-sway frames.

477

11th International Conference on

Advances in Steel and Concrete Composite Structures
Tsinghua University, Beijing, China, December 3-5, 2015

PUSH OUT TEST OF NOVEL DEEP STEEL DECKING FAILURE

MODES AND INFLUENCE OF TRANSVERSAL LOADING
C. M. Odenbreita, R. Obialaa, S. Nellingera & R. M. Lawsonb
a

Research Unit of Engineering Sciences, University of Luxembourg, Luxembourg

E-mails: christoph.odenbreit@uni.lu,sebastian.nellinger@uni.lu

Steel Construction Institute, Ascot, London, UK

E-mail: m.lawson@steel-sci.com
ABSTRACT
Keywords:
Composite Beam, Deep Steel
Decking, Shear Connection,
Concrete Failure Modes, Push
Out Test, Transversal Load,

This paper presents the results of push-out test specimens on shear connectors for composite
beams, which are placed centrally in the ribs of novel formed deep steel decking. These deck
shapes have not been well considered in the development and the calibration studies of EN
1994-1-1. The presented tests have been designed to investigate the additional failure modes and
the corresponding load-slip behaviour, with special consideration of the newly occurring failure
modes in the rib. In addition, the vertical loading of the slab has been considered in the push-out
tests by a transverse load, acting with the help of a supplementary hydraulic jack. The
differences between a concentric and eccentric transverse loading and a constant and variable
transverse loading was investigated in the test series.

1 GENERAL INTRODUCTION

acting on the concrete. The compression force A

pushes against the weld collar at a shallow angle. With
increasing load, the concrete in front of the stud is
damaged and the shear force moves to a higher position
into the stud shank. This leads to plastic bending and
shear deformations. Because of the fixed support
conditions of the head of the stud, the tension force C
develops in the stud shank. The tension force C is in
equilibrium with a compression cone in the surrounding
concrete. The compression forces in the concrete activate
friction forces D between the slab and the steel beam.
Finally, failure occurs in the stud shank above the weld
collar because of combined tension and shear forces.

The application of composite beams and slabs has

many advantages in terms of economic construction of
multi-storey buildings due to the increase of stiffness and
load-bearing capacity of the structure. The composite
action - with the transfer of the shear forces between the
steel beam and the slab - is ensured by headed shear
studs, which are welded on the top of the beam.
The current rules in EN 1994-1-1 for the analysis of
the shear connector resistances are based on the failure
modes of studs in solid slabs and do not sufficiently
consider the load-bearing behaviour of the combined
rib-and-stud behaviour of the deep steel decking.
In addition, the push-out testing procedure of
EN1994, Annex B, was originally defined for solid slabs.
This set-up, when applied to slabs with steel decking,
leads to additional failure modes and to lower resistances
and deformation capacities, if compared with beam test
results. These new failure modes and an appropriate
consideration in the push-out test have to be investigated.

Figure 1. Load-bearing behaviour of studs in solid slabs

according to (Lungershausen 1988).

2 LOAD BEARING BEHAVIOUR OF THE

HORIZONTAL SHEAR CONNECTION AND
INFLUENCE OF LATERAL LOADING

If the shear stud is placed in the deck rib of a

composite slab, the load bearing behaviour differs from
the behaviour of studs in solid slabs, as shown in Figure
2. The rib geometry has a strong influence onto the
load-bearing behaviour. In general, two loading stages
can be characterised by the two load peaks P1 and P2.
The first peak load P1 is reached when the concrete in

2.1 Load bearing behaviour of the shear connection

with deep steel decking
The load-bearing behaviour of shear studs in solid
slabs is shown in Figure 1. The shear connectors initially
transfer the shear force P by a compression force A
478

Odenbreit et al.

front of the stud is crushed and two plastic hinges have

developed in the stud shank. At higher slips, the support
conditions of the head of the stud lead to a
back-anchorage effect. Thus, the head of the stud
introduces compression forces into the still intact
concrete section which are in equilibrium with the tension
force C in the stud shank. This effect allows the
development of a second peak load P2. Finally, failure
occurs in form of a concrete pull-out cone or stud rupture.

a certain rotation of the concrete rib. This rotation of the

rib induces a lift of the slab away from the steel beam. In
the real beam, the self-weight and the imposed load of the
composite slab act against the lift, but the traditional
push-out test does not take into account the accurate
consideration of this effect.

Figure 2. Load-bearing behaviour shear studs placed in the ribs

of composite slabs according to (Lungershausen 1988).

Figure 4. Push-out test specimen 1-08-03 with lateral fixing by

steel plates and tension bars.

The development of this failure mechanism requires a

sufficient embedment depth of the head of the stud into
the continuous part of the concrete slab. If the
embedment depth is relatively small, the support reaction
of the head of the stud cannot be introduced into the
concrete. In these cases, the concrete fails in a brittle
form and a failure mechanism with only one plastic hinge
develops (see Figure 3). Therefore, the behaviour of the
shear stud is also influenced by the geometry of the steel
decking and the shear stud itself.

Therefore the first pilot-tests have been conducted to

investigate the limits of this restraining effect by a test
set-up. Test 1-08-3 prohibited the slab from lifting away
from the steel beam via large steel plates and tension
bars, see Figure 4, whereas test 1-08-2 allowed a full
separation of the composite deck and the steel beam,
because the steel plates have been taken away.

Figure 3. Failure of ribs because of a too small embedment

depth of the stud according (Lungershausen 1988).

In addition to the stresses, which are introduced into

the concrete directly by the shear stud, additional stresses
occur because of the loading of the concrete slab itself.
The loading of the slab leads to stresses because of the
vertical loads and bending moments acting on the slab at
the line of the shear connectors. These stresses affect the
crushing of the concrete in front of the stud, as larger
stresses can be reached in multi-dimensional
compression. The embedment conditions of the head of
the stud may also be influenced by the development of
large cracks. These effects are yet not well investigated
and so far not considered in the push-out test as proposed
in EN 1994-1-1 Annex B [2].

Figure 5. Force-displacement diagram of push-out tests.

Figure 5 shows the difference of the behaviour. Test

1-08-2 shows a maximum load of ca. 395 kN, when the
first cracking of the concrete occurs. After this failure, the
load drops and stays constant at a level of ca. 300 kN.
Test 1-08-3 with the lateral fixing however, is able to take
additional load after the occurring of the first cracks, up
to a level of ca. 500 kN. This behaviour is due to the
restrained lateral displacement and the resulting
compression force, which stabilizes the crack-surface
between rib and slab, see Figure 3.
This difference in the load-bearing behaviour
indicates clearly that the consideration of the lateral load
in the push-out test has an impact, which has to be
investigated in detail, with the target, to reflect accurate

2.2 Lateral loading in the pilot push-out tests

Figures 2 and 3 show, that the horizontal
displacement of the slab is connected with a cracking and

479

Odenbreit et al.

for the loading of the shear connection and two horizontal

jacks (TL) for the lateral loading, which simulates the
slab shear force.

enough the real behaviour of the shear connection of the

composite beam within the push-out test.

3 TEST SET-UP AND CONDUCTION

Table 1. Test specimen geometry.

3.1 Degree of lateral loading

Test

To design the test set-up and the required forces for

the hydraulic jacks, a parameter study has been conducted
in advance.

Decking (Type ComFlor 80)

Studs

b/d
[mm]

hp/ bm/t
[mm]

d/hsc/nsc
[mm]

1-09-1

900/900

80/137.5/0.9

19.1/118.1/2

1-10-1

900/900

80/137.5/0.9

19.1/118.1/2

1-10-3

900/900

80/137.5/0.9

19.1/118.1/2

1-11-1

900/900

80/137.5/0.9

19.1/118.1/2

1-11-2

900/900

80/137.5/0.9

19.1/118.1/2

Figure 6. Vertical shear force v in the slab and horizontal force

in the shear connection between slab and steel beam.

The target of this study was the determination of the

ratio between the vertical forces vL respective vR in the
slab, directly at the supporting steel beam and the force T
in the horizontal shear connection between beam and
slab, see Figure 6.

Figure 8. Test arrangement for vertical and transversal loading

according to (Hicks 2014).

To reduce the number of needed horizontal jacks

from two to one a special frame, or clamping device, for
the transversal jack was developed. Figure 9 shows the
isometric drawing of this device.
Table 2. Test specimen concrete strength and reinforcement.

Figure 7. Ratio between slab shear force v = (vL + vR) and shear
connection force T.

The parameter study was performed for a standard

office with varying span lengths for the beam and the
slab, see Figure 7. The results indicated numbers between
4% and 12% for the ratio v/T, with v = (vL + vR)

Test

Concrete strength
2
fc [N/mm ]

Reinforcement
(1 Layer)

1-09-1

42.6

Q188 A

1-10-1

42.6

Q188 A

1-10-3

42.6

Q188 A

1-11-1

42.6

Q188 A

1-11-2

42.6

Q188 A

3.2 Test specimen, test set-up and conduction

It consists of the three major parts HP1, HP2 and
HP5. The two parts HP1 and HP2 are loaded by a
horizontal hydraulic jack.
The inner part HP2 then pushes on the left slab, while
the outer part HP1 is pushed outwards. As HP1 is
connected to HP5 on the other side of the specimen, this

The specimen consisted of a standard push-out test

specimen according to EN1994 with a ComFlor 80 mm
profile and slab thickness of 150 mm.
Tables 1 and 2 give the test specimen details with
geometry and measured concrete strength.
Figure 8 shows the principle arrangement of steel
frame and test specimen. One vertical jack (P) is needed
480

Odenbreit et al.

part is pulled against the right slab to apply the transverse

load.
The parts HP3 and HP4 apply the concentric
transverse loading.

The vertical hydraulic jack, which applied the shear

force to the specimen, was displacement controlled. The
horizontal hydraulic jack, which applied the transverse
load, was force controlled.

Figure 9. Clamping device for transversal hydraulic jack.

The clamping device can be utilized to apply

eccentric transverse loads by removing the parts HP3 and
HP4. The beams HP6 are used to vertically centre the
specimen within the clamping device.

Figure 12. Eccentricity and internal forces and moments of the

slab.

As above mentioned, two cases of eccentricity have

been considered by placing or removing of the positions
HP3 and HP4, see the Figures 9 and 11:
(a) Concentric loading (e=0 mm) with positions HP3
and HP4. In this case, the lateral load was applied directly
onto the concrete at the location of the specimens steel
web.
(b) Eccentrically loading (e=380 mm) with removed
positions HP3 and HP4. In this case, the slab was loaded
with a lever arm, which caused a bending moment in the
slab, see Figure 12. This test should represent a certain
hogging moment of the slab at its supporting beam.
Concerning the load application procedure, two cases
have been distinguished:
(a) The transverse load was applied with a constant
value during the entire test conduction.
(b) The test specimen was loaded in transverse
direction continuously with a certain percentage of the
vertical load, which means variable.
Table 3 summarises the different loading conditions.

Figure 10. Lateral hydraulic jack, clamping device and test

specimen.

To ensure that only the influence of the transverse

loading is investigated and for eccentric loading the
bending of the slabs is not restrained, the friction at the
supports of the specimen has been minimized with pads
of PTFE (Poly Tetra Fluoro Ethylene).

Table 3. Test parameters for transverse loading and eccentricity.

Figure 11. Vertical and Lateral hydraulic jacks, clamping

device, test frame and test specimen.

Test

Load
Application

1-09-1

Transverse Load

Eccentricity

constant

8.8 kN
(ca 5 % of Pu *)

0 mm

1-10-1

constant

17.5 kN
(ca 10 % of Pu *)

0 mm

1-10-3

no TL

no TL

1-11-1

variable

ca. 10 % of Pu*
(ca. 17.5 kN at Pu)

380 mm

1-11-2

constant

17.5 kN
(ca 10 % of Pu *)

380 mm

* Pu see Table 4

481

Odenbreit et al.

4 DISCUSSION OF RESULTS
4.1 Deformation and failure behaviour behaviour
In a normal composite slab with massive concrete or
conventional decking, a slab thickness of more than ca.
150 mm and with steel sheeting depth hp ca. 50 mm, the
shear connection failure occurs via shear failure of the
stud ad the weld collar.

Figure 16. Single curved shape of shear stud.

Because of the lever arm between bottom of the rib,

where the horizontal shear force acts, and the top part of
the slab, where the compression force acts, a bending
moment develops in the rib. This leads finally to a
concrete failure at the top part of the rib, see Figure 17.

Figure 13. Double-curved deformed stud.

For steel sheet depths of more than 50 mm and

smaller rib widths, the stud starts to show a larger
bending deformation. Because the head of the stud is
encased into the massive upper part of the slab, the stud
shows a double curvature, as shown in Figure 13.

Figure 17. Failed concrete surface.

4.2 Influence of transversal loading

4.2.1 Degree of transversal loading
The test specimens have been placed into the testing
device, as shown in Figure 11, with different degrees of
transversal load, as well as different lever arms of load
application, as given in Table 3.

Figure 14. Shear Stud failure of combined shear and bending.

Depending on the exact geometry of the steel

sheeting, the stud diameter, the weld details and the
concrete strength, two failure modes may occur: (a) a
combined shear and bending failure of the stud at the
weld collar, see Figure 14, or (b) a concrete failure at the
top of the rib, see Figure 15

Figure 18. Effect of increasing transversal load.

An increasing transversal load leads (a) to an

increasing load bearing capacity at the level of the first
crack at a displacement of ca. 2 mm, as well as (b) to a
bigger maximum load bearing capacity, which can be
found between 2 and 6 mm. At the same time, the larger
transversal loading leads also (c) to a larger displacement
at ultimate failure. But it must be mentioned, that this
failure happened always at a displacement, which was
bigger than 24 mm, whereas the shear connection in a

Figure 15. Concrete failure of the ribs.

For steel sheet depths, hp, with ca. 80 mm in a slab of

about 150 mm depths, the head of the shear stud is not
sufficiently restrained in the top part of the slab above the
rib height. This means, the second curvature of bending
cannot develop and the stud shows only a single
curvature, see Figure 16.

482

Odenbreit et al.

composite beam will never reach this amount of

displacement.

4.2.2 Concentric versus eccentric transversal loading

The real slab is at its support always subjected to a
certain degree of bending. To simulate this condition in
the push-out test, the transversal loading was applied in
the next test with an eccentricity of 380 mm, see Figure
12 and Table 3.

Figure 20. Influence of sequence of load application.

Table 4. Test results and values to EN1994-1-1.

Figure 19. Influence of the location of load application.

Figure 19 shows the comparison of the centric test

1-10-1 with the eccentric Test 1-11-2. The eccentric
loading leads to a smoother curve with a slightly higher
load bearing capacity.
Especially the load-displacement behaviour at a
displacement of ca. 2 mm, where the first concrete
cracking occurs, is better for the eccentrically loaded
specimen than for the concentrically loaded specimen.
This leads to a later occurring of the first load drop and
hence a larger load bearing capacity.

Test

Test Resistance 2Pu

EN1994-1-1

Test

2Pu
[kN]

2Pu, static
[kN]

2PRk [kN] ( Reduction

Factor kt = 0.397)

1-09-1

338.24

312.88

324.5

1-10-1

365.12

326.00

324.5

1-10-3

283.68

249.76

324.5

1-11-1

437.12

411.28

324.5

1-11-2

421.44

368.32

324.5

Pu: Experimental resistance, peak value

Pu;static: Static experimental resistance
PRk: Characteristic resistance

4.2.3 Constant versus variable transversal loading

procedure
The tests 1-09-1, 1-10-1, 1-10-3 and 1-11-2 have been
conducted with a transversal loading, which was applied
onto the test specimen even before the vertical loading of
the test specimen started.
However, in the composite beam in the real building
structure, the shear force in the slab increases with the
force in the shear connection in a parallel manner. To
simulate this behaviour, the next Test 1-11-1 was
performed with a ratio of ca. 8.5 % between major
hydraulic jack and the jack for the transversal loading.
Figure 20 shows that the influence of this detail is of
minor effect concerning the load-bearing and
displacement behaviour of the shear connection.

Figure 21. Load bearing capacities.

This load drop was always generated by the concrete

cracking at the intersection between top of the rib and
massive part of the slab, see Figure 17. This type of
failure is so far not explicitly considered in EN 1994-1-1.
Two respective values are given in Table 4: 2Pu is the
measured peak value before the first load drop and
2Pu,static is the value, which was reached after a
relaxation time of ca. 5 minutes, with a displacement kept
constant at the hydraulic jack.
Due to the large amount of investigated parameter, it
was not possible to conduct 3 tests with the same
parameter combination, but according to EN 1994-1-1,

4.3 Comparison with Eurocode 4

Table 4 and Figure 21 show the results concerning the
load bearing capacities.
The nominal value of the load bearing capacity is
given with the first significant load drop, which occurs at
a displacement smaller than 6 mm.
483

Odenbreit et al.

the approximative load bearing capacity should be larger

than 2PRk / 0.9 = 324.5/0.9 = 360 [kN]. For test 1-10-3,
with no transversal load and a static resistance of 2Pu,static
= 249.76 [kN], this criterion is clearly not fulfilled.
The best results are achieved for an variable, eccentric
load introduction with e = 380 [mm] with 2Pu,static =
411.28 [kN] for Test 1-11-1.

5 CONCLUSIONS
Experimental tests have been conducted to investigate
the influence of an additional lateral load onto the
load-bearing- and displacement behaviour of push-out
test specimens with deep steel sheeting. The steel
sheeting had a profile height of hp=80 mm and a slab
thickness of d=150 mm. The investigated parameter of
the lateral load have been in detail constant versus
variable load introduction and centric versus eccentric
load introduction.
The results showed clearly, that the application of the
lateral load has a positive impact onto the load-bearingas well as the displacement capacity. An increasing
lateral load leads to an increasing load bearing capacity of
the shear connection.
The eccentric application of the lateral load leads also
to an increased load bearing capacity.
The comparison to the analytical values of
EN1994-1-1 shows that only the tests with the eccentric
load application could reach the requested resistance.
However, it must be mentioned that EN 1994-1-1
refers to the shear failure of the stud and does not reflect
so far this new type of failure, which is shown in Figures
3 and 17. Further investigations to develop a load bearing
model, which includes explicitly the concrete failure at
the top of the rib are undertaken in [NELLINGER]
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The research leading to these results is part of a
common project of Steel Construction Institute,
University of Stuttgart, University of Luxembourg,
University of Bradford and Arcelor-Mittal and has
received funding from European Communitys Research
Fund for Coal and Steel (RFCS) under grant agreement
No. RFCS-CT-2012-00030.
REFERENCES
EN1994-1-1, Eurocode 4. 2004. Design of composite steel and
concrete structures. Part 1-1: General rules and rules for
buildings.
Hicks, S., Smith, A. 2014. Stud shear connectors in composite
beams that support slabs with profiled steel sheeting.
Structural Enineering International 2/2014: 246253.
Lungershausen, H. 1988. Zur Schubtragfahigkeit von
Kopfbolzendubeln. Ph.D Thesis, Institut fr konstruktiven
Ingenieurbau. Ruhr-Universitat Bochum. Germany.

484

11th International Conference on

Advances in Steel and Concrete Composite Structures
Tsinghua University, Beijing, China, December 3-5, 2015

EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATION ON SEISMIC RESPONSE OF

EXTERIOR RCS BEAM-COLUMN CONNECTION
Q. H. Nguyena, X. H. Nguyenb, D. D. Leb & O. Mirzac
a

INSA de Rennes, 20 avenue des Buttes de Cosmes, CS 70839, F-35708 Rennes Cedex 7, France
E-mails: qnguyen@insa-rennes.fr

University of Transport and Communications, 3 Cau Giay Street, Hanoi, Vietnam

E-mails: nguyenxuanhuy@utc.edu.vn; ledangdung@utc.edu.vn

Institute for Infrastructure Engineering, University of Western Sydney, Penrith, NSW 2751, Australia
E-mail: O.Mirza@uws.edu.au
ABSTRACT
Keywords:
International conference;
Composite structures; Beamcolumn connection; RCS joint;
experimentation.

This paper presents an experimental study on seismic performance of a new type of exterior
RCS connection to which steel profile encased in RC column is directly welded to the steel
beam. A full scale exterior hybrid joint was tested under reversed-cyclic loading. Seismic
performance in term of load bearing capacity, story drift capacity, ductility, energy dissipation
and stiffness degradation were evaluated. Test specimen showed a stable overall response to
cyclic load reversals. The experimental results indicated that the test specimen performed in a
ductile manner and the stiffness degradation during the cycles performed was gradual. It was
concluded that the studied RCS joint could be used as dissipative element in DCM structures.

in the ASCE Guidelines is somewhat over-conservative

and there is room to improve in its accuracy, especially for
bearing failure condition. Conservatism evident in the
comparison is due to the fact that the ASCE Guidelines do
not recognise some of the strength and stiffness
enhancements provided by certain joint details. Kanno &
Deierlein (2000) then proposed a refined and more
accurate design model for RCS joints.
A large number of connection details have been
proposed for RCS connections. This makes the
applicability of RCS construction difficult since design
recommendations need to be available for each joint detail
(Bahman et al. 2012). In 2004, Nishiyama et al. (2004)
have developed called "Guidelines: Steel-Concrete
Composite Structures for Seismic Design". The guidelines
are for ordinary steel beam-reinforced concrete columns
(RCS) buildings, structural system comprising relatively
regular-shaped frame, with or without multistory
reinforced concrete shear walls; the height is not more than
60 m, design strength of concrete ranging from 21 to 60
MPa; and reinforcing bars and structural steel standardised
in the Japan Industrial Standards, and the design follows
the "strong column-weak beam" philosophy. The joint
failure modes are similar to the design guidelines of the
ASCE 1994, for the shear failure and bearing failure.
Design equations for the ultimate shear strength of the joint
panels and associated hysteretic models for 12 different
details of RCS joints, including through-beam and
through-column types, are included, which can be used in

1 INTRODUCTION
Hybrid RCS frames consisting of reinforced concrete
(RC) column and steel (S) beam have been used at an
increasing rate for mid-to-high-rise buildings for the last
30 years. RCS frames possess several advantages from
structural, economical and construction view points
compared to either traditional RC or steel frames. As
described by Grisffis (1986), RCS frames effectively
combine structural steel and reinforced concrete members
to their best advantage. Due to the advantages offered by
RCS frame systems, a large number of research programs
have been conducted in US and Japan to study the
interaction between steel and concrete members in RCS
frames (Deierlein & Noguchi 2004). A primary challenge
in design of RCS frames was the connection between steel
beam and RC column. In an attempt to identify the in-plane
behaviour of composite RCS beam-column joint
connections, a comprehensive testing program was
conducted at the University of Texas at Austin (Sheikh et
al. 1989 & Deierlein et al. 1989). From these research
work, design guidelines for both interior and exterior RCS
joints in buildings located in low to moderate seismic risk
zones were developed by the American Society of Civil
Engineers. In a review of ASCE Guidelines (1994), Kanno
& Deierlein (1996) cited several areas where the ASCE
Guidelines could be improved. Based on results from the
forty-four data, they reported that the joint strength model

485

Nguyen et al.

advanced analysis that considers the inelastic behaviour of

beam-column joints.
A new type of exterior RCS connection, namely
"hybrid joint", in which a steel profile totally encased
inside RC column is directly welded to the steel beam (Fig.
1), is recently proposed within European RCFS project
SMARTCOCO (2013). The most important advantage of
this hybrid joint is to offer a very easy and simple steel
beam to RC column connection. However, this kind of
joint detail is not covered by the existing design guidelines.
Based on Eurocodes (2, 3 and 4) and existing research
works in the literature, a design method was proposed
within European RCFS project SMARTCOCO. So far, the
seismic behaviour of this type of connection is not yet been
experimentated.
This paper deals with an experimental study on seismic
performance of the above-mentioned hybrid joint. A full
scale exterior hybrid joint was tested under reversed-cyclic
loading. Seismic performance in term of load bearing
capacity, story drift capacity, ductility, energy dissipation
and stiffness were evaluated.

Table 1. Measured material strengths.

Item
Strength [MPa]
Concrete
fc = 31.3 MPa
I300x150x6.5x9
fy = 285 MPa
fu = 420 MPa
H150x150x7x10
fy = 294 MPa
fu = 436 MPa
25 bars
fy = 310 MPa
fu = 490 MPa
16 bars
fy = 352 MPa
fu = 496 MPa

2.3 Instrumentation, test setup and procedure

The instrumentation consists of load cells to measure
applied forces and reactions, displacement transducers
(LVDTs) to measure displacements and strain gauge to
record the strains. At the joint region, in order to identify
the failure mode, eleven strain gauges (from G1 to G11)
were placed on both transverse and longitudinal
reinforcements of the column as shown in Figure 2. There
are also four strain gauge rosettes (from R1 to R4) were
arranged in encased steel profile.

2 EXPERIMENTAL PROGRAM
2.1 Test specimen
The specimen is a full-scale exterior RCS connection,
in which a steel profile embedded inside RC column is
directly welded to the steel beam. Geometric and
reinforcement details of specimen is shown in Figure 1.

Figure 2. Strain gauge locations.

The experimental test setup is shown in Figure 3. As

shown, a hydraulic actuator of 1000 kN capacity and
stroke length of 75 mm was used to apply the cyclic lateral
displacements at top of column. This actuator was
horizontal held to the strong wall and the bottom of the
column was pinned to the strong floor of laboratory. A
steel plate was used in the space between the specimen and
the actuator for smooth transfer of actuator load at the
column level. The beam was restrained by a vertical steel
rod. If second order effects are neglected, it can be
considered that the restrain is a pin.

Figure 1. Description of specimen.

2.2 Material properties

The concrete compressive strength at test day and the

properties of structural and reinforcement steels are given

Figure 3. Test setup.

in Table 1.

486

Nguyen et al.

noted that the connection point of these cracks is located

at the same level of the end point of embedded profile in
the RC column as can be seen in Figure 5. With
progressive increase in drift, the cracks propagated and
widened gradually. Deterioration of joint strength was
observed from about 1.6% drift.

Figure 4 presents the loading sequence adopted for the

test. The loading procedure is built based on Issus 45 of
ECCS "Recommended Testing Procedure for Assessing
the Behaviour of Structural Steel Elements under Cyclic
Loads". The displacement amplitudes are presented in
term of story drift which is defined as the ratio between the
imposed lateral displacement and the column height. The
specimen were loaded with displacement control until a
significant reduction of specimen strength was observed.

Figure 4. Cyclic displacement pattern.

3 EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS

The experimental results obtained from the test are

presented in this Section. The overall response of the
specimen during the test is discussed and the force-drift
curve is given. Then the ductility, energy dissipation and
stiffness degradation are presented and discussed.

Figure 5. Cracking pattern.

3.2 Load-drift response

The specimen behaviour is described by a plot
horizontal load at upper column against story drift. Figure
6 shows the lateral load versus story drift response. As can
be seen, the hysteresis behaviour is a bit unsymmetrical in
term of applied force. It is because of the cracking was
more pronounced in upper joint region.

3.1 Concrete cracking observation

During the test, the critical concrete cracks were
identified. These include diagonal shear cracks in the joint
region due to joint panel shear deformations and various
cracks on the columns face due to the local force
transmission between embedded steel profile and concrete
surrounding. Figure 5 shown the cracking pattern of the
specimen at the different displacement level. Four basic
types of cracks are diagonal cracks on the two lateral faces
at the center of joint region, diagonal and horizontal cracks
on the front face starting from the flanges of the steel
beam, vertical cracks on the front face, and horizontal
flexural cracks on the side face which extend onto the front
face. At 0.8% drift, the first diagonal crack appeared. After
the formation of the first diagonal crack in the joint, it was
observed at 0.9% drift that two horizontal cracks appeared
which were originated at the steel beam flanges and were
followed by the above-mentioned diagonal crack. A
second diagonal crack in the joint was observed at 1.7%
drift along with some flexural cracks in the column. A
vertical crack starting from the top flange was formed at
1.8% drift and propagated upward in the RC column zone
where there is the embedded steel profile. At 2.7% drift,
this crack was connected with two inclined quasi
symmetric cracks inclined 45 relative to the vertical. It is

70
step 1

60

step 3

step 2

50
40
Horizontal load [kN]

30
20
10
0
-10
-20
-30
-40
-50
Experimental hysteresis loops
Envelope curve

-60
-70
-3

-2.5

-2

-1.5

-1

-0.5
0
0.5
Story drift [%]

1.5

2.5

Figure 6. Load-drift curve.

The load-drift response of the joint can be subdivided

in three steps. The first step is represented by the behaviour
of the joint prior to the significant cracking in concrete and
characterized by elastic deformations. At the low load
levels, concrete is uncracked and adhesive bond and

487

Nguyen et al.

last level of displacement (74.8mm). From the

displacement level of 13.6 mm to the end of the test the
energy dissipation ratio appears to be more or less stable
between 7.6% and 10.6%.

contact transfer force between steel profile and concrete.

At the end of this region the adhesive bond breaks and
microcracks in concrete cause initial mobilizing of the
lateral reinforcing ties (stirrups). Step 2 is starts from 0.3%
drift with surface cracking of the concrete which results in
decreasing stiffness and increasing of participation of
lateral reinforcing ties. In this region the principal tension
stresses due to the shear exceed the capacity of the
concrete, and strut mechanism form which provide for
shear transfer in the concrete up to the ultimate load. Step
3 was marked by steel web yielding from 1.6% drift and
represented by a deterioration of joint strength. During this
step, crack widths increase as there is a greater
mobilization of the concrete shear mechanisms.

3.3 Ductility

Figure 7. Load-drift curve.

The displacement ductility of the specimen is

represented by the displacement ductility factor which is
defined as the ratio of ultimate displacement u to the yield
displacement y. These displacements are determined from
the envelope curve of the hysteresis loops. The ultimate
displacement is defined as displacement corresponding to
15% drop of loading capacity. The yield displacement of
specimen is determined based on the general yielding
method presented in Li et al. (2013).

3.5 Stiffness degradation

The stiffness of an element is defined as the load which
induces a unit deflection in a specified point and in a given
direction. This definition is based on a linear relationship
between load and deflection. In civil engineering the
stiffness of a structural member (K) is defined as the ratio
between the applied load and the resulting deflection. Due
to concrete cracking and material yielding during the
cyclic loading, the stiffness of the elements decreases,
phenomenon known also as stiffness degradation. In this
paper herein, the stiffness degradation is assessed using
secant stiffness determined from each complete hysteresis
loop. The secant stiffness was determined as the slope of a
line passing through peak loads at both directions. It
represents the ability to resist deformation.

Table 2. Force and drift at different characteristic points.

Table 2 shows the drifts and corresponding horizontal

applied loads at yielding, limit and ultimate points. A
displacement ductility factor =2.2 is obtained. According
to the Eurocode 8, it can be concluded that the studied RCS
joint could be used as dissipative element in DCM
structures. It can be also seed from Table 2 that the ratio
between the maximum force Pmax and the yielding force Py
is about 1.2. It means that after the yielding the strength of
the specimen increased about 20%.

3.4 Energy dissipation

The energy dissipation characteristics of a member are
an important measure of its seismic performance. Energy
dissipation at each cycle is calculated from enclosed area
within hysteresis loop at this cycle. Cumulative energy
dissipation is computed by summing energy dissipated in
previous cycles. Figure 7 presents the energy dissipation
ratio at each displacement level where two loading cycles
were performed. The energy dissipation ratio was
calculated as the ratio between the effective dissipated
during each loading cycle and the maximum dissipated
energy that could theoretically be dissipated. It can be
observed that there are no major differences in energy
dissipation ratio during each displacement level excepting

Figure 8. Stiffness degradation.

The stiffness degradation ratio versus horizontal

displacement and drift is plotted in Figure 8. The stiffness
degradation ratio was calculated as the ratio between the
secant stiffness at the first cycle of displacement level and
the initial stiffness of the specimen which is defined at a
displacement level of 3.4 mm. It can be observed that at
yielding point the stiffness of the specimen related to the
initial stiffness is approximate 56%. At failure point (the
488

Nguyen et al.
elements under cyclic loads. Issue 45. ECCS.Grisffis, L.G.
1986. Some design considerations for composite-frame
structures. Engineering Journal 23(2): 59-64.
Kanno, R. & Deierlein, G. 1996. Seismic behavior of composite
(RCS) beam-column joint assemblies. Composite
Construction in Steel and Concrete III, ASCE : 236-249.
Kanno, R. & Deierlein, G. 2000. Design Model of Joints for RCS
Frames. Composite Construction in Steel and Concrete IV:
947-958.
Li, B., Lam, E.S., Wu, B. & Wang, Y. 2013. Experimental
investigation on reinforced concrete interior beam-column
joints rehabilitated by ferrocement jackets. Engineering
Structures 56: 897-909.
Nishiyama, I., Kuramoto, H. & Noguchi, H. 2004. Guidelines:
seismic design of composite reinforced concrete and steel
buildings, J Struct Eng ASCE 130(2): 336-342.
Smart Composite Components - Concrete Structures Reinforced
by Steel Profiles 2013. Mid-Term Report. Research Program
of the Research Fund for Coal and Steel.
Sheikh, T. M., Deierlein, G.G., Yura, J. A. & Jirsa, J. O. 1989.
Beam-column moment connections for composite frames:
Part 1. Journal of Structural Engineering, ASCE 115(11):
2858-2876.
The ASCE Task Committee on Design Criteria for Composite
Structures in Steel and Concrete 1994. Guidelines for design
of joints between steel beam and reinforced concrete
columns. Journal of Structural Engineering, ASCE 120(8):
2330-2357.

load bearing capacity decreases to 85% of maximum

capable force) the stiffness degradation ratio was about
25.6% which indicates that the stiffness is significantly
degraded at this stage of loading. Furthermore, it can be
seen from Figure 8 that from the drift level of 0.85% the
secant stiffness decreases quasi linearly.

4 CONCLUSION
In this paper, an experimental study on seismic
performance of a new type of exterior RCS beam-column
connection has been presented. The studied "hybrid" joint
consist of a steel profile encased inside RC column which
is directly welded to the steel beam. A full scale hybrid
joint specimen has been tested under reversed-cyclic
loading. The seismic performance of the test specimen has
been analyzed in term of load bearing capacity, story drift
capacity, ductility, energy dissipation and stiffness
degradation. During cyclic loading a stable behaviour of
the specimen was observed with minor capacity
degradation. The experimental results indicated that the
stiffness degradation during the cycles performed was
gradual. It has been found that after the yielding the
strength of the specimen increased about 20%. Test
specimen performed in a ductile manner with ductility
factor =2.2. However, further experimental studies are
needed to extend the range of the test data and to
investigate other variables such as the length of encased
steel profiles, stirrup density, and concrete strength.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This research is funded by Vietnam National
Foundation for Science and Technology Development
(NAFOSTED) under grant number 107.01-2011.11.
REFERENCES
Bahman, F.A., Hosein, G. & Nima, T. 2012. Seismic
performance of composite RCS special moment frames.
KSCE Journal of Civil Engineering 2(2): 450-457.
Deierlein, G., Sheikh, T. M., Yura, J. A. & Jirsa, J. O. 1989.
Beam-column moment connections for composite frames:
Part 2. Journal of Structural Engineering, ASCE 115(11):
2877-2896.
Deierlein, G. & Noguchi, H. 2004. Overview of U.S. -Japan
research on seismic design of composite reinforced concrete
and steel moment frame. Journal of Structural Engineering,
ASCE 130(2): 361-367.
Eurocode 2, EN1992-1-1 Design of concrete structures-Part 1:
General rules and rules for buildings.
Eurocode 3, EN1993-1-8 Design of steel structures-Part 1-8:
Design of joint.
Eurocode 4, EN1994-1-1 Design of composite steel and concrete
structures-Part 1: General rules and rules for buildings.
Eurocode 8, EN1998-1 Design of structures for earthquake
resistance Part 1: General rules, seismic actions and rules
for buildings.
European Convention for Constructional Steelwork. Working
Group 1.3, Seismic Design. 2007. Recommended testing
procedure for assessing the behaviour of structural steel

489

11th International Conference on

Advances in Steel and Concrete Composite Structures
Tsinghua University, Beijing, China, December 3-5, 2015

COMBINED HARDENING MODEL FOR THE BLY STEEL SHEAR

PANEL DAMPERS
L. Y. Xua,b , J. G. Nie a,b & J. S. Fan a,b
a

Department of Civil Engineering, University, Beijing, China

Key Laboratory of Civil Engineering Safety and Durability of China Education Ministry
E-mail: fanjsh@tsinghua.edu.cn
ABSTRACT
Keywords:
Shear panel damper; Cyclic
hardening; Low-yield-point steel;
Combined hardening model

A new type of low-yield-point steel BLY160 was applied in a metallic shear panel damper
device. To intensively investigate the seismic behaviour of the dampers, reversed cyclic loading
tests were conducted to four groups of specimens, with the loading conditions and dimension
parameters as test variables. The influences of the width-thickness ratio and corner perforation
of the panel, the stiffening rib size and the cyclic load history were analysed. Obviously work
hardening is observed in the test, when subjected to both the monotonic shearing and cyclic
loading. The hysteretic performance with significant strain hardening can be accurately
simulated by the kinematic-isotropic combined hardening model proposed in this paper, which
incorporates the loading history effect by using the memory surface concept. The validity of the
numerical model is verified by the comparison of the predicted cyclic behaviour and test
responses..

research, low-yield-point steel has characteristics of

relative lower yield point and high plastic deformation
ability, which enable the steel damper to enter the yield
phase early and to remain working under large
deformations. In addition, low-yield-point steel presents
conspicuous strain hardening, leading to the expansion of
the cyclic loops area. Thus, using low-yield-point steel
instead of conventional structural steel can enhance the
energy dissipation capacity of the hysteretic dampers.
As for the aspect of numerical calculation,
constitutive models are proposed to simulate the
hysteretic behaviour of the dampers. While the simpler
bilinear model is usually used by researchers for the sake
of convenient calculation, some other sophisticated
models have been adopted to capture the complex
features observed in experiments. To describe the smooth
transition portion from elastic to inelastic phase, the
nonlinearity is introduced by the Bouc-Wen model
(Rodgers et al. 2006) and the Ramberg-Osgood model,
(Chan et al. 2009) which replace the straight-line
segments with a curved line. However, these models are
generally initiated with the kinematic hardening rule,
which is out of the ability to simulate the significant
work-hardening effect with the accumulated plastic strain
under cyclic loading. The concept of the combined
hardening model is then proposed by dividing the
increase of the stress into two portions that individually
comply with the kinematic hardening and isotropic
hardening rules (Nakashima et al. 1995).

1 INTRODUCTION
The passive energy dissipation method has been
widely used in seismically controlled structures since the
1980s (Housner et al. 1997, Soong & Dargush 1997). In a
passive energy dissipation system, energy dissipation
devices are installed to the structure system to enhance
structural damping, stiffness and strength. These devices
ultimately aim to absorb the input energy of wind and
earthquake excitation; hence, damage to the parent
structures can be minimized.
Over the last several decades of research, many types
of metallic energy dissipation devices have been
proposed, including the torsion beam, bending beam,
parallel stiffened plates, buckling restrained brace and
shear panel dampers (Akiyama 1985, Kelly et al. 1972,
Black et al. 2002). These metallic dampers differ in the
operation principle of bearing mechanics, leading to the
different cyclic behaviour under reversed loading. Aside
from the structural innovation of the panel damper
devices, such as the hourglass shaped ADAS, triangularly
shaped TADAS, honeycomb damper and the slit steel
damper (SSD) (Bergman & Goel 1987, Tsai et al. 1993,
Kobori et al. 1992, Chan & Albermani 2008), numerous
alternative metallic materials have been applied in the
manufacture and design of metallic dampers, such as
aluminium, lead, mild steel, copper and shape memory
alloys (Nakashima et al. 1994, De la Llera et al. 2004
Dolce et al. 2000). In particular, as reported in previous
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In this paper, test investigation and numerical analysis

are conducted for the cyclic behaviour of the
low-yield-point steel shear panel damper (LSSPD).
Reversed cyclic loading tests were first conducted to a
total of 10 full-scale specimens, and the subassemblies
were divided into four groups with the loading conditions
and dimension parameters as test variables. The
hysteretic load-displacement loops, skeleton curves,
shearing deformation of the steel panels and fatigue
failure modes are discussed in detail, and the influences
of panel width-thickness ratio, stiffening rib size and
cyclic load history are focused upon. In addition, the
evaluation of the energy dissipation capacity and the
feature of significant strain hardening are intensively
analysed. Finally, a numerical calculation method is
presented to simulate the hysteretic behaviour, and the
model parameters are calibrated by the test data. The
accuracy of the proposed model is verified though the
comparison of the simulated and measured response
under cyclic loading.

Table 1. Material properties of test specimen.

Material
E (MPa ) fy (MPa ) fu (MPa )
BYP160
189100
126
268
Q235
203600
238
442

EL (% )
65%
38%

2.2 Specimen design

The low-yield-point steel shear panel damper
(LSSPD) investigated in this paper is based on the
practical engineering project of Qingdao MIXC Mall in
China. As illustrated in Figure 1, this type of LSSPD is
fabricated using the following four components: shear
panel, confined flange, stiffening ribs and the roof/floor
plates for connection.
The full-scale test assemblies are designed according
to the actual structural components, and every single
damper device consists of the same two shear panels,
which are connected in parallel. According to the size, the
specimens can be divided into two types, RT400 and
RT600, which are classified by the design yield strength
under horizontal shear loading. Two other types of
specimens are designed as the comparative groups for the
RT400 standard specimen in order to investigate the
influence of the width-thickness ratio of the stiffening rib
(RT400-S) and the corner perforation of the shear panel
(RT400-P). The details of the dimension sizes are given
in Table 2.

2 TEST PROGRAM
2.1 Material propertie
In designing the metallic hysteric damper, the steel
employed in dampers devices is supposed to become
plastic prior to deformation of other structural
components such as columns and beams. This aim can be
easily achieved by decreasing the yield point of the steel.
With the increasing popularity of and demand for
low-yield-point steel, a new type of low-yield-point steel,
BLY160, has been developed by the Chinese Baosteel
Corporation. This steel is designed to have a yield point
of 160MPa and the following methods are used to
decrease the yield strength and increased elongation: (i)
adopting similar chemical components to pure iron by
reducing the alloy content; (ii) increasing the ferrite grain
size; and (iii) tying up the carbon and nitrogen atoms by
adding alloying elements such as titanium or niobium.
To clarify the mechanical properties, a uniaxial tensile
test was first conducted to obtain the basic material
parameters listed in Table 1.

1 tf

tf

tf d tf

bw

bw

tf 1

bw

(a) Front view

bw
tf d tf

tf

(b) Sectional view of 1-1

Figure 1. Design sketch of specimens.

Table 2. Details of the specimen dimension sizes.

Serial
RT400
RT600
RT400-S1
RT400-S2
RT400-P

bw

200
250
200
200
200

400
500
400
400
400

300
300
300
300
300

220
330
220
220
220

tw
mm
10
10
10
10
10

bf

tf

bs

ts

Rw

bw/ tw

100
100
100
100
100

16
16
16
16
16

45
45
25

45

10
10
10

10

30

22
33
22
40
22

Vp
kN
367
527
367
367
367

kd
kN/mm
916
1053
916
916
916

up
mm
0.40
0.50
0.40
0.40
0.40

reaction wall. The test specimens are then installed in the

loading frame, which consists of the top/bottom beams
and the rigid column. The loading setup system tends to
rebuilds the working condition of the shear damper when
applied in the eccentrically braced frames (EBF) system.

2.3 Test setup and measurement device

As shown in Figure 2, MTS dynamic actuator is
employed in this test, one head of which connected to the
top loading beam, and the other end is fixed on the
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Xu et al.

400

1550

500

The displacement amplitude of the multiple-step

loading was graded into eight stages, with two cycles
performed for each stage and then the loading
displacement keeps in constant at the maximum
amplitude. All tests were conducted at room temperature
using strain-control modes with triangular wave control
signals. The details of the loading schemes are shown in
Figure 4. During the test, loading was terminated when
the horizontal force decreased to 85% of the maximum or
when a fatal crack appeared.
Based on the differences of the specimens types and
loading schemes, the test assemblies were divided into
four groups, which were labelled as A~C serials and
respectively focused on the influences of load history
effect, width-thickness ratio, stiffening rib size and corner
perforation of panel. The details of the number of
specimens are listed in Table 4.

Figure 2. Schematic diagram of test setup.

To investigate the strain behaviour of component

plates of the damper under shear deformation, three
triaxial rosettes are mounted on the shear panel, which is
arranged along the diagonal line of the square region
divided by the stiffener. Three uniaxial strain gauges are
glued onto the flange along the axes in the height
direction, and another three gauges are glued onto the
stiffening rib. The strain gauges are numbered from 1 to
9, and the details of the layout and location are illustrated
in Figure 3.
bw
4

Table 4. Specimen number.

Type

RT400

Specimen No.

A1 A2 A3 A4 B1 B2 C1

C2

Loading scheme

L1

L2

L2

RT600
L3

L4

L1

L2

RT400-S
L1

3 TEST RESULTS

bw
4

3.1 Hysteretic performance

The restoring force versus displacement relationship
can reflect the hysteretic performance of the damper, and
Figure 5 shows the typical horizontal force-displacement
curves of the test specimens.

P ( kN)

2.4 Loading scheme

LS-1

Time
6 12 24 30 (m)

Time
30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 (m)

1500

1200

1000

800

500

400

-500

-400

-1000

LS-2

A3
-1500
-40 -30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30 40
(mm)

-800
-1200
-30

A4
-20

-10

0
10
(mm)

20

30

Figure 5. Horizontal force-displacement hysteretic curves.

Time
0.5 0.1 1.5 3 12 30 80 100 (m)

LS-3
(mm)

(mm)

0.5 0.851.5 3
30
20
10
0
-10
-20
-30

120
80
40
0
-40
-80
-120

(mm)

(mm)

The damper is expected to cyclically absorb seismic

energy; thus, quasi-static reversed cyclic loading was
used for the test. Four serials of loading schemes were
applied to the specimens, which were respectively
designed to investigate the cyclic hardening phenomenon
(LS1/LS4), the plastic deformation capability (LS2) and
the low-cycle fatigue behaviour (LS3).
30
20
10
0
-10
-20
-30

P (kN)

Figure 3. Arrangement of the displacement and strain gauges.

24
16
8
0
-8
-16
-24

3.2 Skeleton curve

LS-4

Based on the hysteretic force-displacement loops,

skeleton curves can be obtained by connecting the peak
points of the second cyclic loops under every loading
level. To aid the comparison between different
specimens, the relationships of normalized horizontal
force (P/Py) versus shear angle () are provided in Fig. 6.

Time
0.4 0.681.2 2.4 4.8 9.6 19.224 (m)

Figure 4. Cyclic loading scheme.

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Xu et al.

(2) Slenderness of the panel. The specimens A4 and

B1 represent the dampers of type RT400 and RT600,
respectively, which differ in the width-thickness ratio of
the shear panel. As shown in Fig. 6b, the normalized
skeleton curves almost overlap with each other,
indicating that the shear stiffness and strength is
proportional to the cross-sectional areas of the shear
panel if no fatal buckling occurs.

3.0

2.5

2.0

1
P/Py

P/Py

Due to the work hardening feature of BLY steel, the

restoring force of the damper continuously increases with
the increasing of the loading amplitudes. As a result, the
skeleton curves of the specimens generally show a
reverse-Z shape, but they differ due to various influential
factors illustrated as follows:

1.5
1.0

A3
A1

0.5
0.0
0.00

3.3 Critical mechanical parameters

-1

0.02

0.04
(rad)

0.06

A4
B1

-2
0.08

In the designing of the shear panel damper, the critical

characteristics such as yield force, yield displacement,
and initial stiffness are regarded as the basic mechanical
parameters. However, as previously mentioned, yield
points of force-displacement curves are not distinct for
both monotonic tension and cyclic loading. In addition,
due to the continuous hardening of the material, no
gradual descending stages are observed in the test curve
so that it is difficult to determine the ultimate point. Thus,
the graphic method of an angle bisector is adopted to
determine the basic mechanical parameter of the
specimens. With this method, the yield point is
determined by the intersection of the load-displacement
curve and the bisector line of the angle formed by plastic
stiffness and post-yield stiffness. By processing the test
diagram results, critical properties of the different types
of damper devices are listed in Table 5.

-3
-0.09 -0.06 -0.03 0.00 0.03 0.06 0.09
(rad)

(a) Loading history

(b) Panel slenderness

Figure 6. Regularized force versus shear angle skeleton curves.

(1) Loading history effect. Fig. 6a shows the

skeleton curves of specimens A1 and A3, which
respectively represent the conditions of monotonic and
cyclic loading. Although the two curves exhibit a similar
shape in an exponential manner, the differences in the
stress amplitude are quite obvious. The work-hardening
of the BLY steel contributes to the increase of horizontal
force under the cyclic loading of both constant and
increased amplitude. As a result, the nominated force of
specimen A1 is much higher than those of specimen A3
under the same shear angle when comparing the skeleton
curves.
Table 4. Critical mechanical parameters.

Specimen
Test-A1
Test-A2
Test-B1
Test-B2

Yield force
Py(kN)
364
382
520
547

Yield displacement
Dy(mm)
0.53
0.56
0.66
0.68

Initial stiffness
k1(kN/mm)
686.8
682.1
787.9
804.4

Post-yield stiffness
k2(kN/mm)
24.5
21.3
23.2
24.6

Peak displacement
Dmax (mm)
29.7
100.1
29.7
80.3

Peak force
Pmax(kN)
1058
1373
1386
1573

The kinematic-isotropic combined hardening model is

adopted to simulate the complicated hysteretic features
mentioned before. The combined hardening rule is
originally defined to illustrate the constitutive
relationship between stress and the strain of metallic
material, which was proposed by Chaboche and
colleagues (Chaboche 1986). In this research, a similar
numerical model is presented to describe the
force-displacement relationship for the LSSPD damper
device.
In the basic framework of the constitutive model, the
total displacement is partitioned into the elastic and
plastic parts.

4 NUMERICAL SIMULATION
4.1 Hysteretic model of the LSSPD
As shown in the previous experimental program, the
LSSPD specimens tested in this research have the
following behaviour characteristics: (i) earlier yield under
reversed loading as Bauschinger effect; (ii) smooth
transition portion from the elastic to the plastic phase
which nominated as nonlinear transient behaviour; (iii)
over strength caused by work-hardening of the
low-yield-point steel; and (iv) influence of the strain
amplitude and loading history. In particular, the feature of
cyclic hardening significantly develops the energy
dissipation capacity of the damper device but poses many
challenges to the simulation of hysteretic performance in
numerical modelling.

D De D p

(1)

In the elastic phase, the restoring force is direct

proportional to the displacement as:

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Xu et al.

P Ke D

The deformation range effect is formulated by setting

the isotropic hardening as a function of the maximum
plastic amplitude, given that the asymptotic value, QR, of
the isotropic hardening variable, R, refreshing with the
changing of the radius of the memory surface, equal to q.
s
QR becomes larger as q increases, while QR represents
the maximum range of the saturated state for isotropic
hardening. The coefficient represents the evolutionary
rate of the memory surface, for both its size and location.

(2)

where Ke is the elastic stiffness of the damper device.

For the non-linear plastic phase, the concept of the
yield surface is utilized to express the evolution of the
force-displacement curve as follows:
F P X R P0 0

(3)

where X is the kinematic hardening variable and

represents the translation of the yield surface. R is the
isotropic hardening variable representing the expansion
of the surface, while P0 is the yield force obtained from
the tests, which is equal to the initial size of the surface.
The plastic deformation develops in the normality
rule, as follows:

dD p d

F
d sign P X
P

4.2 Parameter identification

As previously discussed, the concept of internal
variables is used in the numerical modelling to
incorporate all of the characteristics of hysteretic
behaviour, and different internal variables are in charge
of the following macroscopic hysteretic features
respectively: (i) adopting the kinematic hardening rule for
the Bauschinger effect, (ii) tracing the smooth transition
curve by the composited form of the exponential
function; (iii) combining the isotropic hardening for the
accumulative increasing of the restoring force amplitudes,
and (iv) setting the memory surface to reflect the loading
influence. In the implementation of the numerical
calculation, a total of eight model parameters are
calibrated by the experiment data through the method
introduced by Chaboche (Lemaitre & Chaboche 1990).
Using the RT400 type damper device as an example, the
adopted values for the model coefficients are shown in
Table 6.

(4)

Both the kinematic and isotropic hardening rules are

built into the form of exponential functions, but are given
as the differential formulations herein.

dX C X sign X QX X d

(5)

dR CR QR R d

(6)

To describe the significant strain range dependent

effect, the memory surface is defined by introducing a
new internal variable, q as shown in the equations listed
in Table 5

Table 6. Model parameters for the RT400 type specimen.

Table 5. Formulations of strain history memory.

Basic mechanical constant:

K e 650kN / m ; P0 349kN

Memory surface:

g Dp q 0

Kinematic hardening rule:

(7)

QXs 185kN ; C X 0.225

Evolution of the non-hardening region:

d 1 d

g
1 d sign D p
Dp
dq d

Isotropic hardening rule:

QRs 541kN ; CR 0.024

(8)

Strain memory surface:

(9)

0.5 ; 0.01

Consistency condition for the memory surface:

g 0 d 0 dug 0

4.3 Verification

(10)

The numerical results are compared with the test

response as shown in Fig. 7. It is demonstrated that
combined hardening model can not only well describe the
accumulative cyclic hardening under constant
deformation amplitude, but also accurately simulate the
hysteretic behaviour under multiple step loading.

Cyclic refreshing of the isotropic hardening variable:

QR QRs 1 exp q

(11)

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Xu et al.

the energy dissipation capacity of the damper device and

should be considered in the structural design for practical
engineering applications.
(4) The kinematic-isotropic combined hardening
model is used to simulate the complicated hysteretic
performance with significant strain hardening, and the
concept of memory surface incorporated elaborately
describes the loading history effect.

Numerical
Test

1500
1000
500
0
-500
-1000
-1500
-40 -30 -20 -10 0 10
(mm)

(a) Specimen A3

REFERENCE
20

30

40

Akiyama, H. 1985. Earthquake-resistant limit-state design for

buildings. Tokyo: Univ. of Tokyo Pre.
Bergman, D.M. & Goel, S.C. 1987. Evaluation of cyclic testing
of steel-plate devices for added damping and stiffness. Dept
Civil Eng, Univ. of Michigan.
Black, C.J., Makris N., & Aiken I.D. 2002. Component Testing,
Stability
Analysis,
and
Characterization
of
Buckling-restrained Unbonded Braces (TM). Pacific
Earthquake Engineering Research Center.
Chaboche, J.L. 1986. Time-independent constitutive theories for
cyclic plasticity. Int J Plasticity 2(2): 149-88.
Chan, R.W.K., Albermani F. & Williams, M.S. Evaluation of
yielding shear panel device for passive energy dissipation. J
Constr Steel Res, 2009; 65(2): 260-8
Chan R.W.K. & Albermani F. 2008. Experimental study of steel
slit damper for passive energy dissipation. Eng Struct 30(4):
1058-1066.
De la Llera J.C., Esguerra C. & Almazn JL. 2004. Earthquake
behavior of structures with copper energy dissipators.
Earthq Eng Struct Dyn 33(3): 329-58.
Dolce M., Cardone D. & Marnetto R. 2000. Implementation and
testing of passive control devices based on shape memory
alloys. Earthq Eng Struct Dyn 29(7): 945-68.
Housner G.W., Bergman L.A., Caughey T.K., Chassiakos A.G.,
Claus R.O., Masri S.F., et al. 1997. Structural control: past,
present, and future. ASCE J Eng Mech 123(9): 897-971.
Kelly J.M., Skinner R.I., Heine A.J. 1972. Mechanisms of
energy absorption in special devices for use in earthquake
resistant structures. Bulletin of NZ Society for Earthquake
Engineering, 5(3): 63-88.
Kobori, T., Miura Y., Fukusawa E., Arita T., Takenaka Y., &
Miyagawa N, et al. 1992. Development and application of
hysteresis steel dampers. Proceedings of the 10th World
Conference on Earthquake Engineering 2341-6.
Lemaitre J. & Chaboche J.L. 1990. Mechanics of solid
materials. London: Cambridge university press.
Nakashima M., Akazawa T. & Tsuji B. 1995. Strain-hardening
behavior of shear panels made of low-yield steel. II: model.
Journal of Structural Engineering, 121(12): 1750-7.
Nakashima M, Iwai S. & Iwata M., et al. 1994, Energy
dissipation behaviour of shear panels made of low yield
steel. Earthq Eng Struct Dyn 23(12): 1299-313.
Rodgers G.W., Chase J.G., Mander J.B., Leach N.C., Denmead
C.S. & Cleeve L., et al. 2006. High force-to-volume
extrusion dampers and shock absorbers for civil
infrastructure. Proceedings of the 19th Australasian
Conference on Mechanics of Structures and Materials , 1-6.
Soong T.T. & Dargush G.F. 1997. Passive energy dissipation
systems in structural engineering. London: Wiley.
Tsai K.C., Chen H.W., Hong C.P.& Su Y.F., et al. 1993. Design
of steel triangular plate energy absorbers for
seismic-resistant construction. Earthq Spectra, 9(3): 505-28.

Figure 7. Numerical results of the combined hardening model.

5 CONCLUSIONS
This paper presents experimental and analytical
research on the shear panel damper made of
low-yield-point steel BLY160. A total of 10 specimens
with different dimension size and loading scheme were
tested, and the seismic behaviour was intensively
evaluated. The combined isotropic-hardening hardening
model was adopted to simulate the significant cyclic
hardening behaviour with loading history effect. The
major conclusions can be drawn as follows:
(1) The BLY160 steel performs the mechanic
characteristic of extensive hardening potential, favourable
fatigue performance and excellent ductility in the test
investigation, which benefits its application in the shear
panel damper for seismic energy dissipation.
(2) The LSSPD tested in this study can achieve the
shear deformation under the drift angle of 25%, and the
equivalent damping coefficient of 0.55 indicates a
near-perfect energy dissipation capacity. It is
demonstrated that the panel made of low yield point steel
BLY160 is well confined by the flange plates made of
general Q235 steel.
(3) The significant work-hardening phenomenon is
observed in both monotonic and cyclic loading tests, and
the cyclic behaviour is obviously influences by the
loading amplitude and strain history. The over strength
factor can be as large as 3.7, which evidently improves
495

11th International Conference on

Advances in Steel and Concrete Composite Structures
Tsinghua University, Beijing, China, December 3-5, 2015

NUMERICAL SIMULATED ANALYSIS ON BEHAVIOR OF A NEW

U-SHAPED CONNECTION BETWEEN LIGHT STEEL KEEL
INTERIOR WALL AND STEEL-FRAME BEAM
H. X. Zhanga, C. X. Lia, G. C. Lia & P. Yanga
a

School of Civil Engineering, Shenyang Jianzhu University, Shenyang, Liaoning, China

E-mails: iriszhx@163.com, 664452352@qq.com, liguochang0604@sina.com, 449312224@qq.com
ABSTRACT

Keywords:
U-shaped connection; Light
steel keel interior wall;
Steel-frame beam; Finite element
analysis.

A new U-shaped connection structure between the roof of the composite wall and steel-frame
beam has been designed in this paper. Based on using the different elements for the connection,
the steel keel and the panel in the software of ABAQUS, the simulated model has been
established and basic behavior of the U-shaped connection subjected to support relative
displacement has been analyzed. The contact reaction force curves, the contact area curves and
the stress curve of each part have been obtained and studied. The results show that the failure of
U-shaped connection with a vertical keel joint mainly concentrates in the vertical keel. U-shaped
connection has better mechanical behavior.

1 INTRODUCTION
Light steel keel interior wall which is comprised of
keel, panel and rock wool is a kind of composite wall.
Vertical keel plays a role as a strut and connects with
panels by self-tapping screw. To meet the requirements of
sound insulation performance of interior wall, the middle
of the cavity should be filled with sound absorption
materials. Light steel keel composite wallboard is a kind
of energy conservation and environmental protection wall,
because it has not only lightness, high strength, well
plasticity and toughness, but also can save a large amount
of clay resources (Gad 1999, Tao 2000, Wang 2001,
Zhao 2011). The wide use of light steel keel interior wall
in steel-frame structure embodies the concept of green
building. It is very important how to connect the
composite wall and steel-frame beam. Based on it, a new
type of U-shaped connection has been designed and the
specific dimensions of the connection have been
determined. Based on finite element analysis, the basic
behavior of a U-shaped connection subjected to support
relative displacement has been analyzed.

2 A NEW TYPE OF U-SHAPED CONNECTION

2.1 Design requirements

(1) Sufficient deformation space: To accommodate

the follow-up deformation of steel structure, which
includes the deformation of steel structure itself, some
movements in the horizontal and vertical directions of the
wall, and possible errors in the production and
installation of the wall, the appropriate adjustments space
in the connection between light steel keel interior wall
and steel structure can be expected.
(2) Sufficient strength: Sufficient strength of the
interior wall is necessary, because the interior wall can
withstand an extrusion force from the frame structure and
a little earthquake force when earthquake happens.
(3) Corrosion resistant: The connection is necessary
to do rustproof treatment to avoid security risks.
(4) Sound insulation: Sound insulation in the position
of the connection should be considered.
(5) Simple manufacture: The form and manufacture
procedure of the connection should be as simple as
possible in order to be easy to implement standardization
of industrial production.
(6) Saving in steel: The steel consumption in design
of the connection should be considered.
(7) Easy installation: That the installation of the
connection is convenient can reduce construction time
and improve construction efficiency.

2.2 Design of a new type of connection

The connection between light steel keel interior wall

and steel-frame beam is an important part in the whole
containment system. The security, reliability and easy
construction of behavior of the connection are taken into
account as well as its economy. The design requirements
of the connection are listed as follows (Xu 2010):

A new U-shaped connection between light steel keel

interior wall and steel-frame beam has been designed in
this paper and illustrated in Figure 1. A U-shaped
connection has been welded to steel-frame beam and the
upper end of the vertical keel of light steel keel interior

496

Zhang et al.

self-tapping screws, when the U-shaped connection is

used. The construction of the U-shaped connection
between light steel keel interior wall and steel-frame
beam is shown in Figure 3.

wall has been cut groove in the factory, shown in Figure

2. Then the two flanges of U-shaped connection insert
vertically into the grooves, tightly fitting with the
grooves. Each of vertical keels is coupled with a
U-shaped connection. That the wall can move along the
U-shaped connection due to its no constraint on the wall
in plane may reduce the deformation influence of frame
structure on the wall. In order to strengthen the
connection between the vertical keels, a transverse keel
may be set in a certain distance from the U-shaped
connection to the down end.

2.3 Dimension of a U-shaped connection

The dimension diagram of a U-shaped connection is
shown in Figure 4. A, B, L, t represent width, height,
length and thickness of the connection, respectively.
Thickness t of 2.0mm is decided on referring to the
thickness of other material wall and considering the
welding. Width A listed in Table 1 should be less than the
difference between the width of C-shaped vertical keel
and the both sides of rolled edge length of C-shaped
vertical keel. Length L listed in Table 2 is determined
according to storey height and the requirement of
construction. Height B of 60mm is selected according to
width-thickness ratio of 45 for Q235 steel in Technical
Code for Cold-formed Thin-wall Steel Structure, at the
same time, considering high-side keel specifications and
requirements of unified production.

Figure 1. A U-shaped connection.

Figure 4. The dimension diagram of U-shaped connection.

Table 1. Width A of the U-shaped connection.

Figure 2. Vertical keel with the upper groove.

Transverse
keel

50

75

100

150

A (mm)

30

55

80

130

Table 2. Length L of the U-shaped connection.

Welding
Sealant

Width of C-shaped
vertical keel (mm)

U-shaped connection

Storey
height (mm)
L (mm)

Vertical keel

h 3600

3600<h 6000

6000<h

80

100

120

Panel

2.4 Size of the Groove at Vertical Keel

Figure 3. The construction of U-shaped connection between

light steel keel interior wall and steel-frame beam.

The groove at vertical keel is designed as the type of

hydraucone, with slope angle of 45 on both sides and
slope height of 4mm. The groove width is consistent with
thickness of the U-shaped connection. The groove depth
is determined by taking the design requirement and the
deformation space between the U-shaped connection and
the groove into account, preventing the deformation of
steel-frame beam to effect on extrusion failure of the
wall.

Steel-frame structure is suffered from the external

force out of plane, which causes the relative displacement
between the wall and the bottom of steel-frame beam.
Meanwhile, due to the mutual extrusion from the contact
between the U-shaped connection and the vertical keel,
the constraint effect of the U-shaped connection to the
wall can prevent the wall collapsed. However, the wall
panel and the two sides of keels can not fix with

497

Zhang et al.

3 FINITE ELEMENT MODEL

In this paper, Q235 steel with 2.06105 MPa
Modulus of elasticity0.3 Poisson ratio, and 235MPa
yield strength is selected and the constitutive relation of
ideal elastic plasticity model is used for steel-frame beam
in ABAQUS. Galvanized cold-formed thin-walled steel
sections for light steel keel and the connection is used.
According to the literature (Wang 2005), considering
initial geometric imperfection, yield strength of light steel
keel and the connection should be reduced to 211.5 MPa.
Elastic Modulus and Poisson ratio are the same to
steel-frame beam. The gypsum board as the panels of the
wall with 1587MPa Modulus of elasticity0.23 Poisson
ratio, and 6.35 MPa yield strength is defined by the
characteristic of isotropic spectroscopy(Zhao 2010).
The U-shaped connection and vertical keel are
simulated by solid element C3D8R, and the wall by shell
element S4R. Normal attribute in contact between
vertical keel and the connection is set as hard contact.
Self-tapping screw is used to link the panels and vertical
keel, so Partition Command is used for dividing vertical
keel as spacing interval of self-tapping screw, and then
Tie command is used for linking the panel and vertical
keel. The connection with U8030602.0mm and
the wall with 12mm of the panel fixed on both side of
C50 50 6 1.0 of C-shaped vertical keel are
established in ABAQUS. A three-dimensional finite
element model, including the mesh generation and the
boundary conditions of the model is shown in Figure 5.

(a) Vertical keel deformation

(b) The U-shaped connection deformation

(c) Stress nephogram of vertical keel

(d) Stress nephogram of the U-shaped connection
Figure 6. Deformation and stress nephogram of the model.

4.2 Contact Analysis

The extrusion force has been happened at the position
of contact between vertical keel and U-shaped
connection, where there has a total of four contact pairs
which is marked in Figure 7. The change of contact
reaction force and the area change on each of contact
surface are illustrated in Figure 8. and Figure 9. From
these, contact reaction force on contact surface 1 is far
greater than that on three other contact surfaces. Contact
reaction force increases with the displacement. When the
displacement reaches 4.14mm, the contact reaction force
is 1.04kN, and the increment of contact reaction force
obviously reduces. At the same time, maximum stress of
vertical keel has reached the yield strength, and the
stresses of the U-shaped connection and panels are
43.67MPa and 1.41MPa, respectively. The area of contact
surface 1 fluctuates at the beginning of loading,
subsequently the change trends to a status of relatively
stable and the area contact is not large. It shows that
contact reaction force on contact surface 1 is larger. The
contact reaction force on contact surface 2 is smaller,
because the deformation of the U-shaped connection and
vertical keel with the increase of storey drift causes the
contact on contact surface 2 disappears gradually. The
area of contact surface 2 has the major fluctuations in the
previous loading, and then stabilizes gradually. The
contact reaction force on contact surface 2 is the
maximum value of 66.85N when the deformation reaches
1.31mm, then the change curve declines until
deformation reaches 3.28mm. The change of the contact

Fig. 5 Finite element analytical model.

4 DISCUSSIONS
4.1 Failure Mode
Figure 6. shows the deformation and stress
nephogram of vertical keel and the U-shaped connection.
From it, larger deformation occurs on the upper vertical
keel, where the maximum is 11mm. The minimum
deformation happens at the right corner of the U-shaped
connection, and expands gradually because of the
constraint from vertical keel to the U-shaped connection.
Vertical keel fails before the U-shaped connection.
Maximum stress of vertical keel occurs at the bottom of
the groove at vertical keel, where it has reached yield
strength.

498

Zhang et al.

0.91MPa. The stresses increase with the displacement

load until vertical keel fails.

reaction forces on contact surface 3 and 4 are the same to

that on contact surface 1. While the contact reaction force
on contact surface 4 is less than that on contact surface 1
and larger than that on contact surface 2 and 3.

Stress (MPa)

Vertical keel
U-shaped connection
Panels

Contact surface 4
Contact surface 3

Contact surface 2

Displacement (mm)

Contact surface 1

Figure.10 Stress-displacement curves.

Figure 7. Contact surface of the U-shaped connection.

5 CONCLUSIONS
Contact reaction force (N)

contactsurface1
contact surface 2
contact surface 3
contact surface 4

time

(1) A new type of U-shaped connection between light

steel keel interior wall and steel-frame beam is designed
and the specific dimensions of the connection are
determined, considering installation construction,
requirements of structure design and steel-frame structure
deformation.
(2) Based on finite element analysis, the stress of
vertical keel is far greater that of the U-shaped
connection. That the failure of the connection is mainly
concentrated in vertical keel indicates the better
mechanical behavior of the U-shaped connection.

Figure 8. Contact reaction force curves.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

contact surface 1
contact surface 2
contact surface 3
contact surface 4
Contact area (mm2)

The authors gratefully acknowledge the financial

support provided by Key Projects in the National Science
& Technology Pillar Program during the Twelfth
Five-year Plan Period (Grant No. 2012BAJ13B05).
REFERENCES

time

Gad. E. F., Duffield. C.F., Hutchinson. G.L., etc. 1999. Lateral

performance of cold-formed steel-framed domestic
structure[J]. Journal of Engineering Structure 21(1):83-95
Tao Z. & He B.K. 2000. Developing new type light gage steel
structure in China, Engineering Sciences 3(2):77-81.
Wang Y.Q., Shi Y.J., Chen H. etc. 2001. Contemporary
lightweight steel structure and its application in China.
Journal of Building Structures 23(1): 2-8.
Technical Code for Cold-formed Thin-wall Steel Structure
(GB50018-2002) [S]. Beijing: China Building Industry
Press, 2002
Wang X.P., Zhong G.G. & Lin S.S. 2005. Axial compression test
of cut cold-formed stub columns with C-section. Journal of
Wuhan University of Technology 27(7): 57-60.
American institute of steel construction 2008. Facade
attachments to steel-framed buildings 3-4.
Xu C. 2010. Lateral performance analysis on Light-Gauge Steel
Composite Wall with different wallboard materials.. Wuhan
University of Technology 1-2.
Zhao D.S., Huang Q.Y & Zheng L. 2011. Numerical simulation
& analysis of the Lateral load bearing capacity of the C-type
light gage steel joist wall column. Zhejiang Construction
28(5):13-17.

Figure 9. Contact area change curves.

4.3 Stress Analysis

Stress-displacement curves of vertical keel, U-shaped
connection and panels are shown in Fig.12. It can be seen
that stress-displacement curve of vertical keel can be
divided into two stages included the elastic and the yield
stage. The maximum stress of vertical keel is much larger
than that of the U-shaped connection. When the
displacement reaches 2.96mm, the stress of vertical keel
reaches yield strength, at this time, the stress of the
U-shaped connection and panels are 27.09MPa and

499

11th International Conference on

Advances in Steel and Concrete Composite Structures
Tsinghua University, Beijing, China, December 3-5, 2015

EFFECT OF WELDING ON THE TENSILE BEHAVIOR OF HIGH

STRENGTH STEEL T-STUB JOINTS
- PART I: EXPERIMENTAL AND ANALYTICAL STUDY
M.S. Zhaoa, C. Chena & S.P. Chiewc
a

School of Civil Engineering, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore

E-mails: mszhao@ntu.edu.sg, cchen013@ntu.edu.sg

School of Civil Engineering, Singapore Institute of Technology, Singapore

E-mail: SingPing.Chiew@SingaporeTech.edu.sg
ABSTRACT
Keywords:
Effect; Welding; Tensile
Behavior; High Strength Steel;
T-stub Joints

In this study, experiments were conducted to study the tensile behavior of 10 T-stub
joints made of emerging structural steel including reheated, high strength steel S690,
normal strength steel S440 and S385. The results are further validated against the
developed yield line approach and the design load carrying capacity equations
provided by EC3. It is found that the behavior of the T-stub joints made of S385 and
S440 agree well with the analytical approach and the load carrying capacities can be
conservatively predicted by EC3. However, although the S690 shows superior load
carrying capacities than the S440 and S385, the results are obviously lower than the
anticipation of the analytical approach and the prediction by EC3. In addition, the
ductility of the S690 specimens is much worse than that of the S440 and S385
specimens, which may result in more brittle failure modes.
2008) and they are more susceptible to heat (Chen and
Young 2006; Qiang, Bijlaard et al. 2012) than mild steels,
as inherited from the heat-treatment hardened
microstructures (Bhadeshia and Honeycombe 2006). As a
result, it is foreseeable that welding may be an issue
stopping HSS from becoming popular. Nevertheless,
despite the large number of reports claiming the existence
of welding issues (high residual stress level and HAZ
property alternation) in HSS, few works regarding the
effects of these issues on the performance of HSS
structures can be found in literature, let alone the
recommendations and cautions given for designing or
evaluating the performance of HSS structures.
In this paper, the tensile performance of T-stub joints
made of two types of emerging structural steels, i.e.
Reheated, Quenched and Tempered (RQT) Steels in
grade S690 and Thermal-Mechanical Controlled
Processed (TMCP) steels in grade S440 and S385 are
presented. 10 specimens in the same configuration with
different materials and thicknesses are fabricated and
tested. A non-linear analytical approach based on the
yield line model (Giro Coelho, Bijlaard et al. 2004;
Al-Khatab and Bouchar 2007; Fernandez-Ceniceros,
Sanz-Garcia et al. 2015) is developed to predict the
load-displacement relationships of these joints. By
comparing the test results, yield line model results and

1 INTRODUCTION
With the development of design and construction
technology, the evolution of steels for structural usage
never stops. The replacement of traditional normal
strength steels by emerging high strength and high
performance steels is on the way. Due to higher strength
to weight ratio, saving in total materials and convenience
in construction, higher construction productivity can be
achieved by replacing normal strength steels with high
strength steels. However, the differences between the
emerging high strength steels and the traditional normal
strength steels are much more than just strength.
Strength of steel is usually enhanced by either adding
alloying elements or going through heat treatments/work
hardening. Different from high alloy steels, heat treated
steels offer better performance in yield and tensile
strength without sacrificing much weldability. Therefore,
such kinds of steel have occupied most of the high
strength structural steel market. One major issue against
the popularization of HSS is that the quenching and
tempering process improves the strength at the expense of
ductility through complicated heat treatments. Massive
researches have demonstrated that it is not possible for
QT steels to achieve good deformation capacity
(Bjorhovde 2004; Giro Coelho and Bijlaard 2007; Uy

500

Zhao et al.

servo-hydraulic universal test machine that has a

maximum loading capacity of 2000KN. To fix the
specimen into the test machine, support joints made of
S355 steel plates with thickness of 50mm were fabricated.
The configurations of the support joints are the same as
those of the test joints. The specimens are fixed into the
support joints by 6 high strength hexagon bolts in grade
10.9HR, M24. The full set-up is shown in Figure 1.

the design equations given in EN 1993-1-8 (BSI 2005),

the performance of these joints are evaluated.

2 EXPERIMETAL STUDY
2.1 Material
Three grades of steels are examined in this study:
TMCP steel plates in grades S385 (16mm) and S440
(22mm) and RQT in grade S690 (8mm, 12mm and
16mm). Both types of materials are emerging for the
structural usage in contrast to the traditional NSS S355 or
mild steels S235 and S275. The mechanical properties of
the studied materials obtained by standard coupon tensile
test are presented in Table 1, in comparison with the
corresponding standards including EN 10025-4 (BSI
2004) and EN 10025-6 (BSI 2004) for TMCP and RQT
products, respectively. From Table 1, two distinct
features of RQT-S690 can be read: First, This material
has superior strengths compared to traditional steels. The
actual yield strength of RQT-S690 is more than twice of
the nominal yield strength of S355. Second, RQT-S690 is
very brittle compared to traditional NSS or the two
TMCP steels in this study. For TMCP, it can also be seen
from Table 1 that the TMCP-S385 literally fulfilled the
mechanical property specifications of S420M/ML and the
TMCP-S440 fulfilled those of S460M/ML.

Figure 1. The tensile test setup

2.3 Test Results

2.3.1 General descriptions
Figures 2 and 3 present the test results in terms of
load-displacement curves of the TMCP and RQT steel
T-stub joints, respectively. Despite that the specimens
may fail in different modes, the curves are of the same
pattern. In general, three stages in the load-displacement
curves can be distinguished: (1) the elastic stage, (2)
plastic hinge development stage and (3) the failure stag.
In the elastic stage, stiffness and the elastic modulus
govern the behaviors of the joints until general yielding
takes place. Within this stage, the load increases rapidly
with a high load / displacement ratio, which is dependent
on the stiffness of the joint, more specifically, the angle
and thickness. When the specimens are further loaded,
plastic deformation would appear and obvious plastic
hinges could be seen. The positions of the plastic hinges
are almost fixed: two at near the weld toes and the other
two near the bolt hole, as shown in Figure 4. In this stage,
the deformation grows wildly but the carried load
increases slowly. It is worth noting that the curves of the
same angle group are generally parallel to each other. If
the loads are further increased, stronger hardening effects
than those in the plastic hinge development stage occur
and the parallel relationship in the Load-displacement
curves of each angel group disappear. In a short loading
time, final failure appeared as either weld toe through
thickness fracture or bolt hole necking failure.

Table 1. Mechanical properties of RQT-S690, TMCP-S385 and

TMCP-S440
Grade

fy(MPa)

fu(MPa)

E(GPa)

(%)

RQT-S690

745.2.0

837.8

208.9

14.5

S690Q/QL

690

770-940

14

TMCP-S440

527.3

601.3

206.9

29.2

S460M/ML

440

540-720

17

TMCP-S385

443.3

568.0

208.4

37.8

S420M/ML

420

520-680

19

2.2 Specimen and Test Set-up

10 T-joints were fabricated and tested in this study.
They were of the same configuration but different
thicknesses and materials. Each specimen is fabricated by
joining two identical sheets with dimensions of
440150t mm, where t is the thickness. The joints are
designed as complete joint penetration butt weld
according to the AWS structural steel welding code
(AWS 2008). To finish the weld work, the SMAW
method was employed. Compared to the other common
welding methods, SMAW is more friendly to
martensite-based high strength steel due to the low heat
input (Mohandas, Madhusudan Reddy et al. 1999) which
may less affect the HAZ.
The tensile tests for the T-stub joints were carried out in a

501

CarriedLoad(KN)

Zhao et al.

1200
1100
1000
900
800
700
600
500
400
300
200
100
0

Bouchar
2007).
Based
on
the
simplified
load-displacement model, the global stiffness of the
studied T-stub joints under the elastic stages is defined
as:

TMCPS38516mm1
TMCPS38516mm2
TMCPS44022mm1
TMCPS44022mm2

10

20

30

40
50
60
Displacement(mm)

70

80

90

T-stub joints
800

RQTS6908mm1
RQTS6908mm2
RQTS69012mm1
RQTS69012mm2
RQTS69016mm1
RQTS69016mm2

700
600
CarriedLoad(KN)

where E is the global stiffness; F is the load at

certain level of elastic displacement d.
The calculated stiffness for all the tested joints is
shown in Figure 6. It can be seen from Figure 6 that the
test results are repeatable and stable. The maximum
differences between the specimens in the same
configuration occurred at the RQT-S690-8 and 16mm and
are only 3.2%. The stiffness in terms of carried load (KN)
per displacement (mm) increases rapidly with the
thickness of the specimens. The stiffness of the 16mm
RQT specimens is about 5.3 times of that of the 8mm
RQT specimens, while the stiffness of the TMCP-22mm
is slightly less than 2 times of that of the TMCP-16mm.
Besides, although the RQT-S690-16mm and the
TMCP-S385-16mm had exactly the same configuration,
the RQT-S690-16mm specimens show slightly higher
stiffness. From Figure 6, it can be seen that the
stiffness-thickness relationship is generally linear. The
equation of the trend line is obtained and expressed as:

100

Figure 2. Load-Displacement of the TMCP-S385 and S440

500
400
300
200
100
0
0

10

15

20
25
30
35
Displacement(mm)

40

45

50

(Eqn. 1)

55

y=6.520x-40.98

Figure 3. Load-Displacement of the RQT-S690 T-stub joints

(Eqn. 2)

It can be seen from Figure 6 that the trend line

equation agreed well with the test results, except for the
TMCP-S385-16mm. For the rest, the maximum
difference is only 4.0%.

Plastichinges

Figure 4. Plastic hinge phenomena

Figure 5. Simplified elastic-plastic load-displacement curve

2.3.2 Stiffness of the elastic stage

For design purpose, the ultimate load carrying
capacity or the behavior of the joints under the elastic
stage is of the most importance. From Figures 2 and 3, it
can bee seen that not only the stiffness but also the
deformation limit of the elastic stage vary according to
the configuration and material of the specimens. To
quantitatively evaluate these two parameters, the yield
line theory is introduced. The elastic stage and plastic
hinge development stage of the curves are taken out and
simplified into straight line model, as shown in Figure 5.
The turning point is defined as the plastic resistance,
which is widely accepted as the load carrying capacity
before large deformation appears (Al-Khatab and

120

RQTS6901

Stiffness(KN/mm)

y=6.520x 40.98

RQTS6902

100

TMCPS3851
80

TMCPS3852
TMCPS4401

60

TMCPS4402
40

TrendLine

20
0
0

10
15
Thickness (mm)

Figure 6. Stiffness of the elastic stage

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20

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Zhao et al.

3 ANALYTICAL APPROACH

Various
analytical
approaches
for
the
load-displacement relationships of the T-stub joints have
been developed in different complexity. From plastic
analysis, Zoetemeijer (Zoetemeijer 1974) derived the
failure loads of the T-stub joints under all three failure
modes. Based on his models, many researchers have
further developed the yield line theory to solve the initial
stiffness and the plastic resistance with higher precision
(Giro Coelho, Bijlaard et al. 2004; Al-Khatab and
Bouchar 2007; Yu, Burgess et al. 2009). In this paper, a
yield line model is established for the T-stub joints made
of RQT-S690 and TMCP-S385 and S440. Similarly, this
model focuses on the initial stiffness and plastic
resistance at relatively small deformation stage.

m tan

m.

(Eqn. 4)

Therefore, Eqn. 3 can be simplified as

4M m

(Eqn. 5)

Based on the stress-strain curves of the three materials

obtained by standard coupon tensile test, the simplified
two-stage true elastic-plastic stress-stain curves are
derived, as shown in Figure 9. The definitions of the
symbols of the stress-strain curves are shown in Figure 9.
For the TMCP materials, Ep=0. Depending on the
maximum strain (located at the surface), there are
two possible patterns of stress/strain distribution over the
cross section of the plastic hinge, as shown in Figure 10b.
When the cross section is not yielded, i.e.
,

Load,F

When
E

(Eqn. 6)

x
E

(Eqn. 7)

The moment at the plastic hinge can be calculated

from integration of the stresses over the cross-section:
n

Boltforce,Q

Bolt

, M

For

2l

xdx

2l

Bolt

(Eqn. 8)

Figure 7. T-stub joints before deformation

, M

For

2l

xdx

2l

Load,F
E

(Eqn. 9)

Assume the curvature of the cross section is

Displacement,d

and the length of the plastic hinge is

Plastichinges

at small displacements (Yu, Burgess et al. 2009), the

rotation of the plastic hinge can be calculated as:
Angle,

Angle,

(Eqn. 10)

With Eqn. 4, Eqn. 9 can be rewritten as:

The geometrical models of the T-stub before and after

deformation are shown in Figures 7 and 8. Assuming the
prying force at both ends of the chord plate to be
negligible, the work that load F has done is fully
transferred to the strain energy of the plastic hinges
according to the virtual work principle:
Fd

Figure 8. T-stub joints after deformation

(Eqn. 11)

Thus, Eqn. 8 and 9 can be expressed as:

For d

(Eqn. 3)

km , M
, M

For d

where F is reaction force at displacement d, M is plastic

hinge rotation capacity and is the angle at deformation
d, as shown in Figure 8.
By simple geometry analysis,

km

2l
2l

E
E

(Eqn. 12)
E

E
(Eqn. 13)

Substituting Eqn. 12 and 13 into Eqn. 5, the solution

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Zhao et al.

thickness - showing that the difficulty of bending the

material is increasing. Load-displacement relationships
obtained by expressing Eqn. 14 for RQT and TMCP
, d km T-stub joints are shown in Figures 11 and 12. It can be
seen from Figures 11 and 12 that the yield line approach

km E E
E E
, d
(abbreviated as YL) agrees well with the TMCP test
results but are generally higher than the RQTS-690 test
(Eqn.
curves since the end of the elastic stage.

of F can be expressed as:

F
t

14)

Load(KN)

Thus, the carried load F is expressed as a function of

the displacement d.
It should be noted that at a state that the cross section
is fully plastic instead of partially plastic (Figure 10b), M
can be expressed as
f

TMCPS44022mm2

YLS44022mm

TMCPS38516mm1

TMCPS38516mm2

YLS38516mm

450
400
350
300
250
200
150
100
50
0
0

and similarly F can be expressed as

4
5
6
Displacement(mm)

10

300
1000

RQTS69016mm1

RQTS69016mm2

YLS69016mm

RQTS69012mm1

RQTS69012mm2

YLS69012mm

RQTS6908mm1

RQTS6908mm2

YLS6908mm

250

Load(KN)

900
800
700
Stress(MPa)

TMCP

(Eqn. 15)

, which is the equation adopted by EC3 as the load

carrying capacity (BSI 2005).

600

200
150
100

500

50

400
300

RQTS690

200

TMCPS440

100

TMCPS385

0
0

Figure 9. Simplified stress-strain curves for the analytical

Et

t
2

Em

t
2

f y+E
t m

fy

(a) Stress-strain model

my

10

In EC3, there are three failure modes for typical

T-stub joints, i.e. 1, complete yielding of the flange, 2,
bolt failure with yielding of the flange and 3, bolt failure
(BSI 2005). In this study, all the specimens are failed in
failure mode 1 and only slight plastic deformation was
found in the bolts for TMCP-S440-22mm. The EN
1993-1-8 (BSI 2005) gives two methods based on yield
line analysis to predict the load carrying capacity of the
T-stub joints failed in complete yielding of the flange:

4 PLASTIC RESISTANCE

approach

t
2

4
6
Dsiaplacement(mm)

RQT-S690

Strain(%)

fu

Figure 12. Comparison of the load-displacement curves of

fy

Figure 11. Comparison of the load-displacement curves of

TMCPS44022mm1

my

(b) Stress distributions in the

Method 1: F

section of the plastic hinges

Figure 10. Behavior of the plastic hinge

Method 2: F

, ,

(Eqn. 16)
, ,

(Eqn. 17)

l t/2 f is the design moment

, where M , ,
resistance of the section, leff, m, n are geometrical
parameters of the T-stub joints, as shown in Figure 7; ew
is 1/4 of the washer diameter or the width across points of
the bolt head of nut, as relevant. In method 2, the force
applied to the T-stub flange b a bolt is assumed to be

The parameter k in Eqn. 14 is dependent on the

geometry of the specimen and material used to fabricate
the joints. By checking the stiffness of the elastic stage,
the values of k for RQT-S690, TMCP-S440 and
TMCP-S385 are obtained: 8, 9.8 and 10.6, respectively.
Note that this k is decreasing with the increasing

504

Zhao et al.

505

LoadCayying Capacity (KN)

zone, the mechanical properties of HSS may be severely

changed in the heat affected zone. As a result, the
moment resistance of the plastic hinge at the weld toe is
different form that at the bolt area and Eqn. 7 can no
longer assume F 4 M m. On the other hand, the heat
affected zone is only a small area in the base metal
adjacent to the fusion zone, the effect of the heat affected
zone on the load carrying capacity may decrease with the
increasing thickness as discussed previously.
400

TestS6901

TestS6902

350

Eqn.16S690

Eqn.17S690

TestS3851

TestS3852

Eqn.16S385

Eqn.17S385

TestS4401

TestS4402

Eqn.16S440

Eqn.17S440

300
250
200
150
100
50
0
0

10 12 14
Thickness (mm)

16

18

20

22

24

Figure 13. Load Carrying Capacities

140
120
100
80

(%)

uniformly distributed under the washer, the bolt head or

the nut, instead of concentrated at the center line of the
bolt. This assumption leads to higher value but is more
realistic, since the distance between the center lines of the
weld toe plastic hinge and bolt area plastic hinge is
smaller than m especially at the beginning of the plastic
hinge development stage, as shown in Figure 4.
The load carrying capacities of the studied T-stub joints
obtained by the yield line method and EC3 equations are
shown in Figure 13. From Figure 13, it can be seen that
the load carrying capacity of the RQT specimens are
superiors compared to the TMCP specimens. The average
load carrying capacity of the RQT-S690-16mm is about
91.3% more than that of the TMCP-S385-16mm.
However, the test results of the RQT-S690 specimens are
generally below anticipation compared to the EC3
equations. The load carrying capacity of the
RQT-S690-8mm is much lower than both Eqns. 16 and
17, and the RQT-S690-12mm and 16mm are only slightly
higher than Eqn. 16 and lower than Eqn. 17. On the
contrary, the test results of the TMCP specimens are
about 20% higher than the Eqn. 16 and at least 11.4%
higher than the Eqn. 17. Accordingly, it seems that the
load carrying capacity equations in EC3 are conservative
for the TMCP-S385 and S440 but not conservative for
the RQT-S690.
The plastic resistances of the YL models are obtained
by using the approach shown in Figure 5. The results in
percentage compared to the results calculated by using
Eqn. 3 are shown in Table 6 and Figure 14. From Table 6
and Figure 14, it can be seen that the yield line approach
can well predict the plastic resistances of the TMCP
joints. The results of the yield line approach are about 30%
higher than those of the Eqn. 3 and only 10% higher than
the average value of the test results. However, for
RQT-S690, the test results do not meet the anticipation
by the yield line model and EC3 equations. As shown in
Figure 14, the lines of the Eqns. 3 and 4 and the yield line
models are generally parallel. The test results of the
TMCP specimens fall in the gap between the yield line
model and Eqn. 4, while those of the RQT-S690 are not
higher than Eqn. 4, especially for the RQT-S690-8mm
specimens. Further analysis of the differences between
the yield line model and the average test results (Column
8, Table 6) show that test results of RQT-S690 are 20.9 to
33.3% lower than the yield line model and this difference
decrease with the thickness.
Since the load carrying capacity is almost fully
dependent on the moment resistances of the plastic hinges,
it is highly susceptible that the problem comes from the
properties of the plastic hinge at the weld toe. According
to the material property study of HSS by Chiew (Chiew,
Zhao et al. 2014), the mechanical properties of HSS may
deteriorate at elevated temperatures and after exposure to
high temperatures. Since the welding would induce
localized, large and transient heat input into the fusion

60
40

Eqn.16

Eqn.17

20

YLModel

Test1

Test2
0
S6908

S69012

S69016

S38516

S44022

Series

Figure 14. Plastic resistances of the yield line models

5 CONCLUSIONS
Experiments were conducted to study the tensile
behavior of 10 T-stub joints made of emerging structural
steels including reheated, high strength steel S690,
normal strength steel S440 and S385. The results are
further validated against the developed yield line
approach and the design load carrying capacity equations
provided by EC3. The results show that the behavior of
the T-stub joints made of TMCP-S385 and S440 agree
well with the analytical approach and the load carrying
capacities can be conservatively predicted by EC3.
However, the T-stub joints made of RQT-S690 behave
differently from the TMCP specimens and the analytical
approach. The stiffness at the elastic stage and plastic
hinge development stage is similar to the TMCP
specimens, but the load carrying capacities are below
anticipation of the analytical approach and the prediction
of EC3. The test results of the TMCP specimens are
between the yield line model and EC3, while those of the
RQT-S690 are not higher than the upper bound of EC3.
Further discussion deducts that the problem may come

Zhao et al.

from the compromised properties of the plastic hinges at

the weld toe, which is highly possible to be affected by
welding heat input.

made up of welded plates. Journal of Constructional Steel

Research 60(2): 269-311.
Mohandas, T., G. Madhusudan Reddy, et al. 1999. Heat-affected
zone softening in high-strength low-alloy steels. Journal of
Materials Processing Technology 88(13): 284-294.
Qiang, X., F. Bijlaard, et al. 2012. Dependence of mechanical
properties of high strength steel S690 on elevated
temperatures. Construction and Building Materials 30(0):
73-79.
Uy, B. 2008. Stability and ductility of high performance steel
sections with concrete infill. Journal of Constructional Steel
Research 64(78): 748-754.
Yu, H., I. W. Burgess, et al. (2009). Development of a yield-line
model for endplate connections in fire. Journal of
Constructional Steel Research 65(6): 1279-1289.
Zoetemeijer, P. (1974). A design method for the tension side of
statically loaded, bolted beam-to-column connections.
HERON 20(1).

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
This research is supported by the Singapore Ministry
of National Development (MND) Research Fund on
Sustainable Urban Living (Grant No. SUL2013-4). Any
opinions, findings and conclusions expressed in this
paper are those of the writers and do not necessarily
reflect the view of MND, Singapore.
REFERENCES
Al-Khatab, Z. & Bouchar , A. 2007. Analysis of a bolted T-stub
strengthened by backing-plates with regard to Eurocode 3.
Journal of Constructional Steel Research 63(12):
1603-1615.
AWS (2008). Structural Welding Code. steel. Miami, American
National Standards Institue.
Bhadeshia, H. K. D. H. and R. W. K. Honeycombe (2006).
Steels: microstructure and properties. Oxford, United
Kingdom, Elsevier Science & Technology.
Bjorhovde, R. 2004. Development and use of high performance
steel. Journal of Constructional Steel Research 60(35):
393-400.
BSI (2004). Hot Rolled Products of Structural Steels: Part 4
Technical Delivery Conditions for Thermalmechanical
Rolled Weldable Fine Grain Structural Steels, BS EN
10025-4. London, British Standards Institution.
BSI (2004). hot rolled products of structural steels: part 6
technical delivery conditions for flat products of high yield
strength structural steels in the quenched and tempered
condition, BS EN 10025-6. London, British Standards
Institution.
BSI (2005). Eurocode 3: design of steel structures: part 1-8
design of joints, BS EN 1993-1-8. London, British Standard
Institution.
Chen, J. & Young, B. 2006. Behavior of High strength structural
steel at elevated temperatures. Journal of structural
engineering: 1948-1954.
Chiew, S. P., M. S. Zhao, et al. 2014. Mechanical properties of
heat-treated high strength steel under fire/post-fire
conditions. Journal of Constructional Steel Research 98(0):
12-19.
Fernandez-Ceniceros, J., A. Sanz-Garcia, et al. 2015. A
numerical-informational approach for characterising the
ductile behaviour of the T-stub component. Part 1: Refined
finite element model and test validation. Engineering
Structures 82: 236-248.
Giro Coelho, A. M. & F. S. K. Bijlaard. 2007. Experimental
behaviour of high strength steel end-plate connections.
Journal of Constructional Steel Research 63(9): 1228-1240.
Giro Coelho, A. M., F. S. K. Bijlaard, et al. 2004. Experimental
assessment of the behaviour of bolted T-stub connections

506

11th International Conference on

Advances in Steel and Concrete Composite Structures
Tsinghua University, Beijing, China, December 3-5, 2015

EFFECT OF WELDING ON THE TENSILE BEHAVIOR OF HIGH

STRENGTH STEEL T-STUB JOINTS
- PART II: NUMERICAL STUDY
C. Chena, M.S. Zhaob, & S.P. Chiewc
a

School of Civil Engineering, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore

E-mails: mszhao@ntu.edu.sg, cchen013@ntu.edu.sg

School of Civil Engineering, Singapore Institute of Technology, Singapore

E-mail: SingPing.Chiew@SingaporeTech.edu.sg
ABSTRACT
Keywords:
Effect; Welding; Tensile
Behavior; High Strength Steel;
T-stub Joints

This paper numerically investigated the impact of welding with large heat input on the tensile
strength of high strength steel S690 T-stub joints. Finite element simulation was employed to
simulate the two-pass thermal-mechanical welding process. Focus was given to the deterioration
of mechanical properties in the heat affected zone and its effect on the tensile performance of the
whole joint. The simulation results in terms of load-displacement curves are compared with the
test results of the high strength steel S690 T-stub joints stated in part I of this twin paper. It is
found that the mechanical property deterioration in the heat affected zone of high strength steel
caused by welding is remarkably harmful to the global tensile performance of the studied T-stub
joints.

yield strength of high strength steel (S690) reduce almost

50% after cooling down from 850C (Chiew, Zhao, &
Lee, 2014; Qiang, Bijlaard, & Kolstein, 2012) which the
HAZ certainly has to pass during welding. For welded
HSS butt joint, the ultimate tensile strength decreases by
8% due to the big soft zone in HAZ caused by large heat
input welding (Hochhauser & Rauch, 2012). However,
large heat input welding method is still preferred in
workshop due to the demand of higher productivity.
In this paper, two finite element models are built to
simulate the welding process for welded HSS S690
T-stub joints. One model is built with whole welding
process and quasi-static tensile process. The material
deterioration of HSS after exposure of high temperature
is also taken into consideration. The other model is built
without consideration of the effect of welding. The
simulation results are compared with experimental data
from the tensile test of welded HSS T-stub.

1 INTORDUCTION
High strength steel (HSS) attracts more and more
attention for construction for its higher strength to weight
ratio, which contributes to better architectural expression
and lower labor and transportation costs. Until now, there
are not many structures using HSS. Even the famous HSS
structures such as Skytree tower in Tokyo, truss structure
of the Sony Center in Berlin and Akashi Kaikyo
Bridge(Miki, Homma, & Tominaga, 2002) do not use
HSS in a large portion of the whole structure.
Commonly, high strength steel is only available in the
form of plate due to the limitation of producing process.
As a result, HSS plates have to be welded into built-up
sections for structural usage. Two kinds of welding
procedure are usually adopted for building structural steel
sections according to the amount of heat input. One is
small heat input welding with multiple passes. The other
is large heat input welding with single or double passes.
Small heat input has less significant effect on the base
material but costs more labor work. On the other hand,
large heat input leads to less welding time but bigger heat
affected zone (HAZ) where the microstructure and
characteristics of base material may change seriously
(Gunaraj & Murugan, 2002).
For high strength steel, the change of microstructure
in the HAZ affects but is not limited to toughness,
strength and ductility. Coupon tests have show that the

2 FINITE ELEMENT MODEL

The two HSS T-stub models are built by using
ABAQUS. In order to gain accurate numerical results to
compare with experimental data, bolts (Grade 10.9, M24)
and supporter are also simulated in the models. The HSS
T-stub, used in experiment, is welded with small heat
input and multiple passes. The dimension of specimen is
shown in Figure 1.

507

Chen et al.

Figure 2. Double-ellipsoid heat source.

(a) HSS T-stub

The heat flux q is represented by the following

equations:
For the front part of heat source

16

, , ,

(1)

45

For the rear part of heat source

440

, , ,

49 26

16

26 49

150

75

290

(2)

2.2 Material properties of HSS

75

440
unit:mm

In the equations, f1 and f2 are heat distribution

coefficients. It is assumed that f1 is equal to 1.0 as same
with f2. The parameters a, b, c1 and c2 represent the
dimensions of molten pool, which are 8.0mm, 17.0mm,
8.0mm and 16.0mm, respectively. The heat input power
Q (Q = UI) is equal to 25.6kJ/s. In view of the energy
dissipation during welding, the energy efficiency
coefficient is assumed to be 0.8. Additionally, welding
speed is 4mm/s, and there is no interruption between the
two pass welding.

The material properties of HSS can be divided into

two groups: mechanical properties and thermal
properties. The two groups of material properties are used
in corresponding analysis processes: stress analysis and
thermal analysis. The mechanical properties include
expansion, elastic modulus and yield strength, while
thermal properties consist of density, thermal
conductivity, specific heat and latent heat.
In this study, RQT-S690 HSS is chosen as the
material of T-stub model. The mechanical properties at
elevated temperatures and after exposure of high
temperatures can be obtained from existing literatures.
Figure 3 shows the stress-strain curves of S690 HSS at
elevated temperatures employed in models (Chiew et al.,
2014).

(b) Dimension of HSS T-stub

Figure 1. T-stub model.

Sequentially coupled thermal-stress analysis is

employed to achieve the two passes welding with large
heat input. Sequentially coupled thermal-stress analysis
consists of two interrelated analysis processes: thermal
analysis and stress analysis (Deng, 2009). Firstly, the
temperature distribution and history of specimen during
welding process are calculated in thermal analysis model.
Then, the thermal analysis results are imported into stress
analysis model as temperature load. In the stress analysis
model, deformation and stress distribution caused by
welding are calculated. After the welding process,
displacement load is applied on the end of web plate to
gain the tensile strength of HSS T-stub.

2.1 Heat source

In thermal analysis model, double-ellipsoid heat
source, as shown in Figure 2, is defined by using
subroutine DFLUX.

508

Chen et al.

analysis. Hence, there is no need to conduct experimental

test to determine the area and corresponding hardness of
HAZ.
The expansion strain of RQT-S690 is also defined in
subroutine UEXPAN according to Eurocode 3, Part 1-2
(de Normalizacin, 2005a) as follows:
For 20C T 750C
1.2 10
0.4 10
2.416 10 (3)
For 750C T 860C:
1.2 10
(4)
For 750C T 1200C:
2 10
6.2 10
(5)
Additionally, the thermal properties of RQT-S690
HSS (eg., density, thermal conductivity, specific heat and
latent heat) are defined as same with those of mild steel
based on Eurocode 3, Part 1-2.

25C

1000

100C

(MPa)

800

200C
300C

600

400C
450C

400

500C
200

600C
700C

0
0

8 10
(%)

12

14

16

800C

Figure 3. Stress-strain curves of S690 HSS at elevated

temperatures.

The stress-strain curves of RQT-S690 HSS after

exposure of high temperature are calculated based on A
series of reduction factor expressions (Qiang et al., 2012)
and corresponding formulas (Tao, Wang, & Uy, 2012),
as described in Figure 4.

2.3 Mesh, element type, contact and boundary condition

The T-stub models are built by using solid element. In
order to get more accurate results, the bolts and supporter
are also simulated. The mesh of whole model is depicted
in Figure 5. The mesh is refined around weld and bolt
holes where failure is supposed to occur. Converting
elements are used to connect the fine mesh and coarse
mesh.

900
25C

(MPa)

750

400C

600

600C

450

800C

300

900C
1000C

150
0
0

12 15 18 21 24 27 30
(%)

Figure 4. Stress-strain curves of S690 HSS after exposure of

certain high temperatures.

The mechanical properties (eg., elastic modulus, yield

strength, stress-strain curves) during cooling process are
obtained by linear interpolation of material properties at
the highest temperature which a node go through during
welding process and those after cooling down to room
temperature. The change of mechanical properties is
achieved by two subroutines (UEXPAN and USDFLD).
In subroutine UEXPAN, the highest temperature of every
node is recorded and sent to subroutine USDFLD. Then,
based on the highest temperature, a corresponding set of
mechanical properties is assigned to the point. In this
way, the material deterioration is also realized in the area
around welds.
There are several advantages by combining
subroutine USDFLD and UEXPAN to achieve material
deterioration in HAZ compared with traditional
simulation method that the material properties obtained
from hardness test and are assigned to the area of HAZ
which is cut out from model according to experimental
data (Khurshid, Barsoum, & Barsoum, 2015). Firstly, the
affected area is determined incidentally during thermal
analysis. Secondly, the material properties of HSS change
according to the highest temperature during stress

Figure 5. Mesh and physical boundary condition of FE model.

The T-stub is divided into 37584 elements, and there

are 816 elements for each bolt and 1602 elements for
supporter. DC3D8 (an 8 node linear heat transfer brick)
and C3D8 (An 8-node linear brick) are adopted as
element type in thermal and stress analysis model
separately.
Hard contact is defined for normal behavior of
contacts among T-stub, bolts and supporter. In view of
the complexity of tangential behavior in contacts (eg.,
rough surfaces and pre-tension force in bolts), a
simplified contact is adopted. Penalty friction is defined
as the tangential behavior of contacts with a friction
coefficient 0.3, and the pre-tension forces in bolts are
ignored.

509

Chen et al.

Thermal and physical boundary conditions are

defined in thermal and stress analysis models separately.
The room temperature is assigned as 25C. Convection
and radiation boundary assigned on the surfaces of T-stub
with the coefficients 25W/(m2C) and 0.3, respectively.
The physical boundary conditions of models are assigned
as same with those in experiment as shown in Figure 5.
The supporter is fixed at bottom, and the top end of
T-stub is fixed except for the vertical direction in which
the displacement load is applied.

Figure 8. It is obvious that four yield lines generated

around welds and bolts.

3 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

The temperature distribution and history of T-stub
during welding and after cooling down are obtained by
thermal analysis. Figure 6 shows the temperature
distribution during welding.

(a) Failure mode of T-stub specimen.

(b) Failure mode of T-stub model.

Figure 8. Failure mode of S690 HSS T-stub under tensile load.
500

Figure 6. Temperature distribution of HSS T-stub during

400
Applied Load (kN)

welding.

The stress contour of HSS T-stub during welding is

depicted in Figure 7. It can be observed that the stress in
welds is quite low because the strength of HSS decreases
significantly at high temperatures.

Experimental Data
300
200

FE Results from
the model without
welding process

100

FE Results from
the model with
welding process

0
0

10
15
20
Displacement (mm)

25

Figure 9. Applied load-displacement curves from FE analysis

and experimental results.

In Eurocode 3 Part 1-8(de Normalizacin, 2005b), the

tensile strength of T-stub can be calculated in the
condition of flange yielding by using the expression as
follow:

(6)

In the expression, leff is the width of flange plate. m

stands for the distance between weld toe and center of
bolt hole. tf is the thickness of flange plate, and fy is the
yield strength of steel. The geometrical parameter values

Figure 7. Stress contour of HSS T-stub during welding.

The failure mode is yielding of flange plate which is

same with that of HSS T-stub in experiment, as shown in

510

Chen et al.

and calculated tensile strength of T-stub are listed in

Table 1. The yield strength of RQT-S690 HSS is obtained
by coupon test.

paper are those of the writers and do not necessarily

reflect the view of MND, Singapore.

Table 1. Geometrical parameter values and calculated tensile

strength of T-stub
FT (kN)
fy (MPa)
leff (mm)
tf (mm)
m (mm)
234.4
769
150
16
126

REFERENCES
Chiew, S. P., Zhao, M. S., & Lee, C. K. 2014. Mechanical
properties of heat-treated high strength steel under
fire/post-fire conditions. Journal of Constructional Steel
Research 98: 12-19.
de Normalizacin, C. E. 2005a. EN 1993-1-2: Eurocode 3:
Design of Steel Structures. Part 1-2: General
rules-Structural fire design: Comit Europeo de
Normalizacin.
de Normalizacin, C. E. 2005b. EN 1993-1-8: Eurocode 3:
Design of Steel Structures. Part 1-8: Design of joints:
Comit Europeo de Normalizacin.
Deng, D. 2009. FEM prediction of welding residual stress and
distortion in carbon steel considering phase transformation
effects. Materials & Design 30(2): 359-366.
Gunaraj, V., & Murugan, N. 2002. "Prediction of heat-affected
zone characteristics in submerged arc welding of structural
steel pipes". WELDING JOURNAL-NEW YORK-, 81(3):
pp. 45-s.
Hochhauser, D.-I. F., & Rauch, M. R. 2012. Influence of the
soft zone on the strength of welded modern HSLA steels.
Welding in the World 56(5-6): 77-85.
Khurshid, M., Barsoum, Z., & Barsoum, I. 2015. Load Carrying
Capacities of Butt Welded Joints in High Strength Steels.
Journal of Engineering Materials and Technology 137(4)
(in progress).
Miki, C., Homma, K., & Tominaga, T. 2002. High strength and
high performance steels and their use in bridge structures.
Journal of Constructional Steel Research 58(1): 3-20.
Qiang, X., Bijlaard, F. S., & Kolstein, H. 2012. Post-fire
mechanical properties of high strength structural steels S460
and S690. Engineering Structures 35: 1-10.
Tao, Z., Wang, X.-Q., & Uy, B. 2012. Stress-strain curves of
structural and reinforcing steels after exposure to elevated
temperatures. Journal of Materials in Civil Engineering
25(9): 1306-1316.

Figure 9 shows the comparison of load-displacement

curves from FE results and experimental data. It is found
that the load of FE model without consideration of
material deterioration around welds is higher than that of
experimental specimen. It is reasonable that welding
induces material deterioration around welds in flange
plate. With the increase of displacement, the higher load
is necessary for experimental specimen compared with
FE model to gain the same displacement due to the
improved elongation of RQT-S690 HSS after exposure of
high temperature around welds. It is also obvious that the
tensile strength of welded T-stub with large heat input is
lower than test results, because the larger HAZ is formed
during welding. The comparison between FE results
show that maximum decline of tensile load is 19% for
HSS T-stub welded with large heat input. However, the
tensile strength is still larger than the calculated value
based on Eurocode 3.

4 SUMMARY AND FUTURE WORKS

This study focuses on the impact of large heat input
on the tensile strength of HSS T-stub. Two finite element
models are built with and without consideration of large
heat input. The analysis results are compared with
experimental ones from a HSS T-stub welded with small
heat input and multiple passes. It can be summarized as
follows:
1. The material deterioration of HSS caused by welding
can be achieved by material change programs written
in subroutine UEXPAN and USDFLD.
2. Material deterioration caused by welding in HAZ can
reduce the tensile strength of T-stub to some extents.
3. The T-stub welded with 16mm thickness S690 HSS
plate loses 19% tensile strength due to material
deterioration induced by large heat input welding.
In future, more work will be done on experimental
tests of HSS T-stub welded with large heat input and
corresponding finite element simulation. It is expected
that the relationship between area of HAZ and reduced
tensile strength is obtained by numerical parameter
analysis.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
This research is supported by the Singapore Ministry
of National Development (MND) Research Fund on
Sustainable Urban Living (Grant No. SUL2013-4). Any
opinions, findings and conclusions expressed in this

511

11th International Conference on

Advances in Steel and Concrete Composite Structures
Tsinghua University, Beijing, China, December 3-5, 2015

DESIGN RESISTANCE OF HIGH STRENGTH STEEL SQUARE

HOLLOW SECTION K-JOINTS
F. Zuoa, S.P. Vipina & S.P. Chiewb
a

Project officer, School of Civil & Environmental Engineering, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore
E-mails: zuofei@ntu.edu.sg, vipin1@e.ntu.edu.sg
b

Professor of Civil Engineering, Singapore Institute of Technology, Singapore

E-mail: SingPing.Chiew@SingaporeTech.edu.sg
ABSTRACT

Keywords:
Design resistance; Functional
truss bridge; High strength steel;
Square hollow section.

This paper is based on the extensive parametric study carried out for the MND-SUL project,
where a functional truss bridge across an express way is planned to be built and the mega-truss
will be made of high strength steel (S690) sections. The exact effect of using the high strength
steel on the strength of joints has not been investigated extensively so far and there are no
published design equations available at present. This study investigates the influence of steel
grade on the strength of square hollow section (SHS) K-joints. The aim of the parametric study
is to optimize the current design equation given in CIDECT Design Guide 3 which is mainly
suited for S355 steel. Extensive finite elements models which are initially validated using
experimental test results are modelled for different grades of steel, for different load cases and
for different geometric parameters such as width ratio between braces and chord (), half width
to thickness ratio of chord () and the thickness ratio between braces and chord (). It is found
that the design resistance of the joints is less than the theoretical results predicted by CIDECT
Design Guide 3. New formula for predicting the design resistance of SHS K-joints for high
strength steel is proposed. The values from proposed formula are compared with the numerical
results and they exhibit good agreement.

There are totally 21 mega transfer trusses with

spacing of 5m along 100m transverse distance. The size
of bottom chord is as large as 600mm*600mm. In such
big span and limited structure height, high strength steel
(HSS) S690 steel is chosen to fabricate the truss structure
in order to save the cost of steel and to reduce the weight
of the structures for the ease of construction. The exact
effect of using the high strength steel on the strength of
joints has not been investigated so far and there are no
design equations available at present. This paper will
investigate the influence of steel grade on the strength of
square hollow section K-joints.
There has been an increasing interest in the use of
high strength steels (HSS), which generally has yield
strengths higher than 460MPa, for installation
recognizing the benefits from an increase in the strength
to weight ratio and savings in the cost of materials. This
is particularly applicable to truss structures to reduce
weight which can lead to achievement of considerable
saving in supporting substructures. Since the self-weight
of the structure and superstructure is huge, the stress at
critical area will be very large. In order to make the
structure lighter and make force allocation more
balanced, tendons are also used in the structure.

1 INTRODUCTION
Due to limited land area and an ever increasing
population, Singapore faces the challenge of maintaining
a sustainable living environment. This problem is not
unique to Singapore, modern cities all around the world
such as London, New York, Tokyo and Shanghai are all
facing similar problems on sustainable urban living on
limited land area. Subways and overpasses are also being
built to save time for busy people. As a land-scarce
country, Singapore has set out to explore the possibility
of erecting offices, light industries, walkways and
communal spaces on a kind of bridging mega-trusses
system (BMS) above major roads and expressways. The
current project is a functional bridging structure which
will be built at Buona Vista in Singapore, across the Ayer
Rajah Expressway (AYE) (Figure 1). It will be built with
a width of 80m to serve as carpark and common area
(Zeng, 2015). In addition, there will be office building,
vehicle road and other facilities. The structural system of
the mega truss is shown in Figure 2. The span of this
functional bridging building is 80m with beam depth less
than 5m and clear height under the BMS as 5m.

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Zuo et al.

2 FINITE ELEMENT MODELING

2.1 Verification with experimental test results
In order to investigate the influence of steel grade on
the strength of SHS K-joints, numerical study is carried
out using finite element (FE) modeling.
Before
performing FE analysis of the models in parametric
study, it is important to prove that the FE models can
show the good agreement to the realistic conditions. To
achieve this, the FE results are compared with the results
of experimental test. If the numerical results matches with
the experimental results, the finite element method can
used with confidence for the parametric study. The
experiment tests on SHS K-joints carried out by Thong
(2005) in Nanyang Technological University, Singapore
is among the well-recorded in recent years. The FE
results are compared with the experimental test results of
Thong (2005). Thong (2005) tested the large scale
overlap K-joints made of SHS. The experiment frame is
as shown in Figure 3 and the simplified constraint
condition is as shown in Figure 4.
The deformed FE model of the same specimen with
4-node thick shell element is shown in Figure 5 and the
deformed experimental model is depicted in Figure 6. It
can be clearly seen from Figures 5 & 6 that, the failure
mode of both models is chord face failure. The
comparison
of
experimental
and
numerical
load-displacement curves shows good agreement of
values (Figure 7). The trend reinforces the suitability of
using the FE models for extensive parametric study
which is described in the next section.

Figure 1. Bridging mega-truss system site (Chia, 2014)

Figure 2. The structural system of the mega truss

According to estimates, replacing S355 to S460 save

an average of 12% ~ 14% in amount of steel; replacing
S460 to S690 will have additional savings of 5% to 7%
(Xue, 2009). When high strength steel is applied to
high-rise buildings or large span structures, the effect is
more obvious, it can save 30% of steel consumption.
Through using of high strength steel, the thickness of the
material and the weight of the structure can be largely
reduced. The decrease is the highest when the structure is
subjected to multiple load types. By doubling the yield
strength, half the wall thickness is enough to bear the
same loading. In the same time, the amount of the
decrease is more obvious when the bending moment and
torsion stress exist. The use of higher yield strength steel
can obviously decrease the high cost of the steel.
Furthermore, the decrease of weight can lead to the
saving in manufacture, transportation and treatment. It
can also release the workload in welding process. The
influence of welding in joints on design resistance of high
strength steel is found insignificant (Khurshid et al,
2015). Therefore, the influence of welding is not
considered in this study.

Figure 3. Experimental set-up of SHS K-joint (Thong, 2005)

2.2 Details of finite element modeling

The details of finite element modeling are mentioned
in this sub-section. The finite element analysis was done
using a well-established general purpose finite element
program ABAQUS (2011). The mesh design can exert
huge influence on the accuracy of the results for finite
element analysis.
513

Zuo et al.

Generally speaking, meshes should be designed in

such a manner that smallest elements are used in regions
of high stress gradients, with gradually increasing
element sizes further away from the high stress gradient
regions. In addition, the element aspect ratio between the
largest and the smallest element dimensions should also
be considered. For this purpose, the mesh density near the
connecting face between the chord and the braces of the
SHS gap K-joints is defined higher than the other areas.
The element type used is a four-node thick shell element.
Regarding material properties, there are totally three
different grades of steel used such as S355, S460 and
S690.

Figure 4. Loading and boundary conditions

3 PARAMETRIC STUDY
3.1 Range of parameters
Parametric study for SHS K-joints is carried using a
wide range of parameters. The study comprises of 60
models of SHS K-joints made of S690, 60 models of SHS
K-joints made of S460 and 60 models of SHS K-joints
made of S355. The geometric parameters for the joints
such as width ratio between braces and chord (), half
width to thickness ratio of chord (), the thickness ratio
between braces and chord () are varied in the parametric
study. Table 1 gives the details of the range of parameters
used for the study

Figure 5. Deformed finite element model

Table 1. Parameters used for the parametric study.

0.50

0.58
Figure 6. Deformed experimental model
0.66

0.75

7.5, 9.34, 11.54, 13.64, 16.67

0.8

7.5, 9.34, 11.54, 13.64, 16.67

0.65

7.5, 9.34, 11.54, 13.64, 16.67

7.5, 9.34, 11.54, 13.64, 16.67

0.8

7.5, 9.34, 11.54, 13.64, 16.67

0.65

7.5, 9.34, 11.54, 13.64, 16.67

7.5, 9.34, 11.54, 13.64, 16.67

0.8

7.5, 9.34, 11.54, 13.64, 16.67

0.65

7.5, 9.34, 11.54, 13.64, 16.67

7.5, 9.34, 11.54, 13.64, 16.67

0.8

7.5, 9.34, 11.54, 13.64, 16.67

0.65

7.5, 9.34, 11.54, 13.64, 16.67

3.2 Load cases

There are total 3 types of load cases applied to each
model in parametric study. Load case 1 is represented in
Figure 4 where there is no chord preload in the model.
Load case 2 and Load case 3 is representative of the cases
for a chord preload of 30% and 50% of the yield capacity
of chord member, respectively.

Figure 7. Load-Displacement curves of experimental and

numerical models

514

Zuo et al.

3.3 Boundary conditions

The comparison shows that the majority of the numerical

results are less than the theoretical results derived from
the formulae in CIDECT Design Guide 3. This trend is
more prominent for grades S460 and S690. Therefore, it
is necessary to propose a new formula for high strength
steel grades. A sample load-displacement curve for
different grades of steel is shown in Figure 9. It can be
clearly seen that design resistance of joints increase with
higher grades.

The choice of boundary condition is important to the

numerical result. The boundary condition should reflect
the joint constraint in the structure. The boundary
condition used throughout the study is as shown in Figure
4. The x, y, z three displacements is restrained in lower
chord. In upper chord, the displacement is restrained in x
and y direction and in z direction (the chord length
direction) the upper chord can move freely. For brace1, in
the direction perpendicular to the brace length, the
displacement is restrained, and the brace can move freely
in the brace length direction. For brace 2, the
displacement in all directions is restrained. This boundary
condition can reflect the joint force condition in the
realistic structures. It can also make sure that the brace 1
is in compressive axial loading and brace 2 is in tensile
axial loading.

3.4 Material properties

In this study, the yield stress (fy) and the ultimate
stress (fu) of S355 grade are assumed to be 355N/mm2
and 528N/mm2, respectively. The yield stress (fy) and the
ultimate stress (fu) of S460 grade are assumed to be
460N/mm2 and 640N/mm2, respectively. The yield stress
(fy) and the ultimate stress (fu) of S690 grade are assumed
to be 690N/mm2 and 931N/mm2, respectively (Figure 8).
The Young's Modulus, E=210 kN/mm2, and the Poisson
ratio, v=0.3 are chosen for the present study.

Figure 9. A typical load-displacement curve for different grades

4.2 Failure modes of SHS K-joints

There are two distinct failure modes observed from
the parametric study:
(1) Local brace failure-This mode is observed in SHS
joints with low to medium and low in load case 3
only.
(2) Chord face plastification- It is the most common
failure mode for SHS joints with small to medium . This
mode is observed for joints with medium and high in
load case 3 and in all the joints studied in load case 1 and
load case 2.

4.3 Influence of geometric parameters

4.3.1 Influence of

Figure 8. Deformed finite element model

4 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

4.1 Load-displacement curves
The load-displacement curves are plotted for each of
the models analyzed in parametric study. The design
resistance is the highest point of the load-displacement
curve. Comparison of design resistance values for
different grades of steel are carried out. In addition,
design resistance values are compared with the theoretical
values from CIDECT Design Guide 3(Packer et al, 2009).

Figure 10. Non-dimensional strength (Fu/fyT2) versus

515

Zuo et al.

To investigate the influence of on the design

resistance of the SHS K-joint, the is selected from 0.65
to 1.0. The values of and are kept constant.
Non-dimensional strength (Fu/ fyT2) versus is shown in
Figure 10. A general conclusion can be drawn from the
Figure 10 is that non-dimensional strength is insensitive
or has minimal effect to the variation of .

4.3.2 Influence of
The influence of is depicted in Figure 11. It shows
that with the increasing value of , the non-dimensional
strength increase until reaches around 11. A general
conclusion can be drawn from the figure that the
non-dimensional strength is sensitive to the variation of
to some extent and it is given due importance when the
new formula is proposed.

Figure 12. Non-dimensional strength (Fu/fyT2) versus

4.4 New formula for design resistance

From the parametric study, it is seen that the
geometric parameters and have influence on the
design resistance of SHS K-joints and hence, both the
parameters are given due importance in curve fitting for
the development of new equations. The proposed formula
for design resistance of SHS K-joints is given below.
Fu
P13 P 2 2 P3 P 4 P5 P 6 (1)
Fy T 2
where Fu = design resistance ; Fy = yield stress; T =
thickness of chord.
The values of P1 to P6 are given in Table 2.
Table 2. The values of P1 to P6.

Figure 11. Non-dimensional strength (Fu/fyT2) versus

4.3.3 Influence of
The influence of is depicted in Figure 12. In order to
investigate the influence of on the non-dimensional
ultimate load of the SHS K-joint, the is selected from
0.5 to 0.75. The values of and are kept constant. It is
observed that, the is the most influential geometric
parameter compared to and for the strength of SHS
K-joint. A slight change of can lead to the big change
of the non-dimensional strength, when compared to the
minor influence of and . Therefore, is chosen as the
primary variable parameter while proposing the ultimate
strength formulae.

Values

Load
case 1

Load
case 2

Load
case 3

P1

84.75

88.13

206.03

P2

-148.45

-144.10

-169.53

P3

105.17

60.24

25.05

P4

-0.41

0.06

1.28

P5

1.76

2.09

12.23

P6

-1.90

-4.93

-59.41

The results of proposed formula are compared with

the numerical results and they show good agreement. A
sample comparison of numerical results with the equation
prediction is shown in Figure 13. The proposed design
equations can be used for all grades of steel such as S355,
S460 and S690. Coming to the validity range, the range
of parameters used in the parametric study is mentioned
in the Table 1. The values are from 0.5-0.75, from
7.5-16.67 and from 0.65-1. The equations for design
resistance given in CIDECT specifications (Packer et al,
2009) for normal strength steel does not take into
consideration of gap distance (g). The current parametric
study for high strength steel also does not take into

516

Zuo et al.

consideration of the same. For all the cases, the gap

distance (g) value is kept as 200mm. Regarding the angle
of inclination between brace and the chord (); the
proposed equations are valid for a theta value of 450.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
This research is supported by the Singapore Ministry
of National Development (MND) Research Fund on
Sustainable Urban Living (Grant No. SUL2013-4). Any
opinions, findings and conclusions expressed in this
paper are those of the authors and do not necessarily
reflect the view of MND, Singapore.
REFERENCES
ABAQUS, (2011), Standard users manual, Version 6.5,
Hibbett, Karlsson & Sorensen, Inc., Providence, RI, USA.
Chia, Y. M., (2014), JTC Looks into Building above Major
Roads. The Straits Times, April 04, 2014.
Khurshid, M., Barsoum, Z. and Barsoum, I. (2015), Load
Carrying Capacities of Butt Welded Joints in High Strength
Steels, Journal of Engineering Materials and Technology,
137(4), 3-9.
Packer, J.A., Wardenier, J., Zhao, X.L., van der Vegte, G.J.
and Kurobane, Y., (2009) Design Guide for Rectangular
Hollow Section (RHS) Joints under Predominantly Static
Loading, CIDECT 3, Geneva, Switzerland.
Thong, S. (2005), Strength of Overlap Square Hollow
Section K-joints based on Chord Face Failure, MEng Thesis,
Nanyang Technological University, Singapore.
Xue, F. (2009), The Application of High Strength Steel in
Construction, Application of High Strength Steels, 13(5),
449-54.
Zeng, P. G. (2015), Influence of External Post-tensioning on
the Behavior of Long-span Steel Mega Trusses, MEng
Thesis, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore.

Figure 13. Comparison of proposed formula with numerical

results for S690 grade in Load case 1

5 CONCLUSIONS
The high strength steel is more frequently used in the
modern structures but there are no published equations at
present to calculate the design resistance of various types
of tubular joints made from high strength steel. This
paper gives details about the parametric study on SHS
K-joints using validated FE models. The parametric study
revealed that the chord face plastification is the most
common failure mode observed for SHS K-joints across
all grades of steel. The design resistance values are
compared with the theoretical values from CIDECT
Design Guide 3(Packer et al, 2009). The comparison
shows that the majority of the numerical results are less
than the theoretical results derived from the formula in
CIDECT Design Guide 3(Packer et al, 2009). This trend
is more prominent for grades S460 and S690. Therefore,
a new formula is proposed for calculating the design
resistance of high strength steel grades. The results of
proposed formulae are compared with the numerical
results and they show good agreement. Regarding the
influence of geometric parameters, the is the most
influential geometric parameter compared to and for
the strength of SHS K-joint. A slight change of can lead
to the big change of the non-dimensional strength, when
compared with the minor influence of and . Therefore,
is chosen as the primary variable parameter while
proposing the design resistance formula. The proposed
design equations can be used for all grades of steel such
as S355, S460 and S690. Coming to the validity range,
the range of parameters used in the parametric study is
mentioned in the Table 1. The values are from 0.5-0.75,
from 7.5-16.67 & from 0.65-1.

517

11th International Conference on

Advances in Steel and Concrete Composite Structures
Tsinghua University, Beijing, China, December 3-5, 2015

NUMERICAL
INVESTIGATION
AND
DESIGN
OF
CONCRETE-FILLED STEEL TUBULAR CHS CONNECTIONS
J. Chen, F. Xu & W.L. Jin
Department of Civil Engineering, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China
E-mails: Cecj@zju.edu.cn
ABSTRACT
Keywords:
Circular hollow section;
Concrete-filled steel tubes;
Connections; Finite element
model.

Based on the experimental investigation of concrete-filled steel tubular CHS (circular hollow
section) connections, a finite element model was established using ABAQUS and verified
against test results. It is shown that the developed model predict the ultimate strength and failure
mode of test specimens well. Material properties, sizes of weld and contact interaction between
concrete and steel were considered in the developed finite element model. Modified
Mohr-Coulomb criterion for ductile fracture was used to define fracture criterion of the steel
tube. Distribution of shear stress at the punching shear face was examined and a general
equation describing stress distribution was proposed. Parametric study was performed to
determine the parameters in the proposed equations. Finally, design equations for ultimate
strengths of concrete-filled steel tubular CHS connections failed in chord punching shear failure
were proposed.

1 GENERAL INTRODUCTION

2 FINITE ELEMENT MODEL

Previous research indicated that filling the hollow

section chord member with concrete could effectively
improve the strength of the connections (Tebbett et al.
1979; Packer 1995; Feng and Young 2008, 2009; Xu et
al. 2015). Concrete inside chord could effectively hold
the deformation of the steel tube so that chord
plastification failure is prevented when the brace in axial
tension load. Test results indicated that the effect of
concrete should be taken into consideration in the design
and the connections should be designed based on
punching shear failure mode (Xu et al. 2015).

2.1 General
The general purpose finite element program
ABAQUS/Explicit (2010) was used for the numerical
modeling of concrete-filled steel tubular CHS
connections test by Xu et al. (2015). The finite element
analysis (FEA) included various important factors, such
as the modeling of materials and welds, contact
interaction between the steel chord and the concrete core,
fracture criterion of steel material, as well as loading and
boundary conditions. The analysis time was reasonably
reduced by introducing fixed mass scaling which is
computationally efficient. (ABAQUS 2010)

Current AISC (2010) standard has the design

provisions for punching shear failure of circular section
hollow steel tubular connections. However design
strength predictions are very conservative for
concrete-filled steel tubular CHS connections, when shear
yielding stress of the full punching shear failure face is
assumed. Averagely design strength is only about 63% of
the ultimate strength of test connections. If shear ultimate
stress of the full shear failure face is assumed, the design
predictions will be unconservative. Averagely design
strength is about 121% of the ultimate strength of test
specimens (Xu et al. 2015). In this case, new design
method should be proposed for the punching shear failure
of concrete-filled steel tubular CHS connections.

Since there is bending stress in the chord wall, solid

element rather than shell element is used to model the
steel tube of connection (Herion et al. 1996; Lee and
Bowness 2001). In study, solid element C3D8R was used
to model both steel and concrete. The element size near
the braces to chord intersection (regions of high stresses)
was kept small with aspect ratio as close to unity as
possible. However, towards the ends of the braces and
chord where the stresses are more uniform, the element
size and aspect ratio were increased, as shown in Fig. 1.
The weld is simulated as steel material of chord since the
failure is not occurred at weld. The measured stress
strain curves of steel tubes were used in the finite element
models. Concrete constitutive model is the
concrete-damaged plasticity model in ABAQUS (2010)
and the measured concrete material properties were used
518

Chen et al.

von Mises yielding function is used, the equation could

be simplified as Eq. (1) by submitting c=0,
= =1.
(Bai and Wierzbicki 2010) The Modified MohrCoulomb
criterion (MMC) predicts most of the shearing dominated
fracture well. (Bai and Wierzbicki 2015)

in the concrete material model. The interface model to

simulate the interaction between steel and concrete in
concrete-filled steel tubes is the contact interaction in
ABAQUS (2010). Following the testing procedure
presented previously (Xu et al. 2015), the two ends of the
chord were fixed against all degrees of freedom. Axial
tension load (y direction) was applied on the top surface
of the brace by applying a velocity (0.5mm/min) which is
the same as experiments. For K type connections, one
web member is in tension while the other web member is
fixed. The test specimens are labeled such that the chord
type, outer diameter of chord, thickness of chord, outer
diameter of brace and thickness of brace could be
identified from the label in this paper.

f
c 2

1 c2

1
c1 1 sin

cos

3
3 6

1
n

(1)

There are a total of four parameters (A, n, c1, c2) that

need to be found. The first two parameters, A and n, are
parameters of material strain hardening, which was
calibrated from curve fitting of the measured stress-strain
curve using power function. The two basic
Mohr-Coulomb parameters, c1 and c2, are a friction
coefficient and shear resistance respectively. In this
study, c1 = 0.12 based on the test results of steel (Bai and
Wierzbicki 2015) and c2 = 0.75fu (John et al. 2008). The
parameters of MMC failure criterion adopted in this study
are shown in Table 1.

Table 1. Coefficients of MMC criterion used in the FE model

Measured
Coefficients
Steel
Thickness
c1
c2
A
n
(mm)
Q235
3.88
0.12
320.3
693.7
0.207
Q235
4.81
0.12
298.5
642.6
0.180
Q345
6.08
0.12
363.8
866.0
0.190

(a) T type connection

2.3 Verification
The ultimate loads and failure modes obtained from
FEA are compared with test results presented by Xu et al.
(2015) in Table 2. The KT type connections are not
simulated since the failure mode is brace yielding. The
mean value of PFEA / PExp is 0.98 with the corresponding
COV is 0.053, respectively. It is shown that the finite
element model adequately predicted the ultimate
strengths of the concrete-filled steel tubular CHS
connections. The failure modes of connection obtained
from FEA results are compared with the test results in
Fig. 2. In addition, the K type connection with overlapped
part could be simulated as well. The curves of the load
against displacement obtained from the finite element
analysis were plotted and compared with the test results,
as shown in Fig. 3. The comparison indicates that the
finite element model is able to simulate the behavior
concrete-filled steel tubular CHS connections in tension
generally accurate.

(b) Y type connection

(c) K type connection

Figure 1. Finite element model

2.2 Fracture criterion of steel material

Table 2. Comparison of ultimate strength

The VUMAT in ABAQUS (2010) allows the user to

define the fracture criterion of steel material. The
Modified Mohr-Coulomb criterion proposed by Bai and
Wierzbicki (2010) was used to define the fracture
criterion of steel material in the finite element model. If a

519

Specimens

PExp
(kN)

PFEA
(kN)

PFEA / PExp

T-300-4-133-6

534.8

509.2

0.95

Chen et al.
Y-300-4-133-6

620.3

K-300-4-133-6

679.3

1.10

785.0

730.2

0.93

T-300-4-133-6R

549.1

509.2

0.93

Y-300-4-133-6R

699.9

679.3

0.97

K-300-4-133-6R

698.9

679.3

0.97

T-300-5-133-6

662.4
836.1
814.0

630.3

Mean

0.95
0.99
1.01
0.98

COV

0.053

Y-300-5-133-6
K-300-5-133-6

824.2
824.2

b) Specimen Y-300-4-133-6
Figure 3. Comparison of load-displacement curves

3 FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS RESULTS

(a) T type connection

The Typical shear stress distributions of connections

T-300-4-150-6, and T-300-6-140-6 were plotted in Fig. 4.
It is shown that the shear stress distribution in the
punching shear failure face at the maximum load step was
uneven and could be described by a sine curve. Eq. (2)
was proposed to describe the distribution of shear stress
of the punching shear failure face at the maximum load
step.

f k f v,max (1 k ) f v,max sin ( 0 )

b) Y type connection

c) K type connection
Figure 2. Comparison of failure modes

(2)

Where fv,max is the maximum shear stress in the

punching shear face, fv,min is the minimum shear stress in
the punching shear face; k = fv,min / fv,max is the coefficient,
is the angle as shown in Fig. 5.

a) Specimen T-300-4-150-6

a) Specimen T-300-4-133-6

b) Specimen T-300-6-140-6
Figure 4. Shear stress distribution

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Chen et al.

A parametric study was performed using the verified

finite element model to study the coefficient k, as shown
in Fig. 6. It is shown that the value of k ranged from 0.45
to 0.55 for common size connections. Therefore, k = 0.5
is recommended in this study.

4 DESIGN METHOD
4.1 Equivalent thickness of punching shear failure
face

Since the thickness of the chord punching shear

failure face varies along the chord-brace intersection
curve, an equivalent thickness equation for T type
connection is proposed for design simplicity. The space
intersection curve is also equivalent to a circle in plane,
as shown in Fig. 7. The proposed equations are shown in
Eqs. (3) and (4).

Figure 5. Definition of punching shear failure face

k=0.55

k=0.45

Teq

S
1 eq t
Db

(3)

eq

S
1
Db t

(4)

Where Teq is the equivalent thickness, S is the total

area of punching shear failure face, Db is the outer
diameter of brace, eq is the coefficient.

a) k value of connections with different value ( = Db/D)

k=0.55

k=0.45

b) k value of connections with different value ( = D/2t)

Figure. 7. Definition of equivalent thickness

k=0.55
eq = 0.57 3
k=0.45

c) k value of connections with different value ( = tb/t)

Figure. 6. Parametric study of k value

521

Chen et al.
Figure. 8. Relationship between eq and

shear strength fv,max = 0.9 fu,v = 0.9 0.75fu (John et al.

The coefficient eq mainly varies with the diameter

ratio of brace to chord ( = Db/D). For common size T
type connections, the value of ranged between 0.2-0.8.
The relationship between eq and is obtained by curve
fitting of geometric calculation results, as shown in Fig.
8. The obtained equation is shown in Eq. (5).

2008) and the k value is taken as 0.5 as presented

eq 0.57 3 0.57Db / D 3

previously, Eq. (7) could be rewritten as Eq. (8).

Pu 1.74 Db / D Db t f u
3

(8)

Where fu is the ultimate tensile strength of chord

material.

(5)

For

simplicity,

ultimate

strength

of

type

4.2 Maximum shear stress

connections is recommended be calculated using Eq. (9).

Since the punching shear failure face is under triaxial

stress state, the maximum shear stress (fv,max) is lower
than the ultimate shear strength of steel material (fu,v)
which is for pure shear stress state, as shown in Fig.4.
The ratio of maximum shear stress to ultimate shear
strength of steel material (fv,max / fu,v) is plotted against
ultimate strengths of connections obtained from FEA
results in Fig. 9. Generally, maximum shear stress is 90%
of ultimate shear strength of steel material for 22 T type
connections.

The ultimate strength corresponding to punching

shear failure mode of concrete-filled steel tubular CHS
connections in tension is considered as the summary of
shear force on the punching shear face. Thus Eq. (6) is
proposed to calculate the ultimate strength:

Specimens
T-300-4-60-6
T-300-4-100-6
T-300-4-100-6
T-300-4-100-6
T-300-4-100-4
T-300-4-100-8
T-300-4-133-6
T-300-4-133-6
T-300-4-133-6
T-300-3-140-6
T-300-4-140-6
T-300-5-140-6
T-300-6-140-6
T-300-4-150-6
T-300-4-180-6
T-300-4-240-6
T-240-4-60-6

(6)

Where Pu is the ultimate strength, f is the shear stress

in the punching shear failure face.
Since the shear stress distribution and area of
punching shear failure face could be obtained with Eqs.
(2) and (3), the ultimate strength of T type connection
could be rewritten as Eq. (7).

Pu 1 eq 2 k 2k Db t f v,max

(9)

Table 3. Comparison of design strengths with FEA results for T

type connections

4.3 Design equation

30 Y 60.
The ultimate strengths calculated using Eqs.(8) and
(9) for T and Y type connections were compared with
FEA results in Tables 3 and 4, respectively. The mean
value of Pu-design / PFEA and the corresponding COV for T
type connections are 0.85 and 0.041, respectively. The
mean value of Pu-design / PFEA and the corresponding COV
for Y type connections are 0.88 and 0.032, respectively.
The comparison indicates that the proposed equations are
generally conservative. The reason of conservatism is that
the width of weld is not considered in the design as
mentioned in Xu, et al. (2015). If the width of weld is
considered, the mean values of Pu-weld / PFEA are 0.97 and
1.00 for T and Y type connections, respectively. Since the
width of weld is difficult to be considered in engineering
design, Eqs. (9) and (10) are recommended for design.
For K type connections having a branch has very little or
no loading, the connection can be treated as a Yconnection (Xu et al. 2015). Eq. (9) is also applicable to
this kind of K type connections.

Pu 1 eq Dbt f d

Where Y is the angle between the brace and chord,

Figure. 9. Ratios of maximum shear stress to ultimate shear

strength

Pu sin Y 1.74 Db / D Db t f u

(7)

The maximum shear stress is taken as 90% of ultimate

522

fy

fu

PFEA

(MPa)

(MPa)

(kN)

Pu-design /
PFEA

Pu-weld/
PFEA

298
298
436
456
298
298
298
436
456
298
298
298
298
298
298
298
298

427
427
520
555
427
427
427
520
555
427
427
427
427
427
427
427
427

207.0
361.5
412.5
445.1
361.8
362.1
507.6
580.1
621.6
400.7
515.0
642.1
825.7
557.7
700.7
1014.0
231.0

0.87
0.84
0.90
0.89
0.84
0.84
0.82
0.87
0.87
0.82
0.86
0.86
0.80
0.86
0.86
0.91
0.78

1.04
0.97
1.03
1.02
0.97
0.97
0.93
1.00
0.99
0.94
0.97
0.98
0.91
0.97
0.96
1.02
0.94

Chen et al.
T-240-4-110-6
T-240-4-133-6
T-240-4-168-6
T-400-4-140-6

298
298
298
298

427
427
427
427

441.6
529.4
720.6
494.6
Mean
COV

0.78
0.82
0.83
0.86
0.85
0.041

ABAQUS (2010) Hibbitt, H.D., Karlsson, B.I., Sorensen, P.

2010. ABAQUS theory manual, version 6.10. Pawtucket,
Rhode Island, USA.
AISC. 2010. Specification for structural steel buildings.
American Institution of Steel Construction (AISC),
ANSI/AISC 360-10, Chicago, Illinois.
Bai, Y., and Wierzbicki, T. 2010. Application of extended
MohrCoulomb criterion to ductile fracture. International
Journal of Fracture: 161(1), 1-20.
Bai, Y., and Wierzbicki, T. 2015. A comparative study of three
groups of ductile fracture loci in the 3D space. Engineering
Fracture Mechanics, 135: 147-167.
Feng, R., and Young, B. 2008. Tests of concrete-filled stainless
steel tubular T-joints. Journal of Constructional Steel
Research, 64(11): 1283-1293.
Feng, R., and Young, B. 2009. Behaviour of concrete-filled
stainless steel tubular X-joints subjected to compression.
Thin-Walled Structures, 47(4): 365-374.
Herion, S., Mang, F., and Puthli, R. 1996. Parametric study on
multiplanar K-joints with gap made of circle hollow sections
by means of the finite element method. Proceedings of the
6th International Offshore and Polar Engineering
Conference, IV: 68-73, Los Angeles, CA, USA.
John, M. A., Franklin, D. J., and Henry, H. R. 2008. Guide to
the use of tables and formulas in Machinerys handbook,
28th Ed., Industrial Press, New York.
Lee, M.M.K., and Bowness, D. 2001. Prediction of stress
intensity factors in semi-elliptical weld toe cracks in
offshore tubular joints. Proceedings of the 9th International
Symposium and Euroconference on Tubular Structures,
299-308, Dusseldorf, Germany.
Packer J. A. 1995 Concrete-filled HSS connections. Journal of
Structural Engineering-ASCE. 121(3): 458-467
Tebbett, I. E., Beckett, C. D., and Billington, C. J. 1979. The
punching shear strength of tubular joints reinforced with a
grouted pile. In Offshore Technology Conference. 915921.
Xu, F., Chen, J., and Jin, W. L. 2015. Experimental
Investigation and Design of Concrete-Filled Steel Tubular
CHS
Connections.
Journal
of
Structural
Engineering-ASCE, 141(2), 04014106-1 6. DOI:
10.1061 / (ASCE) ST.1943-541 X.0001050.

0.92
0.95
0.96
0.97
0.97
0.036

Table 4. Comparison of design strengths with FEA results for Y

type connections
Specimens
Y-300-4-60-6
Y-300-4-100-4
Y-300-4-100-6
Y-300-4-100-6
Y-300-4-100-6
Y-300-4-100-8
Y-300-3-140-6
Y-300-4-140-6
Y-300-4-140-6
Y-300-4-140-6
Y-300-5-140-6
Y-300-6-140-6
Y-300-4-150-6
Y-300-4-180-6

fy

fu

PFEA

(MPa)

(MPa)

(kN)

Pu-design /
PFEA

Pu-weld/
PFEA

298
298
298
436
456
298
298
298
436
456
298
298
298
298

427
427
427
520
555
427
427
427
520
555
427
427
427
427

294.4
513.4
508.5
579.7
623.5
510.2
524.8
719.6
815.0
916.6
876.0
1072.0
791.8
934.2
Mean
COV

0.86
0.84
0.84
0.90
0.89
0.84
0.89
0.87
0.93
0.88
0.89
0.87
0.85
0.91
0.88
0.032

1.04
0.96
0.97
1.04
1.03
0.97
1.01
0.98
1.06
1.00
1.01
0.99
0.97
1.02
1.00
0.031

5 CONCLUSIONS
In this study, an accurate nonlinear finite element
model for the analysis of concrete-filled steel tubular
circular hollow section connections under axial tension
has been developed. The Modified Mohr-Coulomb
fracture criterion of steel material was adopted in the
finite element model. The comparison between the finite
element results and the experimental results showed good
agreement in predicating the behavior of the specimens.
The shear stress distribution in punch shear failure face
was obtained from the finite element analysis results and
is described by a proposed equation. Equations for
equivalent thickness of punching shear failure face were
also proposed which enable the ultimate strength equation
to be written in simple form. Comparison between the
design strengths and finite element analysis results for T
and Y type connections indicates the proposed equations
are generally accurate.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The research work described in this paper was
supported by National Key Technology R&D Program
(2011BAJ09B03) and research projects from Science and
Technology Department of Zhejiang Province
(2015C33005)
REFERENCES

523

11th International Conference on

Advances in Steel and Concrete Composite Structures
Tsinghua University, Beijing, China, December 3-5, 2015

DISCUSSION ON LOAD TRANSFER MECHANISM OF WUF-B

CONNECTION WITH CFRT COLUMN
Y. J. Yua, Z. H. Chena & X. D. Wanga
a

Department of Civil Engineering, Tianjin University, Tianjin, China

E-mail: yujietju@163.com, zhchen@tju.edu.cn, maodun2004@163.com
ABSTRACT
Keywords:
WUF-B connection with
CFRT column; Local bending
deformation; Slip behavior;
Shear tab bolt arrangement;
Moment transfer.

Researches in the United States discovered different tension and shear flow pattern between
wide flange (WF) column connections and box column connections. On the other hand,
researches in Japan started many research on flexibility of column flange and proposed
connection flexural moment strength based on the out-of-plane deformation for hollow section
box column connections. However, both force flow pattern research and out-of-plane influence
study in WF beam to rectangular concrete filled tube (CFT) column connections are insufficient.
And the slip and deformation conditions of welded unreinforced flange bolted web (WUF-B)
connection with a concrete-filled rectangular steel tube (CFRT) column are seldom investigated.
This paper discusses the out-of-plane deformation at column flange, force flow pattern and shear
and moment transfer efficiency of bolted web connecting to CFRT column connection.
Moreover, for the latter connection, the friction and slip behavior between the bolted beam web
and shear tab and the corresponding bending moment and shear force transfer performance with
different bolt arrangements are analyzed. Design suggestions to improve moment transferring
efficiency are provided.

Husain, 1993) and leads to stress concentration and high

strain demand at access hole (Han & Sabol,2003);
deformation of weak panel zone and column flange
bending deformation increase force share at beam flanges
(Mao et al,2001; Richard et al,1995); Moreover,
researches on force flow pattern revealed that due to
boundary effect, stress distribution in the beam region
that close to column differs drastically from the
traditional assumption. The stress flow tends towards the
flanges, and in fact, a large portion of the shear force, as
well as the bending moment are carried by the flanges
(Lee, 1998; Lee, 2006).
However, since US connections use mainly wide
flange columns, investigations on nonlinear and brittle
mechanism of WF beam to CFRT are not readily
available. And several primary researches discussed the
different stress distribution and complex stress state in
hollow box column connections: Two column webs
being offset from the plane of beam web induces stress
concentration at edge of beam flange, rather than stress
concentration at middle of beam flange in WF column
connections (Chen et al,2004; Goswami & Murty,2010];
there exists out-of-plane deformation at column flange
and this local bending has influence on shear and moment
distribution at the joint boundary. Moreover, flexibility of
box column flange will cause the beam web rotation and
affect the global response in the connection (Kim 2003).
Kim (Kim & Oh, 2007) also found that beam webs

1 INTRODUCTION
In Japan, China and some Asian countries, steel tube
columns with or without concrete filled are widely used
in steel frames or high-rise buildings, due to their good
seismic performance especially under biaxial bending.
The combined action of concrete and encasing steel tube
develops large axial strength of the concrete filled tube
(CFT) column (Han et al. 1989). In the United States,
however, the most frequently used and extensively
studied moment connections are with the wide flange
(WF) or H shape columns, with not many researches and
applications of the connection with box or CFT column.
Aftermaths of the Northridge and Kobe earthquakes
drew significant attention to the brittle fracture of
connections in the vicinity of beam column welded joints.
These brittle failures were mostly observed in the
WUF-B connections, which the USA practices generally
used one row of bolts to develop friction between the
shear tab and beam web. One of those factors that
contributed damage in pre-Northridge connections was
the excessively high level of stress occurred at the beam
flange groove weld (Engelhardt & Sabol, 1997). And this
over strength can be attributed to several factors: In
WUF-B connection, slip between the beam web and the
shear tab reduces the participation of bolted web in
transferring moment (Tsai et al. 1995; Engelhardt &

524

Yu et al.

BB66-Dt29 and BB66-Dt22 for SHS column connection

were tested. Emi selected Dt10, Dt16 and Dt22 as the
width-to-thickness ratio to study the influence of column
flange flexibility. Thus in this study, Dt29, Dt22 and
Dt16 were select to investigate the influence of column
flange. Design of bolt arrangement and the nomination
method were referred to Satos study (Sato et al, 2010)
that 12 bolts in two row at most were considered, with
bolt number and layout adjustment in a symmetrical way,
as shown in Figure.1.
All the columns were through-diaphragm type and
beam flanges were welded to the through diaphragm
(19mm). In fact, through-diaphragm in CFT column
should have pouring hole to let concrete flowing through.
But since influence of through plate stiffness was not
considered in this study, solid through-diaphragm without
pouring hole was adopted in the analysis, same as
diaphragm design in SHS connection. Concrete type C60
under Chinese code was selected as the inside concrete,
with compressive strength as 38.5 N/mm2 and tension
strength as 2.85N/mm2. Except for bolt material,
multi-linear kinematic hardening model was used for
steel materials, with parameters determined by fitting
pulling test results obtained in Nakanos experiments
(Sato et al, 2010). Three-linear kinematic hardening
model was used for bolts, with yield strength as 940MPa
and ultimate strength as 1040MPa.

moment transfer efficiency in box column connection is

poor when compared to the H-column connection, due to
the out-of-plane deformation at column flange.
Moreover, researches in the United States found that
even with modified detail designs, WUF-B connections
still couldnt satisfy the total rotation capacity of 0.04
radians required by the AISC for special and intermediate
moment frame (SMF and IMF) connections (SAC,1995;
FEMA,2000; AISC,1985). And reasons for this
unsatisfactory might be related to the bolted webs
limited ability to transfer bending moment and the
presentence of bolt slippage, resulting in overstressed
beam flange and flange fracture (Popov, 1985; Tsai &
Popov, 1988; Lee et al, 2005). Since the WUF-B
connections in Japan generally use 2-3 row of bolts and
the post-Kobe investigations are mainly about minor
detail modifications like weld access hole, the WUF-B
design is still widely used in Japan and China. Therefore,
there are still the necessity on discussing the force flow or
load transfer mechanism of WUF-B connection with
CFRT column.
This paper discusses the out-of-plane deformation at
column flange, force flow pattern and shear and moment
transfer efficiency of WF-beam to CFRT column
connection, including welded web one and the bolted web
type. Non-linear finite element analyses have been
performed with the ANSYS software package with
contact elements and various modeling features to
simulate the friction between beam web and shear tab,
and interaction between concrete and rectangular steel
tube column. For the convenience of analyzing and
understanding the static characteristics of WUF-B
connection, this study is limited to connection
simulations under monotonic loading.

2 ANALYTICAL CONFIGURATIONS OF
ANALYZED CONNECTION
Three groups of models were analyzed here which
were sorted according to width-to-thickness ratio of
column plate. Classification and detailed information of
these models are listed in Table 1 and Figure.1.
Dimensions of column and beam were selected according
to Nakano and Emis research. In Nakanos experiments,
Table 1. List of analytical model.

Column Dimension
Model
mm
B60-Dt29
B06-Dt29
B62-Dt29
Dt29
B26-Dt29
35035012
B64-Dt29
B46-Dt29
B66-Dt29

Model
B60-Dt22
B06-Dt22
B62-Dt 22
B26-Dt22
B64-Dt 22
B46-Dt22
B66-Dt22

Figure 1. Dimension and details of analytical models.

Column Dimension
mm

Model

Column Dimension
mm

Dt29
35035016

B60-Dt16
B06-Dt16
B62-Dt16
B26-Dt16
B64-Dt16
B46-Dt16
B66-Dt16

Dt29
35035022

525

Yu et al.

not the outward one at tension part, leading to

unsymmetrical deformation. As the bolt number increases,
friction capacity would be higher, and as the column
flange gets thicker, out-of-plane stiffness would also
increase. Thus, both of the two factors could influence the
moment transfer capacity and efficiency at connecting
part.

1.5

1.5

1.0

1.0

0.5

0.5
M/Mp

M/Mp

All the beams was H-5002001016, and the shear

tab was 16mm thick. The high strength bolts were
F10T-M20 type under Japanese standard, of which
pretension was 182kN. In both Nakanos and Emis
experiments, beam length was 3175mm. However, Emi
pointed that because the beam was quite long and shear
force was quite small, behavior of bolts was mainly
controlled by the moment at beam web, like frictional slip
and bearing condition. Then in this paper, all the
parametrical simulations adopted a short beam length as
2000mm to study the distribution and influence of shear
and bending stress in the bolt connecting region. Two
additional models, namely B66-Dt29S and B66-Dt22S
with beam length as 3175mm and no concrete, were
performed and compared with experimental results
beforehand to validate the FEM model, as in Figure.2. In
the experiments, all-section plastic moment and beam-tip
displacement at elastic state limit were calculated at first
(Mp=629Mpa; p =20.8mm, and beam rotation
p=0.0067rad). Loading step was p, 2p, 4p, 6p,
8p and then kept loading in one direction until the
failure of the connection.

0.0

.234
.351
.468
.585
MN

-1.0

.937
1.05

(a) Von Mises stress

(b) contact sliding distance
Figure 3. Contour of B62-Dt22 at 8p (Deformation was
5 times exaggerated, MPa)

3.2 Slip between beam web and shear tab

To have a quantified evaluation of the bending slip at
bolt connecting part, an index to describe the rotation
difference between beam web and shear tab (s) is
defined, as shown in Figure.4. Then the relation between
slip condition and bolt layout can be analyzed to
investigate the efficiency of bolt design.

0.0

-1.0

Experiment: B66-Dt29S
FEM: B66-Dt29S(SHS)

-4

-1.5

.703
.820

-0.5

-0.5

-1.5

0
.117

MX

Experiment: B66-Dt22S
FEM: B66-Dt22S(SHS)

-8

-4

12

16

Figure 2. Comparison between experimental and analytical

global behavior

3 PERFORMANCE OF BEAM WEB

CONNECTING PART

3.1 Overall behavior

Figure 4. Definition of slip rotation

Figure.3 plots Von Mises stress contour and sliding

distance contour at beam web to shear tab contact, using
model B62-Dt22 as a representative. Deformation and
rotation conditions in the connecting region were decided
by two behaviors: out of plane deformation at column
flange, and slip at contact between beam web and shear
tab. In bolted web connection, moment and shear was
firstly transferred between beam web and shear tab, and
then passed from shear tab to column. The first transfer
process was ensured mainly by friction resistance, thus
when the friction capacity was exceeded, slip would
happen.
On the other hand, in box column connection, shear
and pulling force of beam web is transmitted by the local
bending at column flange and then finally transferred to
column webs, due to the column webs being offset from
the center. As for a CFRT column, usually there are not
any bonding mechanism between column plates and
concrete. Thus the concrete inside can resist the inward
deformation of column flange at compression region but

Figure.5 compares the relations between beam web

slip rotations s versus the connection rotation .
Influence of column flange stiffness could be reflected by
comparing plots in a vertical way, and effect of bolt
arrangement could be studied through horizontally
comparing: With a same bolt design, the slip rotation
increase with the column flange thickness; and if the
width-to-thickness ratio is certain, slippage extent
decreases when more bolts are used. Slip reduction
between B60 and B62 or B06 and B26 models is the most
obvious in all the Dt groups (Dt=16, 22 or 29), indicating
that the outmost two bolts are more effective on reducing
frictional slip than the others. In Dt29 series, except for
model B60-Dt29, all the slip rotations are nearly the same
and less than 0.002rad (when =8p), regardless of the
different bolt design. Whereas in Dt16 series, slippage is
large and obvious in all the models, and the influence of
different bolt designs (bolt number and layout) is large.

526

Yu et al.
2.5
2.0

B60-Dt16
B06-Dt16

B62-Dt16
B26-Dt16

B64-Dt16
B46-Dt16

B66-Dt16

B60-Dt22
B06-Dt22

B62-Dt22
B26-Dt22

D64-Dt22
D46-Dt22

B66-Dt22

B60-Dt29
B06-Dt29

B62-Dt29
B26-Dt29

B64-Dt29
B46-Dt29

B66-Dt29

1.5
1.0
0.5
0
2.5

s(rad)

2.0
1.5
1.0
0.5
0
2.5

2.0
1.5
1.0
0.5
0.0

10

Figure 5. Performance of slip between beam web and shear tab

remain at the friction resistance limit until the bearing

happened at bolt shank, which leads to a second increase
on moment transferring. This moment changing process
is integrally reflected in the curves of 6-bolt-Dt16 pair.
The magnitude of the first stabilized moments is mainly
related to bolt design, nevertheless the rising rates of
beam web moment are influenced by column flange
stiffness. For example, the first stabilized moment is
about 100kNm for all the three B60 models (B60-Dt16,
B60-Dt22 and B60-Dt29) despite the different
width-to-thickness ratios. But their connection rotations
when slipping and stabilized moment initiate are
different: 3p for B60-Dt16, 4p for B60-Dt22 and about
7p for B60-Dt29.
For models with more than 10 bolts in Dt22 series
and models with more than 8 bolts in Dt29 series, their
slip rotations are all smaller than 0.002 rad at 8p,
representing nearly no slippage between beam web and
shear tab. Furthermore, bolt number and arrangement
seems to have little effect on Mw for these models, with
Mw curves for the two models in every connection pair
coincident with each other, and growth trends of Mw for
models with different bolt number (horizontal comparing)
being nearly the same. Therefore, before reaching the
friction capacity, beam web moment and its growth rate
are dominated by the out-of-plane stiffness of column
flange, and once the slip happens, slipping and friction
resistance become the major factors. The effect of bolt
distribution on moment transferring ability is reflected
from the difference between models in each connection
pair. The Bx6 design shows higher moment strength than
the corresponding B6x one. Because that the moment
strength are jointly influenced by slip state and column
flange stiffness, then to be clear with the effect of bolt
arrangement, relationship of the transferred moment
versus slip rotation is studied.

Based on these findings, it can be concluded that slip

performance results from the balance between column
flanges out-of-plane stiffness and friction resistant
strength at bolt connecting part. Furthermore, the two
models with the same amount of bolts but different layout
are plotted together to compare the bolt arrangement
influence as shown in Figure.5 (hereafter referring the
two models by the total bolt number, like B06 and B60
models are referred as 6-bolt connection pair). Slip in all
the Bx6 (x=0,2,4) models are smaller than that of the
corresponding B6x ones, which indicates that when the
bolt number is certain, Bx6 design is more effective on
reducing slip at connecting region.

3.3 Moment and shear transfer at bolt connecting part

Figure.6 plots the relation between beam web moment
(Mw) versus the nominated connection rotation (/p) to
gain further insight into the moment transfer mechanism
in the connection. Similar to Figure.5, influence of bolt
design can be obtained by horizontal comparison, and the
vertically comparing can demonstrate the difference
caused by width-to-thickness ratio. For models with the
same out-of-plane stiffness at column flange, as the
increasing number of high strength bolts, the moment
transfer ability at beam web gets larger. This moment
transfer increase is obvious between B60 (B06) and B62
(B26), and then adding more bolts into the connections
doesnt show much strengthening effect. Therefore, not
only the slipping behavior, moment transfer strength at
beam web is also influenced by the bolt design and
out-of-plane stiffness of column flange.
In bolted web connections, the bolt hole usually has
its diameter a bit larger than that of bolt shank for the
convenience of installation. Therefore, there exists small
gap between bolt shank and bolt hole. When the beam
web moment reaches the friction limit, slip starts to
appear, and the transferred moment will stop increasing.
As the loading continuing, the transferred moment will

527

Yu et al.

Figure 6. Transferred moment at shear tab

different bolt arrangement. As previously mentioned,

contribution of each bolt was calculated from friction
force of the 60mm long square area around the bolt, then
frictional resisting moment can be obtained by
multiplying the distance between calculation point and
the bolt center. Figure.8 plots friction force at each bolt at
stable slip state which was decided according to Figure.7
(=5p for B60 and B06 model; =6p for B62 and B26;
=8p for B64, B46 and B66 model). Friction force was
divided into axial force along beam longitudinal direction
Fx and shear force Fs to study the resistance distribution.
From the comparison, Fx in B6x design was larger
than or at least equal to that in Bx6 design. Especially in
B64/B46 pair, axial friction force Fx in B46 was still in a
linear distribution, but for bolts in Row 1 of B64 design,
Fx of most bolts was around 100kN and presented
slipping behavior. In Bx6 design, shear in bolts near
beam center line was large, while shear in bolts near the
flanges was small. However, in B6x design, high shear
existed not only in bolts near neutral line, but also in bolts
near beam flanges. From this point, force distribution in
Bx6 design was more reasonable than that in B6x one.

Two connection pairs are selected as representative

(B60-Dt16 vs B06-Dt16 and B62-Dt16 vs B26-Dt16) and
are plotted in Figure 7. The curves obviously demonstrate
that when with the same number of bolts, the Bx6 design
is stiffer than the B6x one, reflecting as having a higher
friction capacity. Mw of all the models reaches the
friction resistance limit at around 0.0025rad slip rotation,
and also gets to the second strength increase at nearly the
same pace (around 0.015rad).
200

Mw (kNm)

150

100

50

0
0.0

B60-Dt16
B06-Dt16
0.5

1.0

1.5

B62-Dt16
B26-Dt16
2.0

2.5

Slip rotation s ( rad)

Figure 7. Transferred moment versus slip rotation.

3.4 Moment and shear transfer at bolt connecting part

Column flanges in Dt16 serial models were pretty
thick, and the performance of connecting part was mainly
influenced by friction resistance. Therefore, models with
Dt=16 were selected to evaluate the friction condition in

(mm)

(mm)

150

(kN)

-150 -100

(mm)

150

150

90

90

90

90

30

30

30

30

-30

-30

-30

-30

-90

-90

-90

-90

-150

-50

(mm)

150

(kN)

50

100

150 -150 -100

B60/B06

-150

-50

(kN)

50

100

150 -150 -100

-150

-50

(kN)

50

B64/B46

B62/B26

100

150 -150 -100

-150

-50

50

100

B66

Friction force
Fx (R1)

Fx (R2)

Fs (R1)

Fs (R2) B6x serial plots in black, Bx6 serial plots in red

Figure 8. Friction force at each bolt.

528

150

Yu et al.

.02

.0231

.0325

.0401

.0462

.0651

.0601

.0693

.0976

.0802

.0924

.1002

.1155

.1202

.1386

.1403

.1617

.1603

.1848

.1301
.1626
.1952
.2277
MX

MX

MX

.1804

.2079

.2602

B06-Dt16
B06-Dt22
B06-Dt29
Figure.9 Plastic equivalent strain (PEEQ) contours at 8p (4 times exaggerated)

of rotation, strain demand at beam flange would also be

asymmetrical, which was much higher in tension side,
like contour plot of B06-Dt29. As shown in Figure.8,
most of bolts at compression and tension side all reached
the slip state, then the frictional slip was more like a
symmetrical rotation. Since for B06-Dt16 model, it was
slip that dominated the beam web rotation, then stress
neutral axis didnt change much, and upper and bottom
flanges together shared the rotation and strain demand.
When the rotation behavior changed from symmetric slip
dominated to asymmetrical local bending dominated,
stress neutral axis of the connection would go to
compression side, then, resulting in higher strain demand
and increasing PEEQ index at tension flange. In
conclusion, a thin column flange or small
width-to-thickness ratio would produce uneven stress
distribution in the connection and increase the strain
demand at tension flange, making the connection easier to
experience premature brittle fracture.

In Bx6 design, shear at Row2 demonstrated high

magnitude in the center and small in the edge, and
meanwhile, shear force in Row1 kept at quite a low level.
While in B6x design, except for bolts in Row1 also with
high shear in center, bolt shear in Row2 was also at a
high level, even higher than the maximum shear in Row1.
High shear force at the contact could reduce the
magnitude of axial friction force component, leading to
reduction of moment bearing capacity and early slippage.
This can be clearly reflected in model pair B64 and B46.
For bolts in Row2, with a high shear force, magnitude of
Fx was crippled and more bolts reached the friction limit
and slipping state.

3.5 Influence of column flange thickness on plastic

strain distribution
As mentioned above, in CFRT column connections,
asymmetrical local bending deformation of column
flange would influence the rotation behavior and strength
of the joint. Figure.9 shows equivalent plastic strain
contour of B06 serial models with different column
width-to-thickness ratio, to study the inelastic behavior.
The weld defects, notch effect, residual stress and high
tri-axially stress were the main causes of the PEEQ
concentration at the weld access hole (WAH) region. And
in CFRT column, due to the deformation at column
flange and through-diaphragm, notch effect at beam
flange edge could be quite serious, often leading to peak
PEEQ there. High PEEQ concentration promoted the
initiation of the premature beam flange fracture at the
WAH region and weld edges. In Figure.9, to better
present the slipping and local bending extent, models
were positioned from an opposite direction. In the
contours there was a black line at beam web surface,
which was the mesh boundary that specially set at beam
web to conveniently compare the slip extent in the
post-analysis. As the decrease of column flange
thickness, out-of-plane stiffness at column flange went
down, and the main source of beam web rotation changed
from slip rotation to local bending deformation.
Since in CFRT column connections, local bending of
column flange was asymmetrical. Then in thin column
flange models that local bending dominating the source

4 CONCLUSION
A comprehensive parametric study using finite
element method on moment transfer performance of
WUF-B beam to CFRT column connection was executed.
The study mainly investigated the sliding condition,
friction force distribution and transferred moment
strength at bolt connecting part, with a discussion on
influence of out-of-plane stiffness at column flange and
bolt arrangement. Its concluded that:
1. In WUF-B beam to CFRT column connection, both
the local bending at column flange and friction slip at bolt
connecting part would have a negative effect on moment
transferring performance. In CFRT connection, the
concrete inside offered support to steel tube at
compression side, but had limited effect on resisting
outward deformation at tension region. So there was
mainly outward deformation at column flange, and the
unsymmetrical deformation would lead to high strain
demand at tension flange.
2. Slip behavior was a result of the balance between
column flanges out-of-plane stiffness and friction
capacity. Under the same bolt design, the thicker column
flange, the larger slip rotation would happen; and when

529

Yu et al.

the width-to-thickness ratio was certain, slip rotation was

reduced with increasing number of bolts. Once the
friction resistance was able to balance the beam web
moment, adding more bolts would not show much
increase on moment transmission, but could reduce the
slip extent. Before friction capacity was reached, beam
web moment was dominated by the out-of-plane stiffness
of column flange, then when the slip happened, slip and
friction condition was the major factor.
3. With the same number of bolts, Bx6 design was
stiffer than the B6x design. Additional bolts near beam
flange could bring a large increase to axial moment
strength in bolt connecting part. Then if bolt number was
limited, try locating more bolts near the flange. For bolts
around neutral line, putting them away from column
flange could also improve the moment transferring
strength.

REFERENCES
AISC(2002), Seismic provisions for structural steel
buildings, American Institute of Steel Construction.
Chen CC et al (2004), Evaluation of reinforced
connections between steel beams and box columns,
Engineering Structures, 26, 1889-1904.
Engelhardt MD & Husain AS (1993), Cyclic-loading
performance
of
welded
flange-bolted
web
connections, Journal of Structural Engineering, 119,
3537-3550.
Engelhardt MD & Sabol TA (1997), Seismic-resistant
steel moment connections: developments since the
1994 Northridge earthquake, Progress in Structural
Engineering and Materials, 1, 68-77.
FEMA (2000). Recommended seismic design criteria
for new steel moment-frame buildings: Fema 350, in,
Richmond (CA): SAC Joint Venture.
Goswami R& Murty C (2010), Externally reinforced
welded I-beam-to-box-column seismic connection,
Journal of Engineering Mechanics, 136, 23-30.
Han SW& Kwon GU (2003), Seismic performance
evaluation of WUF-B connections, Journal of
Architectural Institute of Korea (in Korean), 29,
33-40.
Han SW et al (2007), Cyclic behaviour of
post-Northridge WUF-B connections, Journal of
Constructional Steel Research, 63, 365-374.
Han LH et al. (2014), Developments and advanced
applications of concrete-filled steel tubular (CFST)
structures: Members, Journal of Constructional Steel
Research, 100, 211-228.
Kim TJ (2003), Experimental and analytical
performance evaluation of welded steel moment
connections to box or deep W-shape columns,
University of California, Berkeley, California, USA
Kim YJ& Oh SH (2007), Effect of the moment
transfer efficiency of a beam web on deformation
capacity at box column-to-H beam connections,
Journal of Constructional Steel Research, 63, 24-36.
Lee KH (1998), Boundary effects in welded steel
moment connection, [thesis], University of Michigan.
Lee C et al (2005), Effects of panel zone strength and
beam web connection method on seismic performance

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of reduced beam section steel moment connections,

Journal of Structural Engineering, 131, 1854-1865.
Lee CH (2006), Review of force transfer mechanism
of welded steel moment connections, Journal of
Constructional Steel Research, 62, 695-705.
Mao CS et al (2001). Effect of local details on
ductility of welded moment connections, Journal of
Structural Engineering, 127 (2001) 1036-1044.
Popov EP et al (1985), Cyclic behavior of large
beam-column assemblies, Earthquake Spectra, 1,
203-238.
Richard RM et al (1995), Finite element analysis and
tests of beam-to-column connections, Modern steel
construction, 35, 44-47.
SAC Joint Venture (1995). Analytical and field
investigations of buildings affected by the Northridge
earthquake of January 17, 1994, in, Richmond (CA):
Sato Y et al (2010), Study on the Static
Characteristics of Web Connected Part of WBFW
type Beam-End Connection, Journal of Structural and
Construction Engineering (Japanese), 17, 66-22.
Tsai K et al. (1995), Experimental performance of
seismic steel beam-column moment joints, Journal of
Structural Engineering, 121,925-931.
Tsai KC & Popov EP(1988), Steel beam-column
joints in seismic moment resisting frames, Earthquake
Engineering Research Center, University of California

11th International Conference on

Advances in Steel and Concrete Composite Structures
Tsinghua University, Beijing, China, December 3-5, 2015

SHAPE MEMORY ALLOYS FOR SELF-CENTERING STEEL

CONNECTIONS TEST EVIDENCE AND NEW IDEAS
C. Fanga, M. C.H. Yamb, A. C.C. Lamc & K.F. Chungd
a

Department of Structural Engineering, School of Civil Engineering, Tongji University, Shanghai, China
E-mails: chengfang@tongji.edu.cn

Department of Building & Real Estate, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hong Kong, China
E-mail: michael.yam@polyu.edu.hk
c

Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Macau, Macau, China

E-mail: fstccl@umac.edu.mo

Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hong Kong, China
E-mail: kwok-fai.chung@polyu.edu.hk

ABSTRACT
Keywords:
Shape memory alloys
(SMAs); Self-centering;
Beam-to-column connections;
Cyclic test; Finite element study.

This study discusses the potential of using superelastic shape memory alloys (SMAs) for the
application of self-centering beam-to-column connections. A series of investigations, including
full-scale connection tests and finite element (FE) studies, have been carried out by the authors,
and the key results that have been previously published are summarized in this paper. The
full-scale connection tests focused on a proof-of-concept end-plate connection type using SMA
bolts, where good self-centering and energy dissipation abilities of the connections were shown,
but early bolt fracture was observed in some specimens. This warned that the bolt elongation
ability (ductility), which was found to be mainly governed by the strength of the threaded part,
needs to be carefully considered. The subsequent FE study showed good agreements between
the test and FE results, especially in terms of moment-rotation response, energy dissipation, and
self-centering response. Parametric studies were also performed to optimize the connection
design. To address the shear slippage issue identified from the FE study, two types of improved
SMA connections using High-Strength bolts and SMA (HS-SMA) hybrid solutions were finally
proposed and studied via FE modelling.

severe or irreparable post-earthquake damages which

often result in long occupancy suspension or even
complete demolition of the structures. Therefore, there is
an envisaged tendency that, beyond the very basic safety
requirement that is nowadays widely accepted,
incorporating the idea of customized building functions in
future design concepts should be pursued. One of the
ground breaking research themes that are now under the
spotlight is the idea of self-centering structural systems.
The core intention of the self-healing structural
design, under an idealized situation, is to eliminate the
post-earthquake permanent deformation of the structures.
This design concept significantly upgrades the
conventional seismic design objectives. Towards this
goal, the community of structural engineers and
researchers has been exploring new design concepts,
either in the overall structural system level (e.g. rocking
structures) or in the sub-system/element level. Among the
various considered approaches, endowing connections
with self-centering abilities has been considered as one of

1 INTRODUCTION
With the significant development of seismic
engineering theories over the last century, structural
engineers have been gaining increasing confidence in the
seismic design of structures. While nowadays most newly
built structures in urban areas can be well designed with a
controllable quality against collapse under predictable
seismic actions, the ductility demand of the structures is
often accommodated at the cost of significant
inelastic/permanent deformations of the structural
members. Extensive repairing and rehabilitation work,
which is time consuming and costly, are often necessary
after major earthquake events. Driven by the
next-generation performance-based design framework
which tends to considerably broaden the seismic design
targets, along with a growing appeal for more sustainable
and resilient infrastructures, clients and real estate owners
are no longer willing to compromise their properties with

531

Fang et al.

current investigations undertaken by the authors on

SMA-based self-centering connections (Fang et al.
(2014), Fang et al. (2015a), Fang et al. (2015b) and Yam
et al. (2015)). The experimental work carried out by the
authors is first introduced. The main test results are
presented, and the FE modelling strategy is also
discussed. Further to the connections types considered in
the test program, two new types of self-centering
connections with innovative SMA components were
proposed and discussed.

the feasible strategies. In the field of steel structures, an

early attempt was to incorporate post-tensioned cables
into the connections to provide a self-centering
mechanism (Ricles et al. (2002)). However, the exposure
of the cables may not be appealing from an aesthetic
point of view, and this method can also be quite
demanding in terms of fabrication and construction. In
addition, the external cables/tendons normally need to be
placed longitudinally along the entire length of the
beams, a case which inevitably causes interferences of
beam-to-beam connections. In parallel to the study of the
pre-tensioned connections, recent interests have been
directed to material-based self-centering connections,
where the application of NiTi shape memory alloys
(SMAs) has emerged recently as an encouraging solution.
SMA is a unique class of metal with two important
characteristics, namely, shape memory effect (SME) and
superelastic effect (SE). When SMA is deformed below
the martensitic finish temperature Mf, as shown in Figure
1(a), it is transformed from the twinned martensitic phase
to the detwinned martensitic phase. Upon unloading,
residual deformation remains, but heating the deformed
SMA can promote strain recovery. This phenomenon is
known as shape memory effect (SME). On the other
hand, when SMA is deformed above Af (at the austenitic
phase), the austenite starts to accommodate the strain by
transforming into detwinned martensite, as shown in
Figure 1(b). However, the deformation (up to 8-10%
strain) can be recovered spontaneously after unloading.
This phenomenon is known as superelastic effect (SE).
From the perspective of seismic applications, more
interests are usually given to the superelastic effect (SE)
of SMA due to the inherent characteristics such as
hysteretic damping, spontaneous self-centering, cyclic
repeatability, and power/energy-free. Compared with the
conventional externally post-tensioned cables for
self-centering purposes, a compact SMA component (e.g.
a bolt) can accommodate a sufficient level of recoverable
deformation, and therefore the use of overly long cables
is not necessary. In addition, with appropriate design, the
traditional installation process for bolted steel
connections can be applicable to those with SMA bolts.
Moreover, due to a significant decrease of the material
cost over the last decade (DesRoches et al. (2004)), it is
reasonable to expect further room for cost concession in
the foreseeable future with continuously improved
metallurgic technologies. Furthermore, SMAs excellent
corrosion resisting performance (equivalent to stainless
steel) makes it economically viable from a life-cycle
design point of view, and it can also potentially overcome
the aging, durability, and maintenance issues that need to
be carefully addressed in other self-centering solutions.
In view of the above, the attraction of using SMA for
self-centering design of steel connections is clearly seen.
Relevant researches on such areas have been
continuously emerging. This article presents the past and

Figure 1. Basic material properties of SMA.

2 TEST PROGRAM (FANG ET AL. (2014))

2.1 Specimens and test setup
The main benefit of using SMA-based connections is
to form superelastic hinges at the locations of
beam-to-column junctions, while the adjacent members
can mainly stay elastic during earthquakes and are thus
damage free. A total of seven full scale tests were
conducted on extended end-plate connections equipped
with SMA bolts (Fang et al. 2014). The main test
parameters for the SMA connections were bolt length and
bolt diameter. The varied SMA bolt lengths were
considered by employing special bolt washers with varied
thicknesses. The geometric dimensions of the specimens
are illustrated in Figure 2. The values of key dimensions,
including total bolt length (L), bolt parallel length (Lp),
shank diameter (D1), threaded gross diameter (D2),
threaded net diameter (D3), are listed in Table 1. Each
specimen was designated according to the bolt geometric
configurations for easy identification. For example,
D10-240 represents the used SMA bolts with a nominal
diameter of 10mm and a nominal total bolt length of
240mm. The sizes of the steel beam were designed to

532

Fang et al.

abilities with moderate energy dissipation capacities were

shown. Taking the drift level of 3% for instance, an
equivalent viscous damping of up to 17.5% was
observed. The bolt length and diameter were observed to
affect the connection behavior, where the connections
with slender bolts (i.e. long and small diameter bolts)
were
shown
to
have
better
hysteresis
stability/repeatability and ductility.

make sure that they mainly behaved elastically during the

loading process, and therefore the main inelastic
deformation could be concentrated on the SMA bolts. A
1.7m-height column with an overly large size was
employed for repeatable use. More experimental details
are presented in Cheng et al. (2014).

Table 1. Details of SMA connection specimens.

Specimen
L
Lp
D1
D2
D3
D10-190
191.0 134.5 9.9
12.4 10.1
D10-240
241.0 183.5 9.9
12.4 10.0
D10-240-d 241.0 183.3 9.9
12.4 10.1
D10-290
292.0 233.2 9.9
12.4 10.1
D16-190
190.5 133.5 15.9 18.9 15.6
D16-240
241.0 183.5 15.8 18.9 15.4
D16-290
290.5 232.7 15.9 18.9 15.5
Note: unit in mm

Layout
Type A
Type A
Type B
Type A
Type A
Type B
Type B

Figure 2. Test specimens and symbols.

2.2 Test results

Figure 3. Typical moment-plastic rotation curves of SMA
connections.

Figure 3 shows the selected moment-plastic rotation

curves of the test specimens, and the typical deformation
mode of the connections is shown in Figure 4. In general,
all the seven specimens showed recognizable flag shape
hysteresis responses. The main source of recoverable
deformation was offered by the SMA bolts, and the
remaining structural components were found to be mainly
in the elastic state. All the end-plates behaved in an
almost rigid-plate manner, where negligible inelastic
deformations were induced. Very good self-centering

Figure 4. Typical deformation mode of SMA connections.

533

Fang et al.

moment-plastic rotation curve and self-centering ability.

Further parametric studies were performed following the
validation study (Yam et al. 2015). It was mainly
concluded that the SMA connections are preferably
designed as partial-strength connections. In addition, it
was observed that when a thin end-plate was employed,
the resisting moment was decreased, and significant
residual deformation was induced. As shown in Figure 6,
excessive deformations of the SMA bolts in bending were
exhibited due to the bending flexibility of the thin
end-plate; therefore, thick end-plates were recommended
in such connections. Moreover, the column web panel
should have sufficient shear resistance to avoid
significant plastic deformation in the panel zone. A
flexible panel zone could lead to an evident increase of
the residual deformation. Furthermore, it was found that
the shear resisting mechanism of the considered
connection type was not reliable. Shear slippage, as
shown in Figure 6, was observed in the FE model with a
reduced beam length (i.e. leading to an increased shear
force at the same drift level). These SMA bolts should not
be intended to resist a high level of shear force.

A critical lesson was drawn from this study with

respect to the early bolt fracture occurring near the
threaded area, as observed in most connections prior to
5% drift. The lowest ductility for the test specimens was
2% drift (specimen D16-240), while for most specimens,
the failure rotation ranged between 3% and 4% drift. This
undesirable failure mode should receive sufficient
attention because ductility is of great concern for seismic
resisting connections. The major reason for the observed
early bolt fracture was caused by insufficient ratios of the
net threaded-to-shank cross-section diameter (i.e. D3/D1
ratio as shown in Figure 2. It was believed that the
ductility of these connections could be effectively
improved by increasing this ratio.

3 FE STUDY
A series of finite element (FE) analyses of the test
specimens were conducted using the general nonlinear
finite element analysis package ABAQUS (2010) by Yam
et al. (2015). A built-in superelastic user-defined material
model using the Auricchios approach (Auricchio et al.
1997) was employed to simulate the superelastic effect of
SMA under isothermal conditions. The average cyclic
stress-strain relationship obtained from the SMA tension
test (Fang et al. 2015a) was employed to obtain the key
parameters for the material model. All structural
components of the test specimens were simulated using
3D solid elements. The loading process consisted of two
steps, namely, bolt-preload and cyclic load. In the first
step, a preload of 65% of the yield/forward
transformation strength was applied on each SMA bolt,
and then the adjusted bolt length was fixed to simulate
the bolt preloading effect. In the second step, a
displacement-controlled reversal load was applied onto
the loading position. The loading protocol was similar to
that used for the tests, but only one load cycle was
performed for each drift level. A maximum of 5% drift
was considered for the loading protocol. The typical
meshing scheme of the FE models is shown in Figure 5,
and the detailed modelling technique can be found in
Yam et al. (2015).

Figure 6. Results from parametric study.

4 IMPROVED SMA CONNECTIONS

4.1 General
The shear slippage issue mentioned in Section 3 could
be potentially addressed by considering improved
connection types using HS-SMA hybrid solutions. The
key idea of the improved solutions is to employ High
Strength (HS) bolts to resist the shear force and SMA
components to offer bending resistance and self-centering
ability of the connection. The HS bolts should be used in
conjunction with protective SMA components to avoid
excessive tensile forces in the HS bolts. Two types of
such components, namely, SMA Belleville washers and
SMA ring springs, are proposed and discussed in this
paper.

Figure 5. Meshing scheme of FE models.

Selected moment-plastic rotation curves obtained

from the FE analysis are shown and compared with the
test results in Figure 3. Good agreements between the FE
and test results were observed, especially in terms of
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Fang et al.

4.2 Connection type I using SMA Belleville washers

Belleville washers, also known as conical spring
washers, are a common type of mechanical components.
They can sustain a large load with small installation
space. Because of the annular shape, force transmission is
even and concentric. Importantly, possible combinations
(e.g. in parallel and in series) can further extend their
applications. When the Belleville washers are endowed
with superelastic ability, which enables self-recovery and
hysteretic damping, their application may be further
expanded.
The basic idea of employing SMA Belleville washers
for self-centering connections is to use High Strength
(HS) bolts to resist the shear force, and to use extra SMA
bolts to provide recoverable bending resistance, as shown
in Figure 7. The HS bolts are used in conjunction with a
series of SMA Belleville washers to avoid excessive
tensile forces (which may cause bolt fracture) in the HS
bolts. A preliminary FE study has been conducted (Yam
et al. 2015), which confirmed the feasibility of the new
connection. It was shown that the HS bolts provided
sufficient shear resistance of the connection, and the
slippage between the end-plate and column face was
prevented. When the connection rotated, the deformation
of the HS bolt rows was mainly consumed by the SMA
Belleville washers, and the HS bolts were within the
elastic range and were thus undamaged. The SMA
Belleville washers were found to be multi-functional, i.e.
to protect the HS bolts, to offer partial driving force for
self-centering, and to provide supplementary energy
dissipation. Typical moment-rotation responses of the
connections are shown in Figure 8. The ultimate resisting
moment Mmax of the connection at 5% drift was 64 kNm,
and a good self-centering behavior was exhibited. Further
experimental study of this new concept is currently under
way, which will be reported in future publications.

Figure 8. Typical moment-rotation response of HS-SMA hybrid

connections using SMA Belleville washers.

4.3

Connection type II using SMA ring springs

All the main functions offered by the aforementioned

SMA Belleville washers can be alternatively provided by
a new SMA component: SMA ring spring system. The
proposed system includes a series of inner steel rings and
outer superelastic SMA rings stacked in alternation with
mating taper faces, as shown in Figure 9. Under
compressive loads, the wedging action tends to expand
the outer rings and concurrently squeeze the inner rings.
The forward phase transformation enables the outer SMA
rings to be expanded significantly under the horizontal
component of the contacting force over the taper face,
and the vertical component of the force offers the
resisting load of the system. The frictional effect over the
taper face can further increase the overall resisting load.
When the applied compressive load is removed, the
deformation of the whole system can be recovered due to
the superelastic behavior of SMA.
The proposed SMA ring spring system can be a
fracture-free self-centering solution, and when
appropriately designed, the outer SMA springs can have a
uniform hoop stress distribution over the ring thickness.
This enables the material to deform in a uniaxial manner,
which is a preferable way for SMA to exhibit its
self-centering and energy dissipation properties. The
energy can be dissipated in a superelastic-friction hybrid
manner, which can significantly increase the damping
capacity of the system.

Figure 9. Working principles of SMA ring spring system

Figure 7. HS-SMA hybrid connections using SMA Belleville

washers.

It should be noted that unlike SMA Belleville

washers, the SMA ring springs can offer much higher

535

Fang et al.

at 4% drift was 35 kNm, and a good self-centering

behavior was exhibited.

load resistance, which can provide sufficient resisting

moment of the connection by the ring spring systems
themselves. In this case, extra SMA bolts may not be
necessary for this solution. Therefore, the functions of the
SMA ring springs are mainly four folds: to provide
resisting moment for the connection, to offer driving
force for self-centering, to protect the HS bolts (which
provide shear resistance) against excessive tensioning
when the connection rotates, and to provide energy
dissipation via a superelastic-friction hybrid mechanism.

Figure 11. Moment-rotation response

5 CONCLUSIONS
This paper summarized a series of studies on SMA
equipped end-plate beam-to-column connections carried
out by the authors and the relevant researching findings
had been reported in various publications. The full-scale
SMA connection tests showed that the main source of
recoverable deformation was offered by the SMA bolts,
and the end-plate, beam, and column were mainly in the
elastic range. The excellent self-centering ability, along
with the moderate energy dissipation capacity (up to an
equivalent viscous damping of 17.5%), clearly
demonstrated the feasibility and applicability of the
proof-of-concept SMA connections. Following the test
program, a detailed FE study was conducted to take an
in-depth look into the behavior of such connections. The
FE modelling strategy was validated through
comparisons with the test data, where good agreements
were observed in terms of moment-plastic rotation curve
and self-centering ability. Parametric studies were then
undertaken for design optimization. In order to overcome
a major issue identified from the FE study, i.e. shear
slippage, two improved HS-SMA hybrid solutions were
proposed, namely, connection with SMA Belleville
washers, and connection with SMA ring springs. Both
connections showed good self-centering ability and
reasonable energy dissipation capability. Further
experimental studies on both new concepts are currently
under way.

Figure 10. General layout and modelling of SMA ring spring

connection.

The proposed connection was studied via FE analysis

using ABAQUS (ABAQUS, 2010). The general layout of
the connection is shown in Figure 10, where more details
can be found in Fang et al. (2015b). The considered SMA
ring spring system, as detailed in Figure 9, is comprised
of two SMA outer rings and three HSS inner rings. The
coefficient of friction over the taper faces was taken as
0.1. A 17 kN bolt preloading, which corresponds to
around 50% of the fully compressed ultimate load of the
SMA ring spring system, was applied at each HS bolt as
the first loading step. After the bolt preloading, a
displacement controlled cyclic load was applied at the
beam tip. The deformed shape at 4% drift is shown in
Figure 10. It was observed that during the loading
process, the main connection rotational deformation is
accommodated by the SMA ring spring systems, leaving
the HS bolts loaded within the elastic range. Importantly,
it was confirmed that at 4% drift, the beam and column
were within the elastic range, which indicated that the
post-earthquake repair work can be minimal. The
moment-rotation hysteretic curves are shown in Figure
11. The ultimate resisting moment Mmax of the connection

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The work presented in this paper is supported by the
National Natural Science Foundation of China (NSFC)
with Grant No. 51408437. The grant from the Research
Grants Council of the Hong Kong Special Administrative
Region, China (Project No. PolyU 5321/10E) is also
gratefully acknowledged.

536

Fang et al.

REFERENCES
ABAQUS. 2010. Analysis User's Manual, ABAQUS Standard,
Version 6.10.
Auricchio, F., Taylor, R.L. & Lubliner, J. 1997. Shape-memory
alloys: macromodelling and numerical simulations of the
superelastic behaviour. Computer Methods in Applied
Mechanics and Engineering 146: 281-312.
DesRoches, R., McCormick, J. & Delemont, M.A. 2004. Cyclic
properties of superelastic shape memory alloy wires and
bars. Journal of Structural Engineering 130(1): 38-46.
Fang, C., Yam, M.C.H., Lam, A.C.C. & Xie, L.K. 2014. Cyclic
performance of extended end-plate connections equipped
with shape memory alloy bolts. Journal of Constructional
Steel Research 94: 122-136.
Fang, C., Yam, C.H.M., Ma, H.W. & Chung, K.F. 2015a. Tests
on superelastic NiTi SMA bars under cyclic tension and
direct-shear: towards practical recentring connections.
Materials and Structures 48(4): 1013-1030.
Fang, C., Yam, M.C.H., Lam, A.C.C. & Zhang, Y.Y. 2015b.
Feasibility study of shape memory alloy ring spring systems
for self-centering seismic resisting devices. Smart Materials
and Structures 24(7): 075024.
Ricles, J.M., Sause, R., Peng, S.W. & Lu, L.W. 2002.
Experimental
evaluation
of
earthquake
resistant
posttensioned steel connections. Journal of Structural
Engineering 128(7): 850-859.
SAC Joint Venture. 1997. Protocol for fabrication, inspection,
testing and documentation of beam-column connection tests
and other experimental specimens. Report No.
SAC/BD-97/02, California.
Yam, M.C.H., Fang, C., Lam, A.C.C. & Zhang, Y.Y. 2015.
Numerical study and practical design of beam-to-column
connections with shape memory alloys. Journal of
Constructional Steel Research 104: 177-192.

537

11th International Conference on

Advances in Steel and Concrete Composite Structures
Tsinghua University, Beijing, China, December 3-5, 2015

RE-ENGINEERING COMPOSITE CONNECTIONS

FOR A HGIHER CONSTRUCTION AND COST EFFECTIVENESS
Aaron J. Wanga
a

Director, Project Design and Development Centre, CapitaLand Management (China) Co., Ltd.
E-mails: aaron.wang@capitaland.com
ABSTRACT
Keywords:

Composite

structures;

seismic

design; performance-base design;

high-rise building; design and
construction; value engineering.

This paper introduces two case studies on the alternate design and re-engineering of complex
composite connections in modern ultra-highrise buildings to achieve a higher efficiency of
construction, easier site quality control and better cost effectiveness. One of the case studies is
on the twin twisting composite towers of 250 m in Raffles City Hangzhou, the structural design
of the composite connection between CFT columns and SRC beams needed to safeguard the
overall structural stability through the fully rigid connections and avoid scarifying any tailored
interior space in the meantime. The conventional ring beam type composite connection was
regarded to be bulky and not suitable because of its inference with the faade erection and
interior decoration. An innovative and high performance corbel type composite connection was
proposed with a minimum intrusion into the interior space to achieve the fully rigid connection.
Physical tests under both monotonic and quasi-static cyclic loads were conducted to investigate
the load carrying capacities and deformation characteristics of this new type of composite
connection. In the second case study, the steel-concrete hybrid outrigger truss was developed in
the high-rise towers of 380 m in Raffles City Chongqing. Both the steel truss and concrete
outrigger wall works compositely to enhance the overall structural performance of the tower
structures under extreme loads. Through rigorous numerical and experimental investigations, the
hybrid outrigger system was proved to be safe and effective to withstand both wind and seismic
actions. The design allows the contractor to break through the critical path of the tedious
wedding on the steel outrigger truss in the outrigger floor, which shortens the overall
construction period and lowers the overall material cost in the meantime.

joints and they should be determined according to

physical tests. (BSI, 2004a).

1 INTRODUCTION
According to Eurocode 4: Part 1.1 (BSI, 2004a), the
design of both rotational stiffnesses and moment
capacities of composite beam-column joints are based on
the relevant clauses in Eurocode 3: Part 1.8 (BSI, 2005)
for steel joints with the incorporation of the contribution
of tensile reinforcement. Other codes of practice with
similar design philosophy are also available (AISC, 2005;
Brockenbrough & Merritt, 2006; SCI & BCSA, 2002;
Lawson & Gibbon, 1995). According to these codes of
practice,
different
components
of
composite
beam-column joints are to be analyzed and designed
separately for different failure locations. By summing
up the load carrying capacities and the stiffnesses of these
components with the consideration of their associated
lever arms, the moment capacities and the rotational
stiffnesses of the composite beam-column joints can be
obtained. However, none of the design codes gives
guidance regarding the rotational capacities of composite

This paper introduces the following two case studies

on the alternate design and re-engineering of complex
composite connections in modern ultra-highrise buildings
to achieve a higher efficiency of construction, easier site
quality control and better cost effectiveness.

1.1 Corbel types composite connection in Raffles City

Hangzhou
The structural design of the composite connection
between CFT columns and SRC beams needed to
safeguard the overall structural stability through the fully
rigid connections and avoid scarifying any tailored
interior space in the meantime. The conventional ring
beam type composite connection was regarded to be
bulky and not suitable because of its inference with the
faade erection and interior decoration. An innovative
and high performance corbel type composite connection
was proposed with a minimum intrusion into the interior

538

Wang et al.

space to achieve the fully rigid connection. Physical tests

under both monotonic and quasi-static cyclic loads were
conducted to investigate the load carrying capacities and
deformation characteristics of this new type of composite
connection.

- Concrete encasement
All above mentioned components are encased with C35
concrete to ensure a composite action.

1.2 Hybrid outrigger truss in Raffles City Chongqing

The steel-concrete hybrid outrigger truss was
developed in the high-rise towers of 380 m in Raffles
City Chongqing. Both the steel truss and concrete
outrigger wall works compositely to enhance the overall
structural performance of the tower structures under
extreme loads. Through rigorous numerical and
experimental investigations, the hybrid outrigger system
was proved to be safe and effective to withstand both
wind and seismic actions. The design allows the
contractor to break through the critical path of the tedious
wedding on the steel outrigger truss in the outrigger floor,
which shortens the overall construction period and lowers
the overall material cost in the meantime.

In order to achieve a full strength connection between

the SRC beam and CFT column, the corbel together with
the ring stiffener is strengthened to the strength and
rigidity of an ordinary SRC beam. Thus, satisfactory
deformation and plastic energy absorbing capacities can
be achieved with a preferred failure mode and location of
the plastic hinge.

2 CORBEL TYPE COMPOSITE CONNECTION

The set-up of the physical test is shown in Figure 2.
The geometrical scale of the test specimen is 1:2 to
ensure a proper and quality erection of the test specimens,
and in the meantime, sufficient capacities of loading jacks
and rigs as well. The depth of the SRC beam of the
specimen is scaled down to 250 x 400 mm, and the
diameter of the CFT column in the specimen is 500 mm.
The thickness of all steel webs, flanges and stiffeners is
also scaled down accordingly with a thickness of 28, 10
and 10 mm respectively. Various instrumentations are
carefully arranged on the specimen to capture accurately
the structural response throughout the tests.

The proposed corbel type composite joints include the

following key components as shown in Figures 1:
- The corbel and ring stiffener as butt welded to the CFT
column:
In order to ensure a full strength rigid connection, the
I-section corbel is enlarged and stiffened together with a
ring stiffener as welded inside the steel tube, so that the
overall rigidity and load carrying capacity of the
connection is not less than that of a typical SRC beam
section.

- The tapered section from the corbel to the steel beam:

In order to ensure a smooth loading and stress transfer
from the corbel in the joint region to the ordinary SRC
beam, a tapered steel section is proposed with a slope of
1:6.

- The steel section in the SRC beam:

The ordinary I-steel section in the composite SRC beam
is fully connected to the outer edge of the corbel through
full bolted joints on both flanges and webs.

- Lapped reinforcement bars:

All the longitudinal reinforcements are lapped around the
flanges of the steel corbel, so that both the loads and
stress can be transferred from the longitudinal main
reinforcements onto the corbel in the connection region.

539

Wang et al.

Figures 3a and 3b present the results of the monotonic

tests on Specimens SP1 and SP2, while Figure 4 presents
a typical failure mode. A close observation on the strain
development also shows that the direct tensile strain at
the top flange is 30 to 50% higher than the compressive
strain of the bottom flanges due to the contribution of the
concrete material. It is noted that the shear strain in the
web is significantly smaller than the strain in the flange,
which is just above the yield strain. This is preferred for a
high-rise building in a seismic sensitive region like
Hangzhou, where the Project located. The quasi-static
cyclic loading tests were conducted on both Specimens
SP3 and SP4. Figures 3c and 3d present the
load-deflection and moment-rotation curves of Specimens
SP3 and SP4. The cumulative plastic deformations of
both Specimens SP3 and SP4 are 0.3 and 0.24 rad
respectively, which are corresponding to 88 and 80 times
the first yield rotation of the composite connections. This,
again, demonstrates the high ductility and energy
absorbing capacities of the corbel type composite
connections.

To study the structural behaviour of the corbel type

composite connection, a generalized nonlinear
three-dimensional finite element model was set up using
the commercial finite element package ANSYS 12.1
(2011). The meshes of the finite element model are
shown in Figures 5a and 5b. In order to simplify the
problem and save computational time, only half of the
specimen was modelled. The finite element simulation
gives a quite close prediction of the load-deformation
characteristics in the connection regions as shown in
Figure 5c, which is demonstrated through the comparison

540

Wang et al.

disastrous loads, instead of putting in additional steel and

concrete material and making the overall structure trunky
and costly.

of the load-deformation curves at the end of the

connection corbel. As such, the corbel type composite
joint was verified to be of high strength, rigidity and
ductility and suitable for highrise buildings in seismic
sensitive regions.

An innovative type of steel-concrete hybrid outrigger

truss is being developed in two mega high-rise towers of
370 m tall in RCCQ, in which the steel truss is embedded
into the reinforced concrete outrigger wall as shown in
Figures 6a and 6b. Both the steel truss and concrete
outrigger wall works compositely to enhance the overall
structural performance of the tower structures under
extreme loads. Meanwhile, metal dampers were also
adopted as a fuse device between the hybrid outrigger
and the mega column. The dampers are designed to be
scarified and yielded first under moderate to severe
earthquakes in order to protect the structural integrity of
important structural components of the hybrid outrigger.
As such, not brittle failure happens in reinforced concrete
portion of the hybrid outrigger system.

3 HYBRID COMPOSITE OUTRIGGER

The design and construction of high-rise buildings in
China require a rigorous consideration on the impact of
winds and earthquakes. In the current national seismic
design
codes
(MHURD,
2010
and
2011),
performance-base design approaches were introduced,
which requires the structurally complex building to meet
the corresponding stringent requirements under
earthquakes with exceeding rates of 63%, 10% and 2-3%
respectively. Dual system requirements also need to be
met for tall buildings in many circumstances. Wind is
another concern for many coastal cities, where the
typhoon is normally an issue. The structural engineer
normally faces the double challenges of extreme loads
from both wind and earthquakes, and needs to keep the
overall structural and spatial efficiency in the meantime.
Energy dispersing devices, like dampers and isolating
bearings, are getting popular in high-rise buildings to
enhance the overall structural performance under

541

Wang et al.

Figure 6c shows the numerical simulation of the

hybrid outrigger system under earthquakes. The design
may allow the contractor to break through the critical
path of the tedious wedding on the steel outrigger truss in
the refugee floors, and shoot the core first by leaving the
construction joints between the core and the outrigger
walls. This helps to shorten the overall construction
period of the tower.

As per verification tests, the metal dampers work

effectively under Level 2 and Level 3 earthquakes and
enhance the overall structural performance. Both finite
element modelling and physical component tests were
conducted to verify the effectiveness of the hybrid
outrigger system. Figure 7a shows the overall test set up
and load deflection curves under cyclic actions. The scale
of the tests is taken to be 1:4.5. The overall depth of the
specimen is 1590 mm with a thickness of the outrigger
wall of 200 mm. C45 concrete is adopted in the concrete
part of the specimen. The steel section of the specimen is
typically box sections of 100 x 150 mm with a steel grade
of Q345B. The hybrid outrigger system exhibits
sufficient ductility under seismic actions with the
effective protection for the fuse devise of low yield steel
metal dampers. Figure 7b is the results of the
three-dimensional finite element simulation. It also
demonstrated the sufficient ductility at the fuse device
while the cracks in the concrete outrigger wall are well
controlled even under the action from the severe
earthquake. Figure 7a also shows the load-deflection
curves from the test and predicted by the finite element
modelling. It is demonstrated that the proposed finite
element model is able to provide a relatively conservative
while yet proper prediction towards the load-deflection
characteristics of the hybrid outrigger under cyclic loads.

b)

Finite element modelling

Figure 7: Study on hybrid outrigger system

Figure 8 is the shaking table test that has been done

on the overall tower structural system, which verified the
suitability of the hybrid outrigger system as fit into the
overall tower structure.

4 CONCLUSION
This paper introduces two case studies on the
alternate design and re-engineering of complex composite
connections in modern ultra-highrise buildings to achieve
a higher efficiency of construction, easier site quality
control and better cost effectiveness. Through
comprehensive experimental and numerical studies both
the corbel type composite joint and hybrid outrigger
system are verified to be effective from a performance

a)

Physical Tests

542

Wang et al.

base point of view. In the meantime, both the cost

effectiveness and construction efficiency were achieved.
The re-engineering of composite joint system will add
value to the design and construction of modern highrise
hybrid buildings in wind and seismic sensitive regions.
This will benefit the new generation of highrise mega
buildings with a higher level of structural performance
and integrated building functions.

REFERENCES
British Standards Institution (BSI) (2004), Eurocode 4: Design
of Composite Steel and Concrete Structures, Part 1.1:
General Rules and Rules for Buildings, European
Committee for Standardization.
British Standards Institution (BSI) (2005), Eurocode 3: Design
of Steel Structures, Part 1.8: Design of Joints, European
Committee for Standardization.
American Institute of Steel Construction (2005), ANSI/AISC
360-05: Specification for Structural Steel Buildings, AISC.
Brockenbrough R.L. and Merritt F.S. (2006), Structural Steel
Designer's Handbook, American Institute of Steel
Construction.
The Steel Construction Institute (SCI) (2002), the British
Constructional Steelwork Association Limited (BCSA),
Joints in Steel Construction, the Steel Construction Institute.
Lawson R.M. and Gibbons C. (1995), Moment Connections in
Composite Construction: Interim Guidance for End-plate
Connections, the Steel Construction Institute.
The Ministry of Housing and Urban-Rural Development
(MHURD), Code for Seismic Design of Buildings:
GB50011-2010, 2010.
The Ministry of Housing and Urban-Rural Development
(MHURD), Technical Specification for Concrete Structures
of Tall Buildings: JGJ3-2010, 2011.

543

11th International Conference on

Advances in Steel and Concrete Composite Structures
Tsinghua University, Beijing, China, December 3-5, 2015

STEEL-CONCRETE-STEEL SANDWICH COMPOSITE

STRUCTURES THE CURRENT STATE OF THE ART
J. Y. R. Liewa,b, J. B. Yanc & Z. Y. Huanga,
a

Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, National University of Singapore, Singapore

College of Civil Engineering, Nanjing Tech University, Nanjing, China
E-mail: ceeljy@nus.edu.sg, zhenyu_huang@u.nus.edu

Department of Civil Engineering, Tianjin University, Tianjin, China

E-mail: ceeyanj@163.com
ABSTRACT
Keywords:
Composite wall; Fatigue;
High strength steel; Impact;
Cement composite; Shear
connector; Steel-Concrete-Steel;
Sandwich.

Steel-concrete-steel (SCS) sandwich structures consisting of two steel face plates infilled with
lightweight cement composite material has been developed. Their structural behavior under
blast, impact, fatigue, flexural, axial compression and punching shear loads has been
investigated numerically and experimentally. Novel shear connectors, high strength steel
plates and new lightweight cement composite materials have been considered for the
development of the new SCS sandwich structure to increase their strength-to-weight
performance. Extensive tests have been conducted to study the SCS panels with newly
developed J-hook connectors to achieve better composite action to resist flexural, shear, impact
and fatigue loads. Sandwich beams, flat and curved SCS sandwich plates under patch loading
are also investigated. The experimental results are essential to understand the fundamental
behavior of the SCS sandwich structures, and provide data for the development of the analytical
models and to establish design guide for practical implementation. In this paper, the design
resistances of the connectors, flexural, shear, impact, blast and fatigue resistances of the SCS
sandwich beam, and punching shear resistance of the SCS sandwich plates and walls have been
established. Their accuracies were validated by the test data previously reported by the authors.

the imperfection of the bonding material that comprised

the integrity of the SCS sandwich structure. Double skin
structure adopted the overlapped stud connectors to bond
the concrete and steel skin that was initially proposed as
the immersed tunnels (Tomlinson et al. 1990). However,
this bond between the steel and concrete and strength of
the structure greatly depended on the concrete core. Once
the concrete core failed especially when the structure was
subjected to impact or blast load, the failed concrete core
would compromise the resistance and integrity of the
structure. Another representative type of SCS sandwich
structure is called the Bi-steel structures in which the two
steel face plates were linked by straight steel bar
connectors using frictional weld technology (Bowerman
& Chapman 2000). However, the installation of the
connectors was limited by the fabricating apparatus of the
friction welding and the thickness of this type SCS
sandwich structure must be within 0.2-0.7 m. Angle
connectors was also used in the SCS sandwich
constructions in Japan (Malek et al. 1993). Due to the
shallow embedment of the angle connectors, bond failure
tended to take place at the service state unless additional
stiffeners were provided. To develop slim deck for
offshore constructions, J-hook connectors were

1 INTRODUCTION
Steel-concrete-steel (SCS) sandwich composite
structure consists of two steel face plates and a
sandwiched concrete core which are bonded together by
mechanical shear connectors to form an integrity unit to
resist lateral loads. In the early days, SCS sandwich
structures were mainly developed for infrastructures and
tunnels to resist loading due to accidental impact, and
vehicular collision. With the recent research effort of
focused investigation on their performance under static
impact, fatigue and blast load (Liew & Sohel 2009; Liew
and Wang 2011; Yan et al. 2014a-d; Huang et al.
2015a-b), its applications have been extended to offshore
decking, protective structures, ship hull, oil storage
containers and ice-resistant walls in the Arctic offshore
structures .
Different types of SCS sandwich composite structures
have been developed by using different bonding
techniques at the steel-concrete interface. Cohesive
materials (e.g. epoxy) were used in the SCS sandwich
composite structures by Solomon et al. (1976). Compared
with the mechanical shear connectors, brittle bond failure
tended to take place at the steel-concrete interface due to
544

Liew et al.

Dai 2009). More recently, a new type of ultra-lightweight

cement composite (ULCC) with a low density of
980-1450 kg/m3 and with high compressive strength up to
60 MPa, has been developed (Chia et al. 2010; Wang et
al. 2013). Subsequent research was focused on their use
in sandwich structures.
In this paper, recent research and development works
on SCS sandwich structures at the National University of
Singapore were summarized. These works include the
development of new SCS sandwich structures, new
lightweight cement composite core materials, studying on
the resistances of the shear connectors, experimental and
analytical investigation on SCS sandwich beams, plates
and shells, and studying their impact, fatigue and blast
performances. Finally, analytical formulae were
developed to predict the design resistance of SCS
structures under axial compression, moment, shear and
punching loads.

developed by Liew et al. (2009) as shown in Figure 1(a).

Experimental studies shows that SCS sandwich structure
with J-hook connectors exhibited excellent performances
under impact, blast, and fatigue loadings (Liew and Wang
2011, Dai and Liew 2010). This type of structure is
suitable for applications such as shear walls, protective
structure, hulls of cargo tank, decks in bridge or offshore
structures, and ice-resistant wall in Arctic offshore
platform as shown in Figure 1(b-e).

Protective structure

Shear Wall
J-hook
connectors

T= Tension
force

Beam

Explosion

Concrete
Steel plate

(a) Shear wall.

Separation
J-hook
connector

(b) Protective structure.

Stiffners

2 NOVEL SHEAR CONNECTORS FOR

SANDWICH CONSTRUCTION

Cargo tank
Stiffened steel plate
Steel plate

Connections between horizontal

member and vertical member

Steel-concrete-steel sandwich structures consist of

three major components: two external steel face plates,
concrete or cement composite core and shear connectors.
Among them, shear connectors act essentially on
providing longitudinal and transverse shear resistance,
and offering pull-out resistance to prevent separation
between steel plates and concrete core. To achieve the
above requirements, SCS sandwich structure with
different types of shear connectors are developed as
shown in Figure 2.

Connectors
Concrete
Steel-concrete-steel
sandwich panel

Cargo tank

(c) Ship hulls.

Outer steel skin

Concrete core
Inner steel skin

(d) Arctic offshore structure.

Steel-concrete-steel
sandwich deck
A
A

(a)

(b)

(d)

(e)

(g)

(h)

(c)

Steel face plate

Concrete

A
J-hook connector

Main Beam
Sea level

A-A section

(f)

(e) Offshore deck.

Figure 1. Applications of the SCS sandwich structure.

To reduce the overall self-weight of the SCS

sandwich structure, lightweight concrete (LWC) has been
developed (Chia et al. 2011). Benefiting from the
development of the LWC mixture, there were more
choices for the designers and researchers to select the
core materials when designing the SCS sandwich
structures to achieve higher strength to weight ratio.
LWC with a density of 1450 kg/m3 and compressive
strength of 30 MPa has been developed and used in SCS
sandwich composite structures (Liew and Sohel 2009;

(i)

(j)
(k)
(l)
Figure 2. Novel shear connectors for SCS sandwich structure.

These new types of connectors are (a) Angle-Steel

bar-Angle (ASA); (b) Angle-T channel(AT); (c)

545

Liew et al.

Angle-Steel hoop-Angle (AHA); (d) Angle-C

channel-Angle (ACA); (e) U connector-Steel bar-U
connector (USU); (f) Angle-I beam-Angle (AIA); (g)
AngleAngle (AA); (h) U connector-Steel Cable-U
connector (UCU); (i) Root connector (RC); (j) Wave
connector (WC); (k) Wave strip (WS); (l) Wave-bar-wave
connector (WBW).
The angle connectors or the U shape connectors are
welded to the exterior steel plates to provide interface
slipping resistance. The inserted steel bar (used in ASA
and USU), steel hoops (used in AHA), C channel
(used in ACA), I beam (used in AIA) and the steel
cables (used in UCU), all serve the same function which
is to link the two face steel plates preventing them from
tensile separation and to provide bond enhancement
between the concrete core and face plates. These
connectors have their own merits in term of ease of
installation and ability to withstand extreme loads
without loss of structural integrity.
The cable and U-shaped connectors, as shown in
Figure 2(h), require the least steel consumption and they
are feasible to install in a slim sandwich panel. Here the
cable would be threaded through the hoops, using a
stinger traveling along a straight-line generator, with the
U-shaped connectors temporarily in an overlapped
position. Remote-controlled jacks would then be used to
spread the plates into their final position and deform the
cables. By preventing further separation, the cables would
resist hydrostatic pressure during the concrete pour, and
would enable diagonal compression in the concrete after
curing.

Stress (MPa)

1000

HSS +30C

750

HSS -0C
HSS -60C

500

NMS+30C

250

NMS- 0C
NMS -60C

0
0.0

0.1

0.2

0.3

Strain

0.4

Figure 3. Stress-strain curves of the normal mild steel (NMS)

and high strength steel (HSS) under different temperatures.

Different types of concrete mixtures such as normal

weight concrete (NWC), lightweight concrete (LWC),
and ultra-lightweight cement composite (ULCC) could be
used in the SCS sandwich composite structure. The
ULCC was a special type of fibre-reinforced cement
composite material with a density of 1450 kg/m3 and
28-day compressive strength of about 60 MPa. Detailed
properties and description of such materials is reported by
Chia et al. (2010). The ULCC has a high specific strength
(strength to density ratio) above 40 compared to 25
kPa/(kg/m3) for normal concrete with similar strength.
Besides a 40% weight reduction from conventional
concrete, the ULCC exhibits ultimate tensile and flexural
strengths comparable with conventional concrete of
similar strength. Due to its porous matrix, the ULCC has
lower modulus of elasticity which is approximately 50%
that of normal weight concrete. Table 1 shows the
material properties of the ULCC at 28-day. Basic
components of the ULCC were ordinary Portland cement,
silica fume, fine aggregate named cenosphere with a
diameter of ranging 100 to 300 m and 6 mm long
polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) fiber. Short PVA fibers (0.5%
by volume) were used in ULCC to reduce the shrinkage
and drying effect. To improve the workability and
performance of such material, super plasticiser and
shrinkage reducing admixture were added to achieve a
desired flow of 210~240 mm. Such high flow was
required so that the cement composite can fill the thin
void between the two steel plates and flow around the
closely spaced shear connectors. Besides the weight
saving, the absence of the coarse aggregates leads to a
highly workable material suitable for pumping and
grouting in construction.

3 USE OF HIGH STRENGTH STEEL AND

LIGHTWEIGHT CONCRETE MATERIALS
In steel-concrete-steel sandwich composite structures,
the steel and concrete are the main materials that are used
to resist tension and compression forces, respectively.
Recently, high strength steel (HSS) with yield strength
over 700 MPa was available for the steel-concrete
composite structure (Xiong 2013, Qiang et al. 2012). This
significantly increases the strength to weight ratio of the
structure. Yan et al. (2014a) studied the mechanical
properties of the mild steel and high strength steel under
ambient and low temperatures (-60oC) that considers the
applications of the SCS sandwich structure in the Arctic
region. Figure 3 compares the engineering stress-strain
curves of the normal mild steel and high strength steel
under tension. The steel strengths in term of proof load
and ultimate tensile strength increase as the temperature
is lower from room temperature of 30oC to -60oC
although the percentage of increase is not very significant
(less than 10%).

Table 1 Basic material properties of ULCC at age 28-day.

Item
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8

546

Material property
Density after de-mould
Compressive strength, cube fcu
Compressive strength cylinder fck
Ratio fck/ fcu
Splitting tensile strength
Flexural strength
Static modulus of elasticity
Static Poissons ratio

ULCC
1450 kg/m3
64.0 MPa
64.6 MPa
1.01
4.4 MPa
6.7 MPa
16 GPa
0.25

Liew et al.

4 MECHANICAL CONNECTORS FOR

COMPOSITE ACTION

T pl 1.26 f ck eh d 0.116 f y d 2

where eh denotes the distance from the inner shaft of a Jor L-bolt to the outer tip of the J- or L-bolt, and
3d<eh<4.5d.

Mechanical shear connectors play an important role in

the structural performance of SCS sandwich structures.
The shear and tensile resistances of the connectors
needed to be established.

4.3

4.1 Shear resistance of connectors

f ck Eck ,0.8 u d 2 / 4 / v

(1a)

where 0.2 hs / d 1 for 3 hs / d 4 , 1 for hs/d>4;

fck is the compressive strength of concrete cylinder; Eck
denotes elastic Youngs modulus of the concrete; d is the
connector diameter; v is the partial factor; u denotes the
ultimate strength of the connector.
For the J-hook connectors, Yan et al. (2014b)
proposed the formulae to calculate shear resistance as the
following:
h
PJ 0.855 f ck0.265 Ec0.469 As c
d

0.154

/ v 0.8 u As / v

(1b)

where fck is the concrete compressive strength, in MPa; Ec

denotes the Elastic modulus, in MPa; As is cross sectional
area of connector, in mm2; u denotes the ultimate
strength of connector, in MPa; hc denotes the embedding
depth of connector, in mm; v is the partial factor for
shear connector.
4.2

5 FLEXURAL AND SHEAR BEHAVIOR

Three- or four-point bending tests on SCS sandwich
beams have been carried out to investigate their structural
performance under flexural and transverse shear forces
(Liew and Sohel 2009; Yan et al. 2014c; Yan et al.
2015b).

Tensile resistance of connectors

5.1

The tensile resistance for the mechanical connectors is

governed by the smallest value of (1) concrete breakout
resistance TCB, (2) pullout resistance Tpl, (3) tensile
fracture resistance Ts and (4) punching shear resistance of
the steel plate Tps (Yan et al. 2014b; Yan et al. 2014c;
Yan et al. 2015a,b).
For SCS sandwich with overlapped headed shear stud
(see Fig. 4), the tensile resistance can be determined by
TCB 0.333 f ck hs2 1 d / hs / c

T pl 11.2 Abrg f ck / c
Ths min
T As u / M 2
s
T dt f / 3 /
ys
M0
ps

Resistance of under combined shear and tension

Yan et al. (2015a) proposed the following formulae to

predict the resistance of the J-hook under combined shear
and tension based on calibration with numerical and test
results:
(a) If applied shear force P 0 .2 Pu , full tension
resistance can be developed:
P Pu
(4a)
(b) If applied tensile force T 0.2 Tu , full shear
resistance can be developed:
T Tu
(4b)
(c) If V 0 .2 V u and N 0.2 N u , then the
following interaction formula may be used:
(4c)
P / Pu T / Tu 1.2
where P denotes the design shear force; Pu is the design
shear resistance from Equation 1; T denotes the design tension
force, Tu is the design tension resistance of the connector
from Equation 2.

The design shear resistance of the headed shear studs

can be calculated by Eurocode 4 (2004):
PH min 0.29 d 2

(3)

Bending resistance

Several assumptions were made for the calculation of

the flexural resistance of the SCS sandwich composite
beams as the following: 1) plane section remains plane;
2) contribution of tensile strength of concrete is ignored;
3) full plastic rectangular stress block can be developed in
the concrete. Based on plastic analysis of cross section,
the plastic stress blocks acting on a SCS section are
shown in Figure 4.
B

(2)
tc

fck

x x

Ncs
Ncc

hc

where hs is height of the connector; fck is compressive

strength of the concrete cylinder; Abrg is the bearing area
of the head of stud; M2 is partial factor for cross-section
in tension to fracture (Eurocode 3, 2005); M0 is partial
factor for resistance of cross-section (Eurocode 3, 2005).
For SCS sandwich structure with J-hook connectors
(see Fig. 12), the pullout resistance in Equation (2) needs
to be modified as follow (Yan et al. 2014d):

tt

N ts

Figure 4. Stress block of the sandwich composite beam section.

The compressive strength of the concrete can be

calculated as in Eurocode 2 (2004)
N cc f ck xB / c

547

(5)

Liew et al.

where B is the width of the beam; x is the depth of the

neutral axis position. =0.8 for fck 50 MPa,
=0.8-(fck-50)/400 for 50< fck 90 MPa; =1.0 for fck 50
MPa; =1.0-(fck-50)/200 for 50< fck 90 MPa; c is the
partial factor for concrete.
The maximum force developed in the steel plate is
governed by either the yield resistance of the steel plate
or the shear resistance of the connectors in the
compressive or tension zone of the concrete, i.e.
N cs min nc Ps , f ysc Asc / M 0

Vrd Vc Vs

where Vc is the shear resistance of concrete and Vs is the

shear resistance provided by mechanical connectors. Vc
can be calculated as
1/ 3
Vc C Rd k1 100 1 f ck Bhe

(6)

he hc tc Es / Ec

(7)

N ts N cs
f ck B x / c

Vs n0Tz / S

(8b)

(9a)

Vs
z

When the top and bottom steel plates are of equal

Vs

thickness and strength i.e. tc = tt, the moment capacity of

s

lower surface of the compression steel plate (i.e., x 0 )

until the top steel plate yields. Therefore, the plastic

Vc

Figure 5. Shear resistance of SCS sandwich section with

overlapped headed shear studs.

moment of resistance of the sandwich section may be

obtained from Eq. (7-9) as

5.2

the section is reached when the neutral axis moves near the

M rd N ts hc t c / 2 t s / 2

(13)

where T=Ths is the tensile resistance of a pair of

overlapped headed studs embedded in concrete core by
Equation 2; S is the spacing of the connectors, in mm; z is
the depth of the section of the SCS sandwich composite
beam; T, S, z are as shown in Figure 5.

(8a)

The plastic moment resistance is obtained by taking

moment about the center of the compression steel plate as
M rd N ts hc t c / 2 t s / 2 N cc x / 2

(12)

where, hc is the height of the concrete core; tc is the

thickness of the compression steel face plate; Es is the
elastic Youngs modulus of steel face plate; Ec is the
elastic secant modulus of concrete.
The shear resistance provided by the presence of
headed stud connectors is calculated by:

where nt is the number of the shear connectors attached to

the tension steel plate; fyst and Ast are yield strength and
area of the steel plate under tension, respectively.
Based on the equilibrium of tension and compression
force acting on the section, the depth of compression
zone of concrete can be calculated by
Ncc Ncs Nts

(11)

where CRd equals 0.18/c for normal weight concrete and

equals
0.15/c
for
lightweight
concrete;
k 1 200 / hc 2.0 and hc is height of concrete core in
mm; 1 0.40 0.60u / 2200 is the tensile strength
reduction coefficient, and u is density of the lightweight
concrete in kg/m3; 1 ts / hc ts tc / 2 0.02 ; tc is the
thickness of the steel plate under compression; ts is the
thickness of the steel plate under tension; B is the width
of the beam; he is the effective height of the beam.
Considering the thickness of the steel plate, the
effective depth of the SCS beam needs to be modified as

where nc is the number of the shear connectors in the

compressive zone; Ps is the shear resistance of the
connectors calculated by Eqn.(1); fysc and Asc are yield
strength and area of the steel plate in compression,
respectively; M 0 is the partial safety factor.
Following the same principle, the tension force in the
tension steel plate could also be calculated by
Nts min nt Ps , f yst Ast / M 0

(10)

5.3
(9b)

Resistance under combined bending moment and

shear forces

The design equation proposed by Roberts et al. (1996)

may be used to check the strength of beam section subject
to combined action of bending and shear

Shear resistance

Transverse shear resistance of the SCS sandwich

composite beam consists of contributions from the
concrete core and shear resistance provided by the
overlapped connectors as (Eurocode 4 2004, Eurocode 2
2004):

V M
2

R 1
V
M
rd rd

548

(14)

Liew et al.

where Vrd and Mrd are the shear and bending resistances
of the beam section, respectively; V and M are the shear
force and bending moment acted on the beam section; R
is the index of the strength which is used to check the
load capacity of the sandwich composite beam.
The critical sections of the SCS sandwich composite
beam can be judged from the bending moment and shear
distribution diagram.

The plastic response equations can be

Ru 0 ; we w wm
(me ms ) w
Ru K R ( wm w) 0 ;
(me ms ) w

(16)

wm 2 we w wm (17)

where me is the effective mass of the beam, Ru is the

resistance force at yielding of the beam, we is the elastic
limit displacement until the load-deflection curve remain
linear i.e. the deflection at maximum resistance Ru, shown
in Figure 9; Kr is the unloading stiffness of the beam after
the formation of plastic hinge, and wm is the maximum
deflection.

Figure 6. Scatter of R ratio for different types of sandwich

composite beams.

5.4

Validations

78 tests on SCS sandwich beams with different types

of connectors, which are reported by Yan et al. (2014c,
2015b), Oduyemi and Wright (1989), Foundoukos
(2005), Roberts et al. (1996), and McKinley and Boswell
(2002), were used to check that accuracy of the proposed
models. The R ratios of these 78 beams are plotted in
Figure 6. It shows that the average R ratio for 78 beam
tests is 1.29 with a coefficient of variation (COV) of 0.16.
The proposed models give conservative and reasonable
predictions on the ultimate strength of the SCS sandwich
beam structure.

Figure 7. Drop weight impact test steel frame.

J-hook@200

6 IMPACT BEHAVIOR

J-hook@100

Liew et al. (2009) reported 10 impact tests on SCS

sandwich beams. Figures 7 and 8 show the impact test
set-up and failure modes of SCS sandwich beam with
J-hook connector and conventional headed studs. These
tests show that J-hook shear connectors are effective in
preventing tensile separation of the steel face plates, thus
reducing the overall beam deflection and maintaining the
structural integrity. The proposed SCS beam concept
offers significant advantages compared with conventional
stiffened steel beams and decks.
An elastic-plastic model is used for the analysis of
sandwich beams subject to impact loading.
If the impact energy is large, the sandwich slab will
have a large global deflection and the local indentation
becomes negligible. The model can be further simplified
as the single-degree-of freedom (SDOF) system with
initial velocity.
(15)
ke w 0 we 0
(me ms ) w

Shear studs@100

Figure 8. Damage in the SCS sandwich beam after impact.

Figure 9. Idealized force displacement curve.

549

Liew et al.

In the elastic and plastic phase, the shape function of

beam deflection may be written as i Sin(i x / L) and
i 2 x / L respectively for i = 1, 3, 5 and x L / 2 .
Using the assumed shape function for the elastic and
plastic stage, the equivalent beam mass (me) is as
1) Elastic stage
me 2

L/2

L/2

mb / L i2 dx

1
mb / L sin(i x / L) dx mb
2

(18)

2) Plastic stage
me 2

L/2

L/2

mb / L i2 dx

1
2
mb / L 2 x / L dx mb
3

(19)

To solve the dynamic plastic response equations for

deflections, central difference method is adopted

2M
2M
wi 1
wi 2
Kwi 1
( t) 2
( t) 2

wi

( t) 2
M

wi

( t) 2
2M
2M
wi 1
wi 2 for we w wm
Ru
M
( t) 2
( t) 2

for 0 we

Ru K r wm K r wi 1
( t) 2
for w 2 w w w
wi
2M
2M
m
e
m
wi 1
wi 2
M
2
2
( t)
( t)

(20a)

(20b)

(20c)

Figure 10. Fatigue test set-up, fatigue loading scheme and

failure modes of SCS sandwich beams.

The fatigue life of the SCS sandwich structure is

affected by both the fatigue load range P and maximum
applied load Pmax. The maximum applied stress and stress
range equally and independently affect the structural
behavior of the SCS sandwich system, which is reflected
by permanent deformation, hysteretic response, stiffness
and energy absorption capacity. Fatigue life reduces
when the load range P or maximum applied load Pmax
increases.
Based on these experimental observations,
three-parameter fatigue design equation is proposed
based on calibration with test data as follow:

where me + ms = M. If damping is considered in the post

peak region of deflection then a damping term (cw)
should be added in the left side of Eqn. 17 and the
numerical solution of Eqn. 17 can be obtained as

1 Ru K r wm K r wi 1
M
c

wi

2M
c
2M
2
w

w
2 t
( t)
( t) 2 i 1 ( t) 2 2t i 2

(21)

for wm 2 we w wm

7 FATIGUE BEHAVIOR
Dai & Liew (2010) reported eight SCS sandwich
beams subjected to static and fatigue loads. Figure 10
shows the test set-up, loading scheme and failure modes
of SCS sandwich beams subject to fatigue loading. The
fatigue tests showed that the SCS sandwich beam with a
fiber-reinforced lightweight concrete core and J-hook
connectors are capable of interlocking the face plates and
providing a composite action between steel and concrete
when it is subject transverse load fluctuating within an
applied load range P. as shown in Fig. 10.

log10 ( N f ) 5.09 4.33 log10
u

3.00 log10 1

(22)

where Nf is the fatigue life, i.e. the number of cycles to

failure; is the shear stress range; u is the static
ultimate strength of the connector.
The developed regression formula, i.e. Eqn 22, has
considered the ultimate stress and stress range applied on
the SCS sandwich structure that make improvements to
most of the design codes that consider only the stress
range. Figure 11 compares the N-S curves calculated by
the developed design formula with those predicted by the
current design guidelines.

550

Liew et al.

180

JSSC (1995)
AASHTO (1994)
Foundoukos (2007)
EC4 (2005)
BS5400(1980)
Dai and Liew (2010)

(N/mm2)

160
140
120
100
80
60
40
4

log10(Nf)

10

Figure 11. Comparison of SN curves with current codes.

8 BLAST BEHAVIOR

Figure 13. Blast tests: Specimen SP (stiffened plate on the left)

and specimen SCSN4 (SCS panel on the right) after blast.

An experimental programme was funded by Defense

Agency in Singapore to investigate the resistance of SCS
sandwich panel subject to blast loads. A total of 6
specimens were fabricated for 3 blast tests. Two
specimens were tested in each blast load. The
configuration and notations of the specimens are
illustrated in Figure 12. Each specimen has a length of
1200 mm and width of 495 mm. The core thicknesses are
all 70 mm. The test specimen SP was constructed as a
cellular structure with internal plate stiffeners welded to
the two face plates. Specimen SCS was constructed using
the steel-concrete-steel sandwich concept in such a way
that they have similar moment resistance and stiffness as
the SP specimens.

Top Plate

After the blast, the cellular stiffened plate panel (SP)

experienced very large permanent deformation
(>100mm). The sandwich specimen (SCS), which was
subject to the same blast load, sustained relatively less
deflection. The maximum permanent mid-span
deformation was 27 mm.
Considering the two
specimens were designed of same face plate thickness,
same stiffness, and same static flexural capacity, the
difference is mainly attributed to the concrete core that
added mass and rigidity of the structural system. This
demonstrated the effectiveness of SCS sandwich
composite compared with the stiffened plate panel in
terms of maintaining structural integrity and residual
capacity.
Numerical analyses were carried out using LS-DYNA
for sandwich panels subject to blast load. Only the effect
of concrete core material is studied, which includes the
strength of concrete and mass of concrete core. These
SCS panels were subject to large impulsive load of 100
kg TNT detonated at 5 m. The general deformed shape at
their respective peak displacements together with the
history of the mid-span displacement of 3 panels with
different types of concrete filled materials: high strength
concrete (HSC), normal weight concrete (NWC) and
lightweight aggregate concrete (LWAC), are shown in
Figure 14. The SCS panel with HSC infill core deflected
the least while the panel infilled with LWAC exhibited
the largest deflection. The analyses show that the density
of the core material and the mass of the structural system
play a major role in the blast performance of a sandwich
panel.

Top Plate

J-hook
Connectors

Internal
Stiffeners
Side Plate

Side Plate

Bottom Plate
End Plate

Bottom Plate
End Plate

(a)

(b)

Figure 12 .Configurations and notations of (a) SCS: sandwich

specimen with connectors (b) SP: cellular stiffened plate.

Three different structural grade concrete materials

were employed as sandwich core: normal strength
concrete (NSC), lightweight aggregate concrete (LWAC)
and ultra high strength concrete (HSC). As shown in
Figure 13, five 20 kg TNT (100 kg in total) military crater
charges were arranged in an annular pattern and were
placed at a standoff distance of 5 m from the specimens.
The same arrangement and position of the charges were
maintained in all the three blasts.

551

Liew et al.

have also been developed to predict these two punching

shear resistances as the following
P1 0.75VRd , c VRd , s

(23)

where VRd,c is the design punching shear resistance of the

core material; VRd,s denotes the design punching shear
resistance by the connectors or shear reinforcement.
(a) Deformed modes & stress of SCS panel.

(b) Mid-span displacement-time history of SCS panels with

different core materials
Figure 14. SCS Panels subject to blast loads.

9 CURVED STEEL-CONCRETE STEEL

SANDWICH STRUCTURE

The expanding demand for oil and gas drives the

petroleum explorations in the Arctic region where about
13% of the worlds undiscovered oil and 30% of the
worlds undiscovered gas are stored (Gautier et al. 2009,
Liu 2011). Curved Steel-Concrete-Steel (SCS) sandwich
composite structure, consisting of two external steel
shells with the annulus and sandwiched concrete core
(see Figure 1), has been proposed as the ice-resistant
walls in the Arctic offshore platform that aims to be used
in the region with the water depth of 10~100 m (Marshall
et al. 2010). This type of structure uses the arching effect
that permits larger load carrying capacity and longer
span. Yan (2012) reported tests on nine large scale curved
SCS sandwich structures under concentrated patch
loading that considers the localized ice-contact pressure.
Figures 15 and 16 show the test set-up and failure modes
of curved SCS sandwich panel subject to punching load.
The test results showed that introducing the J-hook
type of mechanical shear connectors, adopting high
curvature of the curved SCS sandwich structure, using
higher flexural reinforcing content and higher strength
concrete core increased the punching shear resistance of
the curved SCS sandwich structure. As shown in Figure
17, the test results also show that the curved SCS
sandwich structure exhibits two peak resistances P1 and
P2, which correspond to the punching shear failure of the
concrete core and the top steel shell, respectively.
Including the experimental studies, analytical models

Figure 15. SCS Panels subject to punching load.

Figure 16. Punching failure of curved SCS panels subject to

patch load.

Figure 17. Load-central deflection curves of curved SCS panels.

552

Liew et al.

the load was applied through a pad at the top of the arch,
but in several cases, the load was applied off centre
(Huang et al. 2015a-c).

Punching shear resistance contributed by the core

material can be determined as,

4.0

(24a)
Test-to-prediction ratio

(24b)

(24c)

where CRd , k ,1 , and 1 , are specified in Eqn. (11).

hlong = hc ts Es / Ec
harch = R ts 2hc

(25a)

R ts hc a / 2
2

R ts 1 cos ts Es / Ec

2.0
1.5
1.0
0.5
0.0
0

10

12

14

Specimen Number

16

18

20

Figure 18. Comparison of predictions with test results.

(25b)

Figure 20 shows the shear failure of curved SCS

sandwich beam while Figure 21 plots the applied force
against the displacement under the point at which the load
is applied, for r/L (rise/span) ratios of 0.5, 0.21 and 0
(flat); r/L=0.5 is a semi-circular arch. It can be seen that
the arch effect is substantial, but it needs to be
remembered that these arches are quite narrow and that a
complete ring would not be constrained by supports.
The shear resistance of curved sandwich beam may be
determined as,

where R denotes the radius of the shell; ts is the thickness

of the steel shell; hc is the thickness of concrete core; a
denotes the loading area; Es and Ec are the Youngs
modulus of steel and concrete, respectively.
Punching shear resistance contributed by the shear
connectors is
nT
VRd , s
ht sin
(26)
s
where T is tensile strength of the connectors, calculated
by Eqn.(2); n is the quantity of overlapped connectors
within the critical perimeter; ht is the thickness of the
shell section; S is the average spacing of the connectors;
is the inclination angle of the shear stud.
The punching shear resistance of the top steel shell
can be determined by (Huang et al. 2015a)
P2 u tsU p / 3

2.5

cp
f ck
T
bhe hc cos i
20 c
i 1 s

(28)

where, fck is the compressive strength of concrete; c is

partial safety factor for concrete; he is the effective height
of section calculated by Eqn.(12); T is the tensile
resistance of shear connector in sandwich beam; i is the
angle between each stud axis and vertical axis.

(27)

hs

where Up is the perimeter of the patch loading area; ts is

the thickness of the steel shell.
The predictions by the developed analytical models
are compared with the tests results in Figure 18. It shows
that the developed analytical model significantly
improved the accuracy compared with the other available
design guidelines.
The research has been extended by further tests on
segments of cylindrical shells. The scheme is indicated in
Figure 19 below. There are two curved steel plates, to
which are attached overlapping steel stud shear connects.
The space between the plates is filled with concrete. The
test shells carried end plates, which rest on foundations
that prevent outward movement. The tests explored the
effect of changing the ratio between the span L and the
rise r, and of changing the stud spacing and the
compressive strength of the concrete. In most of the tests

ts

Vlong CRd k1 100 1 f ck Lb harch

1/3

3.0

concrete
top plate

end plate
connector

bottom plate
hc

1/3
Varch C Rd k1 100 1 f ck La hlong

Prediction by Authors
ACI 318
EC2
Sabnis & Shadid

3.5

VRd ,c 2 Varch Vlong

Figure 19. Typical specimen for curved SCS sandwich panel.

553

Liew et al.

Figure 20. Shear failure of the curved SCS sandwich beam.

FSB-01(r/L=0)
CSB-03(r/L=0.21)
CSB-08(r/L=0.5)

600

Load P (kN)

500

Figure 22. Fabrication of SCS sandwich wall.

400
P

300

r
L

200

100
0

10
15
20
Displacement (mm)

25

30

Figure 21. Measured force/displacement relationship.

10 STEEL-CONCRETE-STEEL SANDWICH
WALL
Steel-concrete-steel (SCS) sandwich wall infilled with
ultra-lightweight cement composite has been developed and
proposed for applications in offshore and building constructions.
A new form of J-hook connector is introduced to connect the
external plates to improve the composite action between the steel
face plates and cement composite core to form an integrated unit
which is capable of resisting extreme loads, as shown in Figure
22. This research experimentally investigates the structural
behavior of SCS sandwich composite wall based on a series of
combined compression and uniaxial bending tests on short SCS
sandwich composite wall with interlocking J-hook connectors
(Huang and Liew, 2015). Figure 23 shows the test set-up for SCS
sandwich wall subject to compression and uni-axial bending.
From the tests, it is found that the SCS sandwich wall exhibits
good structural behavior with a bending failure model. Figure 24
illustrates typical failure mode namely concrete core crushing and
local buckling of steel face plates in the specimens. Analytical
studies show that the N-M interaction model based on Eurocode 4
may over-predict the combined resistance of the SCS sandwich
walls subject to eccentric loading. Therefore, a modified approach
is proposed to evaluate the resistance of sandwich wall. The axial
force versus moment capacity interaction diagrams of sandwich
wall are determined. Figure 16 illustrates the validation against
the test and FE results, showing a reasonable and conservative
estimation on the combined resistance of SCS sandwich wall.

Figure 23. Test set-up of SCS sandwich wall subject to

compression and uniaxial bending.

(a) e=0 mm;

(b) e=20 mm.

(c) e=40 mm;

(d) e= 70mm.
Figure 24. Failure mode of SCS sandwich wall subject to
compression and bending.

554

Liew et al.

Figure 25. Proposed N-M interaction model againt Eurocode 4

prediction, test and FE results.

11 CONCLUSIONS
This paper summarizes the developments of the
Steel-Concrete-Steel (SCS) sandwich structures in the
structural laboratory at the National University of
Singapore. Novel connectors and new ultra lightweight
cement composite (ULCC) core material with density as
low as 980 kg/m3 and novel J-hook connectors were
developed to enhance the strength to weight ratio and the
structural performance of sandwich composite structures.
Experimental and analytical studies were carried out to
investigate the structural behaviours of the SCS sandwich
structures under static, impact, blast and fatigue loads.
Based on these experimental and analytical studies, the
following conclusions can be drawn
1) ULCC and high strength steel used in the SCS
sandwich structure reduced the self-weight and increased
the strength to weight ratio of the structure.
2) Novel types of shear connectors were developed
that offer effective mechanical bonding between the face
plates and the cement composite core. Design guidelines
predicting the shear, tension, and shear-tension
interaction resistances of the J-hook shear connectors
have been developed and their accuracy was verified
against numerical and experimental results.
3) Flexural and shear behaviours of the SCS sandwich
beams have been studied experimentally. Design
formulae to predict the bending and shear resistances
have been proposed.
4) A series of tests on SCS sandwich beams subjected
to impact, blast and fatigue loads was carried out to
investigate the structural performance of the SCS
sandwich structures under these extreme load scenarios.
An elastic-plastic analysis method was proposed to
predict the force-indentation relationship of sandwich
sections subjected to local impact. Dynamic analysis
based on the local force-indentation relationship was
carried out to predict the impact force and global
response behavior of the sandwich beams.

5) Results from fatigue tests on SCS beams showed

that their fatigue life was affected by both the fatigue
stress range and maximum applied stress. The maximum
applied stress and stress range affected the structural
behavior of the SCS sandwich system. Fatigue life
reduced when the load range or maximum applied load
increases. A new three-parameter fatigue design equation
was proposed based on calibration with test data.
6) The blast performance of the SCS panels improved
with the increase in the flexural and shear stiffness and
the weight of the internal core material. Tests on SCS
sandwich panels demonstrate promising structural
performance, engineering flexibility and construction
economy making them suitable for use as protective
structures.
7) Large scale tests on the curved SCS sandwich
plates subjected to patch load were carried out. The
curved SCS shell has better design resistance against high
punching shear force compared to flat panels. Design
formula to predict the punching shear resistance of the
curved SCS sandwich structure was proposed and
verified against the test results. The design formula
considered the rise-to-span effect, steel face plate
thickness and failure mode of shear connectors in the
curved SCS shell.
8) Tests on SCS sandwich walls subject to
compression were performed. Test observations showed
that SCS sandwich wall exhibits excellent compression
resistance and post peak ductility if J-hook connectors
were provided to prevent separation of face plates. The
direct use of Eurocode 4 method may over-predict the
combined compression and moment (N-M) resistance of
SCS sandwich wall. Therefore, a new N-M interaction
model was proposed and its accuracy was verified against
the test and FE results, and comparison of results showed
that the propose method provides reasonable and
conservative estimations compared to the Eurocode 4
method.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors would like to acknowledge the research grant
R-302-501-002-490 received from the Maritime and Port
Authority of Singapore for conducting parts of the works
reported herein. The research work done by Dr K
Sohel, Dr Dai XX, Dr Wang TY, Dr Chia KS and Dr
Wang JY are gratefully acknowledged.

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BS 5400. 1980. Steel, concrete and composite bridges, Part 10.
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Chia, K.S., Zhang, M.H. and Liew, J.Y.R. 2011. High-strength
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Design, Verification & Utilization,
9-11 Aug, Rotorua, New Zealand.
Dai, X.X., Liew, J.Y.R. 2010. Fatigue performance of
lightweight steelconcretesteel sandwich systems. Journal
of Constructional Steel Research; 66(2): 256276.
Dai, X.X. 2009. Fatigue analysis and design of
steel-concrete-steel sandwich composite structures. National
University of Singapore, PhD thesis.
Eurocode 2. 2004. Design of concrete structures- Part 1-1:
General rules and rules for buildings, BS EN 1992-1-1,
Brussels.
Eurocode 3. 2005. Design of steel structures-Part 1-1: General
rules and rules for buildings, BS EN 1993-1-1, Brussels.
Eurocode 4. 2004. Design of composite steel and concrete
structures-Part 1.1: General rules and rules for buildings,
BS EN 1994-1-1, Brussels.
Foundoukos, N. 2005. Behaviour and design of
steel-concrete-steel sandwich construction. PhD thesis,
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering,
University of London.
Gautier, D.L., Bird, K.J., Charpentier, R.R., Grantz, A.,
Houseknecht, D.H., Klett, T.R., Moore, T.E., Pitman, J.K.,
Schenk, C.J., Schuenemeyer, J.H., Srensen, K., Tennyson,
M.E., Valin, Z.C., & Wandrey, C.J. 2009. Assessment of
Undiscovered Oil and Gas in the Arctic. Science; 324:
1175-1179.
Huang, Z.Y., Liew, J.Y.R., Xiong, M.X., Wang, J.Y. 2015a.
Structural behaviour of double skin composite system using
ultra-lightweight cement composite. Construction and
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Huang, Z.Y., Wang, J.Y., Liew, J.Y.R., Marshall, P.W. 2015b.
Lightweight steelconcretesteel sandwich composite shell
subject to punching shear. Ocean Engineering 102: 146-161.
Huang, Z.Y., Palmer, A.C., Marshall, P.W., Liew, J.Y.R. 2015c.
Arctic platform constructions using steel-concrete-steel
sandwich composite. 23th International Conference on Port
and Ocean Engineering under Arctic Condition (POAC).
NTNU, Trondheim, Norway, 14-18 June.
Huang, Z.Y., Liew, J.Y.R. 2015. Structural behaviour of
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557

11th International Conference on

Advances in Steel and Concrete Composite Structures
Tsinghua University, Beijing, China, December 3-5, 2015

STATIC AND DYNAMIC BEHAVIOUR OF STEEL AND

COMPOSITE STRUCTURES UNDER PROGRESSIVE COLLAPSE
B. Yang a, b & K. H. Tan c
a

Key Laboratory of New Technology for Construction of Cities in Mountain Area(Chongqing University), Ministry of
Education, Chongqing, China
E-mail: yang0206@cqu.edu.cn
b

School of Civil Engineering, Chongqing University, Chongqing, China

School of Civil & Environmental Engineering, Nanyang Technological University , Singapore

E-mails: ckhtan@ntu.edu.sg
ABSTRACT
Keywords:
Steel and Composite
connections; Beam-column
Joints; Progressive Collapse;
Column-removal Scenario;
Dynamic Increase Factor.

Beam-column joints are the most critical elements in steel and composite structural systems
and they usually control the extent of catenary action developed in the beams because of the
limited resistance and rotation capacity of joints. However, there are very limited experimental
works on bolted steel and composite joints under progressive collapse. In this paper, both static
and dynamic tests were conducted on steel and composite structures under a middle-columnremoval scenario. The test results demonstrate the contribution of catenary action to the load
resistances of various types of steel beam-column joints. It is also found that composite slabs
could increase the load-carrying capacities of beam-column joints at both flexural action and
catenary action stages. The dynamic tests also demonstrate that forced-based dynamic increase
factors are dependent on connection types as well as load transfer mechanisms.

the behaviour of steel and composite bolted beam-column

joints under column-removal scenarios will be studied. It
should be noted that the scope of this research is focused
on a middle-column-removal scenario, in which both ends
of the beam elements have sufficient horizontal restraints
to provide catenary forces in the affected beams spanning
over the missing column.
It should be noted that progressive collapse is a
complex dynamic process and occurs in a matter of
seconds. Thus, dynamic effect is one of the most important
factors to assess the structural response. In this paper, both
static and dynamic tests were conducted on steel and
composite structures under a middle-column-removal
scenario.

1 INTRODUCTION
After the partial collapse of the Ronan Point apartment
tower in 1968, engineers begin to realise the importance of
structural resistance against progressive collapse. More
and more research works and design efforts have been
directed to this area, especially after the World Trade
Centre disaster on 11 September 2001.
It is noteworthy that the beam-column joints are the
most critical elements in steel and composite structural
systems and they usually control the extent of catenary
action because of the limited resistance and rotation
capacity of joints. However, although there have been
extensive research studies on different types of joint
behaviour under normal loads, which have led to the
codification of component-based approach to joint design
(Eurocode 3-1-8 2005), to date, there are relatively very
few research studies of the joint behaviour under columnremoval scenarios, especially for bolted steel connections.
According to the authors knowledge, there are very
limited analytical and experimental works on the influence
of the joint configuration on the extent of catenary action,
especially on bolted steel and composite joints, which are
the most popular connection types. Thus, it is necessary to
conduct further research works on this topic. In this study,

2 STATIC TESTS ON STEEL AND COMPOSITE

BEAM-COLUMN JOINTS

2.1 Experimental tests on steel beam-column joints

In this section, an experimental programme on steel
beam-column joints under a middle-column-removal
scenario will be presented. Experimental tests have been
carried out on different types of steel beam-column joints,
including simple and semi-rigid connections (Yang and
Tan, 2013). Bolted angle connections including web cleat,
top and seat angle and top and seat with web angle
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Yang et al.

(TSWA) were tested extensively while other types of

bolted connections like fin plate, flush end plate and
extended end plate were also studied by experimental tests.
The principal aim of this experimental programme is to
provide the experimental results of bolted steel beamcolumn joint behaviour, including failure modes,
development of forces and deflections in the beams under
a middle-column-removal scenario.
The hypothetical beam-column joint considered for
experimental tests is located above the storey where an
internal column has been forcibly removed. As shown in
Figure 1, after the removal of the middle column, the
internal forces and deflection of the middle and end
connections are symmetric. Thus, it is assumed that the
inflection point is located at the middle of the beam span
and remains stationary during the deflection process.
Therefore, only half of the beam span is simulated using
pin conditions, as shown in Figure 1. The behaviour of the
middle and side joints, including load-carrying and
rotation capacities, could be represented by the tested
specimens.

Figure 2. Failure modes of steel beam-column joints (Yang and

Tan, 2013)

Typical failure modes of different types of steel beamcolumn joints under a middle-column-removal scenario
are shown in Figure 2.

(a) Web cleat

Figure 1. Prototype steel beam-column joint (Yang and Tan,

2013)
(b) Flush end plate

(c) TSWA
Figure 3. Vertical force-middle column displacement curves of
(a) web cleat, (b) flush end plate and (c) TSWA connections
(Yang and Tan, 2013)

The beam axial forces and bending moments were

559

Yang et al.

measured directly at four steel cross-sections. Based on

bending moments, the shear forces of beams were
calculated. Thus, the two internal forces including beam
axial forces and shear forces were determined. Thus, the
load component resisted by catenary action and the load
component resisted by flexural action can be obtained, as
shown in Figure 3. As web cleat connections had limited
capacity to resist moment, the specimen rotated at both
ends with increasing deflection at the mid-span, as shown
in Figure 3 (a). Catenary action soon developed until
fracture occurred in the central connection. For flush end
plate connections, as shown in Figure 3 (b), the forcedisplacement history can be divided into two stages:
flexural action and catenary action. After local buckling of
the top flange of the left beam, flexural moment decreased
gradually and then the bottom bolt-row failed by thread
stripping. Finally, failure propagated to the top two boltrows and subsequently, the left connection was completely
severed. The TSWA connection has a similar behaviour in
load and deformation capacities and the same failure mode
with the web cleat connection in the experimental test.
With regard to the force-displacement history shown in
Figure 3 (c), there is no obvious point of demarcation
between flexural and tensile phases.

(b) Side joint

Figure 4. Prototype composite steel beam-column joint (Yang
and Tan, 2014)

Typical failure modes of composite steel beam-column

joints under a middle-column-removal scenario are shown
in Figure 5.

2.2 Experimental tests on composite steel beam-column

joints

(a) Middle joint (b) Fractured decking

In practice, steel bolted connections support composite

profile decking slabs. The hypothetical beam-column
joints considered for the experimental tests are located
above the storey where an internal column has been
forcibly removed. As shown in Figure 4, an inflection
point is assumed to be located at the middle of the beam
span. Therefore, only one-half of the beam span was
simulated using pin conditions. Two types of joints were
tested, viz. the middle joint located above the removed
column and the side joint at the adjacent connections of the
damaged beam spans. They are both shown in Figures 4
(a) and (b), respectively.

(d) Crushed concrete

(c) Bucked flange

(e) Cracked concrete

Figure 5. Failure modes of composite steel beam-column joints

(Yang and Tan, 2014)

Figure 6 (a) shows the vertical force-middle column

displacement relationship for a composite web cleat
connection at the middle joint. It can be seen that at the
initial loading stage, applied load was resisted by flexural
action while at large deformation stage, the load was
resisted by catenary action. The vertical force-middle
column displacement relationship of a composite web
cleat connection at the side joint is given in Figure 6 (b). It
can be found from this figure that, at the side joint,
catenary action could be mobilized to resist the vertical
load.
The effect of composite slab can be elucidated through
the comparisons of bare steel specimens against the
composite joint tests. Figure 7 shows the comparison of
web cleat connections. It can be concluded from this figure
that composite slabs could increase the load-carrying
capacities of beam-column joints at both flexural action
and catenary action stages. In addition, for middle and side

(a) Middle joint

560

Yang et al.

the test set-up assumption. Thus, the performance of the

composite frames under column loss may be different from
the behaviour of the isolated composite joints, which has
been presented in Section 2.2. To take this into
consideration, the performance of composite frames will
be assessed in this section.
Another series of experimental tests were conducted on
composite steel frames under column removal scenarios.
Figure 8 (a) shows the front view of the frame test set-up
where full horizontal restraints were used. The side
columns and the extended beams were restrained by pin
supports with one side of the specimen restrained by an Aframe and the other side connected to a reaction wall. The
horizontal reactions at the column top and extended beam
connections were measured by load cells. Strain gauges
were attached onto column sections in order to obtain the
horizontal reaction forces at the column bottom. Figure 8
(b) depicts the set-up aerial view. Vertical forces were
applied onto the middle column stud under out-of-plane
restraint during the tests.

joints, the obtained load-displacement curves are quite

different.

(a) Composite web cleat connection at middle joint

(b) Composite web cleat connection at side joint

Figure 6. Vertical force-middle column displacement curves of
composite web cleat connection at middle and side joints (Yang
and Tan, 2014)

(a) Front view

Figure 7. Effect of composite slab for web cleat connections

(Yang and Tan, 2014)

3 STATIC TESTS ON COMPOSITE STEEL

FRAMES

(b) Aerial view

The experimental programme about isolated composite

beam-to-column connections under a column loss
condition indicates that the bending moment resistances
and ultimate vertical loading resistances of middle and
sides joints are significantly different from each other. It
means during the whole loading process, the inflection
point may change its position, which is not consistent with

Figure 8. Test set-up (unit: mm) (Yang and Tan, 2015)

Figures 9(a) and (b) show the overall deformations of

the frame specimens, in which, the displacement profile of
each beam can be approximated by a straight line,
indicating the formation of plastic hinges at the beam-

561

Yang et al.

column connections. Two types of reinforcement ratios

have been tested in this series of experimental tests. One
type of reinforcement ratios was steel mesh (A142) with
4T13 bars in composite slab, while the other type was only
steel mesh (A142). For the specimens with 4T13 bars, a
longitudinal crack was formed in the composite slab
(Figure 9 (a)), indicating bond-slip failure of T13 bars in
the composite slab. However, the bond-slip failure does
not mean the failure of reinforcing bars. T13 bars could
still resist the vertical load in catenary mode until the bars
were fractured. For the specimens without 4T13 bars, there
was no longitudinal crack in the composite slab (Figure 9
(b)).

(a) Web cleat

(b) Fractured bar (c) Flush end plate

(d) Crushed concrete

(e) Cracked concrete

Figure 10. Failure modes of composite steel frames (Yang and

Tan, 2015)

The effect of additional 4T13 bars onto the loadcarrying capacities is shown in Figure 11. Clearly, they
increase the vertical resistance significantly, at both
flexural action and catenary action stages. The start points
of catenary action are also shown in Figure 11. For web
cleat composite frames, the vertical resistance was
increased by 113% at small deformation stage and 84% at
large deformation stage. For flush end plate composite
frames, the vertical resistance was increased by 34% at
small deformation stage and 70% at large deformation
stage.

(a) Deformation of specimens with 4T13 rebars

(b) Deformation of specimens without 4T13 rebars

Figure 9. Overall deformation of composite steel frames (Yang
and Tan, 2015)

As shown in Figure 10, the ultimate vertical loading

resistances of the internal composite frames are controlled
by beam-column joint failure. Two types of connections,
viz. web cleat and flush end plate, were adopted in the
composite steel frame specimens. For web cleat
connections, failure was controlled by angle fracture while
for flush end plate connections, failure was triggered by
bolt fracture, as shown in Figure 10.

(a) Web cleat composite frames

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Yang et al.

connecting to the quick-release mechanism and the

structure experienced a free fall simulating the sudden loss
of the middle column.

(b) Flush end plate composite frames

Figure 11. Effect of additional 4T13 reinforcement on the loadcarrying capacities (Yang and Tan, 2015)

(a) Web cleat connections (Liu et al. 2013)

4 DYNAMIC TESTS ON STEEL BEAM-COLUMN

JOINTS
In the previous tests, all the specimens (viz. bare steel
connections, composite steel connections and frames)
were tested under static loading conditions. However, in
reality, progressive collapse involves a dynamic and
nonlinear process. In order to study the dynamic effect,
three series of tests were conducted to investigate the
dynamic behaviour of some of the commonly used steel
beam-column joints (including web cleat, flush end plate
and TSWA joints) under sudden column removal
(b) Flush end plate connections (Liu et al. 2015a)

scenarios (Liu et al. 2013, Liu et al. 2015a, Liu et al.

2015b).

Figure 12. Test set-up of a steel beam-column joint subjected to

(c) TSWA connections (Liu et al. 2015b)

sudden column removal scenario (Liu et al. 2013)

Figure 13. Static and dynamic response of steel beam-column

joints under column loss scenarios

The test set-up for the dynamic free-fall tests on steel

beam-column joints is shown in Figure 12. Steel plates of
known weights were suspended from steel beams to
represent combined effects of uniform dead and live loads
sustained by the steel beam-column joint and a quickrelease mechanism was used to support the middle column.
The tests commenced by manually jerking free the rope

Figure 13 shows the static and dynamic responses of

steel beam-column joints under column loss scenarios.
Clearly, the dynamic structural resistance is much smaller
than the corresponding static resistance.
Figure 14 shows the forced-based dynamic increase

563

Yang et al.

can be drawn:
(1) The test results demonstrate the contribution of
catenary action to the load resistances of various types of
steel beam-column joints and conclude that under the
middle-column-removal scenario, catenary action can be
considered to increase the load-carrying capacity.
(2) Composite slabs could increase the load-carrying
capacities of beam-column joints at both flexural action
and catenary action stages. For middle joints and side
joints, the obtained load-displacement curves are quite
different.
(3) The experimental tests indicate that catenary action can
be developed in the internal composite frames and
catenary action can increase the load resistances of
composite frames significantly. The ultimate resistances of
the internal composite frames are always controlled by
beam-column joint failure and additional hogging
reinforcement can promote the development of flexural
action and catenary action.
(4) Forced-based dynamic increase factors are dependent
on the connection types as well as load transfer
mechanisms.

factors (DIFs) for these three types of connections. The

DIFs are dependent on connection types. Also, the load
transfer mechanism has direct effect on DIFs.
In addition, the energy method proposed by Izzuddin
et al. (2008) is found to be a conservative method for
determining the dynamic effect associated with free falls.

(a) Web cleat connections (Liu et al. 2013)

REFERENCE
Eurocode 3 Part 1-8 (EC3-1-8). 2005. Eurocode 3: Design of
steel structuresPart 1-8: Design of joints, BS EN 1993-1-8:
2005. British Standards Institution, UK.
Izzuddin, BA, Vlassis, AG, Elghazouli, AY and Nethercot, DA.
2008. Progressive collapse of multi-storey buildings due to
sudden column loss Part I: Simplified assessment framework.
Engineering Structures 30(5):1308-1318.
Liu C, Tan K H, Fung T C. 2013. Dynamic behaviour of web
cleat connections subjected to sudden column removal
scenario. Journal of Constructional Steel Research 86(7): 92106.
Liu C, Fung T C, Tan K H. 2015a. Dynamic Performance of
Flush End-Plate Beam-Column Connections and Design
Applications in Progressive Collapse. Journal of Structural
Engineering-ASCE
10.1061/(ASCE)ST.1943541X.0001329 , 04015074.
Liu C, Tan K H, Fung T C. 2015b. Investigations of nonlinear
dynamic performance of top-and-seat with web angle
connections subjected to sudden column removal.
Engineering Structures 99(9): 449-461.
Yang B, and Tan K H. 2013. Experimental tests of different types
of bolted steel beam-column joints under a central-columnremoval scenario. Engineering Structures 54(9): 112-130.
Yang B, and Tan K H. 2014. Behaviour of composite beamcolumn joints under a middle-column-removal scenario:
experimental tests. Journal of Structural Engineering-ASCE
140(2), 04013045.
Yang B, and Tan K H. 2015. Experimental tests of internal
composite frames against progressive collapse. Journal of
Structural Engineering-ASCE (submitted for publication).

(b) Flush end plate connections (Liu et al. 2015a)

(c) TSWA connections (Liu et al. 2015b)

Figure 14. Force-based dynamic increase factors

5 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

This paper presents both static and dynamic tests
conducted on steel and composite structures under
progressive collapse, and emphasizes the dynamic effect
associated with free falling structures. Several conclusions

564

11th International Conference on

Advances in Steel and Concrete Composite Structures
Tsinghua University, Beijing, China, December 3-5, 2015

MODULARITY & INNOVATION USING STEEL-PLATE

COMPOSITE (SC) WALLS FOR NUCLEAR AND COMMERCIAL
CONSTRUCTION
A. H. Varma a, S. R. Malushte b & Z. Lai a
a

Lyles School of Civil Engineering, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN, USA
E-mails: ahvarma@purdue.edu, laiz@purdue.edu

Bechtel Corp., Reston, VA, USA

E-mail: smalusht@bechtel.com
ABSTRACT
Keywords:
Steel-plate composite (SC)
walls; Safety-related nuclear
facilities; State-of-the-art;
Innovation; Resilience;
Sustainability.

Due to their construction economy and structural efficiency, steel-concrete (SC) composite
walls are being considered and used as an alternative to conventional reinforced concrete (RC)
walls in safety-related nuclear facilities and commercial building construction as well. This
paper introduces SC wall technologies and their application in the nuclear industry. The
advantages of modularity with particularly emphasis on construction schedule are enumerated
and discussed. The current state-of-the-art research on SC walls, leading to the development of
the new American Institute of Steel Construction (AISC) code for safety-related nuclear
facilities, is summarized. The paper discusses the use of SC walls to improve the resilience and
sustainability of safety-related nuclear facilities. It also includes some suggestions for further
enhancing the the resilience and sustainability of nuclear and commercial structures.

plate composite (SC) construction to address both

resiliency and sustainability aspects. While RC structures
are often the default option, the SC structures option has
been gaining attention in recent years because it provides
modular construction and schedule advantages while also
providing robust design for seismic, blast, & impact loads.
(a) Reinforced Concrete (RC) Wall

1 INTRODUCTION
There is renewed interest in nuclear power in the U.S.
and the world because of growing concerns of global
warming and energy security. Significant level of new
nuclear power plant construction has been ongoing for the
past several years, and the trend is expected to grow
further. For this trend to be maintained, resiliency,
sustainability, and affordability issues need to be
addressed because construction could be underway for
multiple numbers of projects. Additionally, for new
nuclear power plants, there is greater expectation of safety
and resiliency (e.g., impact loading due to a commercial
jetliner), with stipulation of withstanding a range of manmade and natural disaster impacts. Similarly, there is an
increasing expectation that the design and construction of
the plants incorporate more sustainability features,
including minimizing the carbon footprint and material
use.
There are some options for achieving these goals to a
varying degree: (i) improve resiliency of the traditional
reinforced concrete (RC) design by using thicker walls and
additional or high strength rebar and increase
sustainability using ultra high performance or green
concrete, (ii) improve resiliency by using seismic
isolation methods to reduce the seismic demands on
structures and supported commodities, or (iii) use steel-

(b) Steel-Plate Composite (SC) Wall

Fig. 1: Illustration of RC and SC Construction for walls

(adapted from DOE, 2004)
565

Varma et al.

Several Standard Plant suppliers for Advanced Light

Water Reactor (ALWR) and Small Modular Reactor (SMR)
vendors are either considering or have already
incorporated the use of SC members (primarily SC walls)
in their designs. It appears likely that the use of modular
mechanical and SC structural components will provide
significant cost and schedule savings for the next
generation of power plants.

2 SC WALLS: MODULARITY
Steel-plate composite (SC) construction, which
requires prefabricated steel-plate type structural modules,
provides obvious benefits of modular construction leading
to schedule contraction. As illustrated in Figure 1, the steel
faceplates serve as formwork during concrete placement
and, and through composite action enabled by shear
connectors they also serve as equivalent reinforcing steel
(rebar) during the service life of the structure. The use of
faceplates thus eliminates formwork and rebar while
facilitating fabrication of large empty modules that can be
brought to their final location in the field for expeditious
concrete placement (see Figure 2). Such modular
composite construction approach has already been
incorporated by some standard plant suppliers, and now
with the issuance of the first) US consensus standard
(AISC, 2015a) for its design, SC construction usage is
likely to expand further.

2001), compared to a typical duration of 5 to 6 years. Fouryear construction duration is also the target for the
upcoming new generation of nuclear plants in the U.S.

3 SC WALLS: INDUSTRY
Westinghouse Electric Corporation (WEC) has
incorporated SC modules for walls and floors of its
AP1000 plant internal structures, and was the first to
incorporate them in a certified design (DCD 2011). A
typical wall module panel for the AP1000 plant
containment internal structures is shown in Figure 3.
Figure 4 shows a pre-assembled internal structure SC
module. WEC also extended the use of SC modules to the
AP1000 shield building to make it resilient against
aircraft impact, which is a stipulated beyond-design-basis
(BDB) event for new nuclear power plants.

Fig. 3: Typical Wall Module in AP1000 (DCD 2011)

Construction of several AP1000 units is currently
underway in the US and nearing completion in China.
Korea Hydro and Nuclear Power (KHNP) is incorporating
some SC construction in its APR+ standard plant. MHI is
doing the same for its APWR (DCD, 2013) standard plant.
Among SMRs, mPower and NuScale are currently
exploring use of SC construction. SC design standards
are in place in Japan and South Korea. The Europeans have
recently begun developing their own SC research and
codification program. The US standard (AISC, 2015a) has
been issued this year. This development is expected to
provide additional impetus for increased usage of SC
construction in nuclear power plants. ASCE nuclear
standards committee is in the process of endorsing the use
of SC structures for DOE nuclear facilities, which is
expected to further expand the SC usage
Outside of nuclear facilities, SC walls are being used
in commercial buildings as wall piers for seismic

Fig. 2: Illustration of Construction Activities for RC Wall

and SC Wall (adapted from DOE, 2004)
The schedule advantage of SC construction is well
understood (Braverman et al. 1997; DOE, 2001), and is the
prime reason for its expanding embrace in the nuclear
industry. The use of large scale and well planned/executed
SC construction offers a promising opportunity for also
delivering increased resiliency and sustainability benefits.
Extensive use of prefabrication and modular construction
in Asian power plants has already significantly expedited
construction times, reduced overall costs, and optimized
energy and material use. In Japan, use of modular
techniques has demonstrated that the total construction
time can be reduced to about 4 years for new plants (DOE

566

Varma et al.

Korea, China, and Europe. Experimental investigations,

numerical models, and analytical investigations have led
to the developments of design specifications for SC walls
in Japan (JEAC, 2009), S. Korea (KEPIC, 2010), and most
recently in the US (AISC, 2015a). Design specifications
are currently being developed in China and Europe.
The AISC specification is the most comprehensive so
far because it includes: (i) minimum requirements and
detailing provisions for SC wall cross-sections, (ii)
recommendations for analysis of structures composed of
SC walls, (iii) equations for calculating the design strength
of SC walls for individual force demands, (v) equations for
calculating the design strength of SC walls for combined
force and moment demands, (vi) recommendations for the
design of SC walls for impactive and impulsive loading,
and (vii) recommendations for the design of SC wall
connections that are at least 200% stronger than the design
demands, and up to 125% of full strength of the weaker of
connected parts.
Bhardwaj et al. (2015) discuss in detail the rationale
and technical reasons leading to the minimum
requirements and detailing provisions for SC walls. These
include minimum and maximum requirements for wall
thickness, faceplate thickness, faceplate yield strength,
concrete strength, and reinforcement ratio. Section
detailing includes provisions for stud anchor classification,
and stud anchor size and spacing to prevent local buckling
before compression yielding, developing target
development length, and preventing interfacial shear
failure before out-of-plane shear failure. Section detailing
also includes provisions for classification of tie bars, and
minimum size and spacing requirements to provide
structural integrity and prevent section delamination.
Bhardwaj et al. (2015) also discuss the interaction
equations for designing tie bars for both out-of-plane shear
and interfacial (bond) shear demands.
Zhang et al. (2014) discuss the technical basis of the
non-slenderness requirement for the steel faceplates of SC
walls. Using experimental results and analytical models,
they provide equations for the maximum slenderness ratio
that can develop compression yielding before local
buckling of steel faceplates, and the axial compressive
design strength of SC walls with nonslender faceplates.
They also investigate the influence of faceplate
slenderness (or anchor spacing) on the transfer length,
percent composite action between faceplates and concrete
infill, and the influence of partial composite action on the
flexural stiffness of SC walls. They conclude that for
faceplates designed with adequate development length,
there is some slip and partial composite action, but it does
not significantly influence the cracked flexural stiffness.
Sener and Varma (2014) discuss the out-of-plane shear
behavior and strength of SC beams. They discuss the outof-plane shear behavior including concrete cracking, tie
bar yielding, and final shear failure mode using results
from a carefully conducted full-scale test. They assembled

resistance (and ease of construction). In the UK, they are

also being used for defense/secured facilities to improve
structures blast and impact resistance, an application that
is being considered in the US as well. There is growing
interest in the use of modular SC construction for the
elevator core walls of high rise buildings. Exploratory
studies and designs are underway in Seattle, Washington.

Fig. 4. Modular SC Walls in AP1000 (DCD, 2011)

4 SC WALLS: STATE-OF-THE-ART
There are many obvious benefits of SC construction
related to cost and schedule reduction. The following topten advantages are generic to all types of modular SC
construction. (i) Steel faceplates, acting as forms, enable
prefabrication of large, ready-for-placement modules. (ii)
Elimination of rebar and formwork minimizes field labor
and reduces schedule duration. (iii) Quality of placed
concrete is generally superior, as there are no problems
associated with rebar congestion and there are no issues
associated with moisture loss due to evaporation. (iv)
Concrete presence between steel plates provides good fire
resistance. (v) Penetrations and attachments can be
incorporated relatively easily before, during, and after
construction. (vi) High in-plane membrane (shear and
axial) strength and ductility are achieved. (vii) Improved
resistance to out-of-plane (bending and shear) loads. (viii)
Excellent resistance to impactive and impulsive loading.
(ix) Efficient design for aircraft impact resistance. And, (x)
Excellent ductility for beyond design basis events
including seismic loading combinations.
The behavior and design of SC walls has been
investigated by several researchers from Japan, US, S.

567

Varma et al.

568

Principal Force (Sp1) in kip/in.

Region Definition and Behavior

I Sp10

Sp20

Biaxial
Tension
II Sp2+Sp10 Sp1<0, or Tension +
Shear
Sp2<0
III Sp1+Sp20 Sp1>0, or Compression
Sp2>0
+ Shear
IV Sp10
Sp20
Biaxial
Compression

Figure 5. Interaction surface for composite SC wall panels in

principal force space (Varma et al. 2014).

Pure Compression
(-Pci, 0)

Pure Shear Pure Tension

(-Vci, Vci)
(0, Tci) Biaxial Tension
(Tci, Tci)
II
Pure Tension Region Definition and Behavior
III
I
(Tci , 0)
I Sp10
Sp20
Biaxial
Principal Force 1 (Sp1, kip/ft)

IV

Biaxial
Compression
(-Pci, -Pci)

Principal Force 2 (Sp2, kip/ft)

a database of out-of-plane shear tests conducted in the

world, and evaluated the influence of various material and
geometric parameters on the out-of-plane shear strength of
SC beams. The authors compared different out-of-plane
design shear equations with the test database, and
developed reliability based resistance factors for each
including AISC (2015a).
Sener et al. (2015) discuss the out-of-plane flexural
behavior and strength of SC beams. They discuss the outof-plane flexure behavior including concrete (flexural)
cracking, steel faceplate yielding in flexural tension, and
the ductile behavior and failure mode from a carefully
conducted full-scale test. They assembled a database of
out-of-plane flexural tests conducted in the world, and
evaluated the influence of various material and geometric
parameters on the flexural capacity of SC beams. The
authors compared different out-of-plane flexural strength
equations with the test database, and developed reliability
based resistance factors for each including AISC (2015a).
Seo et al. (2015) discuss the in-plane shear behavior
and strength of SC walls. Using a mechanics based model
(MBM), they discuss the in-plane shear behavior of SC
walls including initial concrete cracking, principle strain
direction and inclined cracking at 45o due to pure shear,
post-cracking stiffness of the orthotropic cracked
composite wall, and von Mises yielding of the steel
faceplates as the final limit state for in-plane shear strength.
The authors demonstrate this in-plane shear behavior using
a carefully conducted large-scale test. They also assembled
a database of in-plane shear tests conducted in the world,
and evaluated the influence of various material and
geometric parameters on the in-plane shear strength of SC
walls. Seo et al. (2015) compared different in-plane shear
design strength equations with the in-plane shear test
database, and developed reliability based resistance factors
for each including AISC (2015a).
Varma et al. (2014) developed a comprehensive
mechanics based model (MBM) to investigate the
behavior of SC wall panels subjected to combined in-plane
forces (membrane forces and in-plane shear). The model
relied on (cracked concrete) orthotropic composite
mechanics to model the behavior of SC wall panels
subjected to combination of in-plane forces. They verified
the model using experimental results in the literature, and
nonlinear finite element models. Both the benchmarked
models were used to explore the behavior of SC wall
panels for the whole gamut of permutations and
combinations of in-plane forces (membrane axial and
shear forces). The results from this exploratory analysis
were used to develop an interaction surface in principal
force (Sp1-Sp2) space. A much more simplified and
conservative version of the interaction surface in Sp1-Sp2
space was recommended for design, and is shown in
Figure 5.

Tension

II
III

II Sp2+Sp10Sp1<0, or Tension +

Pure Shear
(Vci, -Vci)

Sp2<0
Shear
III Sp1+Sp20Sp1>0, or Compressio
Sp2>0
n + Shear
IV Sp10
Sp20
Biaxial
Compressio
n

Tci = 0.5 x Design Tension Strength (kip/ft)

Vci = 0.5 x Design In-Plane Shear Strength (kip/ft)
Pci = 0.5 x Design Compression Strength (kip/ft)
Pure Compression
(0, -Pci)

Figure 6. Interaction surface in principal force space for each

notional half (Varma et al. 2014)

The interaction surface methodology was extended to

the design of SC wall panels subjected to combination of
in-plane forces and out-of-plane moments. This extension
consisted of: (i) notionally splitting the SC wall panels into
two halves (attached to each faceplate), and (ii) splitting
the out-of-plane moments into constituent force couples
acting on the notional halves. Each notional half (and
associated faceplate) was then subjected to combination of
in-plane forces (only), which included the contributions of
the force couples associated with the out-of-plane
moments, and could be designed using the conservative
(design) interaction surface in principal force (Sp1-Sp2)
space for each notional half (Varma et al. 2014). The
conservatism of this design methodology was checked
using the benchmarked models (both finite element and
mechanics based). This design methodology was adopted

Varma et al.

pipe break scenarios lead to elevated temperature for

sustained duration (up to days). Since the steel faceplate is
immediately exposed to the elevated temperature (i.e.,
there is no concrete cover), this thermal loading scenario
can govern the design of SC walls in nuclear facilities. A
seismic event could occur during such extended exposure.
Resilience for these combined multiple hazard scenarios
can be improved by using full strength connections, steel
or fiber reinforced concrete, or high strength steel plates.
Durability and Long Service Life: Steel faceplates provide
leak-tightness protection for concrete. However, the
exposed steel surfaces need to be protected from corrosion.
The protection scheme depends on the service
environment (e.g., interior v/s exterior walls and
underground walls). Different off-the-shelf coating
systems and protection schemes are available.
Resilience Against Fire: The faceplate that gets exposed to
fire loses strength and stiffness; however, similar to RC
construction, the bulk of concrete and the opposite
faceplate maintain good strength and stiffness. As such,
SC structures have better fire resistance than pure steel
structures; however, the fire resistance can be enhanced if
suitable fire protection coating is applied to the faceplate(s)
or fire-resistant steel is used. The members strength and
stiffness during fire exposure can also be improved by
embedding another steel plate within the concrete (i.e.,
between the faceplates).

by AISC(2015a) for the design of SC wall panels subjected

to combined in-plane forces and out-of-plane moments.
Bruhl et al. (2014) developed a three-step design
method for designing SC walls to prevent perforation due
to missile impact. The method is based on the
understanding that the missile perforates the impact side
faceplate, dislodges a concrete plug, and then the missile
moving along with concrete plug (with a residual velocity)
impacts the rear (non-impact side) faceplate. The method
builds upon: (i) the concrete wall perforation and missile
residual velocity equations in NEI 07-13, and (ii) steel
plate perforation equations from munition and ballistic
research to develop equations for estimating the concrete
plug size and weight, residual velocity of the missile and
concrete plug, and the steel plate thickness required to
prevent perforation. Bruhl et al. (2015a) verified the
method using a comprehensive database of 130 missile
impact tests conducted around the world, and also
developed and verified nonlinear finite element models for
missile impact damage of SC walls. They used the
benchmarked models to further verify the design approach
and develop design aids. Additionally, Bruhl et al. (2015)
used the benchmarked models to conduct analytical
parametric studies and propose static resistance function
for estimating the global response of the structure.
The behavior and design of SC wall piers, i.e., SC walls
without boundary elements, flanges, or cross-walls, has
been investigated by Kurt et al. (2013) and Epackachi et al.
(2014). These researchers have shown that the lateral load
capacity of SC wall piers is governed by the in-plane
flexural yielding of the wall cross-section at the base. The
failure mode is governed by cyclic local buckling and
yielding due to in-plane flexure. There is no in-plane shear
failure mode for SC wall piers, and the story drift ratio
capacity is greater than 1%, which is comparable or better
than equivalent RC wall piers. Seismic design provisions
for SC wall piers are included in AISC (2015b).

6 SC WALL INNOVATION: SUSTAINABILITY

5 SC WALL INNOVATION: RESILIENCE

SC construction has certain natural benefits related to
resiliency, which are discussed below:
Resilience for Missile and Blast Loads: The presence of
faceplates naturally leads to increased missile and blast
resistance. These attributes can be enhanced with better
design of faceplate tying system in terms of strength,
spacing, and ease of fabrication of tie-bars.
Resilience for External Hazard Loads: SC construction
generally results in increased strength and ductility. This
leads to higher margins against design basis external
hazard loads (e.g., seismic, hurricane). This benefit can
be best realized if full strength connections are used to join
SC elements with other connected members (e.g., basemat)
and if the steel ratio is between 2% to 4%.
Resilience for Accident Thermal Loads: Accident thermal
conditions resulting from loss-of-coolant or high energy

569

The following considerations apply for improved

sustainability of SC structures:
Field Labor Force Reduction: SC construction requires
smaller field labor force compared to conventional
construction because of elimination of activities related to
formwork, rebar election, and curing. As in any modular
construction, the degree of field labor reduction depends
on the extent of modularization and the size of modules.
Use of automated welding techniques, field bolting can
help further in this regard. With maximization of field
labor reduction, there is a commensurate reduction in the
carbon footprint associated with mobilization,
demobilization, and daily life of field labor force, etc.
Reduction in Water Usage: SC construction does not have
rebar congestion issues such that the amount of water used
in concrete mix design can be reduced without sacrificing
placement quality issues. Also, because no curing is
required, the associated water usage is eliminated.
Use of Green Concrete or Cement Substitutes: Cement is
an energy-intensive ingredient of concrete. Green concrete
mixes, involving replacement of cementitious materials or
naturally occurring cement substitutes (e.g. fly ash,
pozzolans, slag) is always desirable from sustainability
standpoint. The slow setting pace of cement substitutes can
be easily handled in SC design by ensuring that the
faceplates are adequately designed as formwork (the slow

Varma et al.

utilized fabrication facilities, and will provide new job

opportunities.

setting pace can be problematic in conventional RC

construction in that the form stripping and subsequent
placement activities have to be delayed until the concrete
gains sufficient strength).
Prolonged Service Life: SC structures will have long
service life provided that potential for steel plate corrosion
is addressed.
Depending on the application (e.g.,
underground wall or just exterior wall exposed to
atmosphere or walls exposed to water), certain types of
stainless steel can be used advantageously. Compared to
surface treatment options (e.g., cathodic protection or
surface coatings), the stainless option may be most cost
efficient in the long run.
Surface Decontamination: The ability to decontaminate
the exposed surfaces and the effort required to do so is an
important consideration in any nuclear facility. The
presence of faceplates lends for easy decontamination
process during service life and after decommissioning.
Faceplate surface treatment and material selection can be
especially based on ease of decontamination. This is a
sustainability consideration in terms of controlling
potential spread of radioactive materials.
Potential for Recycling: Unlike rebar in RC construction,
the steel faceplates can be more easily removed and
recycled. Also, the concrete can be pulverized and used
in rubblized pavement construction.
Reduced Energy Use during Construction: SC
construction has reduced need for concrete compaction
(consolidation using vibrators) since the free fall
placement method generally leads to well-consolidated
concrete. Also options for field bolting can be maximized
to reduce energy consumption during construction.
Material Savings in Steel and Concrete Quantity: Owing
to their higher strength and radiation shield capability, SC
member design can be optimized to produce reduced
amount of steel and concrete compared to comparable RC
member. This aspect has to be exploited during the
design phase. The quantity reductions have obvious
sustainability implications.
Elimination of Water-Stops and Rebar Accessories:
Unlike conventional RC construction, SC construction has
no need for water-stops (because of its inherent leaktightness) and accessories such as rebar chairs. This
results in reduction of the rubber and plastic based
materials, which is good in terms of sustainability.
Modular Attachment of Supported Commodities: The SC
modules can be designed to further enhance the ability to
support/attach piping/equipment modules, structural
modules (e.g., for floors/platforms). This can lead to
further reduction in the associated labor forces and energy
use in the field (aside from the resulting schedule
contraction).
Use of Shipyard and Fabrication Facilities: Fabrication of
SC modules could be performed at a shipyard facility or at
a steel fabricator shop experienced in nuclear related steel
fabrication. This will be a boost for idled or under-

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This paper is based upon synthesis of research and
development conducted by the authors. The findings,
opinions etc. are limited to authors only.
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KEPIC (2010). Specification for Safety-Related Steel Plate
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571

11th International Conference on

Advances in Steel and Concrete Composite Structures
Tsinghua University, Beijing, China, December 3-5, 2015

ADVANCED ANALYSIS SOFTWARE FOR FRAMES

P. C. Nguyen & S. E. Kim*
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Sejong University, Seoul, Republic of Korea
E-mails: henycuong@gmail.com, sekim@sejong.ac.kr

ABSTRACT
Keywords:
Graphic user interface;
Plastic hinge; Semi-rigid
connection; Spread-of-plasticity;
Stability function; Steel frame.

This paper presents an advanced analysis software which can be used for nonlinear inelastic
analysis of space frames. The software can be used for practical engineering design. For the
second-order effects, the software employs the stability functions to minimize modeling and
computational time. Inelasticity of materials is modeled by two methods: the refined plastic
hinge method and fiber plastic method. The generalized displacement control method is adopted
to solve nonlinear equilibrium equations. User-friendly graphic interface of the software is
developed to facilitate the modeling process and perform visual results of the problem. A
numerical example is presented to verify the accuracy, computational efficiency and graphical
interface of the proposed software.

member capacity checks encompassed by the

specification equations are not required. Therefore, it is
feasible to employ advanced analysis techniques for
direct frame design. Figure 1 compares the conventional
approach and the direct approach (Kim et al. (2001)).

1 INTRODUCTION
In the current engineering practice, the interaction
between the structural system and its members is
represented by the effective length factor. The effective
length method generally provides a good design of
framed structures. However, the approach has its major
limitations. The first of these is that it does not give an
accurate indication of the factor against failure, because it
does not consider the interaction of strength and stability
between the member and structural system in a direct
manner. The second and perhaps the most serious
limitation is probably the rationale of the current
two-stage process in design: elastic analysis is used to
determine the forces acting on each member of a
structural system, whereas inelastic analysis is used to
determine the strength of each member treated as an
isolated member. There is no verification of the
compatibility between the isolated member and the
member as part of a frame. As a result, there is no explicit
guarantee that all members will sustain their design loads
under the geometric configuration imposed by the frame
work.
Nowadays, two aspects, the stability of separate
members, and the stability of the structure as a whole, can
be treated rigorously for the determination of the
maximum strength of the structures. This design
approach is marked in Figure 1 (Kim et al. (2001)) as the
direct analysis and design method. The development of
the direct approach to design is called Advanced
Analysis. In this direct approach, there is no need to
compute the effective length factor, since separate

Figure 1. Direct approach for steel design.

An Advanced Analysis Software (AAS) using the

beam-column approach is developed in this paper for
predicting the nonlinear inelastic behavior of space steel
frame structures. The second-order effects are captured
by the use of stability functions to minimize modeling
and solution time, while inelasticity of material is
considered by using the refined plastic hinge approach or
the fiber plastic approach. The Generalized Displacement
Control (GDC) method proposed by Yang & Shieh
(1990) is adopted for solving the nonlinear equilibrium
equations. For ease of use in design, a user-friendly
graphic interface of the present software is also
developed to facilitate the modeling process and result
interpretation of the problem. Design principles using the
developed software are presented. The present software is
verified for the accuracy and computational efficiency

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Nguyen et al.

through a numerical example of a six-story space steel

frame.

to structural engineers in figuring how the structure

behaves under load action.

2 INTERACTIVE GRAPHIC SOFTWARE

3 ELEMENT LIBRARY

The solver of the software is written in FORTRAN

programming language, while the pre- and
post-processors of the software are developed using
Visual C++. Graphic user interface is friendly designed to
simplify the manipulation, even for users who are not
familiar with using structural analysis software. The
software consists of three main parts of pre-processor,
solver and post-processor as shown in Figure 2.

The element library of the present frame analysis

software consists of two basic nonlinear elements which
are usually used: the refined plastic hinge beam-column
element and the fiber plastic beam-column element. The
detail formulations of the refined plastic hinge
beam-column element and the fiber plastic beam-column
element can be found in Nguyen & Kim (2014, 2015).
The stiffness matrix formulations of these elements are
briefly presented here only for the sake of completeness.

3.1 Refined plastic hinge beam-column element

To capture the effect of the interaction between axial
force and bending moment, the stability functions are
used to minimize modeling and solution time. Generally
only one element per member is needed to capture the
P effect accurately. From Kim et al. (2001), the
incremental form of member basic force and deformation
relationship of three-dimensional beam-column element
can be expressed as

Pre-processor
(Visual C++)

F K e D
Solver
(FORTRAN)

(1)

where K is the elemental elastic stiffness matrix

considering the P effect given by Chen & Lui
(1987).
The material nonlinearity includes the gradual
yielding of plastic hinges associated with residual stresses
and flexure. The gradual yielding due to residual stresses
is considered by utilizing the Column Research Council
(CRC) tangent modulus concept Et , while the gradual
yielding due to flexure is represented by a parabolic
function. The relationship between the basic force and
deformation of 3-D beam-column is modified to account
for the inelastic effects as
e

Post-processor
(Visual C++)

F K D

Figure 2. Flow chart of the software.

ij

2.1 Main graphic user interface

(2)

where K ij is the modified stiffness matrix

considering inelastic effects which are shown as Kim et
al. (2001).
To account for the shear deformation effect, the
member basic force and deformation relationship of 3-D
beam-column is modified as follows:
k

The main graphic user interface as shown in Figure 2.

is used to model and modify geometry, execute analysis
and display the analysis results. It provides the users with
several tools to work such as pull-down menu, tree menu
and icon menu. The graphic model can be shown in plane
or 3D perspective views and can be zoomed, panned and
rotated dynamically into the satisfied location.

F K D
c

ij

2.2 Graphic results

(3)

where K ij is the modified stiffness matrix

considering the effect of shear deformation which are
shown as Kim et al. (2001).
c

Graphic displays of results as shown in Figure 2

include: (1) diagrams of mode shape, deformation,
member forces, reaction forces, and plastic hinges; and
(2) animations on deformed shape and progressive
formation of plastic hinges. The animated displays can be
saved in an AVI file. These graphic displays are helpful

3.2 Fiber plastic beam-column element

In order to capture the spread of plasticity throughout
the member length, a fiber beam-column model is used.

573

Nguyen et al.

load-carrying capacity, including the effect of inelastic

force redistribution, is obtained from the final loading
step (limit state) given by the computer program.
Secondly, the load-carrying capacity without the inelastic
force redistribution is obtained by extracting that force
sustained when the first member yield or buckled.
Generally, advanced analysis predicts the same member
size as the LRFD method when force redistribution is not
considered.
AISC-LRFD specifies the resistance factors of 0.85
and 0.9 for axial and flexural strength of a member,
respectively. When a structural system collapses by
forming plastic mechanism, the resistance factor of 0.9 is
used since the dominant behavior is flexure. When a
structural system collapses by member buckling, the
resistance factor of 0.85 is used since the dominant
behavior is compression.
At service load levels, no plastic hinges are allowed to
occur in order to avoid permanent deformations under
service loads.
Adequate rotation capacity is required for members to
develop their full plastic moment capacity. This is
achieved when members are adequately braced and their
cross-sections are compact. The limits for lateral
unbraced lengths and compact sections are explicitly
define in AISC-LRFD (1994).

The fiber beam-column element is divided into a discrete

number of monitored sections represented by the
integration points. Each monitored section is divided into
m small fibers, and each fiber is represented by its
geometric characteristic, area Ai , and its coordinate
location corresponding to its centroid yi , zi . For
hot-rolled steel sections, the residual stresses are assigned
directly to fibers as the initial stresses.

4 NONLINEAR ANALYSIS ALGORITHM

This section presents a numerical method for solving
the static nonlinear equations of 3D framed structures.
Among several numerical methods, the generalized
displacement control (GDC) method proposed by Yang
& Shieh (1990) appears to be one of the most robust and
effective methods for solving the static nonlinear
problems with multiple critical points because of its
general numerical stability and efficiency.

5 DESIGN PRINCIPLES
5.1 Design format
Advanced analysis follows the format of Load and
Resistance Factor Design. In AISC-LRFD (1994), the
factored load effect does not exceed the factored nominal
resistance of the structure. The proposed program are
based on the limit-state approach to strength design. The
limit-state format may be written as

Y
W12x26

7.315 m

where i are load factors; Qi are nominal design

loads; are resistant factors; Rn are nominal
resistances of structural members; and is a factor
relating to ductility, redundancy, and operational
importance.
The main difference between current LRFD method
and advanced analysis method is that the right side of Eq.
(4), Rn in the LRFD method is the resistance or
strength of the component of a structural system, but in
the advanced analysis method, it represents the resistance
or the load-carrying capacity of the whole structural
system. The left-hand side of Eq. (4), i Qi
represents the member forces in the LRFD method, but
the applied load on the structural system in the advanced
analysis method.

W12x26

W12x26

7.315 m

W12x53

(4)

W12x87

i Qi Rn

W12x53

6 NUMERICAL EXAMPLE

W12x26
7.315 m

(a) Plan view

5.2 Design consideration

The elastic analysis method does not capture the
inelastic redistribution of internal forces throughout a
structural system, since the first-order forces, even with
the B1 and B2 factors, account for the second-order
geometric effect but not the inelastic redistributions of
internal forces. Advanced analysis directly considers
force redistribution due to material yielding and thus
allows smaller member sizes to be selected. First, the

574

Nguyen et al.

Z
Node A

1.0

0.9

Load factor

W10x60

W10x60

0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
Proposed_Refined Plastic Hinge App.
Proposed_Fiber Plastic App.
Chiorean_Spread of Plasticity App.

0.2

0.0
0

W12x87

W12x87

W12x120

W12x120

W12x87

0.1

W12x87

H = 6 x 3.658 m = 21.948 m

W10x60

W10x60

0.8

12
16
20
24
Horizontal displacement (cm)

28

32

Figure 4. Comparing load displacement curves at Y-direction

node A of the frame.

Y
X

(b) Perspective view

Figure 3. A six-story space steel frame.

7 CONCLUSIONS

A six-story space steel frame shown in Figure 3 was

firstly analyzed by Orbison (1982). The elastic modulus,
shear modulus, and yield stress of steel are 206,850 MPa,
79,293 MPa, and 250 MPa, respectively. A uniform floor
load of 9.6 kN/m2 was converted into equivalent
concentrated loads on the top of the columns. Wind loads
were simulated by point loads of 53.376 kN in the
Y-direction at every top of columns. For the refined
plastic hinge approach, one element per member was
used to model the frame. For the fiber plastic approach,
one beam-column element with five integration points per
member was used to simulate the structure. The cross
sections of all members were discretized into sixty six
fibers (twenty four at each flange, eighteen at the web).
Figure 4 compares the load displacement curves at
Y-direction node A of the frame generated by the
proposed software using both the refined plastic hinge
approach and the fiber plastic approach, and Chiorean
(2009)s result using the spread of plasticity approach.
The ultimate load generated by the proposed software
using the refined plastic hinge element is higher than the
result using the fiber plastic element, however, it is
approximate to Chioreans result. It can be concluded that
the refined plastic hinge method accurately estimates the
ultimate strength of the structure. Figure 5 shows
positions of plastic hinges of the frame at the ultimate
loads using the refined plastic hinge approach.

The purpose of this paper is to develop an advanced

analysis software which can be used for nonlinear
inelastic analysis of space frame structures. This software
employs the stability functions for nonlinear inelastic
analysis of space frames to minimize modeling and
solution time. As shown in the numerical example, the
proposed software demonstrates the accuracy and the
computational efficiency in predicting the nonlinear
inelastic response of steel frame structures. It can be
concluded that the proposed software proves to be
reliable and valuable for application in practical
engineering design.

Fig. 5. Forming plastic hinges of the frame at the ultimate

loads using the refined plastic hinge approach.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This work was supported by the National Research
Foundation of Korea (NRF) grant funded by the Korea

575

Nguyen et al.

government (MSIP) (No. 2011-0030040) and (No.

2015R1A2A2A01007339).
REFERENCES
AISC. 1987. Load and resistance factor design specification.
2nd ed. Chicago: AISC.
Chen, W.F. & Lui, E.M. 1987. Structural stability: Theory and
implementation. New York: Elsevier.
Chiorean, C.G. 2009. A computer method for nonlinear inelastic
analysis of 3D semi-rigid steel frameworks. Engineering
Structures. 31(12): 3016-3033.
Kim, S.E., Park, M.H. & Choi, S.H. 2001. Direct design of
three-dimensional frames using practical advanced analysis.
Engineering Structures. 23(11): 1491-1502.
Nguyen, P.C. & Kim, S.E. 2014. Nonlinear inelastic
time-history analysis of three-dimensional semi-rigid steel
frames. Journal of Constructional Steel Research. 101(10):
192-206.
Nguyen, P.C. & Kim, S.E. 2015. Second-order
spread-of-plasticity approach for nonlinear time-history
analysis of space semi-rigid steel frames. Finite Elements in
Analysis and Design. 105(11): 1-15.
Orbison, J.G., McGuire, W. & Abel, J.F. 1982. Yield surface
applications in nonlinear steel frame analysis. Computer
Methods in Applied Mechanics and Engineering. 33(1-3):
557-573.
Yang, Y.B. & Shieh, M.S. 1990. Solution method for nonlinear
problems with multiple critical points. AIAA Journal.
28(12): 2110-2116.

576

11th International Conference on

Advances in Steel and Concrete Composite Structures
Tsinghua University, Beijing, China, December 3-5, 2015

STRUCTURAL BEHAVIOUR OF STEEL-CONCRETE-STEEL

SANDWICH COMPOSITE WALL INFILLED WITH ULTRA
LIGHTWEIGHT CEMENT COMPOSITE
Z. Y. Huanga & J. Y. R. Liewa
a

Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, National University of Singapore, Singapore

E-mails: zhenyu_huang@u.nus.edu, ceeljy@nus.edu.sg.

ABSTRACT
Keywords:
Steel-concrete-steel; Steelconcrete composite; Steel plateconcrete structures; Sandwich
structure; J-hook connectors; FE
analysis.

Steel-concrete-steel (SCS) sandwich wall infilled with ultra-lightweight cement composite has been developed
and proposed for applications in offshore and building constructions. A new form of J-hook connector is
introduced to connect the external plates to improve the composite action between the steel face plates
and cement composite core to form an integrated unit which is capable of resisting extreme loads. This
research experimentally investigates the structural behaviour of SCS sandwich composite wall
based on a series of combined compression and uniaxial bending tests on short SCS sandwich
composite wall with interlocking J-hook connectors. From the tests, it is found that the SCS
sandwich wall exhibits good structural behaviour with a bending failure model. Analytical
studies show that the N-M interaction model based on Eurocode 4 may over-predict the
combined resistance of the SCS sandwich walls subject to eccentric loading. Therefore, a
modified approach is proposed to evaluate the resistance of sandwich wall. The axial force
versus moment capacity interaction diagrams of sandwich wall are calculated. The validation
against the test and FE results shows a reasonable and conservative estimation on the combined
resistance of SCS sandwich wall.

resistance against longitudinal slip at the steel-concrete

interface, but also prevent separation of steel from concrete.

1 INTRODUCTION
Steel-Concrete-Steel (SCS) sandwich systems infilled
with ultra-lightweight cement composite are developed for
potential application in building and offshore
constructions thanks to the superior composite high
strength and ductility performance (Liew and Wang, 2011).
The newly developed ultra-lightweight cement composite
with compressive strength up to 60 MPa and lightweight
density 1380 kg/m3 is used as the core material to reduce
the overall self-weight of the structure (Wang et al., 2013;
Huang et al., 2015). Composite action between steel and
concrete is typically achieved by using mechanical shear
studs, angle connectors or chemical bond which is
essential to make concrete and steel work together.
Cohesive bonding materials (e.g. epoxy) and different
types of mechanical shear connectors (Sohel et al., 2012)
such as headed shear stud, angle connector, Bi-Steel
connector (Mckinley and Boswell, 2002), plate connectors,
and bi-directional corrugated-strip-core (Leekitwattana et
al., 211) system are employed to bond the steel plate and
the concrete core. A newly developed interlocking J-hook
shear connectors are used to bond the steel face plates and
the sandwich core to form an integrated unit. The J-hook
shear connectors shown in Figure 1, not only provide shear

577

Figure 1. Fabrication of SCS sandwich wall.

The previous application of steel-concrete (SC)

composite walls (Akira et al., 1989; Usami et al., 1995)
which are similar to the sandwich structures introduce
angle connectors and headed shear studs welded on the
steel plate to obtain the composite action between concrete
and steel face plate. However, the compressive tests show
that premature local buckling may occur when the SC
composite walls are under axial compression loads.
Profiled composite walls were initially studied by Wright
and Gallocher (1995) for construction, service and
ultimate load behaviour. Wright (1998) and Uy et al. (2001)

Huang & Liew.

sandwich walls can be used in practice, it is necessary to

investigate the structural performance in terms of ultimate
strength, failure modes and structural stiffness. The paper
extends the previous work to explore the combined
compression and bending moment resistance of SCS
sandwich wall with J-hook connector under eccentric
compression.
In this paper, the main objectives of the test and FE
analysis are to investigate the eccentrically loaded
behaviour of SCS sandwich wall filled with lightweight
cement composite, and to derive a method to evaluate the
combined compressive and bending moment resistance. A
series of compressive tests and a four point bending test
are carried out to study the structural behaviour of SCS
sandwich composite wall. Finally, a modified Eurocode 4
design method is adopted to calculate the combined
compressive and bending moment resistance of SCS
sandwich wall.

have conducted investigations in profiled steel composite

walls under combined compression and uni-axial bending.
They suggested a method to account for local buckling
effects of steel face plates. However, their studies focused
on the benefit of profiled steel sheet but did not take the
constraint effect by the transverse stiffeners such as headed
shear studs or through-through bolts into account.
Premature buckling of steel sheet before concrete failure
was observed in the test.
More recently, Cai et al. (2006) proposed a binding bar
to constrain the concrete filled tube composite column. Ho
and Lai (2013) proposed a tie bar for CFST columns. It
was found that the confinement effect was improved by
binding bars so that the concrete filled would be under triaxial compression states. The resistance of column was
considerably enhanced by the increase of concrete
compressive strength. However, installing the binding bar
or tie bar may complicate the construction especially when
the cross-section is small. Installation of binding bar
required hole-drillings on steel plates which may destroy
the section profile and even initiate stress concentration
and damage during the further test.
J-hook connectors introduced in this paper can
overcome the above-mentioned disadvantages. As shown
in Figure 1, J-hook pairs are welded on the external plates
which match together by interlocking hook pairs. The hook
length can be adjusted depending on the thickness of
sandwich core compared to the thickness limitation of
200~700 mm by using Bi-steel. The internal J-hook
connectors offer an interlocking effect on external plates
when the steel plates dilate outward under compressive
loads. The earlier tests focusing on small scale sandwich
beams and slabs with J-hook connector have been carried
out by the authors. However, investigation on SCS
sandwich walls subject to compression is yet to be
undertaken.
From literature review, it can be found that most of
these experimental studies are carried out on headed studs
to investigate their resistance against compression as well
as shear force. There is little information for sandwich wall
with the J-hook connectors. Meanwhile, axial compression
and bending moment (N-M) interaction formulae for
design of composite column are also available in Eurocode
4 (2004) and AISC-360 (2010). However, the design
guides have not been developed and validated for SCS
sandwich composite wall with J-hook connectors.
Recently, ULCC with compressive strength up to 60
MPa and density of 1380 kg/m3 has been developed by the
authors for producing SCS sandwich composite structures
(Wang et al., 2013; Huang et al., 2015a). The innovations
of the new cement materials also challenge the application
of SCS sandwich wall with the novel J-hook connectors.
The use of ultra-lightweight cement composite (ULCC) in
SCS sandwich composite wall may lead to significant
reduction in weight, which is critical for offshore and
floating structures (Huang et al., 2015b). Before such SCS

2 EXPERIMENTAL PROGRAMME
2.1 Material properties
The sandwich walls apply ULCC as the core material.
ULCC is made with Ordinary Portland Cement,
lightweight cenosphere and silica fume as the
supplementary cementitious material. The water-toblinder remains low with application of superplasticiser.
The ULCC has a 28-day compressive strength around 55.9
MPa and splitting strength around 5.4 MPa with an
average density of 1380 kg/m3, which barely around 60%
of the unit weight for the normal weight concrete i.e., 2200
kg/m3. Table 1 lists the material properties of ULCC.
Table 1. Material properties of ULCC.

fck
fsp
Ec
c
(kg/m3)
(MPa) (MPa) (GPa)
ULCC C60
1380
55.9
5.4
15.4
0.25
*= density, fck=cylinder compressive strength; fsp=cylinder
splitting tensile strength; Ec= Youngs modulus of ULCC;
c=Poisson ratio of ULCC.
Concrete

Mild steel S275 and HPB 235 rebar are used for
specimen fabrication. The Young's modulus Es, Poisson
ratio s, yield strength fy and ultimate strength fu of steel
face plate and hook bar are obtained from standard tensile
test of steel coupon and hook bars. Table 2 presents the
material properties of steel plate and hook bar.
Table 2. Material properties of steel plate and J-hook bar.
Item

Component

Es
fy
fu
(MPa) (MPa) (MPa)

Steel plate

6 mm

202.0

309.4

427.3

J-hook bar

HPB 23513

189.9

356.8

521.7

s
0.3

2.2 Test specimens

A total of seven specimens are prepared, with one

578

Huang & Liew.

on the rigid beam base, while the other one is bolted to the
actuator. The supports include a cylinder that simulates a
line load on the specimens, which also allows rotation. The
specimens are set into the supports through the bolt
connection. Hence, the boundary conditions of the wall are
pin-pin end supported.

specimen subjects to pure compression, one subjects to

pure bending and five subject to combine compression and
bending by changing loading eccentricity e. The sandwich
walls are designed to behave as short walls to avoid global
buckling with an overall height of 400 mm. In the test, a
width of 590 mm is selected against a total depth of 132
mm, including steel plates of 6 mm thickness and a
concrete core of 120 mm. The width-to-depth ratio is 4.47.
Two cover plates are welded on both ends of the specimens
in order to be loaded uniformly. Stiffeners are provided to
confine both ends of the sandwich wall to ensure that
premature failure will not occur within the end region.
Figure 2 illustrates the typical dimension of short SCS
sandwich wall J-hook connector. The specimen for pure
bending is longer than the other specimens in order to
capture the flexural resistance of sandwich wall, while the
other geometrical conditions and material used keep the
same. A J-hook spacing of 100 mm has been selected based
on full composite design. Eurocode 4 Clause 6.6.5.7(5)
limits the stud diameter to less than 2.5 times the thickness
of the part it is welded to. Thus a hook bar diameter 13 mm
is selected, resulting in a diameter-to-thickness ratio of
2.17. Table 3 lists the details of wall specimens.

A quasi-static loading procedure is introduced in four

steps: (1) preload at a rate of 0.2 mm/min for specimen up
to 10% of calculated maximum resistance by Eurocode 4;
(2) unload at a rate of 0.5 mm/min for all the specimens;
(3) reload at the same rate as in Step 1 until the peak load
is reached; (4) finally in the post-peak range, increase the
rate to 0.5 mm/min until significant visible deformation is
observed.
Each specimen is instrumented with steel strain gauges
and linear variable displacement transducers (LVDT), as
sketched in Figure 4. On each steel face, three steel strain
gauges (S1~S3 or S6~S8) are placed along the longitudinal
centreline of both faces at equal spacing to capture strain
distribution along the specimen. Two additional strain
gauges (S4~S5, S9~S10) are placed above and below
along the transverse middle, also at equal spacing, to
capture strain distribution along the specimen. Four
LVDTs are placed vertically to assess axial shortening and
rotation. The other four LVDTs are used to measure
bulging or, if applicable, buckling of outer face plates.
Figure 5 shows the SCS sandwich wall during the test.

Table 3. Details of test specimens.

Specimen

s/ts

e (mm)

fck (MPa)

fy (MPa)

SCSW-01

16.67

54.3

309.4

SCSW-02

16.67

20

54.3

309.4

SCSW-03

16.67

40

54.3

309.4

SCSW-04

16.67

70

54.3

309.4

SCSW-05

16.5

105

54.3

309.4

SCSW-06

16.67

105

54.3

309.4

SCSW-07

16.67

60.0

309.4

*ts =thickness of steel face plate; s =connector spacing; s/ts=plate

slenderness; e =loading eccentricity.
108

125

125

125

108

s'

te

ts

s'

Figure 3. Test set-up for SCS sandwich wall.

hc
L

T4, T5

50 100

100

100
590

100

100 40

T4

S5,S9

T5
S2, S10

Figure 2. Dimension of SCS sandwich wall.

T1, T2

2.3 Test set-up, load procedure and instrumentation

T3

T6, T7
T8

S1,S6
T1, T6

S3,S7
T2, T7

S4,S8
T3, T8

Figure 3 shows the test set-up for compression test of

SCS sandwich wall. A 10 MN testing actuator operated in
displacement-control mode is used to test the specimens.
One of two special designed solid pin-pin supports is set

Figure 4. Instrumentations for SCS sandwich wall.

579

Huang & Liew.

SCSW-06
105
1570.4
186.2
CF & LB
SCSW-07
785.5
117.8
FF+SF
* CF: Concrete Failure; LB: Local Buckling; FF: flexural failure;
SF: shear failure.

(a) SCSW-01;
Figure 5. Sandwich wall in the test.

(b) SCSW-02.

2.4 Test results

2.4.1 Failure modes
Specimens SCSW-01~07 are tested to failure. From
the test results, it is found that the basic failure mode of
sandwich wall under compression is concrete failure
followed by local buckling of steel face plates, as shown
in Figure 6. Cracking noises are audible while approaching
the failure load. Cracks are seen on the concrete core
exposed to the surface. The failure characteristics of
specimens SCSW-01~06 initiate from concrete cracks.
The steel face plates yield before the concrete failure.
However, the concrete exhibits splitting mechanism, only
with a shallow depth of crushing. Local buckling of steel
face plates occurs after the concrete failure since the
concrete loses the carrying capacity and the structural
stiffness is degraded owing to the cracks developed
apparently. Thus, the outer load is transferred to the steel
plates which induces buckling between two adjacent levels
of shear connectors. There is no indication that the J-hook
connector failure so that the ultimate resistance is
governed by both concrete and steel plates. Significant
curvature of the specimens is observed after reaching the
ultimate load, with ultimate curvature becoming more
pronounced with larger load eccentricity. For specimen
SCSW-07 under pure bending, the failure initiates from
yielding of bottom plate. The vertical cracks are observed
along the longitudinal length as the load increases. Figure
7 shows the flexural failure of SCSW-07 with some shear
cracks. Table 4 lists the failure loads and failure modes for
each specimen.

(c) SCSW-03;

(e) SCSW-05
Figure 6. Failure modes of SCS sandwich wall.

Figure 7. Failure modes of SCSW-07.

P (kN)

M(kN.m)

SCSW-01
SCSW-02
SCSW-03
SCSW-04
SCSW-05

0
20
40
70
105

4906.2
3976.8
2860.6
2034.1
1621.7

0
98.4
128.8
154.5
180.2

2.4.2 Load-shortening curves

The axial shortening curves of all specimens are
recorded and plotted against the applied load, as shown in
Figure 8. The relationship between the load and the
shortening is non-linear and is characterised by an upwards
trend reaching to the ultimate load followed by a slightly
declining trend to the failure load. For specimen SCSW01, the axial shortening deformation is slightly different
from that of specimen SCSW-05 and SCSW-06 due to the
increase of loading eccentricity. The secant stiffness of
load-shortening curve and maximum load tend to reduce
as the loading eccentricity e increases from 0 to 105 mm.

Table 4 Failure loads and failure modes of specimens.

Specimen

(d) SCSW-04.

Failure
mode
CF & LB
CF & LB
CF & LB
CF & LB
CF & LB

580

Huang & Liew.

Nevertheless, the ductility of load-shortening curves

seems to be more apparent.
The failure of sandwich panel SCSW-07 is
characterised by the yielding of the tension steel plates in
mid-span. The crack pattern in Figure 7 shows that the
flexural cracks of concrete core are well distributed along
the longitudinal length. Figure 9 shows the load-midspan
deflection response of SCSW-07. As can be seen, the first
flexural crack appeared in mid-span when the load reaches
50 kN, showing the first turning point in the loaddeflection curve. The second turning point appears at
approximately 700 kN due to the yielding of tension steel
plate in mid-span, after which the strain increases rapidly.

Axial Load N (kN)

5000

( cv ca ) / 2

3000

SCSW-01
SCSW-02
SCSW-03
SCSW-04
SCSW-05
SCSW-06

N
ca

cv

4000

(a)

2000

1000
0

(b)
Figure 10. Interaction curve for combined compression and
uniaxial bending for SCS sandwich wall based on Eurocode 4.

4
6
8
10
12
14
Axial shortening (mm)
Figure 8. Axial load-axial shortening curves of sandwich wall.

AC :

800

CD :

400

P
N

200

10
15
20
25
30
Mid-span deflection (mm)
Figure 9. Load-mid span deflection of SCSW-07.

35

3 ANALYTICAL MODEL
3.1 Eurocode 4 method

1.0

N pl , Rd N pm , Rd

N u 0.5 N pm , Rd

BD :

Normalized axial resistance N/NPl,Rk

Load P (kN)

600

N u N pm , Rd

0.5 N pm , Rd

kN u e / M
1
M pl , Rd

kN u e / M M pl , Rd
M max , Rd M pl , Rd

(1)
1

kNu e / M Mmax, Rd
Nu

1
0.5N pm, Rd
M pl ,Rd Mmax, Rd

Eurocode 4

0.8

(2)
(3)

FE
TEST
EC4

0.6
0.4
0.2
0.0
0.0

0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6

Normalized moment resistance M/MPl,Rk

Figure 11. N-M interaction curves againt the test and FE results.

Eurocode 4 provides a simplified method for

calculating the cross-sectional design resistance of a
composite column under combined compression and uniaxial bending assuming the following: (1) Rectangular
plastic stress blocks, (2) Zero concrete tensile strength, and
(3) Plane sections remain plane. The interaction curve can
simplified by a polygonal diagram, represented by the
curve in Figure 10. The equations describing the polygon
points ABCD are elucidated in the following.

Figure 11 plots the test data and FE results in the N-M

interaction curve predicted by Eqs.(1-3). Basically, it is
shown that all the test data are within the curve which
indicates that the Eurocode 4 formulae for sandwich
section over-predict the combined axial and flexural
resistance of SCS sandwich wall with J-hook connectors.

581

Huang & Liew.

the tensile strain of extreme steel fiber as achieving to

y=fy/Es which is the yield strain of steel. Based on the
principles of plane sections remain plane, compatibility
conditions and stress-strain relationships of the materials,
the strain and stress of each component in the section
analysis can be calculated. Thus, the compressive force N
and bending moment M can be determined.
The axial force and the bending moment equilibrium
equations at the failure moment are displayed as follows.
(1) Pure compression: Point A
By considering the buckling effect of steel face plate,
the compression resistance of SCS sandwich wall is
calculated by

Directly using Eurocode 4 formulae may cause unconservative design. As a result, the objective of the
following section is to improve the methodological
equation so as to gain a more accurate and conservative
prediction.

3.2 Modified N-M method

Figure 12 shows the N-M interaction diagram of SCS
sandwich section in which point A represents the modified
resistance under pure compression, point B represents the
balanced failure and the range from point A to B would be
in compression failure (small eccentricity). Point C
represents the status of pure bending while the range from
point B to point C would be in tension failure (large
eccentricity). Figure 13 depicts the force equilibrium status
of compression controlled and tension controlled section
for each branch respectively.
cu

Cc , Cs

Nu

cu
Cc

cu

Cs1

xc

Cc

Cs 2

Pure
compression

Compression failure

cu

xc

Cc

Tension failure

xc

cu
Cc

Cs1

Pure bending

Figure 12. N-M interaction diagram of sandwich section.

e
e0

e0

Nu

Nu

xc

C
0.5fck

fsbAsb

0.5fck

(6)

cu
xc

xc
, cu

hc x c
x c hc
b
b

xc
fst'Ast

(5)

where, e=e0+hc/2+tb/2, fstAst is the compression force by

steel plate in compression side, sbAsb is the compression
force or tension force by steel plate in tension side.
The symmetrical distributed steel plates are considered
to yield when the extreme compressive concrete strain
reaches the ultimate strain, following Figure 14. The strain
b and the corresponding stress sb of the bottom steel are
given by

Cs 2

Mu

sbAsb

1
fck bxc f st' Ast sb Asb
2
x t
1
Nu e fck bxc (hc c b ) f st' Ast (hc tb )
2
3 2
Nu

Cs1

Cs 2

Balanced failure s
B

where a 0.898 R 0.771 ( R 0.85) , R is the width-thickness

ratio, defined in Ref. (Cai and He, 2006).
(2) Compression failure: branch AB, referring Figure 13(a),

C s1

Cs 2

(4)

N A N pl , Rd 0.85 Ac f cd a As f yd

(7)
(8)

sb E s b f y

fstAst

cu

hc

xc

(a) Compression failure

(b) Tension failure
Figure 13. Equilibrium status of compression controlled and
tension controlled section.

Nc

N st

cu
xc

hc

Nc

N st

xc

c
hc

Nc

N st

N sb

N sb
N sb
y
b
(a) full section
(b) compression
(c) tension failure
under compression
failure
Figure 14. Strain distribution and force equilibrium in section
analysis.

To generate the N-M interaction diagram, expect the

data in pure compression and pure bending, various values
of axial load N and bending moment M should be
evaluated. For a given section, the interaction diagram is
constructed by selecting successive choices of neutral axis
distance xc, from infinity (axial load with eccentricity 0) to
a very small value given N=0(pure bending). In
compression failure range (from point A to point B), this is
done by assuming the compressive strain of extreme
concrete fiber as achieving to cu =0.0045 which is the
ultimate concrete compression strain. In tension failure
range (from point B to point C), this is done by assuming

(3) Tension failure: branch BC

Similarly, following Figure 13(b) the force equilibrium is
expressed by

1
fck bxc f st' Ast f sb' Asb
(9)
2
x t
1
M u Nu e f ck bxc (hc c b ) f st' Ast (hc tb ) (10)
2
3 2
Nu

where,

582

Huang & Liew.

e e0

hc tb

2 2

while specimen J7 that fails in pure flexural locates outside

the developed N-M interaction curve. This suggests that
the proposed model can offer close and conservative
predictions for combined compression and bending
resistance of SCS sandwich wall that filled with ultralightweight cement composite. Considering the accuracy
of the predictions, Eqs.(4-13) are recommended for the
check of the resistance of SCS sandwich wall under
combined compression and bending.

(11)

y hc xc

xc
c
c Ec c f ck

(12)
(13)

3.3 Numerical procedure and validations

For a given eccentricity, the maximum compressive
strain of the section in compression failure is achieved
while in tension failure the maximum yield strain of steel
is achieved, and an iteration procedure is carried out until
the equilibrium of forces in the section analysis is satisfied.
The process is repeated for increments of curvature until
the failure of the section is triggered by one of the
following conditions: (1) Crushing of concrete at its
ultimate strain cu=0.0045; (2) Yielding of the steel in
compression or tension. Finally, the N-M interaction
diagram of the short SCS sandwich wall is constructed
from the maximum bending moments at each axial load
level.
1.20

This paper presents experimental investigation and

analytical analysis into the structural behaivour of SCS
sandwich wall with J-hook connectors. A series of
combined compression and uni-axial bending tests on SCS
sandwich wall filled with lightweight concrete have been
carried out. Based on the experimental and analytical
investigations, following conclusions can be drafted:
(1) The lightweight SCS sandwich wall exhibits good
behavior in resistance and ductility. The major failure
mode is combined crushing of the lightweight concrete
followed by local buckling of steel face plates.
(3) The analytical investigation demonstrates that the
composite column design method in Eurocode 4 may overpredict the combined resistance of SCS sandwich wall
with J-hook connectors which would not be directly used
in design. Therefore, an N-M interaction model based on
the principles of plane sections remain plane assumption,
compatibility conditions and stress-strain relationships of
the materials is developed to consider the interaction of
compression and bending moment for SCS sandwich
composition wall. The validation against the test and FE
results shows that more reasonable and conservative
predictions can be achieved compared to Eurocode 4
method. Equations (4-13) are recommended to evaluate
the combined resistance of the SCS sandwich wall.

Eurocode 4
Proposed model
TEST
FE
Yan (2012)

1.00
0.80
N / Npl,Rk

4 CONCLUSTIONS

0.60
0.40
0.20
0.00
0.00

0.50

1.00
M / Mpl,Rk

1.50

2.00

Figure 15. Proposed N-M interaction model againt Eurocode 4

prediction, test and FE results.

REFERENCES

The generalized N-M diagrams based on Eurocode 4

and the developed model are shown in Figure 15. The test
data and extended FE results are also plotted in the figure.
In order to eliminate the dimensional and material effect,
the bending moment and axial load are normalised in the
figure. Comparing to Eurocode 4, it is found that all the
test data and FE result are outside the developed model
which indicates that the developed model can provide
conservative prediction. However, it is found that a pure
bending test data falls in the N-M interaction curve. It is
because the specimen prematurely fails in combined
flexural and shear as observed in the test and FE analysis
which leads to a slightly smaller pure moment resistance
but with small difference (Mtest=117.8<Mpro=138.1kN.m).
It is also confirmed by the tests (Yan, 2012) where
sandwich beam specimen J6 that fails in combined flexural
and shear mode overlaps the bending test data in this study,

AISC ANSI/AISC 360-10. Specification for Structural Steel

Buildings. Chicago, IL: American Institute of Steel
Construction, 2010.
Akira Kaneuji YO, Kiyoshi Hara, Hiroyuki Masumoto.
Feasibility study of concrete filled steel (SC) structure for
reactor building. Tansactions of the 10th International
Conference on Structural Mechanics in Reactor Technology
(SMiRT 10), 1989, Anaheim, CA, USA.
Cai, J., He, Z.Q. 2006. Axial load behavior of square CFT stub
column with binding bars. Journal of Constructional Steel
Research 62(5): 472-483.
European Committee for Standardization. (2004), Eurocode 4:
Design of composite steel and concrete structures - Part 1.1:
General rules and rules for buildings. Brussels.
Ho, J.C.M., Lai, M.H. 2013. Behaviour of uni-axially loaded
CFST columns confined by tie bars. Journal of
Constructional Steel Research 83: 37-50.
Huang, Z.Y., Liew, J.Y.R., Xiong, M.X., Wang, J.Y. 2015a.
Structural behaviour of double skin composite system using
ultra-lightweight cement composite. Construction and

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Building Materials 86:51-63.
Huang, Z.Y., Wang, J.Y., Liew, J.Y.R., Marshall, P.W. 2015b.
Lightweight steelconcretesteel sandwich composite shell
subject to punching shear. Ocean Engineering 102: 146-161.
Leekitwattana, M., Boyd, S.W., Shenoi RA. Evaluation of the
transverse shear stiffness of a steel bi-directional corrugatedstrip-core sandwich beam Journal of Constructional Steel
Research 67(2): 248-254.
Liew, J.Y.R., Wang, T.Y. 2011. Novel steel-concrete-steel
sandwich composite plate subject to impact and blast load.
Journal of Advances in Structural Engineering 14(4):673687.
McKinley, B., Boswell, L.F. 2002. Behaviour of double skin
composite construction. Journal of Constructional Steel
Research 58(10): 1347-1359.
Sohel, K.M.A, Liew, J.Y.R., Yan, J.B., Zhang, M.H., Chia, K.S.
2012. Behavior of Steel-Concrete-Steel sandwich structures
with lightweight cement composite and novel shear
connectors. Composite Structures 94:3500-3509.
Usami S., Akiyama, H., Narikawa, M., Hara, K., Takeuchi, M.,
Sasaki, N. Study on a concrete filled steel structure for
nuclear power plants (part 2). Compressive loading tests on
wall members. Tansactions of the 13th International
Conference on Structural Mechanics in Reactor Technology
(SMiRT 13), 1995, Porto Alegre, Brazil.
Uy, B., Wright, H.D., Bradford, M.A. 2001. Combined axial and
flexural strength of profiled composite walls. Proceedings
of the Institution of Civil Engineers. Structures and
buildings 146(2): 129-139.
Wang, J.Y., Chia, K.S., Liew, J.Y.R., Zhang, M.H. 2013. Flexural
performance of fiber-reinforced ultra-lightweight cement
composites with low fiber content. Cement Concrete
Composite 43:39-47.
Wright, H.D., Gallocher, S.C. 1995. The behaviour of composite
walling under construction and service loading. Journal of
Constructional Steel Research 35:257-273.
Wright, H.D.1998. Axial and bending behavior of composite
walls. Journal of Structural Engineering-ASCE 124:758-64.
Yan, J.B. 2012. Ultimate strength behaviour of steel-concretesteel sandwich beams and shells. Ph.D. Dissertation.
National University of Singapore.

584

11th International Conference on

Advances in Steel and Concrete Composite Structures
Tsinghua University, Beijing, China, December 3-5, 2015

SHEAR BEHAVIOR OF STEEL-PLATE COMPOSITE WALLS

X. Jiaa, X. Jia & J. Qiana
a

Department of Civil Engineering, Tsinghua University, Beijing, China

E-mails: jiaxiangfu@foxmail.com, jixd@mail.tsinghua.edu.cn, qianjr@mail.tsinghua.edu.cn
ABSTRACT

Keywords:
Steel-plate composite walls;
Seismic behavior; Quasi-static
test; Shear strength; Deformation
capacity; Shear connector.

In this paper, cyclic shear behavior of steel-plate composite walls was examined through a series
of experimental tests where 2 single-plate composite walls and 3 double-plate composite walls
were tested. All wall specimens had a shear-to-span ratio of 1.2, and an I-shaped cross section
with a steel ratio of approximately 6%. The following observations were found from the tests.
(1) All specimens failed in shear of wall web. (2) When the axial force ratio of the wall
increased from 0.16 to 0.3, the shear strength of the wall increased slightly, while the ultimate
drift decreased by approximately 20%. (3) As the double steel plates could offer some
confinement to the infilled concrete and the infilled concrete did not sustain spalling, the shear
deformation capacity of the double-plate composite walls was 20% larger than that of the
single-plate composite walls. (4) Using vertical stiffeners and batten bars to connect two
faceplates, the double-plate composite wall specimens had a significantly large deformation
capacity, reaching 3.8% drift. In addition, the analysis of test data on 46 steel-plate composite
walls indicates that the shear strength of the walls estimated per the Chinese Specification JGJ
3-2010 is 78% the test value on average, while the shear strength estimated per the AISC 341-10
and Eurocode 8 is 51% the test value on average. The AISC 341-10 and Eurocode 8 provisions
significantly underestimate the shear strength of steel-plate composite walls, as they neglect the
shear contribution by RC encasement or infilled concrete.

1 INTRODUCTION
Tie bar

Steel-plate composite walls are composed of steel

plate with reinforced concrete encasement on both sides
of the plate (referred to as single-plate composite walls
hereinafter) or steel plates on both sides of infilled
concrete (referred to as double-plate composite walls).
Figure 1 shows the schematic drawing of typical
cross-section of these walls. Use of steel plate leads to
increase of strength capacity of the walls. In addition, the
restraint provided by the concrete is beneficial to delay
the buckling of steel plates. Therefore, use of steel-plate
composite walls instead of conventional reinforced
concrete (RC) walls can translate into thinner walls with
resulting greater usable space and less gravity loads. With
these advantages, the steel-plate composite walls have
seen increasing use in super-tall building constructions in
China for the past decade.

(a) Single-plate composite wall

Steel plate

(b) Double-plate composite wall

Figure 1. Typical cross-section of steel-plate composite walls.

In past decades, great effort has been devoted to the

study of seismic behavior of steel-plate composite walls.
For example, Ji et al. 2013, Nie et al. 2013, examined
flexural behavior of slender steel-plate composite walls.
Japanese researchers, for example, Akiyama et al. 1991,
Takeda et al. 1995,Takeuchi et al. 1998, Ozaki et al.
2004, conducted a large number of cyclic shear tests on
double-plate composite walls that are used for the
containment of nuclear power plants. Varma et al. 2014
also studied the cyclic shear behavior of the double-plate
composite walls. More recently, Chinese researchers, for
example, Sun et al. 2008 and Nie et al. 2011, investigated
the shear behavior of steel-plate composite walls used for
high-rise buildings. Nevertheless, test data for composite
walls used for high-rise buildings, which are featured by
high steel ratio and large axial force ratio, are still
limited. In addition, the estimation of shear strength of
steel-plate composite walls has yet to be matured.
This paper presents a series of quasi-static tests used
to examine the cyclic shear behavior of steel-plate

Distributed rebar Boundary longitudinal rebar

Boundary Steel Headed Crosstie Profiled

steel
tranverse plate stud
rebar

Headed stud

585

Jia et al.

composite walls. Section 2 describes the experimental

program. The test results are detailed in Section 3.
Section 4 validates the design formulas of shear strength
of steel-plate composite walls by statistical analysis on
the test data from this program and those collected from
past tests.

120
Steel plate t6
Crosstie 8@200
Profiled steel I 834588
Transverse rebar 8 @100
140
570
140

2.1 Test specimens

The test specimens were designed to represent the
lower story walls in high-rise buildings, and scaled down
to accommodate the capacity of the loading facility. A
total of five wall specimens were included, which are two
single-plate composite walls (labeled as S1 and S2) and
three double-plate composite walls (labeled as D1~D3).
The specimen was designed with an I-shaped cross
section to realize shear failure of the web as the addition
of flanges can significantly increase the walls flexural
strength. Figure 2 shows the overall geometry of the
specimen. The wall was 850 mm tall, and the walls
cross-section had a depth of 850 mm and the flange width
of 520 mm. A heavy RC foundation beam and RC top
beam were cast together with the wall.

Figure 4 shows the cross-sectional dimensions and

reinforcing details of the double-plate composite wall
specimens. These specimens had a web thickness of 120
mm and flange thickness of 120 mm. Specimens D1 and
D2 adopted a commonly-used connection type where
headed studs anchored the faceplates to the infilled
concrete and tie bars connected the two faceplates
through the infill. Specimen D3 adopted a novel type of
connection, where the vertical stiffeners were welded to
the faceplates via fillet welds and they were fastened by
batten bars. The details of the connections are
summarized in Table 1. Thick steel faceplates were used
in wall flanges to ensure a sufficient flexural strength of
the wall specimen. The web faceplates were welded to
the flange faceplates via CJP welds. U-shaped bars were
used to provide the shear transfer along the interface
between the wall flange and web concrete by the
shear-friction mechanism.

350

200
120

800
850
1

875

800
1-1

U shaped bar 8@120

Tie bar 8@200

Figure 2. Elevation view of wall specimen. (unit: mm).

120

200

875

Figure 3 shows the cross-sectional dimensions and

reinforcing details of the single-plate composite wall
specimens. The specimens had a web thickness of 120
mm and flange thickness of 140 mm. Steel plate was
connected with the boundary I-shaped steel by
complete-joint-penetration (CJP) welds. Headed studs
(diameter = 8 mm, length = 40 mm) provided shear
transfer between steel plate and RC encasement. D6
(diameter = 6 mm) steel rebar were placed as horizontally
and vertically distributed reinforcement of the wall web
with a spacing of 100 mm. Heavy longitudinal
reinforcement was intentionally designed in the wall
boundary and flanges, to ensure that the flexural strength
of the specimen exceeds 1.2 times its shear strength. The
boundary transverse rebar and the web crossties were
passed through holes in the steel plate.

Faceplate t4
Headed stud 8 @100
Flange faceplate t8
120

(a) D1 & D2

586

610

200

Shear
wall

Foundation
beam

Figure 3. Cross section and reinforcing details of S1 & S2.

(unit: mm).

350

850

Top
beam

200

2 EXPERIMENTAL PROGRAM

1
1000

200

Flange longitudinal
rebar 1228
Boundary longitudinal
rebar 416
Distributed rebar 6@100

120

Jia et al.
Table 2. Material property.
200

U shaped bar 8@120

(a) Measured concrete strength

120

Batten bar B20-t4@80

120

610

200

Faceplate t4
Vertical stiffener B25-t4
Flange faceplate t8
120

No.

Concrete grade

fcu,t/MPa

S1

C50

56.0

S2

C50

63.8

D1

C50

47.6

D2

C50

52.7

D3
C50
50.5
(b) Measured steel strength

(b) D3
Figure 4. Cross section and reinforcing details of double-plate
composite wall specimens. (unit: mm).

Table 1 lists the steel ratio of the wall web, including

the ratios of steel plate and of steel rebars. The total steel
ratio of the web of the single-plate composite walls was
5.8%, and that of the double-plate composite walls was
6.4%.

Table 1. Specimen Parameters.

Plate

Thickness

Yield

Ultimate

or

or diameter

strength

strength

rebar

/mm

fy,t/MPa

fu,t/MPa

plate

341.1

496.3

28.9

plate

281.3

424.9

30.2

plate

302.1

450.8

37.3

rebar

526.0

737.2

9.3

rebar

424.0

636.0

9.5

rebar

16

442.2

610.7

10.0

rebar

28

445.0

623.2

10.6

Elongation
/%

No.

Ds/mm

Dt/mm

Ds/t

p/%

s/%

/%

S1

100

16.7

4.9

0.9%

5.8

S2

100

16.7

4.9

0.9%

5.8

Per the JGJ 3-2010 provisions, the axial force ratio of

the composite wall is given by

D1

100

200

25

6.4

6.4

D2

100

200

25

6.4

6.4

n=

f c Ac

N
f a Aa f p Ap

(1)

where N = axial force applied on the wall; fc = axial

compressive strength of the concrete; fa = yield strength
of profiled steel; fp = yield strength of steel plate; Ac =
cross-sectional area of the concrete; Aa = the
cross-sectional area of profiled steel; Ap = cross-sectional
area of steel plate.
As the wall flanges were disconnected to the top
loading beam in the specimen, almost all axial force was
applied to the web in the upper portion of the wall, while
it could transfer to the flanges in the bottom portion. The
finite element analysis using Abaqus software indicated
that the compressive force carried by the wall web is 77%
the total axial force on average. Using this axial force, the
measured dimension of web, and actual strength of
materials, the axial force ratio of the composite wall
specimens were calculated by Equation 1. Specimens S1
and D1 had identical axial force ratio of 0.16. The axial
force ratio of Specimen S2 was 0.29, and that of
Specimens D2 and D3 equaled to 0.31.

D3
150

37.5
6.4

6.4
*Ds = stud or vertical stiffener spacing; Dt = tie bar spacing; p
= steel plate ratio; s = reinforcement ratio; =p+s; t = steel
plate thickness.

All steel and vertical rebars were securely anchored

within the RC foundation beam. The steel plates and
vertical rebars of the wall web were embedded into the
RC top beam. However, the wall flanges were
disconnected to the top beam, to enable easy installation
of loading screws and to minimize the contribution of
flanges to the walls shear strength.
The strength grade of the concrete in the wall
specimen was C50 (the nominal cubic compressive
strength fcu = 50 MPa, and the design value of axial
compressive strength fc = 23.1 MPa). Table 2(a) shows
the cubic strength of the concrete fcu,t measured at the
time of specimen testing. The actual value of axial
compression strength of the concrete was taken as fc,t =
0.76fcu,t according to the GB 50010-2010. All steels had
the strength grade of Q235 (the design value of yield
strength fy,d = 210 MPa). All rebar had the strength grade
of HRB400 (the design yield strength fy,d = 360MPa).
Table 2(b) summaries the properties of the steel and rebar
obtained by coupon tensile tests.

2.2 Test setup and instrumentation

Figure 5 shows the test setup. The axial force was
first applied and maintained constantly in the duration of
testing. Afterwards, the lateral cyclic force was applied
by two MTS servo actuators. The lateral loading was
displacement controlled. Before the specimen yielded,
three levels of drifts were included, i.e. 0.05%, 0.1% and

587

Jia et al.
(a) S1

0.2%, and one cycle was performed at each level. After

the specimen reached the predicted yield drift of 0.4%,
the lateral displacement load increased with an increment
of 0.4% drift, and two cycles were repeated at each drift
level. The test was terminated when the specimen failed.
Instrumentation was used to measure loads,
displacements and strains of the specimen. Figure 5
shows the locations of the linear variable differential
transformers (LVDTs) used to measure the displacements.

Lateral force V/kN

Drift ratio /rad

-0.04 -0.03 -0.02 -0.01 0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04
3000
2000
1000
0
-1000

-2000
-3000
-40

-30

Loading frame

-20 -10
0
10 20
Displacement /mm

30

40

(b) S2
Vertical jack

Drift ratio /rad

-0.04 -0.03 -0.02 -0.01 0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04
3000

Horizontal
jack

d5
d9

d6

d2
d3 d4

Lateral force V/kN

d1
d7
d8

d10

2000
1000
0
-1000
-2000
-3000
-40

d11
Foundation beam

-30

-20 -10
0
10 20
Displacement /mm

30

40

(c) D1
Drift ratio /rad
-0.04 -0.03 -0.02 -0.01 0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04
3000

3 EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS

2000

Lateral force V/kN

Figure 5. Test setup and instrumentation.

3.1 Hysteretic response

Figure 6 shows the hysteresis loops of lateral force
versus top displacement of the specimens. All the
hysteresis loops were full, without obvious pinching. At
the drift less than 0.4%, all specimens behaved linearly.
As Specimens S2 and D2 were subjected to higher axial
forces, their post-peak strength decreased faster than that
of Specimens S1 and D1. Specimen D3, which used
vertical stiffeners and batten bars for connecting two
faceplates exhibited stable hysteretic behavior upon to
very large plastic deformation. Figure 7 shows the
skeleton curve of lateral force versus top displacement of
each specimen. All specimens had nearly identical initial
stiffness. Specimen D3 had a significantly larger shear
deformation capacity relative to other specimens.

1000
0
-1000

-2000
-3000
-40

Lateral force V/kN

Lateral force V/kN

1000

0
-1000
-2000
30

40

2000
1000
0
-1000
-2000
-30

-20 -10
0
10 20
Displacement /mm

30

40

(e) D3
Figure 6. Hysteretic loops of lateral force versus top
displacement of specimens.

2000

-20 -10
0
10 20
Displacement /mm

30

Drift ratio /rad

-0.04 -0.03 -0.02 -0.01 0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04
3000

Drift ratio /rad

-0.04 -0.03 -0.02 -0.01 0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04
3000

-30

-20 -10
0
10 20
Displacement /mm

(d) D2

-3000
-40

-3000
-40

-30

40

588

Jia et al.
Figure 8. Failure photographs of single-plate composite wall
specimens.

Lateral force V/kN

Drift ratio /rad

-0.04 -0.03 -0.02 -0.01 0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04
3000

2000

At 1.6%, shear buckling of steel faceplates was

observed for the double-plate composite wall specimens.
Upon to further loading, the buckling became more
severe. Due to the restraint provided by the vertical
stiffeners, the faceplates of Specimen D3 exhibited
high-order shear buckling. Finally, the tie bar fractured
and the infilled concrete crushed, which led to complete
failure of the specimens. Figure 9 shows the failure
photographs of double-plate composite wall specimens.

1000
0
-1000
-2000
-3000
-40 -30 -20 -10
0 10 20
Displacement /mm

S1
S2
D1
D2
D3
30

40

Figure 7. Skeleton curves of lateral force versus top

displacement of specimens.

3.2 Damage and failure mode

For single-plate composite wall specimens, diagonal
cracks initially occurred in the wall web before 0.2%
drift. The crisscrossed diagonal cracks developed along
with an increase in the drift. At 1.2% drift, spalling of
concrete cover was observed, followed by the buckling of
distributed rebars. At 2% drift, concrete crushing was
observed at the upper portion of wall web. Finally, the
steel plate buckled after loosening the restraint of RC
encasement. Specimen S2 that had a larger axial force
ratio sustained more severe damage than S1. Figure 8
shows the failure photographs of Specimens S1 and S2.

(a) D1

(b) D2

(a) S1

(c) D3

(b) S2

589

Jia et al.

3.4 Strains

Figure 9. Failure photographs of double-plate composite wall

specimens.

The measured strain data of steel plates and

horizontally distributed rebars indicate that the steel
plates yielded in shear and the horizontally distributed
rebars yielded in tension. While the boundary
longitudinal rebars and the flange of embedded I-shaped
steel only slightly yielded at a very late stage. It is thus
confirmed that the specimens failed in shear mode rather
than in flexural mode.

3.3 Shear strength and deformation capacity

Table 3 presents the measured yield load Vy,m and
peak load Vp,m of the specimens. The yield load was
determined based on the method proposed by Park et al.
1982. The values shown in this table are the average of
the loads measured in the push and pull directions. The
peak load of Specimens S2 and D2 was 11.9% and 4.3%
larger than that of S1 and D2, respectively. This indicates
that the increase of axial compressive force can increase
the shear strength of the steel-plate composite walls.
Specimens D3 and D2 had nearly identical peak load,
indicating that the types of connection made no
difference on the shear strength of the double-plate
composite walls.

4 DESIGN FORMULAS OF SHEAR STRENGTH

4.1 Overview of design formulas in various codes
Per the ANSI/AISC 341-10 and Eurocode 8
provisions, the shear strength of steel-plate composite
walls is estimated as the yield shear strength of the steel
plates only, neglecting the shear contribution provided by
RC encasement or infilled concrete, which is given by

Table 3 Shear strength and deformation capacity of specimens

No.

Vy,m /kN

Vp,m/kN

y /%

u /%

S1

1618

2021

0.63

1.8

2.81

S2

1816

2261

0.35

1.4

2.68

D1

1667

2212

0.57

2.1

3.65

D2

1726

2306

0.49

1.7

3.58

D3

1834

2387

0.57

3.8

6.71

V 0.6 f p Ap

Analysis of the data measured by LVDT d1 and those

by the crossing LVDTs d3 and d4 (see Figure 5) indicates
that the lateral displacement of the wall specimen was
dominated by shear deformation. Table 3 summarizes the
yield drift, ultimate drift, and ductility factor. The yield
drift ratio y is the lateral displacement corresponds to the
yield strength. The ultimate drift ratio u is defined as the
post-peak drift at the instant when the lateral load
decreases to 85% of the peak lateral load. The ductility
factor is calculated as u/y.
The following conclusions can be drawn from Table 3.
(1) The ultimate drift of Specimens D1 and D2 was
approximately 20% larger than that of Specimens S1 and
S2. The increased shear deformation capacity of
double-plate composite walls is attributed to the fact that
the faceplates can offer additional confinement to the
infilled concrete and the infilled concrete can contribute
to ductility as concrete spalling does not occur. (2) The
ultimate drift of Specimens S2 and D2 was approximately
20% lower than that of Specimens S1 and D1, indicating
that the increase of axial force ratio leads to a decrease of
shear deformation capacity of steel-plate composite walls.
(3) As the vertical stiffeners and batten bars could provide
effective restraint to the faceplates, Specimen D3 had a
significantly large deformation capacity, equaled to 2.2
times that of Specimen D2.

590

(2)

where fp = yield strength of steel plate, Ap = gross

cross-section area of steel plates.
Chinese technical specification for concrete structures
of tall buildings (JGJ 3-2010) estimates the shear strength
of steel-plate composite walls by superposing the shear
strength of steel plate and that provided by RC
encasement or infilled concrete. The shear strength of the
single-plate composite walls is given by

VSP
VRC

0.6
f A
0.5 p p

1
0.5 f t bw hw 0 0.13N
0.5
A
0.3
f A
f yv sh hw 0 +
s
a a1

V VSP VRC

(3-a)

(3-b)

(3-c)

where VSP = yield strength of steel plate; VRC = shear

strength provided by RC encasement and boundary steel;
ft = tensile strength of the concrete; fyv = yield strength of
horizontal rebars; fa = yield strength of profiled steel; fp =
yield strength of steel plate; bw = web thickness of the
wall; hw0 = effective depth of the wall; Ash =
cross-sectional area of the horizontal rebars within
spacing s; Aa1 = cross-sectional area of the profiled steel
in one boundary; Ap = cross-sectional area of the steel
plate; = shear-to-span ratio of the wall and the value of
is taken as 1.5 if it is smaller than 1.5; N = axial
compressive force applied to the wall web.
For the double-plate composite walls, the shear
strength is given by

VSP

0.6

0.5

f p Ap

(4-a)

Jia et al.

VC

1
0.5 f t bw hw 0 0.13N
0.5

V VSP VC

merely 0.58 times the test value. It significantly

underestimated the shear strength capacity of the
steel-plate composite walls.

(4-b)
(4-c)

4.3 Validation against the test data

where VC = shear strength provided by infilled concrete.

A large volume of data from past tests (Akiyama et al.

1991; Takeda et al. 1995; Takeuchi et al. 1998; Emori et
al. 2002; Ozaki et al. 2004; Cao et al. 2013; Sun et al.
2008; Yang et al. 2010) was collected for further
validation of design formulas of shear strength of
steel-plate composite walls. Figure 11 summarizes data
from a total of 46 tests, including 12 single-plate
composite wall specimens and 34 double-plate composite
wall specimens, where the calculated and test values of
shear strength are compared. Note that the steel ratio of
these test specimens varied from 1.3 to 6.4%, and the
axial force ratio varied from zero to 0.31.
It is found that the calculated shear strength per the
JGJ 3-2010 provisions, Vc, is smaller than the test value
Vt for most of test specimens. The mean and standard
deviation for the ratio of Vc/Vt equal to 0.78 and 0.17,
respectively. The calculated shear strength per the AISC
341-10 and Eurocode 8 provisions is significantly lower
than the test value, with the mean and standard deviation
of Vc/Vt equal to 0.51 and 0.13. The analysis of large
volume of test data further indicates that the AISC 341-10
and Eurocode 8 provisions lead to significant
underestimation of the shear strength capacity of
steel-plate composite walls.

It is notable that the increase of shear strength of RC

encasement or infilled concrete induced by compressive
force is taken into account in these formulas.

4.2 Strength analysis of test specimens

Figure 10 compares the calculated values of shear
strength of the specimens per the JGJ 3-2010 provisions
and the test results. This figure also shows the
contributions provided by steel plate, concrete, axial
compressive force, horizontally distributed rebars and
profiled steel. In the calculation, the actual values of the
yield strength of the steel and reinforcement was used,
and the tensile strength of the concrete ft was taken
according to Ye 2005 as

f t 0.395 f cu0.55

(5)

where fcu = cubic strength of the concrete.

The estimated shear strength of the single-plate
composite wall specimens per the JGJ 3-2010 provisions
is 0.82 times the test value of the strength. The estimated
shear strength of the double-plate composite wall
specimens is 0.75 times the test value. The design
formulas of JGJ 3-2010 provides conservative estimation
on the shear strength of steel-plate composite walls. This
may be attributed to the following reasons: (1) The
post-yield hardening effect of steel plates and distributed
rebars is neglected in the calculation; and (2) The wall
flanges could contribute additional shear strength.

Estimated value /kN

8000

Shear strength V/kN

2500
2000

Akiyama et al.
Takeda et al.
Takeuchi et al.
Emori et al.
Ozaki et al.
Cao et al.
This study

6000

4000

Double-plate
composite walls
Sun et al.
Yang et al.
This study

2000

1500
1000

Single-plate
composite walls

0
0

500
0

2000

4000
6000
Test value /kN

8000

(a) Shear strength estimated per JGJ 3-2010 provisions

S1
S2
Test value
Profiled steel

D1
D2
Distributed rebar
Steel plate

D3
Axial force
Concrete

Figure 10. Estimated value versus test value of shear strength of

the specimens.

Figure 11 also indicated that if considering the shear

strength of steel plates only as suggested by the
ANSI/AISC 341-10 and Eurocode 8 provisions, the
estimated value of shear strength of the wall specimens is

591

Jia et al.

Estimated value /kN

8000

REFERENCES

Akiyama et al.
Takeda et al.
Takeuchi et al.
Emori et al.
Ozaki et al.
Cao et al.
This study

6000

4000

Akiyama H., Sekimoto H., Fukihara M., Hara K. A

compression and shear loading test of concrete filled steel
bearing wall. Transaction of the 11th International
Conference on Structural Mechanics in Reactor
Technology, 1991. Tokyo, Japan.
ANSI/AISC 341-10 Seismic provisions for structural steel
buildings. Chicago: American Institute of Steel
Construction, 2010.
Cao W., Yu C., Dong H., Qiao Q., Han L., Y.B. Zhang.
Experimental study on performance of composite shear
walls with double steel plate under different constructions.
Journal of Building Structures, 2013, 34(Supplement 1):
186-191. (in Chinese).
CMC. Code for design of concrete structures (GB
50010-2010).Beijing: China Ministry of Construction; 2010.
(in Chinese).
Emori K. Compressive and shear strength of concrete filled
steel box wall. Steel Structures, 2002, 2: 29-40.
Eurocode 8 Design of structures for earthquake resistance. Part
1: general rules, seismic actions and rules for buildings.
Brussels: European Committee for Standardisation, 2003.
JGJ 3-2010 Technical specification for concrete structures of
tall buildings. Beijing: China Architecture & Building
Press, 2010. (in Chinese).
Ji X., Jiang F., Qian J. Seismic behavior of steel tube-double
steel plate-concrete composite walls: Experimental tests.
Journal of Constructional Steel Research, 2013, 86: 17-30.
(in Chinese).
Nie J., Bu F., Fan J. Experimental research on seismic behavior
of low shear-span ratio composite shear wall with double
steel plates and infill concrete. Journal of Building
Structures, 2011, 32(11): 74-81. (in Chinese).
Nie J., Hu H., Fan J., Tao M., Li S., Liu F. Experimental study
on seismic behavior of high-strength concrete filled
double-steel-plate composite walls. Journal of
Constructional Steel Research, 2013, 88:206-219.
Ozaki M., Akita S., Niwa N., Osuga H., Nakayama T., Adachi
N. Study on steel plate reinforced concrete panels subjected
to cyclic in-plane shear. Nuclear Engineering and Design,
2004, 228:225-244.
Park R., Priestley M.J.N., Gill W.D. Ductility of
square-confined concrete columns. Journal of the Structural
Division, ASCE, 1982, 108(4): 929-950.
Sun J., Xu P., Xiao C., Sun H., Wang C. Experimental study on
shear behavior of steel plate-concrete composite wall.
Building Structure, 2008, 38(6): 1-5. (in Chinese).
Takeda T., Yamaguchi T., Nakayama T., Akiyama K., Kato Y.
Experimental study on shear characteristics of a concrete
filled steel plate wall. Transaction of the 13th International
Conference on Structural Mechanics in Reactor
Technology, 1995. Porto Alegre, Brazil.
Takeuchi M., Narikawa M., Matsuo I., Hara K., Usami S. Study
on a concrete filled structure for nuclear power plants.
Nuclear Engineering and Design, 1998, 179: 209-223.
Varma A.H., Malushte S.R., Sener K.C., Lai Z. Steel-plate
composite walls for safety related nuclear facilities: Design
for in-plane forces and out-of-plane moments. Nuclear
Engineering and Design, 2014, 269: 240-249.
Yang X. Experimental research on shear behavior of
high-strength concrete steel composite walls. Master
Dissertation: China Academy of Building Research, 2010.
(in Chinese).
Ye L. Concrete structures (2nd ed.) Beijing: China Tsinghua
University Press. (in Chinese).

Double-plate
composite walls
Sun et al.
Yang et al.
This study

2000

Single-plate
composite walls

0
0

2000

4000

6000

8000

Test value /kN

(b) Shear strength estimated per AISC 341-10 and Eurocode 8

provisions
Figure 11. Comparison of calculated and test values of shear
strength.

5 CONCLUSIONS
This paper presents a series of quasi-static tests used
to examine the shear behavior of steel-plate composite
walls. The following conclusions are drawn from this
study:
(1) When the axial force ratio increased from 0.16 to
0.30, the shear strength capacity of the steel-plate
composite wall specimens increased slightly, while their
shear deformation capacity decreased by 20%.
(2) The double-plate composite wall specimens had
the shear deformation capacity 20% larger than the
single-plate composite wall counterparts, as the faceplates
could offer additional confinement to the infilled concrete
and the infilled concrete did not sustain spalling.
(3) By use of the vertical stiffeners and batten bars to
connect two faceplates, the double-plate composite wall
had a significantly larger deformation capacity, relative to
the walls that adopted headed stud and tie bars as
connectors.
(4) Analysis of data of 46 steel-plate composite walls
from past tests and from this program indicates that the
design formulas of JGJ 3-2010 provides a reasonable and
conservative prediction on the shear strength of
steel-plate composite walls. While the design formulas
suggested by AISC 341-10 and Eurocode 8 could
significantly underestimate the shear strength of
steel-plate composite walls, as they neglect the
contribution of RC encasement or infilled concrete.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENGS
The work presented in this paper was sponsored by
National Key Technology R&D Program of China (No.
2012BAJ07B01). The writers wish to express their
sincere gratitude to the sponsor.

592

11th International Conference on

Advances in Steel and Concrete Composite Structures
Tsinghua University, Beijing, China, December 3-5, 2015

JOINT FLEXIBILITY EFFECTS ON THE BEHAVIOR OF STEEL

PLANE FRAMES
A. N. T. Ihaddoudnea & J. P. Jaspartb
a

Built Environment Research Laboratory, Faculty of Civil Engineering, University of U.S.T.H.B, Algiers, Algeria
E-mails: nacer_i@yahoo.fr

Department ArGenCo, Faculty of applied sciences, Lige University, Lige, Belgium

E-mail: jean-pierre.jaspart@ulg.ac.be
ABSTRACT
Keywords:
Steel; Joints; Semi-rigid
behavior; Plane frame; Tri-linear
behavior.

The flexibility of most connections behaves between the conventional perfectly rigid and pinned
one but their real behavior lies between these two extremes. The effects of connection flexibility
are, then, to be incorporated in the analysis and design procedure of frames as its influence
change significantly not only the moment distribution among beam and column but the
structural displacement as well. A simple model that takes into account these effects is proposed
and a corresponding stiffness matrix element is presented. The introduction of the concept of a
non-deformable element of joint describing relative displacement and rotations between the
nodes and the elements of the structure in the semi-rigid connections takes all its meaning. The
influence of the semi-rigid joints on steel plane frames have been shown and compared in two
illustrative examples. Numerical results of different frames of two stories and two bays are
compared for various situations of the joint from bilinear to tri-linear behavior.

relative displacements and rotations between the elements

of the structure (see Fig. 1b) is introduced. The adopted
model shown in Figure 1c is based on the use of three
springs: two translational ones and rotational one
(Ihaddoudne 2008, Ihaddoudne et al. 2009,
Ihaddoudne & Jaspart 2013).

1 GENERAL INTRODUCTION
In the past, the two extreme idealizations of rigid and
pinned connections have been widely used in the
conventional structural steel analysis and design.
However, the actual behaviour of a semi-rigid connection
falls between these two situations as most connections
used in common practice transmit some partial moment
(Jones et al. 1983, Lui & Chen 1987, Bjorhovde et al
1990, Conception et al. 2011). Including this true
behaviour of the joints in the analysis and design of steel
structures changes not only the moment distribution
among beams and columns (Gerstle 1988, Ihaddoudne et
al. 2008) but also increases the structural displacements
as well; and in particular increases the P-delta second
order effects (Jaspart 1991, Ihaddoudne 2008,
Ihaddoudne & Jaspart 2013).
The introduction of the concept of a non-deformable
element of node describing relative displacements and
rotations between the nodes and the elements of the
structure in the semi-rigid connections takes all its
meaning (Ihaddoudne 2008, Ihaddoudne et al. 2009).

Non-deformable
node

Semi-rigid
Joints
Non-deformable

nodes
(a)

Bar
element
Rotational
spring
Translational
spring

(b)

(c)

(a): Semi-rigid joints; (b): Non deformable node;

(c): Bar element and non-deformable node

Figure 1: Mechanical model adopted.

2.1 Stiffness matrix

2 MECHANICAL MODEL

The stiffness matrix that relates the element end

forces to end displacements is formulated for all members
with semi-rigid connections of the frame. To establish the
modified stiffness matrix including both the effect of

To incorporate the effect of semi-rigid joints in the

analyses of the steel frame shown in Figure 1a, the
concept of a non-deformable node element describing

593

Ihaddoudne et al.

axial force and connection flexibility (Ihaddoudne &

Jaspart 2013), different situations are considered.
In the local reference, the stiffness matrix of a
structural bar element is given by:
k11

k 21
Ke
k31

k 41

k12
k 22
k32
k 42

k14

k 24
k34

k 44

k13
k 23
k33
k 43

3 (v )

(4c)

EI
l

(4d)

The k 1 j expressions have been derived as:

EIy" ( x) Ny Hx M j

EI v 3 (sin v )
.
D
l3

(5a)

2
EI v (1 cos v 2 )
.
2
D
l

(5b)

EI v 3 (sin v )
D
l3

(5c)

2
EI v (1 cos v 1 )
D
l2

(5d)

i k i vw sin v

(6a)

(k1 k 2 )vw cos v k1 k 2 (vw) 2 sin v

(6b)

D (2 2 cos v v sin v) (v, k1 , k 2 )

(6c)

k11

k12

(2)
k13

k14

Mi

k1

(4b)

With the bar element of semi-rigid joints

(Ihaddoudne 2008, Ihaddoudne & Jaspart 2013)
subjected to both compression axial forces N and
bending moments M i and M j at each ends as shown in
Figure 2 below, the governing differential equation is:

4 (v )

2 (v) , 3 (v) and 4 (v) which are the stability functions,

presented for different type of supports.
The flexural rigidity per unit length

(1)

2.2 Basic equations in buckling considerations

Mj

The nodes of the beam which are represented by non

deformable frames at each ends have different
flexibilities k 1 and k 2 at both ends i and j respectively.

Mi

Where:

Hi

y
l

x
k2
N

2.3 Equations for semi-rigid joints aspects

Hj

Mj
Figure 2: Bar element under unit displacement

Based on the expressions established earlier

(Ihaddoudne 2008), one can report the formulas of
element k1 j considering only semi-rigid connections and
neglecting an axial force.

i 1

The reactions H , M i and M j are determined by using

the boundary conditions of:
y ' ( 0) k 2 M j
y ' (l ) k1 M i k1 ( Hl N M j )

(3b)

(3c)

Where
2

N
EI

l2

2 (v )

k12

18 1 2k 2
l 4(1 3k1 )(1 3k 2 ) 1

(7b)

k 13

36 1 ( k1 k 2 )
l 2 4(1 3k1 )(1 3k 2 ) 1

(7c)

k14

18 (1 2k1 )
l 4(1 3k1 )(1 3k 2 ) 1

(7d)

(3d)
In order to establish the different elements of the
stiffness matrix K e in local reference, expressions have
been derived by considering only the equilibrium
equations and boundary conditions for each element k ij
as presented in (Ihaddoudne el al. 2009).

The solution of this system of equations is obtained as:

H

(7a)

(3a)

Introducing
v l

36 1 (k1 k 2 )
l 4(1 3k1 )(1 3k 2 ) 1

k11

(4a)

594

Ihaddoudne et al.

The expressions presented here (Ihaddoudne 2008)

are more general as they take all type of situations,
considering or neglecting the semi-rigidity of connections
and axial forces or combining them in any situations.

portion of the moment-rotation curve. Here, the step by

step process is continued until the sum of the load
increments is equal to the load applied to the structure
P=60kN. The calculation schemes at different stages
corresponding to these cases and the bending moment
diagram are respectively given in Table 1 and Figure 5
below:

3 EXAMPLES
The influence of semi-rigid joints on the behavior of
steel structures is followed with the results obtained on
two different steel frames: two story frame and portal
frame with two bays. Three behavior cases of rigid, semirigid bilinear (with k (1) and k (3)) and semi rigid tri-linear
(with k (1), k (2) and k (3)) are considered as shown in the
Figure 3 below. The load is increased up to the value of
P=60kN.

Table 1: Schemes at different stages

1st
Stage

The flexibility

in the critical sections

1
2
3

3.1 Two story frame

In table 1, and
are the flexibilities of the node i at
the stage j of the characteristic curve of the joint.
The results obtained for different cases at each stage are
summarized in the Table 2 below:

The frame of Figure 4 is analyzed where the behavior

of the connections is bilinear or tri-linear. The different
characteristic curves of bar element and connections are
reported in the Figure 3. The IPE 400 beam elements
(Ix=23130cm4) has a plastic moment Mp=319.92 kN.m
where for the HEA 280 columns (Ix=13670cm4) the
plastic moment Mp=266.88 kN.m.

Table 2: Increment of load W

M ( kN.m) values.

M(kN.m)

M(kN.m)
k(3)

214,7

MP

k ( 2) 1/ 7062,5

135

k(1) 1/ 45200

( rad )

(rad )

a- For the joint.

b- For the element.

41.62
-33.04

15.2
-5.94

56.79
-38.97

3.2
-0.39

P=60kN
-39.37

M
M
M
M ,

-96.2
-33.04
41.11
-96.2

-39.41
-5.94
14.44
-39.41

-135.6
-38.98
55.54
-135.6

-5
-0.39
1.05
-5

-140.6
-39.37
56.59
-140.6

61.08

11.23

72.32

2.85

75.17

0.5 P

kb
1

,
,

kb

10

-11.77

-3.18

-14.95

0.52

-14.44

-135.6

-25.83

-161.43

-5.88

-167.31

29.34

11.12

40.46

1.57

42.03

-66.17

-32.08

-97.25

-7.06

-104.31

-74.51

-14.6

-87.11

-3.03

92.14

80.47

33.28

113.75

7.55

121.3

48.97
47.64
39.37

kb

,
,

kb

4m

Rigid connections
Semi-rigid bi-linear
Semi rigid tri-linear
155.22
146.85
150.0

4m

120.57
138.68
140.6

216.28
195.39
167.31

k 12

11
2m

2m

2m

2m

Figure 4: Two story portal frame.

79.23
94
104.31

The process is divided into some steps, according to

the shape of the moment-rotation curve (bi-linear or trilinear) and the state of the structure. All the joints have
the same flexibility k (1) in the first stage of the initial

M
P

1
Stage
W
M

Figure 3: Characteristic curves.

(kN) and bending moment

129.136
133.8
149.16

95.94
88
75.17

120.34
107.43
92.14
118.3
116
121.3

Figure 5: Bending moment diagram for different connection

595

Ihaddoudne et al.

that the beams are highly sensitive to the connection

flexibility for portal frame with two stories.

Note that the bending moments in the connections (at

6 and 10 of the moment diagram) decrease from the rigid
case to bilinear semi-rigid one, while they increase at
mid-span (at 8 on the diagram) what it not found at the
first level (in 1, 5 and 3, respectively). In this case, we
should not have the same type of semi-rigid connection
for the two floors of the portal frame.

CONCLUSIONS
Connection flexibility is known to be a major source
of nonlinearity in steel structures. If this flexibility is not
taken into account, it will be a source of errors and
precision in the design of structures. In the proposed
mechanical model, the analytical solutions are easily
established and are practical in implementation. The
elements of the stiffness matrix are easily obtained by the
method of unit displacement. A modified stiffness matrix
using analytical expressions for steel frames with semirigid connections is presented.
The illustrative examples of two plane steel frame and
portal steel frame with two bays show the high sensitivity
of the structural elements to the joint flexibility.

3.2 Portal frame with two bays

The same procedure is applied to the portal frame with
two bays of the Figure 6 and the corresponding moment
diagram is shown in Figure 7 below:
P
0.5

kb

P
2
k

P
kb

REFERENCES

4m

kc 4

Bjorhovde, R., Colson, A. & Brozzetti, J. 1990. Classification

system for beam-to column connections. Journal of
Structural Engineering, ASCE 116(11): 3059-3077.
Conception, D., Marti, P., Victoria, M. & Querin, O.M. 2011.
Review on the modelling of joint behaviour in steel frames.
Journal of Constructional Steel Research 67(5): 741-58.
Gerstle, K.H. 1988. Effect of connections on frames. Journal of
Constructional Steel Research 10: 241-267.
Ihaddoudne, A.N.T., Saidani, M. & Chemrouk, M. 2008.
Modelling of steel frames with semi-rigid joints.
International Journal of Applied Engineering Research
3(7): 955-67.
Ihaddoudne, A.N.T. 2008. Analyse de la stabilit des
structures assemblages semi-rigides. Ph.D Thesis, Faculty
of Civil Engineering, University of Sciences and
Technology, U.S.T.H.B, Algeria.
Ihaddoudne, A.N.T., Saidani, M. & Chemrouk, M. 2009.
Mechanical model for the analysis of steel frames with
semi-rigid joints. Journal of Constructional Steel Research
65(3): 631-40.
Ihaddoudne, A.N.T. & Jaspart, J.P. 2013. Stability of non sway
steel frames with semi-rigid connections. Proceedings of the
14th International Conference on Civil, Structural and
Environmental Engineering & Computing, September 3-6,
2013. Cagliari, Italy.
Jaspart, J.P. 1991. Etude de la semi-rigidit des nuds poutrecolonne et son influence sur la rsistance et la stabilit des
ossatures en acier. Ph.D.Thesis, University of Lige,
Belgium.
Jones, S.W., Kirby, P.A. & Nethercot, D.A. 1983. The analysis
of frames with semi-rigid connections: A state of the art
report. Journal of Constructional Steel Research 3(2): 2-13.
Lui, E.M. & Chen, W.F. 1987. Steel frame analysis with flexible
joints. Journal of Constructional Steel Research 8: 161-202.

kc 6

kc 5

2m 2m 2m 2m 2m 2m 2m 2m
Figure 6: Two bays portal frame.

8.83
2.4
0.7

240.3
193.75
164.75

152.3
151.5
148.3

99.4
127.53
136.8

116.35
143.74
157.9
70.9
78.61
86.42

128.91
73.45
58.2

145.4
128.5
135.9
Rigid
Semi rigid bi-linear
Semi rigid tri-linear

Figure 7: Bending moment diagram (kN.m) for different

connections.

The influence of the flexibility of the connections on

the values on bending moments is shown in Figure 7
above. Indeed, for the portal frame of two span reduced
moments at the ends is accompanied by an increase at its
value span.
Thus, it can be argued that the potential influence of
the connections on the behavior of two story portal frame
and two bays portal frame is clearly established. The
bending moment diagrams for these two examples show
596

11th International Conference on

Advances in Steel and Concrete Composite Structures
Tsinghua University, Beijing, China, December 3-5, 2015

DYNAMIC CONDITION ASSESSMENT OF COMPOSITE

STRUCTURES USING DIFFERENT DAMAGE INDICES
X. Q. Zhu
School of Computing, Engineering and Mathematics, University of Western Sydney, Sydney, Australia
E-mails: xinqun.zhu@uws.edu.au
ABSTRACT
Keywords:
Dynamics; Condition
assessment; Composite
structures; Experimental study.

In aging structures, the condition of shear connectors may not be acceptable due to corrosion
and/or overloading. Damage or failure of shear connectors will deteriorate the composite action,
and therefore reduce the bridge load-carrying capacity. Before retrofitting/strengthening these
existing structures, one may be required to detect the integrity of the existing shear connectors.
The inaccessibility of the connection system makes direct inspection difficult. In addition, the
huge number of shear connectors prevents any local non-destructive testing methods to access
the connectors one by one. It is of practical importance to develop a new non-destructive
assessment technique to detect the integrity of shear connectors. In this study, two different
damage indices are used to evaluate the condition of the shear connection system. A scale
composite bridge model has been tested in the laboratory. Different damage scenarios have been
created by loosening different shear connectors. Experimental results illustrated that the method
is effective and reliable to detect the damage in the connection system of steel-concrete
composite structures.

techniques, such as visual, acoustics, magnetic field, eddy

current etc., are effective but local in nature. They require
that the vicinity of the damage is known a priori and the
position of the structure being inspected is readily
assessable. The global methods quantify the healthiness
of a structure by examining changes in its vibrational
characteristics or the static behaviour under load. The
core of this group of methods is to seek some damage
indices that are sensitive to structural damage. Doebling
et al (1998) and Brownjohn (2007) presented a literature
review on the damage assessment methodologies based
on the parameters including the natural frequencies, mode
shapes, mode shape curvature, the flexibility matrix and
stiffness matrix. Morassi and Dilena (2003) carried out an
experimental study on damage-induced changes in modal
parameters of steel-concrete composite beams subjected
to small vibration. Damage was induced by removing
concrete around some elements connecting the steel beam
and the reinforced concrete slab and consequently
causing a lack of structural solidarity between the two
beams. Dilena and Morassi (2003) presented a method to
identify the damage using the frequency changes. A 1:3
scaled bridge model was built in the laboratory by Xia et
al. (2007). The laboratory study showed that the dynamic
response of the bridge deck is insensitive to damage in
the connector system. This is one of the main difficulties
associated with the use of the vibration methods for
damage detection, especially for shear connectors. The

1 INTRODUCTION
Composite slabs are widely used in bridges that
consist of a reinforced-concrete slab supported on steel or
concrete girders. Their behaviour is highly affected by the
level of interaction that occurs between the reinforced
concrete slab and the steel or concrete girders, which is
usually jointed together by shear connectors. Damage or
failure of the shear connectors will affect the composite
action of the bridge girders and slab, and therefore reduce
the bridge load-carrying capacity and the horizontal shear
resistance. Some of these bridges may not satisfy current
load requirements and require retrofitting or
strengthening. Recent studies showed that the blind bolts
could be utilised to retrofit/strengthen existing composite
bridges (Mirza et al, 2011). Before retrofitting/
strengthening these existing structures, one may be
required to detect the integrity of the existing shear
connectors. The inaccessibility of the connection system
makes direct inspection difficult. On the other hand, the
huge number of shear connectors prevents any local
non-destructive testing methods to access the connectors
one by one. It is of practical importance to develop a new
non-destructive assessment technique to detect the
integrity of shear connectors.
Damage identification techniques can be classified
into either local or global methods. Most currently used

597

Zhu et al.

method is then used for damage detection of structures.

The relative wavelet entropy based on vibration signals
from the intact and damaged structures is used for
damage detection by Ren and Sun (2008). Zhu et al.
(2012) presented a method to identify the damage in the
shear connection system using wavelet based
Kullback-Leibler distance (KLD).

local method that compared the vertical responses of the

girders and slab could be used to identify damage in shear
connectors. A damage index based on the norm of
Frequency Response Function (FRF) differences of
vibrations measured simultaneously on slab and concrete
girders was developed to detect shear link damage. The
method was proven yielded reliable prediction of shear
link damage. The sensitivity range of the method was
also quantified based on both numerical and laboratory
test data. The method has been successfully applied to the
full slab-girder bridges (Xia et al, 2008). A damage
indicator based on the local modal curvature and the
wavelet transform modulus maxima is used from damage
in shear connectors (Liu and De Roeck, 2009).

In this study, two types of damage indicators were

used to assess the integrity of the shear connectors. The
wavelet based Kullback-Leibler spectral distance
(WKLD) and the damage index based on FRFs, were
investigated using the experimental study. A scaled
bridge model was constructed in the laboratory. Some
removable anchors were specially designed and
fabricated to link the beams and slab that cast separately.
Each anchor consists of a threaded bar that penetrates
through the soffit of the beam and ties up into an
embedded nut cap to simulate a shear connector in the
real bridges. Different damage scenarios were introduced
by pulling out some connectors. Vibration tests were
carried out in each damage scenario. Experimental results
show that the method is reliable and effective to indicate
the damage location.

Most of the vibration-based damage assessment

methods require modal properties that are from traditional
Fourier transform (FT). However, when the damage is
very small, the damage-induced changes of physical
structural properties are always too insignificant to
disclose the damage using the FT-based method. In
addition, the measured vibration signals are often
contaminated with noise. The Wavelet Transform (WT)
based method for vibration signal analysis is gradually
adopted in many areas due to its good time-frequency
localization. Hou et al (2000) used a simple structural
model with multiple breakable springs subjected to
harmonic excitation to show that the wavelet transform
can successfully be used to identify both abrupt and
cumulative damage. The wavelet packet transform (WPT)
is an extension of the WT that provides complete
level-by-level decomposition. The WPT enables the
extraction of features from signals that combine
stationary and non-stationary characteristics with
arbitrary time-frequency resolution. Sun and Chang
(2002) concluded that the WPT-based component energy
was a sensitive condition index for structural damage
assessment. This index is sensitive to changes of
structural rigidity and insensitive to measurement noise.
The WPT component energy combined with well-trained
neural network models is used to identify the location and
the severity of damage. Yam et al (2003) also extracted
the structural damage feature based on energy variation
of structural vibration responses decomposed using
wavelet packet, and the neural network is used to
establish the mapping between the structural damage
feature and damage status. This method needs accurate
model information for both the healthy and damaged
conditions to train the neural network model, which is
difficult and challenging in practice, especially for
complex structures. Law et al (2005) developed a method
to identify damage in structures using wavelet packet
sensitivity. The sensitivity of wavelet packet transform
component energy with respect to local change in the
system parameters is derived analytically basing on the
dynamic response sensitivity. The sensitivity-based

2 DAMAGE IDENTIFICATION THEORY

2.1 Damage indices based on frequency response
functions (FRFs)
To quantify the difference in response of the slab and the
girders, two damage indices are used to evaluate the
condition of the shear connectors. The first one is the
relative difference of the FRFs (RDFRF) between the
girder and the slab. This is defined as (Xia et al., 2007):

H iG H iS

RDFRF H iG , H iS H iG H iS

(1)

Another damage index is the correction of the vertical

FRFs (COFRF) of the girder and the corresponding slab
points as follows (Xia et al., 2007),

H H H

COFRF H iG , H iS H iG

S
i

G
i

S
i

(2)

where Hi is the FRF measured at the ith point, |||| denotes

the Euclidean norm, || is the absolute value (or
magnitude of the complex number) and superscripts G
and S represent girder and slab, respectively. A low
RDFRF value means a small difference between the
response at the point on the slab and the corresponding
point underneath the girder, implying a good condition of
the connector. On the other hand, a high RDFRF value
means a significant difference in the responses at the
particular point, which indicates damage in the vicinity.

598

Zhu et al.

2.2 Wavelet based Kullback-Leibler distance

follows

(WKLD)
DWKL
j , k ( p j , k , q j , k ) ( DKL ( p j , k q j , k ) DKL ( q j , k p j , k )) / 2

A signal can be expressed by the Discrete Wavelet

Transform (DWT) in terms of local basis functions
(Daubechies, 1988). We employ Daubechies wavelets in
the following studies as they satisfy the two crucial
requirements: the orthogonality of local basis functions
and second-order accuracy or higher, depending on the
dilation expression adopted.

(7)
where

p j , k (t ), q j , k (t ) , respectively.

A function f (t ) can therefore be approximated in

terms of its DWT as

f (t ) f 0DWT (t ) f1DWT (t ) f 2DWT ( 2t )

f 2DWT
(2 j t k )
j
k

p j , k (t ) p(t ) j , k (t )dt

3 EXPERIMENTAL SETUP
3.1 Experimental model
A scaled bridge model 6250mm1090mm50mm
was constructed in the laboratory (Xia et al, 2007), as
shown in Figure 1. The dimension of the bridge model is
as follows: a span 6000 mm in length, the girders 100
mm wide by 300 mm deep, the diaphragms is
210mm300mm, and a slab of 50 mm depth, with 475
mm spacing between two girders. There are 9 connectors
at 600 mm intervals along each beam and 8 mm in
diameter. The connectors are denoted as S1-S27. The
bridge model rested on two steel frames, which acted as
the abutments of the bridge and were fixed to the strong
floor. The model was left for a period of 28 days before
testing commenced in order to ensure that the specified
concrete strength was achieved.

(t ) 2 h( k ) (2t k ) ;
k

(t ) 2 g (k ) (2t k ) ;
k
j
2

j , k (t ) 2 ( 2 j t k )
where

and

q j , k (t ) q(t ) j , k (t )dt .

(3)

where both j and k are in the integer domain. (t ) and

(t ) are the scaling function and the mother wavelet
function respectively, and they satisfy the following
relations,

p j , k , q j , k are the power spectral density of

(4)

h(k ) and g (k ) are the low-pass and high-pass

analysis filters respectively which are all constants.

f 2DWT
is the wavelet transform coefficients. Because of
j
k
the orthogonality on both translation and scale of the
Daubechies wavelets, we have,

j ,k

(t ) m ,n (t ) dt j ,m k ,n

(5)

We have the following with real wavelets,

f 0DWT f (t ) (t )dt ;
f 2DWT
f (t ) j ,k (t ) dt
j
k

(6)

The idea of separating the signal into packets is to obtain

an adaptive partitioning of the time-frequency plane

depending on the signal of interest. The discrimination of

Figure 1 Plan of the model and details (unit: mm)

a wavelet packet sub-band can be defined as its ability to

Shear connectors (27 in total)

differentiate between any two signals p(t) and q(t) in the

Design of the shear links incorporates the ability not only

to simulate failure of particular links, but also to reset

transformation domain. The KLD can be defined as

599

Zhu et al.

data were recorded with a sampling frequency of 500Hz.

Vertical responses were measured in all cases.

them to an undamaged state. All shear link fixity is

provided by securing both ends of the shear link thread.
The top end is secured by a T-nut. This is positioned at
the mid depth of the slab, and provides anchorage once
the slab has been poured. Anchorage between the T-nut
and the slab has been achieved by welding a small
horizontal metal bar (6 mm) on top of the T-nut. After
the slab pour the T-nut position is permanently fixed. In
the lower part, the thread is surrounded by a metal tube
which is fixed in place as a result of pouring the concrete
beams. To set the shear link to an undamaged state, the
thread is screwed into the T-nut, a nut and washer are
then positioned and tightened at the beam soffit. To set
the link to a damaged state the thread is simply
unscrewed from the T-nut and completely removed.

4 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

4.1 Modal test results
Figure 3 compares the first bending mode shape of the
undamaged state D0 and the damaged state D1. Visual
inspection on the mode shapes cannot find the changes
around the damage location because the mode shape
difference expands to a wider range owing to
normalization process of mode shapes. Damping ratios
generally increase slightly in the damaged states. Due to
the difficulty of measuring it accurately, damping is
rarely used in damage detection. Because it is difficult to
remove the effects of environmental factors, it will affect
the condition assessment that is based on the changes in
modal data before and after onset of damage. Therefore it
can be concluded that using vibration frequencies and
mode shapes is difficult to give confident damage
detections of shear links between concrete girder and slab
of bridges.

3.2 Experimental procedure

Table 1 Measurement point in each damage case
Intact
(D0)
On the slab

On the girder

D1

D2

(S8 and S9 loosen) (S4, 5, 8, 9 loosen)

A1~12

A1~12

A1~12

B1~12

B1~12

B1~12

C1~12

C1~12

C1~12

D1~12

D1~12

D1~12

E1~12

E1~12

E1~12

G1~12

G1~12

G1~12

(a) The first mode of D0

Figure 2 Sensor location (

hammer location,

sensor location)

Vibration tests were conducted in this study to detect the

removal (damage) of shear connectors in the bridge.
The intact state and several damage states (simulated by
loosing the connectors) were tested using hammer impact.
The impact and sensor locations are shown in Figure 2.
Two damage scenarios (denoted D1, D2) together with
the intact state (D0) were investigated. D1 is to simulate
the damage in the end that the anchors S8 and S9 were
loosen from the girder, and D2 is to simulate two damage
locations in the middle and end of the structure that S4,
S5, S8 and S9 were loosen. Table 1 shows the
measurements for each case. In each case, 12
accelerometers were placed on the slab (denoted as A,
B, C, D, E) and on the girder corresponded to
A (denoted as G). For each impact, 4096 points of

(b) The first mode of D1

Figure 3 Mode shapes of D0 and D1

600

Zhu et al.

4.2 Damage indicators based on FRFs

4.3 Wavelet based KLD

Figure 4 show the results of the two damage indicators

In the above, the KLD value is obtained by comparing the

calculated for states D0~D1. In Figure 4, COFRF and

power spectral densities of two measurements in the

RDFRF of D0 are plotted in terms of 12 measured points.

whole frequency range. The imperfection in the shear

For the multiple damage state D1, the two damage

connectors is the local damage. The vibration features

locations (SA6 and SA10) are clearly identified.

from measurements, such as natural frequency, mode

Therefore, with this local approach, all the damages have

shapes obtained from Fourier transform, are not sensitive

been located successfully without false identification. The

to local damage. However, a subband signal may be

results are consistent and the method is robust. It must be

sensitive to local damage. The idea of separating the

noted that the two indicators are calculated by comparing

signal into packets is to obtain an adaptive partitioning of

the FRFs on the slab and those underneath the girder

the time-frequency plane depending on the signal of

point by point over the whole frequency range (0~250 Hz

interest. The KLD value can then be obtained by

here). Consequently the indicators in each state can be

comparing the components in a subband.

evaluated individually and the intact data is not necessary.

12
10

WKLD

8
6
4
2
0
0
1
2
3
4
5
Sensor location (m)

A~E

(a) WKLD of D1

100

(a) COFRF values of D1

WKLD

80
60
40
20
0
0
1
2
3
4
5
Sensor location (m)

1 2

A~E

(b) WKLD of D2
Figure 5 WKLD values using the 6th wavelet packet of
measurements on the slab only (D1~D2)

Figure 5 shows the WKLD values using the 6th

component of measurements on the slab only for Cases
D1 and D2. The maximum value is at sensor A11 in
Figure 5(a), and there are two peaks at Sensor A6 and
A11 in Figure 5(b). It shows the WKLD value from the
measurements on the slab only can be a good indicator of
the damage location. In Figure 5(b), the WKLD values at
B6 and B11 are also large due to these measured points

(b) RDFRF values of D1

Figure 4 COFRF and RDFRF of D1

601

Zhu et al.
Balla Balla River Bridge, Part V: Further Studies and Error
Analysis. School of Civil & Resource Engineering, The
University of Western Australia, Australia, Report No.
ST-07-02.
Yam L.H., Yan Y.J. and Jiang J.S. (2003) Vibration-based
damage detection for composite structures using wavelet
transform and neural network identification. Composite
Structures, 60(4), 403-412.
Zhu X.Q., Hao H., Uy B., Xia Y. and Mirza O. (2012)
Dynamic assessment of shear connection conditions in
slab-girder bridges by Kullback-Leibler distance. Advances
in Structural Engineering, 15(5), 771-780.

are close to the damage locations. This approach avoids

measurement on the girders, which sometimes is difficult
and dangerous.

5 CONCLUSIONS
A damage index based on method has been developed to
assess the integrity of the shear connectors. Vibration
tests have been carried out on the scaled bridge model
and 3 damage scenarios were simulated by loosing 2 or 4
anchors at different locations. Experimental results show
that the COFRF, RDFRF and WKLD values are good
indicators of the damage location for the shear connection
system in composite structures.
REFERENCES
Brownjohn J.M.W. (2007) Structural health monitoring of civil
infrastructure. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal
Society A: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering
Sciences, 365(1851), 589-622.
Cornwell P., Farrar C.R., Doebling S.W. and Sohn H. (1999)
Environmental variability of modal properties.
Experimental Techniques, 23(6), 45-48.
Daubechies I. (1988) Orthonormal Bases of Compactly
Supported Wavelets. Communications on Pure and
Applied Mathematics, 41, 909-996.
Dilena M. and Morassi A. (2003) A damage analysis of
steel-concrete composite beams via dynamic methods: Part
II. Analytical models and damage detection. Journal of
Vibration and Control, 9, 529-565.
Doebling S.W., Farrar C.R. and Prime M.B. (1998) A
summary review of vibration-based damage identification
methods. The Shock and Vibration Digest, 30(2), 91-105.
Hou Z., Noori M. and St. Amand R. (2000) Wavelet-based
approach for structural damage detection. Journal of
Engineering Mechanics ASCE, 126(7), 677-683.
Law S.S., Li X.Y., Zhu X.Q. and Chan S.L. (2005) Structural
damage detection from wavelet packet sensitivity.
Engineering Structures, 27(9), 1339-1348.
Liu K. and De Roeck G. (2009) Damage detection of shear
connectors in composite bridges. Structural Health
Monitoring, 8(5), 345-356.
Mirza
O.,
Uy
B.
and
Zhu
X.Q.
(2011)
Retrofitting/Strengthening Strategy for Existing Bridges
Using Blind Bolts as Shear Connectors. 4th Australian
Small Bridges Conference, 10-11 May 2011, Melbourne,
Australia.
Morassi A. and Roccehetto L. (2003) A damage analysis of
steel-concrete composite beams via dynamic methods: Part
I. Experimental results. Journal of Vibration and Control,
9, 507-527.
Ren W.X. and Sun Z.S. (2008) Structural damage
identification by using wavelet entropy. Engineering
Structures, 30, 2840-2849.
Sun Z. and Chang C.C. (2002) Structural damage assessment
based on wavelet packet transform. Journal of Structural
Engineering ASCE, 128(10), 1354-1361.
Xia Y., Hao H., Deeks A.J. and Zhu X.Q. (2008) Condition
assessment of shear connectors in slab-girder bridges via
vibration measurements. Journal of Bridge Engineering
ASCE, 13(1), 43-54.
Xia, Y., Zhu X.Q., Hao, H. and Deeks, A. (2007).
Vibration-based Damage Detection of Shear Connectors in

602

11th International Conference on

Advances in Steel and Concrete Composite Structures
Tsinghua University, Beijing, China, December 3-5, 2015

A DESIGN METHOD FOR WALLS WITH SEVERAL ENCASED

STEEL PROFILES
A. Plumier
Department of Civil Engineering, University, Liege, Belgium
E-mail: a.plumier@ulg.ac.be
ABSTRACT
Keywords:
Composite structures;
design; walls; columns; encased
sections.

The design of walls or columns with several encased steel profiles has similarities with classical
reinforced concrete, but also original aspects which need specific design approaches. There has
been experimental research and numerical models, which demonstrated the validity of those
structural components, but simple methods for design have not been presented. In the paper the
classical truss model used to design reinforced concrete for shear is extended to take into
account the contribution of encased profiles to shear stiffness. This allows to distinguish the
action effects in the steel profiles and in concrete and to make separate checks for shear of the
steel profiles and the concrete section. The evaluation of longitudinal shear action effects at the
steel profileconcrete interface is a critical point, as the literature reflects research projects made
with very different degree of connection. A method to calculate that shear is proposed. The
available resistance shear are recalled in the format of Eurocode 4. Friction is one of them,
which requires the definition of compression stresses at the steel profileconcrete interfaces. A
calculation method is proposed. This proposal is at present calibrated in the European research
project SMARTCOCO in which experiments will be concluded end of 2015.

takes into account the effect of secant modulus for steel

(Keo et al 2015):

1 INTRODUCTION

EI Kc Ecd Ic Ks Es I s Ka Ea Ia

In tall buildings, gravity loads can mean huge wall

sections and space reduction in the lower stories. Encased
steel profiles can reduce the necessary sections. This
solution which also increase the ductility has been used in
projects in China and Poland. However, design theory and
codes for such walls are still lacking. In order to fill the
gaps in knowledge about several hybrid steel-concrete
design aspects, the SMARTCOCO project is under way in
Europe. This paper presents results and theoretical
developments for the design of walls with several encased
steel profiles.

where K s 1 .

Kc k1 k2 / (1 ef )
f ck
20

k1

k2 n

2 BENDING STIFFNESS

For the global analysis of structures, the proposed

expression for the bending stiffness of concrete columns
or walls with several encased steel profile is:

EI Kc Ecd Ic Ks Es I s Ka Ea Ia

(2)

170

(3)
(4)

0.2

N Ed
N pl , Rd

(5)
(6)

where NEd : axial load; Npl,Rd : axial resistance.

K a 0.76( f y / f ck )0.0124 / 1 105ef exp 0.078 1

(1)

where Kc 0.45; K s K a 0.9 .

Subscripts a and s are respectively for steel profiles and
classical bars.
In slender hybrid elements, due to time-dependent
concrete strains, longitudinal steel compression strain
could be higher than yielding strain of the steel profiles.
The following expression of nominal flexural stiffness

(7)
where

603

ef : creep coefficient;

: geometric slenderness.

Plumier et al.

3 WALLS SUBMITTED TO BENDING AND

classical rebars: adequate yield stress, elongation capacity

and bond. Yield stress and elongation of structural steel are
similar for sections and rebars, but bond requires specific
thinking because there are no indentations in steel sections;
this last reality is set forward by the very different design
values of bond in Eurocodes: bond of ribbed bars is 7 times
higher than the one of steel profiles; bond of plain bars is
in good conditions 3 times higher than the one of steel
profiles for a C30 concrete; and the discrepancy increases
with the concrete grade. Even though steel sections have a
large perimeter, this wide area for bond does not
compensate the low bond strength. This is a crucial aspect
in designing walls or columns reinforced by steel profiles,
because resistance to longitudinal shear at the steel
concrete interface is necessary to prevent relative
displacement between steel and concrete at the steel
concrete interface. This justifies the following
developments which aim at evaluating the longitudinal
shear stress at the concrete-steel interface of profiles.
The total deformation of walls submitted to shear and
bending is a sum of bending deformation and shear
deformation. Figure 2: tot= M + V
In the truss analogy, bending and shear are studied in a
single truss model in which deformations involve all the
bars, which contribute to the truss stiffness by their axial
stiffness EA. The individual bending and shear stiffness EI
and GA of bars are usually neglected. This is questionable
if bars are encased steel profiles and a solution has to be
found which consider the contribution of these special
reinforcements to stiffness. Such a solution is proposed
hereafter.

AXIAL FORCE
The strength of sections of wall submitted to bending
and axial force can be calculated in the same way as
classical reinforced concrete sections.
Indeed, in a wall submitted to axial force and bending,
the steel profiles are submitted essentially to longitudinal
strains; the contribution of the individual bending stiffness
of each profile to the global bending stiffness is secondary.
For instance, in the case of the wall section at Figure 1:
Individual stiffness EIH of one HE120B: 7.1011 Nmm2.
Stiffness EIwall of the wall: 19.1013 Nmm2. Ratio EIH/EIwall
for the 3 encased steel profiles: 0.9%.
The same comment applies to the contribution of the
individual bending resistance of each profile to the global
bending resistance of the section, so that it can be
considered that a steel profile is just another type of
longitudinal reinforcement.
However, steel profiles occupy more depth than bars.
A steel profile should thus not be represented as a single
circular bar of the same section because this would lead to
an approximate positioning of the neutral axis of the
section. The problem can be solved by representing the
steel profile by a set of bars which occupy the positions
and sections of the different walls of the steel profile; two
bars for each wall of the steel profile, flange or web, is
satisfactory. However, there is acondition: longitudinal
shear between steel profiles and concrete must be resisted
by adequate shear connection.

3HEB120
1620

60

260

260
800

60

Figure 2. Components of the deformation of walls.

The reference model for shear in reinforced concrete

elements is a truss model with compression diagonals in
concrete and transverse steel ties, while the chords are the
truss components designed to resist the bending moment.
In the truss analogy, the model is single for bending and
shear effects and the contributions of shear deformation
and bending deformation to the total deformation can
however be identified.

Figure 1. Wall with 3 encased steel profiles. Above: real section.

Below: model with bars figuring the steel profiles.

4 ACTION EFFECTS ON WALLS SUBMITTED

TO BENDING, SHEAR AND AXIAL FORCE

4.1 General concept

The studied walls studied are reinforced concrete
sections in which some reinforcement are steel sections.
As explained in 3 above, this does not basically change the
design procedure for longitudinal reinforcements, as long
as the steel sections have the characteristics required for
604

Plumier et al.

4.2 Shear stiffness of the truss

The evaluation is made on a unit cell of the truss. z is
the distance between the compression and tension chords;
the standard value classically considered for z in truss
models [fib Model code 2010] is: z = 0,9h. is the
inclination of the compression diagonal as shown in Figure
5. The parameter is left open like in Eurocode 2 or fib
Model Code 2010. The span or height of wall
corresponding to the unit cell defined above is:
a) Hypothesis 1

b) Hypothesis 2

Figure 3. Deformed shapes of a truss in bending and in shear.

If we consider an Hypothesis 1, in which the diagonals

and transverse bars are axially infinitely stiff, the
deformation is only due to the axial deformation of the
chords; this situation shown in Figure 3a) is equivalent to
a bending flexibility only situation, parameter EI, and
= M .
If we consider an Hypothesis 2 in which the chords are
axially infinitely stiff, the deformation is only due to the
axial deformation of the diagonals and transverse bars; this
situation shown in Figure 3b) is equivalent to a shear
flexibility only situation, parameter GAs, and = V.
Axial forces in the bars of the truss are the same in
Hypothesis 1 and 2, because the truss system is statically
determinate. The encased steel profiles are longitudinal
reinforcements which are part of the chords; but as
mentioned in 2, the bending stiffness of the encased steel
profiles does not influence significantly the bending
stiffness of the truss. It results that only the shear stiffness
GAs of the steel profiles has an influence on the stiffness
of the truss.
A total shear VEd applied in one section of the truss will
be distributed between two shear resisting systems
working in parallel: a truss with bars submitted to axial
forces and a set of steel profiles submitted to shear. This is
sketched at Figure 4. VEd is distributed in the two systems
proportionally to their relative shear stiffness.

cos
z cot
sin

(8)

Under an applied shear Vc, the total horizontal

displacement RC of the point of application of Vc is:

RC c s

(9)

In which c is the horizontal displacement of the point

of application of Vc due to the shortening diag of the
diagonal compression strut and s the horizontal
displacement due to the elongation of the stirrups. The
elongation of the chord in tension and the shortening of the
chord in compression do not influence the horizontal
displacement of the point of application of Vc.
The compression diagonal characteristics are as
follows, see Figure 6.
Fdiag

ldiag

Vc
sin

z
z

sin
cos
2

b = bw

hdiag

z cos cos
2

z cos

sin

Adiag bwhdiag bw z cos

Ediag Ec

Figure 4. Distribution of total shear VEd in two shear

resisting systems working in parallel.

605

(10)
(11)

(12)

(13)
(14)
(15)

Plumier et al.

Vc

c diag cos diag sin

Ec bw sin cos
2

(17)

cw

Fdiag
Adiag

Vc
bw z sin cos

(18)

The stirrups characteristics are as follows:

Fstirrup Fdiag cos Vc

2

(19)

As is designed such that:

As

Vc
fy

(20)

As is realized by a number n of stirrups over a span z cot .

If the spacing between stirrups is s and one stirrup section
Asw , then:
z cot
s

(21)

As nAsw

(22)

Figure 5. Unit cell of Mrsch truss submitted to shear.

[Note: Asw provided by one stirrup means 2 bars]

F
z Vz
Vc zs
Vc s
stirrup s stirrup c

Es As
Es As Es Asw z cot Es Asw cot
(23)

s
1

(24)

E
A
cot
E
b
sin
cos
c w
s sw

RC s c Vc

The shear stiffness SRC of one unit cell of the truss, due
to reinforced concrete and stirrups, finally is:

SRC

1
s
Es Asw cot

1
Ec bw sin cos

(25)

A further comment should be made for squat walls.

In the truss, the elongation of stirrups is one
components of the deformation of a unit cell . This is
valid for walls with an aspect ratio (height/width) like
those shown at Figures 5.3.1, 5.3.2 and 5.3.3: hwall / z >2
If the aspect ratio is around 1 and the wall basis is fully
fixed into concrete, then the only significant deformation
is the one of the compression diagonal. It often the case in
experimental set up. Then:

Figure 6. Components of the deformation of a unit

cell .

diag

Fdiag ldiag
Ec Adiag

stirrup s 0

(26)

S RC Ec bw sin cos

(27)

4.3 Shear stiffness of the encased steel profiles

Vc z
Vc

sin Ec bw z cos Ec bw sin 2 cos

2

The total horizontal displacement SP of the point of

application of the applied shear Va, for a number N of

(16)

606

Plumier et al.

identical encased steel profiles, is established as follows.

Av is the shear area of one steel profile. G is the shear
modulus of steel. The shear stiffness for the set of N
profiles is found:

Va
NAvG

SP z cot

S SP

Va z cot
NAv G

NGAv
z cot

(28)

(29)

(30)

4.4 Distribution of shear between Mrsh truss and

the steel profiles

Figure 7. Equilibrium at a node of the truss model.

For a total shear VEd applied to a section of walls with

encased steel profile, the total transverse shear Va,tot
applied to the N encased steel profiles is found as:

Va,tot VEd

SSP
SSP SRC

Fdiag can be subdivided into a force normal to the chord

and a force parallel to the chord. The latter is injected into
the chord by longitudinal shear at the steel-concrete
interface. The longitudinal shear force Vl over a length
zcot is equal to:

(31)

Vl Fdiag cos Vc cot

Per profile the transverse shear Va is:

VEd SSP
Va
N ( S SP S RC )

The longitudinal shear force 1 per unit length of the

chord is:

(32)

vl

The shear applied to Mrsh truss is:

SRC
Vc VEd
SSP SRC

(34)

Vc
z

(35)

A chord of the truss model is not in reality a simple line:

it is constituted of longitudinal bars and an external steel
profile. The longitudinal shear force l is distributed
between the components of the chord zone, in proportion
to their relative areas.
The longitudinal shear force Vl,a relevant for the steel
profile over a length zcot is:

(33)

4.5 Action effects at the interface between concrete

and an external steel profile
External steel profiles are those present in the chords
of the truss model. Internal steel profiles are those which
are not present in the chords of the truss model and thus do
not participate into the simple Mrsch truss model. The
equilibrium at a node of the truss model involves the
compression strut force Fdiag and the tie force in the
stirrups Fstirrup. Figure 7.

Vl , a Vl Aprof / Achord Vc Aprof / Achord

(36)

where Aprof is the external profile section area and Achord the
sum of Aprof and Abars.
Abars is the sum of the areas of the rebars in the
chord zone:

Achord Aprof Abars

(37)

The component of the diagonal compression strut

which is normal to the profile is equilibrated by the stirrup
tensile force Fstirrup over a length zcot:

607

Plumier et al.

Fstirrup Fdiag sin Vc

(38)

The total transverse compression force Fcomp over a

length zcot is:
Fcomp Vc

(39)

As, in reality, nodes of the truss are not points and

chords are not lines, the path of forces at a node depends
on the design details. In Figure 7, the equilibrium involves
transverse compression in the steel profile and
compression struts between the profile and the stirrups
bents. In Figure 8, the equilibrium between normal
compression force and stirrup tensile force is realized
within the steel profile.

Figure 9. Internal steel profiles cross diagonal compression

struts.

Fdiag can be subdivided into a force Fcomp normal to the

internal profile and another one Vl tangent to the profile:

Figure 8. Equilibrium at a node of the truss model in case of a

partially encased steel profile and external ties.

It should be noticed that in the design of Figures 7 and

8, the longitudinal shear l,a is applied on the half of the
steel profile which is facing the compression struts, which
means the side of the profile facing the interior of the
wall. This can be considered as a design requirement for
any type of node design.

Fcomp Vc

(40)

Vl Vc cot

(41)

Per unit height of wall:

fcomp

vl

4.6 Action effects at the interface between concrete

and an internal steel profile

Fcomp
z cot

Vl
z cot

(42)

(43)

It is important to note here that there is an applied l

upwards on one side of the encased profile and another l
applied downwards on the other side of the profile and that
each of these l has to be resisted by adequate means.
On the whole, it is thus a longitudinal shear resistance
for a total of 2 l distributed symmetrically on the profile
which has to be provided in the case of an internal steel
profile. Figure 9. The part of the forces which is applied to
an internal profile and to the surrounding concrete is
established considering a slice 1of wall.
Let us consider the case of encased H section oriented
as indicated at Figure 10. An applied force fcomp is split into
fa in the steel profile and fc in the concrete:

Internal steel profiles are those which are not present

in the chords of the truss model and thus do not
participate into the simple Mrsch truss model. They
contribute mainly to the resistance of the wall to axial
compression. Because of their position, they cross the
compression struts and for this reason are submitted to
the same inclined compression stresses cw resulting from
the application of the strut compression force Fdiag as
shown at Figure 9.

608

Plumier et al.

fcomp fa fc

Vc VRd ,max cwbw z1 fcd / (cot tan )

(44)

Vc VRd , s

Asw
zf ywd cot
s

Va VRd , a V pl , Rd ,i ( Av ,i f y ,i / M 0 3)
i

(C3)
(C4)
(C5)

If all checks (C3), (C4) and (C5) are satisfied, in

addition to checks (C1), C2) and to check (C6) (see further
down), the shear strength of the wall is assured. VRd,wall is
equal to:

VRd,wall minVRd,max VRd,a ,VRd,s VRd,a (48)

Figure 10. Distribution of compression strut force between

In walls submitted to compression, in addition to shear

and bending, the design checks take into account the fact
that, on the concrete side, the shear resistance VRd of a wall
is improved by a compression state. Eurocode 2 section
6.2.3 gives the tools to evaluate the design resistance
taking this into account. The rules are recalled hereunder.

profile and concrete. Case of H web parallel to wall long faces.

Expressing that plane sections remain plane:

fat f
Ea b

fc t f
Ec (b bw )

(45)

VRd,max = cw bw z 1 fcd/(cot + tan ) (49)

It results in slice 1:
f comp Ea b
fa

b b [ Ea b Ec (bw b )]

(46)

f comp Ec (bw b )
fc

(bw b ) (bw b ) [ Ea b Ec (bw b )]

(47)

a
c

where 1 is a strength reduction factor for concrete cracked

in shear; cw is a coefficient taking account of the
interaction of the stress in the compression chord and any
applied axial compressive stress.
The recommended value of 1 is:

In most sections of walls with encased steel profiles, fa

represents a large part of fcomp. In the example of Figure 10.
fa = 0.93fcomp.
An easy and safe side estimate is: fa = fcomp.
It should be checked that:

c f cd

0.6 1

f ck
250

(50)

where fck en MPa.

If the design stress of the transverse shear reinforcement

(C1)

is below 0,8fyk , 1 may be taken as:

a fa / tw f yd

(C2)

1 0.6
for fck 60 MPa
1 0.9 fck / 200 0.5 for fck 60 MPa

Similar calculations of the applied stresses and similar

checks can be made on slice 2 or for profiles oriented
differently.

The recommended value of cw is as follows:

5 CHECKS OF THE RESISTANCE OF WALLS

for structures without applied compression

(1 cp / f cd )
1.25

TO TRANSVERSE SHEAR
Being longitudinal reinforcements, encased steel
profiles participate to the resistance to bending and axial
force and are therefore submitted to longitudinal tension or
compression. Classical checks for reinforced concrete
sections in bending combined to compression apply. The
shear action effect in concrete Vc and in the steel profiles
Va are established as defined in 4. In wall submitted
essentially to shear, without significant bending and
compression, the design checks of Eurocode respectively
for concrete, stirrups and steel profiles are:

(51)

for 0 cp 0.25 f cd
for 0.25 f cd cp 0.5 f cd

2.5(1 cp / f cd ) for 0.5 f cd cp 1.0 f cd

(52)
where cp is the mean compressive stress, measured
positive, in the concrete due to the design axial force. This
should be obtained by averaging it over the concrete
section taking the reinforcement into account.

609

Plumier et al.

6 RESISTANCE TO LONGITUDINAL SHEAR AT

equal displacement of the 3 parts due to their belonging to

a common section, but due to the different bending
stiffness EIeff,i of the subsections, the transverse shear VEd
corresponding to bending will be distributed into the 3
subsections proportionally to their relative stiffness:

STEEL-CONCRETE INTERFACE
The design check is:

Vl,a Vl ,Rd

(C6)

The resistance Vl,Rd to shear at the steel-concrete

interface can be provided by the following contributions.
Bond, with design shear strength Rd (Table 6.6 of
Eurocode 4), possibly magnified by a factor greater than
1,0 if the concrete cover is greater than 40 mm;
Friction, with a friction coefficient equal to 0,5 for
steel without painting. Friction results from compression
which can be caused by: compression struts as explained
in 4; local compression struts at shear connectors welded
on the web of an H section, because the lateral expansion
of the concrete is prevented by the adjacent steel flanges
(it may be assumed to be PRd/2 on each flange and each
horizontal row of studs); local compression under an
external applied force or a reaction at the supports;
Shear resistance of shear connectors (studs or plate
connectors);
Eurocode 4 allows to add those different contributions
in order to obtain the necessary total resistance.

Vi VEd

EI eff ,i
i 3

EI
i 1

(53)

eff , i

Figure 12 gives an image of the distribution of VEd

applied in direction Y. Of course, this assessment of shear
by subsections does not pretend to define the exact flow of
stresses and strains in the section: it is a distribution in
equilibrium with make sense. The same can be said about
the strut and tie design, a long time agreed method.

7.2 Design of shear reinforcements

Some practical questions need to be solved in order to
design the shear reinforcements.
The first question is how to define the subsections. A
simple way consists in defining subsections which are
either classical reinforced concrete sections, like
subsection 2 in Figure 12, or walls with encased steel
profiles, like subsections 1 and 3; in these walls
subsections, the steel profile is at the geometrical centre of
symmetry of the subsection. Then design for shear
resistance simply refers to available methods which are
those of Eurocode 2 for subsection 2, and the rules and
calculations established in 4 to 6 for subsections 1 and 3.

COLUMNS WITH SEVERAL ENCASED

STEEL PROFILES

7.1 Distribution of shear in the section

The type of section envisaged is shown at Figure 11.

Figure 11. Column with several encased steel profiles.

It can be observed that the density of longitudinal

reinforcement in the section is quite irregular: the steel
content is much higher where the steel shapes are. This
influences the way in which an applied shear is distributed
within the section. If one cuts the complete section into in
3 subsections as shown at Figure 12, bending will result in

610

Plumier et al.
Figure 12. Distribution of VEd in subsections of a column with
several encased steel profile.

A second question is about border problems between

subsections and how to distribute transverse
reinforcements: stirrups should be placed such that they
comply with regular requirements of the code for a column
section considered as being one single section. In
particular, the rule on distances between longitudinal bars
and the rule on bars between bents of stirrups should be
respected.

8 CONCLUSIONS
A design method for walls with several encased steel
profiles is developed. It allows checks for a combination
of applied axial force, bending and shear. In particular, the
method provides the distribution of transverse shear
between concrete and encased steel profiles and defines
how to evaluate longitudinal shear at the concrete-steel
profiles interface. This last proposal is necessary to design
an adequate shear connection of the profile to concrete.
It is then shown how the developments for walls can be
applied to columns with several encased steel profiles.
The developments presented here have been cross
checked with experimental results from the literature, as
explained in another paper of this conference. The method
will also be checked with the results of the SMARTCOCO
projects which will be available by the end of 2015.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
This paper was developed in the frame of the
SMARTCOCO project funded by RFCS, the Research
Fund for Coal and Steel of the European Commission
(Research grant agreement RFSR-CT-2012-00031
Smartcoco).
The companies BESIX and ArcelorMittal are also
thanked for their contributions and involvement in the
project.
REFERENCES
SMARTCOCO. Smart Composite Components
Concrete Structures Reinforced by Steel Profiles,
RFCS-CT-2012-00031.
Keo, P., Somja, H., Nguyen, Q.-H., Hjiaj, M. 2015. Simplified
design method for slender hybrid columns. Journal of
Constructional Steel Research. 110. pp 101-120.

Eurocode 2. 2004. EN 1992-1-1. Design of concrete

structures, Part 1.1 General Rules for buildings.
European Committee for Standardizations, Brussels.
fib Model code 2010.
Eurocode 4. 2004. EN 1994-1-1. Design of composite
steel and concrete structures, Part 1.1 General
Rules for buildings. European Committee for
Standardizations, Brussels.

611

11th International Conference on

Advances in Steel and Concrete Composite Structures
Tsinghua University, Beijing, China, December 3-5, 2015

ASSESSMENT OF DESIGN EXPRESSIONS FOR WALLS WITH

SEVERAL ENCASED STEEL PROFILES
a

A. Plumier

Department of Civil Engineering, University, Liege, Belgium

E-mail: a.plumier@ulg.ac.be
ABSTRACT
Keywords:
Composite structures;
Design; walls; Columns;
Encased sections.

Test data from two experimental campaigns realised in China on walls with several encased
steel profiles are used to assess a recent proposal of design method concerning longitudinal
shear in such walls. The assessment bear on the expressions developed to evaluate the
longitudinal shear at steel profiles-concrete interface and on the design checks about those shear
stresses. In the tests, no shear connectors were present on the encased steel profiles and the
ultimate bending moment was realised without any apparent problem related to longitudinal
shear like slippage between concrete and steel profile. The assessments made show that the
design proposal provides results which are coherent with this experimental observations. They
also show the validity of expressions proposed to evaluate the shear deformation of walls
submitted to a horizontal load.

1 INTRODUCTION
In this paper, test results obtained by (Ji et al. 2010) and
by (Zhou et al.2010) are used to assess a design method
proposed for walls and columns with several encased steel
profiles (Plumier.2015). In particular, the assessment bear
on the expressions developed to evaluate the longitudinal
shear at steel profiles-concrete interface and on the design
checks about those shear stresses. In the tests realised by
(Ji et al. 2010) and by (Zhou et al.2010) no shear
connectors were present on the encased steel profiles and
the ultimate bending moment was realised without any
apparent problem related to longitudinal shear like
slippage between concrete and steel profile. The first
objective of the paper is to assess whether the proposed
design evaluation and checks on longitudinal shear would
be coherent with this observation. The second objective is
to assess the validity of the expressions proposed in
(Plumier.2015) to evaluate the deformation of walls
submitted a horizontal load.

The shear area Av is estimated as half the total section area

(Massonnet.1965).
The chord zones are the boundary zones in which
the steel profiles are encased. Longitudinal reinforcement
in that chord zone are 6T12 for a total area: 679 mm2; the
yield stress is: 389 N/mm2. Transverse reinforcement are
T8@150 which provides: Asw= 100.6 mm2 per stirrup.

2 TESTS BY (JI ET AL. 2010)

2.1 Description of the test specimens
The tested specimens SW2 to SW6 have the
characteristics indicated at Figures 1 and 2. Wall sections
are 1300 x 160 mm and wall height 2600 mm. The encased
steel profiles characteristics are given at Table 1. The yield
stress of the circular hollow sections CHS 114x3.36 is 388
N/mm2.The yield stress of the CHS 88x3.36 is 380 N/mm2.

Figure 1. External dimensions of the tested walls.

612

Plumier et al.

The shear stiffness of the steel profiles SSP is equal to:

S SP

NGAv
z cot

G is the shear modulus of steel:

Es
210000

80769MPa
2(1s ) 21 0.3

The shear area of the steel profiles and the corresponding

values of SSP are given in Table 1. In the following, the
evaluations are made for an applied shear VEd which is
supposed equal to the experimental yield load:
VEd = Vy
The distribution of an applied shear VEd between the
Mrsch truss (compression struts + transverse ties) and
the steel profiles is proportional to their relative stiffness.
The part of the applied shear force taken by the truss is
equal to:

Figure 2. Sections of the tested specimens.

Table 1.

Vc VEd

SRC
SSP SRC

Total

One Profile

Shear stiffness

Shear Area Av

Perimeter

SSP

mm2

mm

N/mm

SW2

1166

357

80.5.103

SW3

1166

357

80.5.103

SW4

1166

357

80.5.103

SW5

934

277

64.5.103

Vl ,a Vl Aprof / Achord Vc Aprof / Achord Vc

SW6

1868

277

129.0.103

Resistance to longitudinal shear at the steel concrete

interface is provided by:
- Bond Rd = 0.3 N/mm2 (Eurocode 4 Table 6.6,
for an encased steel profile); as the concrete cover
realised in the specimens is less than 40 mm,
there is no increase of Rd by a factor c
VRd,bond = z x profile perimeter x 0,3
- Friction: the friction coefficient given in
Eurocode 4 in case of rusted profiles is =0.5; if
it is considered that the total compression strut
force goes into the encased steel profile, then:
VRd,friction = 0.5 Vc

Specimen

The longitudinal shear Vl for the chord zone on the height

of a unit cell is equal to:
Vl = Vc cot = Vc
The longitudinal shear Vl,a at the steel profile interface is
proportional to the relative area of the steel profile in the
chord or boundary zone:

2.2 Assessment of expressions for longitudinal shear at

concrete-profiles interface
A unit cell height is equal to z, the lever arm of
internal forces, estimated as:
z = 0.9 h = 0.9 1300 = 1170 mm
(see (Plumier.2015) for the definition of unit cell).
Compression struts are assumed to be inclined at 45:
cos = sin = 0.707
cot = 1.0
sin cos = 0.5
The shear stiffness SRC of one unit cell of the truss, due
to reinforced concrete and stirrups, is equal to:
S RC

1
s

Es Asw cot Ec bw sin cos

1
2
s

Es Asw Ec bw

A total provided resistance VRd,total is calculated:

VRd,total,= VRd,bond + VRd,friction
The results of the calculations are presented in Table 2
and 3. The level of loading considered for VEd is the yield
load Vy in (Ji et al. 2010).
It can be observed that the calculations indicate that the
applied longitudinal shear Vl,a is smaller than the provided
resistance VRd,total,.

The modulus Ec of the concrete is considered the same for

all specimens; its characteristics are:
fcm= 43 MPa
Ec = Ecm = 34000 MPa
Then:

s
150

7.45 10 6
E s Asw
200 10 3 100.6
2
3.68 10 7
E c bw

The shear stiffness SRC of one unit cell of the truss

finally has a single value for all specimens:
SRC = 127.9 103
613

Plumier et al.

Table 4.

Table 2
Spec.

VEd

Vc

Spec.

Va

kN

N/mm2

N/mm2

kN

kN

SW2

601

367

0,63

SW2

601

200

2.75

SW3

617

376

0,63

SW3

617

206

2.81

SW4

647

395

0,58

SW4

647

216

2.96

SW5

598

401

0,73

SW5

598

186

3.01

SW6

697

349

0,63

SW6

697

224

1.30

Table 3
VRd,bond

VRd,friction

VRd,total

Vl,a

kN

kN

kN

kN

SW2

125

183

308

231

SW3

125

188

313

237

SW4

125

197

322

249

SW5

97

200

297

233

SW6

194

174

368

254

Spec.

Assessment of expressions of shear deformations

2.3

The evaluation of bending deformation by a simple

expression raise the problem of taking into account the
influence of bending cracks in concrete on the stiffness in
the case of walls with several encased steel profiles.
Refering to FEMA356 document, the flexural rigidity EI
for classical reinforced concrete could be taken as 0.8EcIg
in uncracked walls and 0.5 EcIg in cracked walls. It could
be estimated as 0.75 EcIg according to ASCE7-10 or
ACI318-08. In this case of hybrid wall submitted to a
relatively high axial force ratio in tests (above 30% of
squash load), the estimation of the deformation due to
bending is performed with EI = 0.8 EcIg.

It is also necessary to check the shear stress a induced

in the steel CHS by the contribution of the CHS to the
shear resistance of the hybrid section. As the encased CHS
are submitted to tension (alternatively compression) and
shear, the Von Mises criterion applies:

EI= 0.8 x 34000 x 160 x 13003/12 = 7.96.1014 Nmm2

c a 3 a f y
2

3EI

7.36 106 Vy

V 2 RC

Here we compute only the shear stress a in the CHS and

compare it to the yield resistance in shear y in order to see
if yielding due to combined tension and shear is likely.

2Vc
2Vc

S RC 127.9 103

Factor 2 in V accounts for the fact that the height of the

specimens in (Ji et al., 2010) is that of 2 unit cells.
Results are presented in Table 5. Figure 3 presents the
backbone curves of the experiments by (Ji et al. 2010).

fy
Va
y
224 N / mm 2
Av
3
Va VEd Vc

Table 5

The calculations see Table 4- indicate that a is close to

y , which means that the encased CHS are close to yield
under shear alone once the applied load is equal to Vy. This
also means that yielding in the CHS under the combined
effects of bending moment M and shear V is initiated for
values of V lower than Vy.
The pressure p applied by concrete compression struts
on the steel profiles are also calculated and checked to be
acceptable for concrete see Table 4.
For specimens SW2, SW3, SW4 and SW5:
Vc
V
p
c
2 zD / 2 zD
For specimens SW6: p

Vy l 3

Calculation

Experim.

Calcul

M + V

M +V

Experim.

mm

mm

SW2

10.14

8.36

1.21

SW3

10.40

8.16

1.27

SW4

10.92

7.49

1.46

SW5

10.56

7.89

1.33

SW5

10.66

8.79

1.21

Specimen

Vc
V
c
4 zD / 2 2 zD

614

Plumier et al.

3 TEST BY (ZHOU ET AL. 2010)

3.1 Description of the test specimens
The tested specimens in this evaluation are CSW-2,
CSW-5, CSW-11, CSW-12, CSW-13, CSW-15 and CSW16. They have been selected in the complete set of 16
specimens to cover the range of aspect ratios (height to
width ratios from 3.75 to 0.8), axial force ratios (from 0.09
to 0.18) and types of encased steel sections (number, area).
(Note: see Figure 3.1 for the definition of width). Other
specimens which duplicated results or which might raise
difficulties in comparisons, due to very different concrete
strength like CSW-6 and CSW-14, have not been
considered here.
The characteristics of the specimens are shown at
Figures 4 and 5. The wall thickness is 100 mm in all
specimens; height range from 1200 to 3000 mm. Table 4.
The chord zones are the boundary zones in which the
steel profiles are encased. Longitudinal reinforcement in
that chord zone are 4T8 for a total area: 201 mm2.
Transverse reinforcement are T6@100 which provides:
Asw= 56.6 mm2 per stirrup.

Figure 3. Envelope of experimental curves (Ji et al.2010).

2.4 Observations and conclusions
The test results obtained by (Ji et al.2010) have been
compared to values calculated by means of expressions
defined in a proposal of design method for walls and
columns with several encased steel profiles (Plumier.
2015).
Concerning longitudinal shear at concrete steel profiles
interface, the calculations conclude:
- The resistance provided by bond alone is smaller
than the action effects:
VRd,bond < Vl,a
- The resistance provided by friction alone is
smaller than the action effects: VRd,friction < Vl,a
- The total resistance provided by bond and friction
is greater than the action effects: VRd,> Vl,a
This means that calculations indicate that no shear
connectors are necessary on the steel profiles, which
correspond to the experimental observation. However it
should be stressed that this result should not be taken as a
generality without further investigation, because:
- It is obtained for the specific characteristics of the
tested specimens;
- There are margins of uncertainty on a number of
factors, notably the values of bond Rd and of the
friction coefficient .
One remarkable conclusion is that calculations indicate
that if friction was not considered for its contribution to
resistance to longitudinal shear at the concrete-steel profile
interface, shear connectors would always seem to be
required.
Another conclusion is that if the surface state of
profiles is such that the bond resistance is less than
0,3N/mm2, like it can be if there is lose rust or paint,
longitudinal shear failure becomes possible because
friction alone is not enough.
The expressions for the evaluation of bending and
shear deformations of a wall with several encased steel
profiles provide fair estimates of the deformation at yield
observed in the experiments. The difference between
experiments and calculations is on average 30%; it is a
success in simple calculation of deflections because of the
uncertainties related to the cracking state and to the
experimental measurements.

Figure 4. Dimensions of the specimens and encased

profiles Steel 1 and Steel 2 (Zhou et al.2010).
The encased steel profiles sections and characteristics
are given at Figure 4 and Table 6. The section area A of
Steel 1 is 650 mm2. The section area A of Steel 2 is 480
mm2. For H sections oriented with flanges parallel to the
long side of the concrete section, the total shear area Av of
the steel profiles is estimated as being equal to the sum of
the area of the flanges.

615

Plumier et al.

3.2 Assessment of expressions for longitudinal shear at

concrete-profile interface

Table 6
Specimen

Width

Total

Total

One

mm

Profiles

Shear

Section

Area A

Area Av

Perimeter

mm2

mm2

mm

CSW-2

800

1300

900

270

CSW-5

800

1300

900

270

CSW-11

1200

1780

1220

270

CSW-12

1200

1950

1350

270

CSW-13

1200

1920

1280

252

CSW-15

1500

1300

900

270

CSW-16

1500

1950

1350

270

A unit cell height (see (Plumier.2015) for the definition)

is equal to z, the lever arm of internal forces, estimated
as: z = 0,9 width
Compression struts are assumed inclined at 45, so that:
cos = sin = 0.707
cot = 1.0
sin cos = 0.5
The shear stiffness SRC of one unit cell of the truss, due
to reinforced concrete and stirrups, is equal to:
S RC

1
s

Es Asw cot Ec bw sin cos

1
2
s

Es Asw Ec bw

The modulus Ec of the concrete is considered the same for

all specimens; it corresponds to:
fcm= 50.3 MPa
Ec = Ecm = 35500 MPa
s =100 mm and Asw= 56.6 mm2 per stirrup
Then:

s
100

8.83 10 6
E s Asw
200 10 3 56.6
2
2

5.63 10 7
E c bw 35500 100

As Es, Asw, Ec and bw are the same in all specimens, the

shear stiffness SRC of one unit cell of the truss has a
single value for all specimens:
SRC = 106.4 x 103
The shear stiffness of the steel profiles SSP is equal to:
S SP

GAv
0.707 z

G is the shear modulus of steel. The shear area Av and the

values of SSP are given in Table 6.
In the following, the evaluations are made for an applied
shear VEd which is supposed equal to the experimental
yield load: VEd = Vy
The distribution of an applied shear VEd between the
Mrsch truss (compression struts + transverse ties) and the
steel profiles is proportional to their relative stiffness.
The part of the applied shear force taken by the truss is
equal to:

Vc VEd

SRC
SSP SRC

The longitudinal shear Vl for the chord zone on the height

of a unit cell is equal to:
Vl = Vc cot = Vc
The part of the longitudinal shear Vl,a at the steel profile
interface is proportional to the relative area of the steel
profile in the chord or boundary zone. Aprof is for one
profile.
Achord = Arebars + Aprof
Within the chord zone, there are 4T8 for a total area:
Arebars = 201 mm2.

Figure 5. Sections of specimens. From (Zhou et al. 2010).

The one section perimeter column in Table 6 is used
to calculate the longitudinal shear resistance provided by
bond in one profile. The value correspond to the profile in
the boundary zone.

Vl ,a Vl Aprof / Achord Vc Aprof / Achord Vc

616

Plumier et al.

As explained in 2.2, resistance to longitudinal shear at the

steel concrete interface is provided by bond and friction
and a total provided resistance VRd,total is calculated:
VRd,total,= VRd,bond + VRd,friction.
Here also, the concrete cover realised in the specimens is
less than 40 mm and there is no increase of Rd = 0.3 N/mm2
by a factor c greater than 1.

Table 9.
Specimen

Table 7.

VEd

Vl

kN

or Vc

Aprof

kN

Achord

CSW-2

64

27,5

0,764

CSW-5

402

172,8

0,764

CSW-11

383

172,3

0,764

383

164,7

0,764

Height

Width

CSW-12

mm

mm

mm

CSW-13

364

160,1

0,705

CSW-2

3000

800

720

CSW-15

590

342,2

0,764

CSW-5

1800

800

720

CSW-16

589

282,7

0,764

CSW-11

1800

1200

1080

CSW-12

1800

1200

1080

CSW-13

1800

1200

1080

CSW-15

1200

1500

1350

CSW-16

1200

1500

1350

Specimen

Table 10

Table 8
Specimen

Total Shear

Shear stiffness

Area Av

SSP

mm2

N/mm

SRC
SSP SRC

CSW-2

900

142,8.103

0,43

CSW-5

900

142,8.103

0,43

CSW-11

1220

129,0.103

0,45

CSW-12

1350

142,8.103

0,43

1280

135,4.103

0,44

CSW-15

900

76,2.103

0,58

CSW-16

1350

114,2.103

0,48

CSW-13

VRd,friction

VRd,total

Vl,a

kN

kN

kN

kN

CSW-2

58,3

14

72

21

CSW-5

58,3

86,4

145

132

CSW-11

87,5

86,4

174

132

CSW-12

87,5

82,2

170

126

Specimen

VRd,bond

CSW-13

81,6

80,0

162

113

CSW-15

109,4

171,1

281

261

CSW-16

109,4

141,4

251

216

It is also necessary to check the shear stress a induced in

the steel CHS by the contribution of the CHS to the shear
resistance of the hybrid section. As the encased CHS are
submitted to tension (alternatively compression) and shear,
the Von Mises criterion applies:

c a 2 3 a 2 f y
Here we compute only the shear stress a in the CHS and
compare it to the yield resistance in shear y in order to
see if yielding due to combined tension and shear is
likely. The real yield stress of the encased sections is not
known, but they are made of S235 steel which has a
nominal yield stress in shear yd.
fy
a yd
135 N / mm 2
3
V
a a
Av

The results of the calculations are presented in Tables 9

and 10. It can be observed that the calculations indicate
that the applied longitudinal shear Vl,a is smaller than the
provided resistance VRd,total,.

Va VEd Vc

Except in CSW-2, the calculations indicate that a is greater

than yd . It means that the encased CHS should yield under
shear alone for an applied load of the order of Vy/2 and then
the increase in loading is fully taken by concrete, so that a
shear failure is likely. The experiments confirm that indeed
specimens CSW-5, 11, 12, 13 15 and 16 fail in shear; this

617

Plumier et al.

type of failure is especially pronounced for specimens

CSW-15 and CSW-16 in which a corresponding to Vy is
about twice yd. Table 11.

Table 12
Specimen

Table 11.
Va

kN

N/mm2

N/mm2

CSW-2

36,5

40

0,4

CSW-5

229

254

2,4

CSW-11

210

172

1,1

CSW-12

218

161

1,0

CSW-13

204

159

0,7

CSW-15

248

215

2,5

CSW-16

306

226

1,4

Spec.

Calcul.

Experim.

Calcul

M + V

M +V

Experim

mm

mm

CSW-2

3,75

8,58

11,3

0,76

CSW-5

1,50

5,50

7,3

0,75

CSW-11

1,50

5,35

7,4

0,72

CSW-12

1,50

5,24

7,5

0,70

CSW-13

1,50

5,02

5,0

1,00

CSW-15

0,80

3,25

6,5

0,50

CSW-16

0,80

2,80

6,4

0,43

4 OBSERVATIONS AND CONCLUSIONS

The pressure p applied by concrete compression struts on

The test results obtained by (Zhou et al., 2010) have

been compared to values calculated by means of
expressions defined in a proposal of design method for
walls and columns with several encased steel profiles
(Plumier, 2015).
Concerning longitudinal shear at concrete-steel
profiles interface, the calculations conclude:
- The resistance provided by bond alone is smaller
than the action effects:
VRd,bond < Vl,a
- The resistance provided by friction alone is
smaller than the action effects: VRd,friction < Vl,a
- The total resistance provided by bond and friction
is greater than the action effects: VRd,> Vl,a
This means that calculations indicate that no shear
connectors are necessary on the steel profiles, which
correspond to the experimental observation. However it
should again be stressed that this result should not be taken
as a generality without further investigation, because:
- It is obtained for the specific characteristics of the
tested specimens;
- There are margins of uncertainty on a number of
factors, notably the values of bond Rd and of the
friction coefficient .
The expressions for the evaluation of bending and
shear deformations of walls with several encased steel
profiles provide fair estimates for specimen with an aspect
ratio equal to 1,5 or greater; then the difference is on
average 21% between calculations and experiments. The
difference is systematically an underestimation. This can
be explained by the fact that, except in specimen CSW-2,
the steel sections yield in shear much before the applied
load reaches Vy. It results that the deformation V due to
shear is underestimated by the proposed expressions which
assume that yielding is obtained in tension or compression
in the steel profiles at Vy level of loading. As steel profile
yield in shear at approximately Vy/2, the stiffness of the
hybrid section decreases and the shear deformations

the steel profiles are also calculated and found acceptable

for concrete see Table 11.

Vc
Nzhprof

In which N is the number of similar encased profiles

(with slight variation for CSW-11 in which 2 different
types are encased).

3.3 Assessment of the expressions for evaluation of

bending and shear deformations
M

Vy l 3
3EI

V R RC R

Vc
Vc
R
S RC
106.4 103

in which l is the wall height, R is the aspect ratio of the

wall and EI the wall stiffness. The factor R accounts for
the fact that the height of the specimens is R unit cells.
As the axial force ratios in this test campaign are relatively
low (less than 0.2), the stiffness is evaluated as:
EI=0.5 x 35500 x 100 x (width)3/12
The results are presented in Table 12.

618

Plumier et al.

increase more rapidly. This is especially true for the squat

walls experiments CSW-15 and CSW-16, with an
underestimation of deformation by calculations which is
around 50%.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

This paper was developed in the frame of the

SMARTCOCO project funded by RFCS, the Research
Fund for Coal and Steel of the European Commission
(Research grant agreement RFSR-CT-2012-00031
Smartcoco). The companies BESIX and ArcelorMittal are
also thanked for their contributions and involvement in the
project.
REFERENCES
ACI 318-08. 2008. Building Code Requirements for Structural
Concrete and Commentary. American Concrete Institute.
FEMA 356.2000. Prestandard and Commentary for the Seismic
Rehabilitation
of
Buildings.
Federal
Emergency
Management Agency. United State.
Ji, X., Quian,J. & Jiang,Z. 2010. Seismic Behaviour of Steel
Tube-Reinforced Concrete Composite Walls. Proceedings of
the 4th International Conference on Steel and composite
structures.
Massonnet, Charles. 1965, Resistance des Matriaux. Ed. Dunod,
Paris
Plumier, Andr, 2015. A Design Method for Walls with Several
Encased Steel Profiles. 11th International Conference on
Advances in Steel and Concrete Composite Structures.
December 3-5,2015, China,
Zhou, Y., Lu, X.L. & Dong, Y.G. 2010. Seismic Behaviour of
Composite Shear Walls with Multi Embedded Steel Sections.
Part 1: Experiment. The Structural Design of Tall and Special
Buildings 19: 618-636

619

11th International Conference on

Advances in Steel and Concrete Composite Structures
Tsinghua University, Beijing, China, December 3-5, 2015

A COMPARISON STUDY OF MODELING METHODS OF SIMPLE

STEEL CONNECTIONS SUBJECT TO COLUMN REMOVAL
SCENARIOS
K. Chena, K. H. Tana & B. Yangb,c
a

School of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore

E-mails: kchen006@e.ntu.edu.sg, ckhtan@ntu.edu.sg

Key Laboratory of New Technology for Construction of Cities in Mountain Area(Chongqing University), Ministry of
Education, Chongqing 400045, China
E-mail: yang0206@cqu.edu.cn
c

Department of Civil Engineering, Chongqing University, Chongqing, China

ABSTRACT
Keywords:
Fin plate connection;
Catenary action; Robustness;
Progressive collapse;
Component-based model; Hinge
model.

When investigating the global behavior of steel and composite structures, numerical modeling
is preferred to physical testing as the latter is much more costly and time-consuming. To date,
various models have been used to simulate the behavior of steel and composite connections
subjected to catenary action. This is a key attribute to structural robustness under column
removal scenarios. The main difference of these methods lies in the type of elements chosen to
model the connections, including three-dimensional solid elements, component-based model
and plastic hinge model. Although each model has its own merit and strength, not all of them
are suitable for building up the whole structural model for analysis of global behavior, which is
required for assessing the robustness of structures against progressive collapse. To evaluate the
pros and cons of different methods for whole structural model, a systematic comparison study
of connection elements used by these methods, i.e. solid, spring (or fiber) and hinge elements,
is presented. All three types of models are validated by physical test data and they show good
agreement with test data. Based on accuracy and time, some helpful suggestions on selection
of modeling method are provided.

DYNA, etc. The configuration of beam-column joints can

be well replicated by solid elements. With proper
definition of failure criteria, the behavior of beam-column
joints can be well captured by the 3-D FE model.
Component-based model is used to discretize beamcolumn joints into basic components or springs. In
comparison with 3-D solid elements, component-based
model neglects the subtle details of beam-column joints
but maintains fundamental components which dominate
the joint behavior. This makes the component-based model
much more computationally efficient than 3-D solid
element model. Component-based model has been
incorporated into EC3 Part 1-8 (BSI 2005) for the design
of conventional joints. For joints subject to catenary
action, several models have been developed for specific
types of joints to date (Del Savio et al. 2009, Bzdawka &
Heinisuo 2010, Stylianidis 2011, Main & Sadek 2012,
Piluso et al. 2012, Taib 2012, Oosterhof 2013, Yang & Tan
2013, Koduru & Driver 2014, Main & Sadek 2014, Yang
et al. 2015).
Plastic hinge model has been widely used to simulate
beam-column joints in seismic analysis when axial force

1 INTRODUCTION
Progressive collapse is defined as the spread of an
initial local failure from element to element, resulting
eventually in the collapse of an entire structure or a
disproportionately large part of it in ASCE (2010).
Initiated by the Ronan point apartment building collapse
(Krauthammer 2008) and the World Trade Center collapse
(Hamburger el al. 2002), progressive collapse has attracted
the interest of engineering fraternity in mitigating such
event.
Suitable joint modeling is necessary to conduct
analysis to evaluate the resistance of structures against
progressive collapse. In the literature, a wide variety of
modeling methods have been developed for beam-column
joints, including finite element (FE) models using threedimensional (3-D) solid elements, component-based
models (also referred to as spring or fiber models) and
plastic hinge models.
Three-dimensional solid element is available in
commercial software such as ABAQUS, ANSYS, LS-

620

Chen et al.

yielding and fracture of steel may occur according to the

experimental results (Li et al. 2015). A fine mesh size of
about 5 mm is adopted at these locations. For beam
sections away from the column flange, a coarser mesh size
of up to 30 mm is utilized to save computational cost. A
coarser mesh is also defined for bolt shanks (see Fig. 1)
since their strength and stiffness are substantially larger
than those of beam webs and fin plates.

can be neglected (Ikeda & Mahin 1986, Scott & Fenves

2006). It is a model with the highest level of simplification.
Thus, compared to component-based models, even more
details of beam-column joints are omitted.
In this paper, all three types of modeling techniques are
introduced and validated by experimental test data. A
comparison study among these models is conducted and
suggestions on the global structural modeling will be
made.

2 THREE DIMENTIONAL SOLID FE MODEL

2.1 Modeling Techniques
The numerical analyses are conducted using ABAQUS
(Dassault Systmes 2011). Prior to the conduct of
analyses, several assumptions are made in the numerical
models as follows: Bolts are placed eccentrically in bolt
holes to build contact pairs. Beam stubs near the middle
joint, with its length equal to the height of I-shaped beams,
are modeled by solid elements (C3D8R), whereas other
parts of the beams are modeled by beam elements (B31).
Steel assemblies are restrained against lateral
displacements. Deformations of column stubs are
neglected since columns are strengthened. Welds are
simulated by ties instead of merging two parts together to
accommodate various element sizes. Besides, weld failure
is not considered in the simulations. Ideal hinges are used
to simulate the boundary conditions at the beam ends
except for the cases in which rotational stiffness of
supports is obtained from experimental results.
Displacement-controlled loads with smooth step are
applied on the middle joint. Explicit dynamic solver is
utilized to conduct quasi-static analyses of steel joints.
Material properties are obtained from coupon tests
conducted along with the joint tests. Engineering stressstrain relationships obtained from the coupon tests are
converted to true stress-strain curves in the numerical
models. Ductile damage for metals is chosen as the
damage model for steel. In the analyses, equivalent plastic
strain of 0.3 is assumed as the start of damage, based on
S275 steel coupon tests. Linear damage evolution in terms
of equivalent plastic displacement is used. As the failure
point is mesh-size dependent, trial and error is adopted to
best fit the experimental results.
Mesh design is the key to joint modeling. In this study,
different mesh sizes are used for different parts of the joint.
Figure 1 shows the mesh size for simulating a column
flange, a fin plate, a beam stub and some bolts. A relatively
coarse mesh is adopted for the column flange. Based on
mesh convergence analysis (Daneshvar & Driver 2011),
two layers of elements are used in the thickness direction
of the fin plate. The strength of the beam web is lower than
that of the fin plate and failure is expected to initiate at the
beam web. Thus, four layers of elements are used in the
thickness direction of the beam web to simulate block
tearing. For beam flanges welded to column flanges,

(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
Figure 1. Mesh sizes for each part of the joint: (a) Column
flange; (b) Fin plate; (c) Beam stub; (d) Bolts.

Contacts between different components are defined in

the model. A set of contact relations is provided by
ABAQUS (Dassault Systmes 2011). In this study, contact
pairs are defined to model the force transfer between
components. For a single bolt row, five contact pairs are
required between bolt heads and the fin plate, bolt nuts and
the beam web, bolt shanks and the fin plate, bolt shanks
and the beam web, and the fin plate and the beam web.
Tangential behavior of contact pairs is simulated by
defining a penalty friction coefficient of 0.3 according to
Coulomb friction model, whereas normal behavior is
represented by a hard contact formulation with a penalty
constraint enforcement method.

2.2 Model validation

Numerical models of steel beam-column joints are
verified by the experimental results of Oosterhof (2013).
In the experimental program, nine steel joints with fin plate
connections were tested under column removal scenarios.
Two types of connections with three or five bolts were
included. Figure 2 shows a typical numerical model for the
test specimen with five bolts in ABAQUS.

Column (solid element)

Fin plate connection (solid element)
Beam (beam element)
Beam (solid element)
Figure 2. Numerical model for specimen ST5A-1 by Oosterhoof
(2013).

Figure 3 shows a comparison between experimental and

621

Chen et al.

displacement. As for fin plate connections, two types of

components are included, viz. spring elements between
column and beam flanges to simulate the behavior of gaps
and a single bolt spring connecting the column flange to
the beam web, as shown in Figure 4. A single bolt
connection spring consists of a series of components,
namely, bolt in bearing between the fin plate and the beam
web, bolt in shear and the friction between these
components. It is notable that the component of column
web panel in shear is not incorporated in the model, since
it is much stronger than the aforementioned springs.

numerical test results. Only the results for specimen ST5A1 are depicted in this paper because of the limitation of
space. Numerical results agree well with experimental
results in terms of vertical load-beam rotation curve and
horizontal force-beam rotation curve. Tables 1 and 2
summarize the maximum vertical loads and horizontal
reaction forces. It can be seen that 3-D solid element
models can replicate the experimental results well.
800

Horizontal Load (kN)

700

Abaqus/Explicit
Experiment

600
500
400

Flanges

300

Single
bolt row

0
0.00 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.10 0.12 0.14 0.16
Beam Rotation (radian)

140

Abaqus/Explicit
Experiment

Figure 4. Assembly of component-based model for fin plate

connection.

Vertical Load (kN)

100

80

Table 2.Comparison between numerical analyses and

experimental tests (vertical force).

60
40

Specimen ID

20
0
0.00 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.10 0.12 0.14 0.16
Beam Rotation (radian)

ST3A-1
ST3A-2
ST3A-3
ST3B-1
ST3B-2
ST5A-1
ST5A-2
ST5B-1
ST5B-2

Figure 3. Comparisons of experimental and numerical force vs

beam rotation curves for specimen ST5A-1: (a) Horizontal
force; (b) Vertical force.

Table 1.Comparison between numerical analyses and

experimental tests (horizontal force).

Specimen ID
ST3A-1
ST3A-2
ST3A-3
ST3B-1
ST3B-2
ST5A-1
ST5A-2
ST5B-1
ST5B-2

Beam
Single
bolt row

120

(b)

Flanges

200
100

(a)

Column
Rigid links

Peak force (kN)

ABAQUS
Test
504.9
515.7
504.9
507.7
505.3
522.1
343.8
330.3
340.3
334.8
674.5
706.5
765.8
823.0
445.8
471.7
488.4
503.9

Peak force (kN)

ABAQUS
Test
59.4
61.8
118.7
126.7
100.8
105.6
66.5
70.0
53.5
57.7
135.1
135.3
112.8
135.7
76.2
74.0
74.0
67.5

Relative
error (%)
-3.9
-6.3
-4.5
-5
-7.3
-0.1
-16.9
3.0
9.6

3.2 Constitutive relationship for basic components

Relative
error (%)
-2.1
-0.6
-3.2
4.1
1.6
-4.5
-7.0
-5.5
-3.1

Single bolt row shown in Figure 4 consists of

components including bolts in bearing and shear. Several
models have been proposed to predict the ultimate strength
of bolts in bearing in steel plates and included in
,
national codes such as EC3 Part 1-8 (BSI 2005), AISC
360-10 (2010) and CSA S16-09 (2009). In this section, an
equation in AISC (Equation J3-6b) is adopted as follows:

Rn,br 1.5(Le

3 COMPONENT-BASED MODEL

db
)tu 3tdbu
2

(1)

where Le = the edge distance, db = the nominal diameter of

bolt, t = the thickness of the plate, and u = the ultimate
strength of steel plate. It is noteworthy that nominal
strength of steel is used in the equation instead of design
value.

3.1 General concept

A component-based model consists of a group of basic
components. Each component has its own constitutive
relationship in terms of force and corresponding
622

Chen et al.

The stiffness of bolt in bearing ki is determined from

Equation (2) proposed by Rex & Easterling (1996):

1
1 1 1

kbr kb kv

(2)

k br 120 t y d b ( 4 / 5 )

(3)

Le 1 3
)
db 2

(4)

kb 32 Et (

kv (20 / 3)Gt (

Le 1
)
db 2

(5)
Force (kN)

ki

Besides, the predicted shear resistance should be reduced

by a factor of 0.7, if shear plane goes through bolt threads.
The stiffness and resistance of beam and column
flanges in compression are much larger than that of a unit
bolt row due to the contribution of the effective area of
flanges. Therefore, it is assumed that the stiffness and
resistance of the beam and the column flanges are infinite
when the gap between the beam and the column flange
closes up. Thus, the force-displacement curve of the beam
and the column flanges in compression can be determined
as shown in Figure 5.

where kbr, kb and kv = the stiffness of bolt bearing, edge

steel plate bending and shearing, respectively, y = the
yield strength of steel plate, E and G = the respective
moduli of elasticity and shear.
Since the diameter of bolt holes is greater than that of
bolt shanks, the bolt shanks will move without any contact
with fin plates or beam webs. During the movement of bolt
shanks, only friction force exists and its magnitude
depends on the surface treatment of plates and bolt types.
An estimated value of 30 kN is suggested for nonpreloaded bolts by Oosterhoof (2013) when snug-tight
installation is used.
Rex & Easterling (2003) also proposed the forcedisplacement relationship of bolts in bearing based on
experimental results. Based on this relationship, the model
gives good prediction of the behavior of steel joints (Taib
2012, Oosterhof 2013, Koduru & Driver 2014, Weigand
2014). Thus, it is used in this section to represent the
constitutive model for bolts in bearing, as expressed in
Equation (6).

1.74

0.009
Fbr Rn,br

0.5
(1 )2

Ki
Rn.br

Gap

Displacement (mm)

db 2
4

The failure of single bolt row is dominated by its

weakest component. Experimental tests on fin plate
subject to catenary action (Oosterhof 2013, Yang 2013,
Weigand 2014) indicate two possible failure modes,
namely, shear failure of bolts and tear-out failure of fin
plates, depending on the relative resistance between the
bolts and the fin plate. In component-based models, the
deformation capacity of each bolt row is defined in tension
and compression separately. Oosterhoof (2013) provided
the ultimate deformations of bolt rows in tension. The
value is about 0.8 to 1.0 time of edge distance. For bolt
rows in compression, shear failure of bolts is dominant
over tear-out failure of fin plate, and the ultimate
deformation is around 0.23 times of bolt diameter.

(6)

3.3 Model validation

(7)

ub

Figure 5. Force vs displacement curve for beam and column

flanges in compression.

Component-based model can be applied using Excel,

MATLAB code and FE packages. In this section, the FE
package ABAQUS is chosen. Components are represented
using CONNECTOR element (Dassault Systmes 2011).
Figures 6 and 7 show the properties of two typical
components. Failure criteria of the components are
determined by the average deformation capacity of bolt
rows.
After determining the spring properties, nonlinear
springs are assembled in the beam-column joint.
Thereafter, displacement-controlled vertical load is
applied to the middle joint. Figure 8 depicts a comparison
of load-displacement curves between experimental results
(Oosterhof 2013) and component-based joint model
predictions for specimen ST5A-1. Table 3 lists the

where Fbr = the resultant force, = the displacement. Other

parameters are the same as before.
The ultimate strength of bolts in single shear is
determined by Equation (8):

Rnv,bolt 0.6

Binding of flanges

(8)

This equation has been included in design codes such

as EC3 Part 1-8 (BSI 2005), AISC 360-10 (2010) and CSA
S16-09 (2009). According to test results of bolts in shear
(Moore 2007), a coefficient of 1.25 can be used to convert
the nominal strength of steel to its ultimate strength.

623

Chen et al.

proposed plastic hinge model for beam-column joints

under column removal scenarios. Lee et al. (2010)
developed a plastic hinge model for rigid beam-column
joints by adding an axial spring. The joint was
strengthened so that deformation or failure was precluded
from the joint and only beam element was used for the
hinge model. However, for simple joints, fin plate
connections are usually the weakest link. Thus the
resistance and ductility of joints have to be taken into
account in the hinge model as well.

maximum horizontal forces for all the specimens. It

indicates that the component-based model is capable of
predicting the overall load-displacement responses with
reasonably good accuracy.

Force(N)

200000
150000
100000
50000
0
-10 -5
-50000

10

15

20

25 30 35 40
Displacement(mm)

Table 3.Comparison between numerical analyses and

experimental tests (horizontal force).

-100000
-150000
-200000

-250000

Specimen ID

Figure 6.Constitutive curve for bolt row with 22mm bolt and

ST3A-1
ST3A-2
ST3A-3
ST3B-1
ST3B-2
ST5A-1
ST5A-2
ST5B-1
ST5B-2

9.5mm fin plate.

Force(N)

150000
100000
50000
0
-5

-50000

10

15

Peak force (kN)

ABAQUS
Test
507.5
515.7
507.5
507.7
510.8
522.1
333.0
330.3
337.8
334.8
695.4
706.5
805.8
823.0
442.9
471.7
499.0
503.9

Relative
error (%)
-1.6
0
-2.2
0.8
0.9
-1.6
-2.1
-6.1
-1.0

20
25
30
Displacement(mm)

Beam
Axial
spring

-100000
-150000

Figure 7.Constitutive curve for bolt row with 19mm bolt and
Rotational

6.4mm fin plate.

800

Horizontal Load (kN)

700

Figure 9. Illustration of hinge model.

Abaqus/Standar
Experiment

To apply plastic hinge models to the numerical

analyses of structures under column removal scenarios,
beam-column joints are simplified as an axial spring and
plastic hinge with zero length, as shown in Figure 9. Shear
springs in the joint are assumed to be rigid without failure.
Therefore, shear failure of the joint is not considered in the
model. Even though the moment resistances of fin plate
joints are negligible, a plastic hinge is needed to take
account of the rotational capacity of the joints.
The properties of axial and rotational springs can be
obtained from either test results or component-based
models subject to catenary action. Therefore the
interaction of axial force and bending moment of the
connection is considered implicitly. Figure 10 depicts the
properties of axial and rotational springs of specimen
ST3A-1 tested by Oosterhof (2013). Curve-fitting
technique is used to derive the spring properties from test
data. Third-order polynomial equations are selected to fit
the test results.

600
500
400
300
200
100
0
0.00 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.10 0.12 0.14 0.16

Beam Rotation (radian)

Figure 8.Comparison between component-based modeling and

test results for specimen ST5A-1 by Oosterhoof (2013).

4 HINGE MODEL
Plastic hinge models are commonly used in numerical
analyses on seismic response of building structures, in
which beam-column joints are subject to cyclic loadings
and axial forces in the beam are neglected. However, when
beam-column joints are subject to catenary action, tension
forces developed in the beam can be dominant at failure.
Thus, the tension force has to be considered in the

624

Chen et al.

5 DISCUSSION

Since the costs of component-based model and hinge

model are similar, only computational time for the former
one is provided. It can seen that simplified models
obviously have an advantage over 3-D solid elements in
terms of computational cost, even though all of them
provides good agreement with experimental results under
column removal scenarios. This indicates that simplified
models, including component-based models and hinge
models, are more desirable when considering analysis of
global behavior of an entire building. Therefore, simplified
models are easier to be used in routine design of building
structures against progressive collapse. However, since
many details of the beam-column joints are neglected by
simplified models, they may not be able to provide very
accurate descriptions of the test results as shown in Figure
11. Thus detailed 3-D element models are the first choice
to investigate the failure modes and detailing of beamcolumn connections.

The computational resource for this study is a personal

computer with its technical specifications listed as follows:

Processor: Intel Core i7-3720QM CPU @ 2.6GHz

Installed memory (RAM): 16.0 GB (15.9 GB usable)
System type: Windows 8.1 pro, 64-bit
ABAQUS Edition: v 6.11
Moment (kNm)

18

Experiment
Model

16
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
0.00

0.02

Force (kN)

(a)

0.04 0.06 0.08

Rotation (radian)

0.10

0.12

Experiment
Model

500
400
300

(a)

200

(b)

Figure 11. Comparison of failure modes between numerical and

100

experimental results: (a) Tests; (b) 3-D solid element models.

0
0

10

15

20

25

30

6 CONCLUSION

35

Displacement (mm)
(b)

Figure 10. Force versus displacement curves of hinge model: (a)

Axial spring; (b) Rotational spring.

Table 4.Comparison of computational cost (unit: seconds).

Specimen ID
ST3A-1
ST3A-2
ST3A-3
ST3B-1
ST3B-2
ST5A-1
ST5A-2
ST5B-1
ST5B-2
Average

3-D solid
element
model
48,567
48,567
51,542
45,569
44,153
53,868
53,407
45,908
48,948

Componentbased
model
57
57
55
54
52
40
39
41
53
50

In this paper, three types of numerical models, viz.

detailed 3-D solid FE model, simplified component-based
model and hinge model are introduced and verified by
experimental test results. It is found that simplified models
are more desirable to be used in numerical analyses of
global building structures for routine design against
progressive collapse by industry engineers. However,
detailed 3-D element models can be used to investigate the
failure modes and detailing of beam-column connections.

REFERENCE
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ANSI/AISC 360-10. American Institute of Steel
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ASCE (2010). Minimum Design Loads for Buildings and Other
Structures. ASCE/SEI 7-10. American Society of Civil
Engineers, Virginia, U.S.
BSI (2005). Eurocode 3: Design of steel structuresPart 1-8:
Design of joints. BS EN 1993-1-8. British Standards
Institution, London, U.K.
Bzdawka, K. & Heinisuo, M. (2010). Fin plate joint using
component method of EN 1993-1-8. Journal of Structural

Table 4 lists a comparison of computational cost

between different modeling methods in the unit of seconds.

625

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CSA (2009). Design of steel structures. CSA S16-09. Canadian
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Daneshvar, H. & Driver, R. G. (2011). Behavior of shear tab
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Del Savio, A. A., Nethercot, D. A., Vellasco, P. C. G. S., Andrade,
S. A. L. & Martha, L. F. (2009). Generalised componentbased model for beam-to-column connections including axial
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Hamburger, R., Baker, W., Barnett, J., Marrion, C., James, M. &
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Ikeda, K. & Mahin, S. (1986). Cyclic Response of Steel Braces.
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Koduru, S. & Driver, R. (2014). Generalized Component-Based
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Krauthammer, T. (2008). Modern protective structures. CRC
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Lee, C., Kim, S. & Lee, K. (2010). Parallel Axial-Flexural Hinge
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Main, J. A. & Sadek, F. (2012). Robustness of steel gravity frame
systems with single-plate shear connections. U.S.
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Structural Engineering, Vol. 140, No. 3, pp. 04013070.
Moore, A. M. (2007). Evaluation of the current resistance factors
for high-strength bolts, M.S. Thesis, University of Cincinnati,
U.S.
Oosterhof, S. A. (2013). Behaviour of Steel Shear Connections
for Assessing Structural Vulnerability to Disproportionate
Collapse, Ph.D. Thesis, University of Alberta, Canada.
Piluso, V., Rizzano, G. & Tolone, I. (2012). An advanced
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Rex, C. & Easterling, W. (1996). Behavior and modeling of a
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Rex, C. & Easterling, W. (2003). Behavior and Modeling of a
Bolt Bearing on a Single Plate. Journal of Structural
Engineering, Vol. 129, No. 6, pp. 792-800.
Scott, M. & Fenves, G. (2006). Plastic Hinge Integration
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Stylianidis, P. (2011). Progressive collapse response of steel and
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Taib, M. (2012). The Performance of Steel Framed Structures
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Weigand, J. M. (2014). The Integrity of Steel Gravity Framing

System Connections Subjected to Column Removal Loading,

Ph.D. Thesis, University of Washington, U.S.
Yang, B. (2013). The Behavior of Steel and Composite strctures
under a Middle-Column-Removal Scenario, Ph.D. Thesis,
Nanyang Technological University, Singapore.
Yang, B. & Tan, K. H. (2013). Robustness of Bolted-Angle
Connections against Progressive Collapse: Experimental
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Yang, B., Tan, K. H. & Xiong, G. (2015). Behaviour of composite
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Constructional Steel Research, Vol. 104, No. 0, pp. 137-154.

626

11th International Conference on

Advances in Steel and Concrete Composite Structures
Tsinghua University, Beijing, China, December 3-5, 2015

RESPONSE AND PARAMETRIC ANALYSIS ON PROGRESSIVE

COLLAPSE OF COMPOSITE FRAME WITH CONCRETE
-FILLED STEEL TUBULAR COLUMNS
J. X. Wang, H. W. Li & W. D. Wang
The Key Laboratory of Disaster Prevention and Mitigation in Civil Engineering of Gansu Province, Lanzhou University
of Technology, Lanzhou, Gansu Province, China
E-mails: cewangjx@163.com, celihuawei@gmail.com, wangwd@lut.cn
ABSTRACT
Keywords:
Concrete-filled steel tube
(CFST)structure; Progressive
collapse; ABAQUS secondary
development; Fiber model;
Parametric analysis

The user-defined steel and confined concrete uniaxial hysteretic material constitutive models
were developed in subroutine UMAT provided by ABAQUS software based on Fortran
language. The steel material model considered the Bauschinger effect rationally. The
user-defined material models were verified by the others experimental results and shown good
agreement. This paper presents a finite element (FE) model of 9-story composite frame with
concrete-filled steel tubular (CFST) columns and steel beams to investigate the response and
parametric analysis of progressive collapse under loss key column scenario based on nonlinear
fiber beam-column element theory. Displacement response of the structure was studied under
the different parameters and the rule of the collapse. The results show that the parameters have
significant impact on the calculation curves, such as failure column location, span length and the
failure during time. When the middle columns were destroyed, calculating curve showed the
rules of vibration attenuation curve. The curves began to flatten gradually according to the trend
of the two asymptotes under the effect of damping. And the displacement curves were relatively
irregular when the corner column destroyed. This paper presents some conceptual collapsed
fortification reference for practical engineering in order to better improve the collapse resistance
of concrete filled steel tube structure.

(2014)[6] studied the response of a 7-story RC structure

following 15 simulated single column removal scenarios,
and shown that a top floor column removal is more likely
to cause structural collapse than failure on a lower floor.
Yang et al (2014)[7] conducted a series of experiments to
investigate the failure modes and ductility of composite
beam-column joints in a middle-column-removal
scenario. Wang et al(2014)[8] performed nonlinear
dynamic progressive collapse analysis of a typical
12-story space composite frame under different initial
failure modes and columns loss. Wang et al(2015)
[9]presented a finite element (FE) model of 12-story
composite space frame with CFST columns to investigate
the mechanism of progressive collapse based on an
alternate load path (ALP) according to GSA.
Wang et al(2014) [10]studied the response analysis of
RC frame structures in progressive collapse after the
member failure. However, composite structure with
CFST columns has its own characteristics, collapse
mechanism, failure modes and the deformation features,
especially entered the stage of elastic-plastic deformation
models, failure mechanism of RC structure and
composite structure has obvious difference. Based on the
research background, this paper will present a finite

1 INTRODUCTION
After the progressive collapse of the Ronan Point
apartment tower in 1968, engineers began to realize the
importance of structure anti-progressive collapse. More
and more research works and designs have been directed
to this field, especially after the WTC disaster on 11 sept
2001. The main research reports of the area were focused
on the steel and RC structure. The alternate path method,
an important design approach to mitigate progressive
collapse, has been included by a number of design codes
including GSA[1] and DoD[2]. Many experimental
studies have focused on the behavior of composite joints
with concrete-filled steel tubular (CFST) column, such
studies can be found in [3-4]. The results of these
investigations suggest that the connections with bolts
arranged along the depth of web are more efficient than
bolts arranged near the middle part of web, and improve
the catenary mechanism resistance and connection
robustness. Gerasimidis (2014)[5] given a simple method
which can indicate the collapse mechanism of a steel
frame for the case of a corner column loss through the
development of critical ductility curves. Sagiroglu et al

627

Wang et al.

Han (2007)[11] given the concrete skeleton curves

considered the effect of restraint coefficient.
Loadingunloading criteria was followed by Mander
(1998)[12], the calculating formula is

element (FE) model of 9-story composite frame with

CFST columns and steel beams to investigate the
response and parametric analysis of progressive collapse
under loss key column scenario based on nonlinear fiber
beam-column element theory.

cun,i ca cun,i

z,i cun,i -
cun,i Ec 0 ca

0.09 cun,i
max c0

ca

c0
cun,i
c0

2 INTRODUCTION OF THE ANALYTICAL

MODEL

2.1 Structure details

This paper designed a 9-storey composite frame with
CFST columns using Midas Building software. Detailed
information of frame is: the building has a longitudinal 7
spans with an interval of 6.6 m and transverse 4 spans
with a grid space of 7.2 m, respectively. The height of
each story is 3.6 m. The H shaped steel beam section is
495mm465mm15mm20mm. The columns are
circular section with the dimension Dt=500mm12mm,
in which D and t are the diameter and thickness of the
hollow steel tube, respectively. The yielding strength of
steel is 345 MPa for the steel tubes and beams. The cube
compression strength of core concrete of CFST columns
is 40MPa. DL=5.0 kN/m2, LL=2.0 kN/m2. Figure 1 is the
plan and elevation view of the prototype frame.

Calculation frame
7200

7200

7200

7200

6600

6600

6600

6600

6600

6600

6600

(a) Calculation frame

50012mm

c0 cun,i

(1)

in which, Ec0 is the initial elastic modulus of concretec0

is peak stress and corresponding strain of concretecun,i
cun,I is the stress and strain for the i unloading
respectivelyca is the intermediate variable.
Concrete skeleton curves and loading-unloading
criteria
curves
were
shown
in
Figure
2.
Loading-unloading criteria calculated by residual strain z
to obtain the loading position. The pressure unloading
point and residual strain point connection stiffness as
load stiffness. The specific information is given in Wang
(2015)[13].

Damage
and energy

dissipation

Ec

(cun,2,cun,2)

(t0,t0)
z,2

C
Ec

z,1

0.5Ec

Tensile

Emodu
Ec

Compression
Ec

(cun,1,cun,1)

(0,0)

Figure 2. Concrete skeleton curves and loading -unloading

criteria.

4954651520mm

2.2.2 Steel constitutive model

(b) CFST column and steel beam

Figure 1. Analytical model of composite frame with CFST
columns.

The adopted steel and reinforcement material model

can consider the Bauschinger effect rationally(Nie,
2013) Nonlinear dynamic analysis on progressive
collapse resistance of composite structure, the influence
of Bauschinger effect on the structure performance is
larger. Through modify the radian of elastic-plastic
segment near branch change to consider a range of
Bauschinger effect based on the dual linear servo
strengthening model. The constitutive model choose the
revised constitutive model from Filippou (1983), shown
in Figure 3. Subsequent unloading and loading paths
along the solid lines arc curve after monotonic loading is
completed for the first time. The specific parameters are
given in Wang (2015)[13].

2.2 Material properties

2.2.1 Concrete constitutive model
Concrete damaged plasticity model in ABAQUS
element library cannot be used to the Timoshenko B31
element, and concrete smeared cracking model is
available for small deformation analysis. Based on these,
the user-defined steel and confined concrete uniaxial
hysteretic material constitutive models were developed in
subroutine UMAT provided by ABAQUS software based
on Fortran language. Due to the restriction of steel tube,
core concrete is in the three stress state and the peak
stress curves of compression and ductility are improved.

628

Wang et al.

D (0,2, 0,2)

R(2)

C (r,2, r,2)

simulation, which enables the used-defined material

constitutive model of concrete and steel to be applied in
the further research studies of progressive collapse of
CFST structures.

2
A (r,1, r,1)
Es

Table 1. Summary of specimen information

R0

Specimen

R(1)

B (0,1, 0,1)
1

1084.01500

356

22

C108-2

1084.01500

356

22

338

S100-1

1001002.65

340

20.1

23

CF-12

CF-22

SF-22

Specimen Size (mm)

Section
C

length

B 150703.443.44 2500
C

1403.34

B 160803.443.44 2500

-50

100

Calculation

Load, P (kN)

100

Figure 4.

-100

-200

-100

(d) Specimen SF-11

Test

-120

-50
0
50
Displacement,, (mm)

50

200

-60

-100

-25
0
25
Displacement, (mm)

(c) Specimen S100-1

Test
Calculation

60
Load, P (kN)

Load, P (kN)

70

120

Test
Calculation

-50

0.3

(b) Specimen C108-2

0.55

-50
-35
0
35
Displacement, (mm)

(a) Specimen C108-1

50

0.3

-25

-70

100

0.58

25

70

0.3

Test
Calculation

-70
-35
0
35
Displacement, (mm)

0.57

50

-35

-60

1450

1404.0

Load, P (kN)

Load, P (kN)

-30

1450

B 160803.443.44 2500

35

Beam-column
Loading
linear
ratio
stiffness ratio

1450

1402.0

Test
Calculation

Test
Calculation
30

MPa

C108-1

Specimen
Number

70

60

N0/ kN

Table 2. Summary of specimen information

In order to verify the rationality of the uniaxial

material constitutive model of core concrete and steel
based on fiber beam-column element model in ABAQUS,
this paper developed a large number of examples of
CFST columns[15] under monotonic loading and
reciprocal loading. Part specimen information of
examples of CFST columns were shown in Table 1. The
comparison results of CFST members under lateral cyclic
load were shown in Figure 4. The calculation results
show good agreement between the test and finite element

-100

fcu/

Wang et al. (2006)[16] performed an experimental

study of the CFST columns and steel beams frame which
was tested under static vertical loads and low cyclic
horizontal reversed loads. Figure 4 shows the results of
experiment and fiber model, it is find that the calculated
loaddisplacement curve by fiber method agrees well
with the experimental curve.

3 THE NUMERICAL EXAMPLES TESTIFY

-70

fy/ MPa

Number
Es

Figure 3. Steel skeleton curves and loading -unloading criteria.

Load,P (kN)

DtL /mm

-50
0
50
Displacement, (mm)

100

(e) Specimen SF-21

Comparison of P- hysteretic curves.

629

-100

-50
0
50
Displacement, (mm)

(f) Specimen SF-22

100

Wang et al.

4 PROGRESSIVE COLLAPSE ANALYSIS

0
Displacement, (mm)

-40

Displacement, (mm)

Time, t (s)
6

Corner column
First floor column
Middle floor colu mn
Top floor colu mn

-60
-80

Displacement, (mm)

-40

10

Corner column
First floor column
Middle floor column
Top floor column

-60
-80

(c) 3 layer frame structure

Figure 5. Dynamic nonlinear analysis of frame structures when
the failure column location is different.

4.2 The effect of span length

The steel beam will have obvious effect on an empty
stomach when the vertical bearing component was
destroyed. It is necessary to analyze the progressive
collapse of composite frame with CFST columns under
different span length conditions. Span parameters are 6.0
m, 7.2 m and 8.1 m, respectively. The results of dynamic
nonlinear analysis of frame structures under different
span length are shown in Figure 6. From Figure 6, we can
find that the increase of span causes a significant decrease
of the ultimate bearing capacity of structure and a slight
decrease of ductility. However, with the increase of span
length, the maximal vertical displacement of failure
column is also increased. It is because that large span
length of the structure under gravity load area also
increases accordingly, the redistribution of internal forces
during unloading are more likely to lead to the beam
directly to failure. In practical engineering should avoid
too much span length.

10

Time, t (s)

10

0
Displacement, (mm)

-80

-20

-20

-60

4Time, t (s)6

-40

(b) 6 layer frame structure

According to the failure location selection of

GSA2003, this paper selected four failure conditions to
study the progressive collapse, such as corner column
destroyed, first floor middle column, the middle floor
column and top floor column destroyed. The failure
during time is 0.02s using nonlinear dynamic analysis
process, and the late oscillation time is 7.0s. Figure 5 is
dynamic nonlinear analysis of frame structures when the
failure column location is different. The result shows the
column failure locations have significant influence on the
simulation results of structural responses under dynamic
nonlinear analysis. The failure of middle columns can
cause a remarkable decrease of collapse performance
meanwhile the displacement drift in the failure location
under accidental load tends to be unstable. When the
middle columns were destroyed, calculating curve
showed the rules of vibration attenuation curve. The
curves began to flatten gradually according to the trend of
the two asymptotes under the effect of damping. And the
displacement curves were relatively irregular when the
corner column destroyed. Meanwhile, with the increase
of the layer number, the maximal vertical displacement of
failure column is also increased. The calculation curves
are almost same.
4

10

-20

4.1 The effect of failure column location

According to the GSA2003, sides-way and member

end rotations () of frames was given as the maximum
allowable ductility or rotation limits for many structural
component and construction types to limit the possibility
of collapse. For RC one-way slabs tension membrane,
when rotation radians was beyond 10.5%, the structure
were predicated collapse and was beyond 21% for RC
one-way slabs tension membrane, For dynamic analysis
purposes, the following vertical load shall be applied
downward to the structure under investigation:
F0=FDL+0.25FLL
(2)
Where,
FDL=dead Load,
FLL=live load (higher of the design live load or the
code live load).

Time, t (s)
4
6

-20

Corner column

-40

First floor column

Middle floor column

Span(6 .6m)
Span(7 .2m)

-60

Top floor column

Span(8 .1m)

-80

(a) 9 layer frame structure

(a) 9 layer frame structure

630

Wang et al.

4 Time, t (s)6

10

Displacement, (mm)

Displacement, (mm)

-40

Span(6.6m)
Span(7.2m)

-60

Span(8.1m)

10

-15
-30

Height(3.0m)
Height(3.6m)

-45

Height(4.5m)

(b) 6 layer frame structure

0

Time, t (s)

(b) 6 layer frame structure

0

10

Time, t(s)

10

0
Displacement, (mm)

0
Displacement, (mm)

-10

-20

-20

-40

Span(7.2m)

(c) 3 layer frame structure

(c) 3 layer frame structure

Figure 7. Dynamic nonlinear analysis of frame structures under

different storey height.

Figure 6. Dynamic nonlinear analysis of frame structures under

different span length.

4.4 The effect of failure during time

4.3 The effect of storey height

The vertical member (i.e., the column, bearing wall,

etc.) that is removed should be removed instantaneously
according to GSA2003. While the speed at which an
element is removed has no impact on a static analysis, the
speed at which an element is removed in a dynamic
analysis may have a significant impact on the response of
the structure. Because of this, it is recommended for the
case where a dynamic analysis is performed, the vertical
supporting element should be removed over a time period
that is no more than 1/10 of the period associated with the
structural response mode for the vertical element
removal. In order to study the different failure time affect
the performance of structure collapse, this paper presents
a finite element model to study the progressive collapse
performance of composite frame with CFST columns
under different failure time period, such as 0.01T, 0.03T,
0.06T and 0.1T, in which T is the natural vibration period
of structures.
From figure 8, it is found that the failure time period
parameters have significant effect on the joint
displacement amplitude and the late oscillation value.
The shorter the failure time period, the bigger
displacement oscillation trend. The vertical supporting
element should be removed over a time period that is no
more than 1/10 of the period associated with the
structural response mode for the vertical element removal
according to GSA2003. However, the different failure
time period led to calculation results is larger. Based on
these, it is suggest that the column failure time should be

In order to study the effect of collapse performance

under different floor height, this paper selects three kinds
of storey height change parameters, 3.0 m, 3.6 m and 4.2
m. The results of dynamic nonlinear analysis of
composite frame structures under different storey height
are shown in Figure 7. From Figure 7, we can find that
with the increase of storey height, the maximal vertical
displacement of failure column is also increased. It is
because that the effective height of the vertical bearing
component is increased, the damage is more likely to
occurred duo to slenderness ratio increased. Overall, the
progressive collapse resistance effect of storey height of
structure is not obvious. The height numbers changes
impact on the calculation result is not obvious for 3 layer
frame structure.
Time, t (s)
4
6

Height(4.5m)

-50

-80

Height(3.6m)

-40

Span(8.1m)

Height(3.0m)

-30

Span(6.6m)

-60

10

0
Displacement, (mm)

-60

-80

-15
-30

-60

Time, t (s)
4
6

-20

-45

Height(3.0m)
Height(3.6m)
Height(4.5m)

(a) 9 layer frame structure

631

Wang et al.

less than the natural vibration period of the structure

using nonlinear dynamic analysis method to study the
progressive collapse.
0

Time, t (s)
4
6

10

0
Displacement, (mm)

t=0.008s
t=0.02s
t=0.05s
t=0.08s

-15
-30

(a) The original structure

(b) Recommended structure
Figure 9 Corner column improvements

(2) From the parametric analysis of span length, we

can find that the increase of span causes a significant
decrease of the ultimate bearing capacity of structure. The
maximal vertical displacement of failure column is also
increased. It is suggest that avoid the span length is too
large to make the progressive collapse structure are more
likely to happen. The suggested improvement is shown in
figure 10.

-45
-60

(a) 9 layer frame structure

0

Time, t (s)
6

10

Displacement, (mm)

0
-15
-30

t=0.008s
t=0.02s
t=0.05s
t=0.08s

-45
-60

(b) 6 layer frame structure

0

Time, t (s)
4
6

(a) The original structure

(b) Recommended structure
Figure 10. The suggested improvements of span length.

6 CONCLUSIONS

10

Displacement, (mm)

This paper presents a finite element (FE) model of

9-story composite frame with CFST columns and steel
beams to investigate the response and parametric analysis
of progressive collapse under loss key column scenario
based on nonlinear fiber beam-column element theory.
The following conclusions may be drawn with the
limitation of the research in this paper:
(1) The user-defined steel and confined concrete
uniaxial hysteretic material constitutive models were
developed in subroutine UMAT provided by ABAQUS
software based on Fortran language. The steel material
model considered the Bauschinger effect rationally. The
calculation results show good agreement between the test
and finite element simulation, which enables the
used-defined material constitutive model of concrete and
steel to be applied in the further research studies of
progressive collapse of CFST structures.
(2) When the middle columns were destroyed,
calculating curve showed the rules of vibration
attenuation curve. The curves began to flatten gradually
according to the trend of the two asymptotes under the
effect of damping. And the displacement curves were
relatively irregular when the corner column destroyed.
(3) The failure time period parameters have
significant effect on the joint displacement amplitude and
the late oscillation value. The shorter the failure time

-10
-20
-30

t=0.008s
t=0.02s
t=0.05s
t=0.08s

-40

-50

(c) 3 layer frame structure

Figure 8. Dynamic nonlinear analysis of frame structures under
different failure time period.

5 COLLAPSE FORTIFICATION CONCEPTUAL

PROPOSALS
This paper presents some conceptual collapsed
fortification reference for practical engineering in order to
better improve the collapse resistance of concrete filled
steel tube structure.
(1) From the parametric analysis of failure column
location, the displacement curves were relatively irregular
when the corner column destroyed. It is suggest that
avoid the corner column directly outside convex and
prevent direct damage in accidental loads. Corner column
can be in accordance with a certain arc divided into two
or three components in some important building, shown
in figure 9.

632

Wang et al.
Wang, W.D., Wang, J.X. & Zhou, X.Y. 2014. Nonlinear
dynamic progressive collapse analysis of composite frames
with concrete-filled steel tubular columns based on fiber
model. Engineering Mechanics 31(9): 142-151. (in
Chinese).
Wang, J.X., Wang, W.D. & Shi, X.F. 2015. Nonlinear dynamic
progressive collapse analysis of composite frame with
concrete-filled steel tubular columns based on ALP method.
Journal of Building Structures 36(s1): 1-8. (in Chinese).
Yang, B. & Tan, K.H. 2014. Behavior of composite
beam-column joints in a middle-column-removal scenario:
experimental tests. Journal of Structural Engineering
140(2): 04013045:1-20.
Wang, D.B., Li, H.N. & Zhang J. 2014. Response analysis of
RC frame structures in progressive collapse after the
member failure. Chinese Journal of Applied Mechanics
31(1): 116-121. (in Chinese).
Han, L.H. 2007. Concrete-filled steel tubular structures-theory
and practice (2nd ed.). Beijing: China Science Press (in
Chinese).
Mander, J.B., Priestley, M J N. & Park R. 1988. Theoretical
stress-strain model for confined concrete. Journal of
Structural Engineering, ASCE, 114(8): 1804-1826.
Wang, J.X. 2015. Research on fire resistance and progressive
collapse of composite frame with concrete-filled steel
tubular columns. Lanzhou: Lanzhou University of
Technology. (in Chinese).
Nie, J.G. & Tao, M.X. 2011. Theory of seismic response
analysis of steel-concrete composite structures using fiber
beam elements. Journal of Building Structures 32(10): 1-10.
(in Chinese).
Filippou F C, Popov E P. & Bertero V V. 1983. Effects of bond
deterioration on hysteretic behavior of reinforced concrete
joints. Earthquake Engineering Research Center, University
of California, Berkeley, California, USA.
Wang, W.D., Han, L.H. & Tao, Z. 2006. Experimental research
on seismic behavior of concrete filled CHS and SHS
columns and steel beam planar frames. Journal of Building
Structures 27(3): 48-58. (in Chinese).

period, the bigger displacement oscillation trend.

However, the different failure time period led to
calculation results is larger. It is suggest that the column
failure time should be less than the natural vibration
period of the structure using nonlinear dynamic analysis
method to study the progressive collapse.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors gratefully acknowledge the Natural
Science Foundation of China (No. 51268038) and The
Hongliu distinguished talents support program of
Lanzhou University of Technology (No. JQ201305).
REFERENCES
GSA2003. Progressive collapse analysis and design guidelines
for new federal office buildings and major modernization
projects. Washington, D.C.: The U.S. General Services
Administration, 2003.
UFC4-023-03. Design of Buildings to Resist Progressive
Collapse. Washington, D.C.: The U.S. Department of
Defense, 2010.
Wang, W., Li, L. & Chen, Y.Y. 2014. Experimental
investigation on progressive collapse behavior of WUF-B
connections between SHS column and H beam. Journal of
Building Structures 35(4): 57-64. (in Chinese).
Wang, W., Li, L. & Chen, Y.Y. 2014. Experimental study on
progressive collapse behavior of CHS column to H beam
connections with outer-diaphragm. Journal of Building
Structures 35(7): 26-33. (in Chinese).
Gerasimidis S. 2014. Analytical assessment of steel frames
progressive collapse vulnerability to corner column loss.
Journal of Constructional Steel Research 95(2014): 1-9.
Sagiroglu1 S. & Sasani M. 2014. Progressive collapse-resisting
mechanisms of reinforced concrete structures and effects of
initial damage locations. Journal of Structural Engineering,
ASCE, 140: 1-12.

633

11th International Conference on

Advances in Steel and Concrete Composite Structures
Tsinghua University, Beijing, China, December 3-5, 2015

EXPERIMENTAL
STUDY
OF
STRUCTURAL
FRAME
COMPOSED OF STEEL JACKETING CONCETE-COLUMN AND
STEEL-BEAM WITH SELF-CENTERING CAPACITY
H. Nakaharaa & H. Yinb
a

Graduate School of Engineering, Nagasaki University, Nagasaki, Japan

E-mail: nakaharahiroyuki@nagasaki-u.ac.jp

Department of Engineering, A Plus Design Consultancy Co., Ltd., Sichuan, China

E-mail: yinhao7176@163.com
ABSTRACT
Keywords:
Damage control; Cyclic test;
Column yielding mechanism;
Confining effect; Easy
construction.

A structural frame composed of steel jacketing concrete-column and steel-beam with damage
control capacity was studied for the structural and constructional performances through
experiments. Four specimens, which were 1/3 scaling models of cruciform subassemblies, were
made and subjected to cyclic force. In this paper, the test results of the specimens were
investigated on its self-centering capacities mainly. The test results showed that this structure
remained lower damage after the cyclic loading test than the normal reinforced concrete
structure. The load carrying capacities of the specimens were estimated through full plastic
moment of the section of the column by taking into consideration of confining effect of concrete
jacketed by steel tube.

other by bolts. The tests of the fifteen specimens were

conducted under axial force and cyclic force
corresponding to the situation under seismic excitation. In
this paper, four specimens are chosen to be described on
the constructing performance and structural properties of
this structure. The manufacturing time of the specimens
was saved apparently owing to the simple constructing
process of the structure. The load versus deformation
relations obtained by the test showed significant
self-centering capacities and stable behaviors without
abrupt strength deterioration. The flexural failure of the
column occurred in the all of the specimens. The
self-centering behaviors derived from the elastic behavior
of unbounded steel bar built in the columns and axial
force sustained by the column. The load carrying
capacities were also investigated by comparing to the full
plastic moment of the section of the column by taking the
confining effect of concrete jacketed by steel tube into
consideration.

1 INTRODUCTION
In 1995 Hyogo-ken Nanbu Earthquake attacked Kobe
City in Japan and killed more than six thousand people.
Although the earthquake broke down some buildings
completely, most of reinforced concrete buildings
remained with slight damages. The remained buildings
were, however, removed because of its residual
deformations and apparent cracks. To decrease the
number of removed buildings which still possessed
enough seismic performances, many researchers focused
on the damage control for the buildings after earthquakes.
The damage control capacity includes the reducing the
residual deformation and the preventing the noticeable
cracks, which bring users anxieties to collapse the
building. Based on the purpose of making the damage
controlled building, the authors have developed a new
structure from 2008. The proposed structural frame was
composed of steel beams and concrete columns jacked by
steel tubes. The column included diaphragms to connect
steel beams. The cruciform specimen was built by
combining the pre-casted column and steel beams each

634

Nakahara et al.

2 SPECMEN AND TEST SETUP

(8) Split-T made of H-3001506.59

(9)Rubber (10) Teflon sheet
(11) Split-T made of plates

(1) Steel plate 2202206 (2) Steel tube -2002006

(3) Steel bar (4) Beam H-3001506.59
(5) Sliding stopper (6) High strength bolt
(7) Connecter H-200200812

Figure 2. Assembly diaphragm

Figure 1. Test specimen

and the assembly diaphragm are sealed by rubber which

avoided to transmit the axial stress to the steel tube. In
this case, the steel tube does not sustain axial force and
bending moment. The steel bars were inserted into
column in which concrete were casted into steel tube. The
steel bars only in EHN19D were eliminated from the
specimen and replaced by the slimmer bars to make the
longitudinal ducts in the specimen. All bars were round
bars in which the bond stress was negligible. The tensile
stress of the bars penetrated through the column to realize
the self-centering behaviors.
Table.2 and Table.3 list the material properties of steel
and concrete, respectively. This structure frame was
designed to be failed at the column ends by bending
moment. It was necessary to confirm the failure mode of
the specimen. Table.4 shows that the strength of each part
which was converted into the shearing force of the beam.
The bending strength of column was calculated when the
axial force ratio was equal to 0.2. Comparisons with the
capacities, the specimens were ensured to be failed in
bending of the column.

Fig. 1 shows the test specimens which are 1/3 scaling

model of cruciform subassemblies. They are composed of
concrete column confined by steel tube and H-shape steel
beams. The specimen includes the diaphragms made by
split-Ts and steel plates as shown in Fig.2. The beam
flanges are connected to the diaphragms with high
strength bolts. The diaphragm of type C was composed of
two split-Ts made by cutting off from H-shape steel
members and 9mm thick steel plate which connected
them each other by welding.
The five difference parameters as the test matrix are
listed in Table.1: 1) type of assembly diaphragm, 2)
strength of steel bar, 3) axial force ratio, and 4) duct in
concrete column for longitudinal steel bars.
The manufacturing processes of the specimens are
shown in Fig.3. The whole assemble process had no
welding. Only by piling up the steel tubes and assembly
diaphragms alternatively, we were able to complete
smoothly and showed the excellent workability through
the manufacture. The clearances between the steel tube

Table 1. Test matrix

Test specimen

Assembly diaphragm

Steel bar

Yield strength

Tensile strength

Duct

EHN19D

Type. E

PC13

1243

1288

SS4009

325

438

327

452

CLS16N
CLS19N
CLN14N

Type. C

SS40010
SS40013

635

Nakahara et al.

Figure 3. Construction process of test

The measurement apparatus is shown in Fig.5. The

aluminum frame was set on pin support of end of column.
The axial deformation of beam and column, the horizon
deformation of column were measured by the
displacement transducers. The drift angle Rb of the beam
was equal to the difference of transducer and
divided by the distance between and . The tensile
force of each steel bar was measured by four load-cells
which were set at the end of each steel bar. The load-cell
was made of cylinder steel which both the diameter and
height were 36mm. The load-cell had internal hole of
which diameter was 15mm to pass the steel bar. Hence,
the tensile force of steel bar was measured as the
compressive force which was sustained at the
doughnut-shaped load-cell.

3 LOADING APPARATUS AND

MEASUREMENT
Loading apparatus for the test is shown in Fig.4. The
top and bottom of column set on pin supports. Axial
force was introduced from 4 steel bars by being screwed
up its nuts as the pre-tensile members, and pushed from
1000kN jack over the column. The total axial force was
sum of them. Table.5 shows the axial force N and axial
force ratio N/N0 at the beginning of loading. Then N0
was calculated by the section of concrete multiply the
strength of concrete of the cylinder tests. Two 100kN
hydraulic jacks which were joined to the beams by pin
supports were used to apply the alternative symmetric
deformations of the specimens.

Table 2. Steel material properties

Kinds of steel

Standard
STKR400

-2002006

Yield

Tensile

Young's

strength

strength

modulus

MPa

(MPa

GPa

396

484

187

0.818

28.8

Yield
ratio

Reinforced
elongation
(%)

Beam

Flange

304

448

196

0.679

40.8

H-3001506.59

Web

356

484

202

0.737

38.4

247

407

192

0.609

38.8

332

420

195

0.791

36.1

Web

361

456

205

0.757

36.9

Composite diaphragm
type.E

Steel plate

t=6
SS400

Steel plate

t=4.5

Composite diaphragm

Split T

type.C

H-3001506.59

Table 3. Concrete properties

Strength of cylinder test

Water/Cement ratio

Fine aggregate ratio

Slump

Air

(MPa)

(%)

(%)

(cm)

(%)

EHN19D

39.2

42

51.7

21.5

5.9

CLS16N

49.9

42

49.1

22.5

4.6

44.0

45

47.8

22.2

4.5

Test specimen

CLS19N
CLN14N

636

Nakahara et al.
Table 4. Strength of each part converted into beams shear strength
Test specimen

Bending of column

Sliding bearing of bolt

Bending of split T

Bending of beam

(kN)

(kN)

(kN)

(kN)

EHN19D

44

CLS16N

48

CLS19N
CLN14N

76
114

43

1000kN loadcell

760

162

117

1000kN jack

Pin

760

Pin
Outer frame

100kN loadcell

100kN loadcell

Pin

100kN jack

100kN jack
Pin

Pin
1000

1000

Figure 4. Loading apparatus

Table 5. Axial force
Total axial force (kN)

N0 (kN)

Axial force ratio

124

1385

0.19

253

24

1764

0.16

CLS19N

264

34

CLN14N

148

72

Test specimen

Applied axial force

Tension of steel bar

EHN19D

142

CLS16N

0.19

1555

0.14

2.5
2

Rb(1/100rad.)

1.5
1
0.5
0
-0.5
-1
-1.5
-2
-2.5

10

15

Cycle
Figure 6. Deformation histories

The deformation histories of the test are shown in

Fig.6 in which vertical axis shows drift angle Rb of the
beam of the specimen and horizontal axis shows number
of loading cycles. The peak drift angle stepwise

Figure 5. Measurement apparatus

637

Nakahara et al.

increased from 1.0/100 rad. to 2.5/100rad.. At each drift,

two cyclic deformations were applied.

broken and solid lines showed the yield strength (Ty) and
the tensile strength (Tc) of the steel bar, respectively.
EHN19D showed that the steel bars did not yield through
the loading test. With the increasing of drift angle, the
axial force of column increased as the reacting force of
tensile force of steel bars. Compared to Fig.7, the
strength of the column was also increasing after
Rb=1.5/100rad gradually due to the enhance of the axial
force of concrete section. The specimens in which used
SS400 steel bars were yielding after the Rb attained by
1.5/100rad. While the yielding of steel bars, the strength
of specimen was not increasing as shown in Fig.7.

4 STRENGTH CALCULATION METHOD

This structure was designed to be failed at the
column by bending moment. The bending strength of
column (Mc) was calculated by the sum of bending
moments of steel bars (sM) and concrete (cM). sM was
calculated by the distance between the steel bars
multiplying the difference of the tensile forces of steel
bars. And cM was obtained by full plastic sate of the
section of the concrete column.

(2)

Owing to the small measured value of sM, the

strength of column was only calculated by cM in the
paper. The vertical load Nm on the specimens was equal
to the applied axial force plus the tensile forces of the
steel bars. The effective cross section of EHN19D, which
had ducts in the column, was calculated by the concrete
section minus the area of ducts. The strength of confined
concrete by the steel tube was obtained by the equation.

cB K c c B

-25

-3

50

-2

-1

-25

-50

-3

(EHN19D)

(CLS16N)
50

Exp.

Exp.
Cal.

25

-25

-50

-1

Rb(1/100rad.)

25

Where, cB was the 28-day strength of concrete by

standard cylinder test, Kc was the enhanced coefficient of
concrete strength by the effect of square steel tube and
calculated by the equation (Y.Sun and K.Sakino, 1993).

-2

Rb(1/100rad.)

Cal.

(3)

y 4t 2 D t
K c 1.0 11.5

3
D 2t
c B

Cal.

-50

Mc(kNm)

Exp.

25

25

Mc(kNm)

Nm
Nm
cD

c cB c b

50

Exp.
Cal.

Mc(kNm)

cM

50

(1)

Mc(kNm)

M c s M c M

-3

-2

-1

-25

-50

-3

-2

Rb(1/100rad.)

-1

Rb(1/100rad.)

(CLS19N)
(CLN14N)
Figure 7. Relations between Mc and Rb

(4)

100

D and t represented the width of steel tube and the

thickness of steel tube, respectively. sy was equal to
yield strength of steel tube.

50

Exp.
Ty=165(kN)

T(kN)

T(kN)

75

5 THE RELATIONS BETWEEN LOADING

50

25

FORCE AND DEFORMATION AND

STRENGTH EVALUATION

The relations between bending moment of the

column (Mc) and drift angle (Rb) are shown in Fig.7. The
bending moment of the column was converted from the
measured shearing forces of the steel beams. The mark
in the Fig.7 represents the calculated strength at the
peak of every cyclic by Eq.(2). When the bending
moment was vanished, the residual deformation was
close to 0 for all of the specimens. This trend is observed
in all specimens, the self-centering capacity of the
proposed beam-column frame exhibits by the loading
test.
Relation between the tensile force T of the steel bars
and drift Rb angle are shown in Fig.8. The vertical axis
shows the average tension of steel bars. In the figure, the

Exp.
Ty
Tc

40

30

20

10

-3

-2

-1

Rb(1/100rad.)

-3

-2

(CLS19N)
50

T(kN)

T(kN)

Exp.
Ty
Tc

40

30
20

10

(CLN14N)
50

Exp.
Ty
Tc

40

-1

Rb(1/100rad.)

30

20
10

-3

-2

-1

Rb(1/100rad.)

-3

-2

-1

(CLS19N)
(CLN14N)
Figure 8. Relations between T and Rb

638

Rb(1/100rad.)

Nakahara et al.
0.5

The relations between axial force (Nm) and bending

moment (cM) of the column are showed in Fig.9. Solid
curves are obtained by the equation (2), and dotted
curves and broken curves are the 0.9 and 1.1 of the solid
ones. The mark of represents the experimental
strength at the peaks of every loading cycles, and the
mark of represents experimental strength at Rb
=1.5/100rad. By the increasing of the axial force
corresponding to the increasing of the drift angle, the
bending moment of the concrete section increased
consequently.

300

200
100

Cal.
1.5%

400

Nm(kN)

400

Nm(kN)

500

300

200
100

10

20

30

40

50

10

cM(kNm)

50

Cal.
1.5%

400

Nm(kN)

Nm(kN)

500

300

200
100

40

(CLS16N)

Cal.
1.5%

400

30

cM(kNm)

(EHN19D)
500

20

300

200
100

10

20

30

40

50

cM(kNm)

10

20

30

0.2
0.1

0.5

1.5

2.5

Rb0(1/100rad.)

0.4

0.3

0.2
0.1

0.5

2.5

40

In order to investigate the residual deformation, the

relations of residual drift angle and maximum drift angle
are shown in Fig.10. Each specimen has the regression
curve which is drawn in solid or broken lines. The
residual drift angle of EHN19D is larger than that of the
others. The residual drift angle of CLS16N, CLD19N
and CLN14N are restrained under 5% of the maximum
drift angle of each cycle.
EHN19D did not exhibit the apparent self-centering
capacity, even though the steel bars remained elastic.
The main reason was that its ducts eliminated the dowel
action of the steel bars. The other specimens did not have
the ducts, so that the dowel effect of the steel bars acted
to aid the self-centering capacity.
Fig.11 shows damage situation in the loading cycle
of which peak deformation was Rb =2.5/100rad.. The left
side picture shows the peak deformation and the right
side picture shows the situation when the lateral load was
0. As shown in the left side picture, the horizontal clack
was apparently observed, but the clack closed when the
lateral load was 0 as shown in the right side picture.
While the loading test, the damage could be only
observed except for at the end of the column. Referring
to the strain obtained from the gauges which pasted on
the steel tubes and steel beam, the yield of steel was not
observed. This showed that the structural frame had the
continuous usage performance after the attacks by large
earthquakes due to its damage control capacity which
included the self-centering capacity and the reduction
capacity against clacks. As the original aim of the study,
this structure showed the advantages to keep the value of
the building after the excitation by earthquakes.

50

cM(kNm)

(CLS19N)
(CLN14N)
Figure 9. Relations between Nm and cM
Table 6. Comparisons between test and calculation
Exp. strength

Cal. strength

axial force ratio

(kNm)

(kNm)

at Rb=1.5%

EHN19D

29.0

26.1

0.26

1.11

CLS16N

27.5

26.0

0.18

1.06

CLS19N

30.4

28.9

0.24

1.05

CLN14N

25.3

23.6

0.19

1.07

Test specimen

1.5

Rb0(1/100rad.)

Figure 10. Relations between Rr and Rb0

SELF-CENTERING CAPACITY

Cal.
1.5%

0.3

CLS19N
CLN14N

0.4

6 MAXIMUM BENDING MOMENT AND

500

0.5

EHN19D
CLS16N

Rr(1/100rad.)

Rr(1/100rad.)

Experimental and calculated bending moments and

axial force ratio at Rb =1.5%rad. are summarized in
Table.6.Calculated strength Mc by the equation (2), and
the axial force Nm was equal to the sum of applied axial
force by the top jack and the tensile force of steel bars.
The axial force ratio of all the tests were greater than the
ratio in Table.5, because the tension force of steel bars
have been increased at Rb =1.5/100rad. than that at Rb
=0rad. Calculated strength underestimated experimental
strength from 5% to 11%.

639

Exp./Cal.

Nakahara et al.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors wish to express their thanks to Mr. H.
Kubotera, technician of Kyushu University, and Mr. T.
Miyamoto, graduate student of Kyushu University, for
their assistance in the experiment and preparation of this
paper.
REFERENCES
Sun, Y. and Sakino, K.: Ductility Improvement of Reinforced
Concrete Columns with High-Strength Materials,
Transactions of the Japan Concrete Institute (JCI Vol.15),
1993.

Figure 11. Damage situations

7 CONCLUSIONS
The following conclusions were achieved through
this study:
1)

The relations between bending moment and story

drift angle of all specimens showed the self-centering

behavior apparently. The self-centering capacity was
affected by the dowel action of the steel bar.
2)

Calculated strength by the full plastic state of the

confined concrete section was slightly underestimated

the experimental strength from 5% to 11%.
3)

Through the construction of the test specimens, the

easy constructing procedure of this structure was

ensured.
4)

From the observation and measurements, the

damage was only concentrated at the ends of columns,

the other parts had no damage. This structure provided
the damage control capacity to realize the continuous use
of the building attacked by large scale earthquakes.

640

11th International Conference on

Advances in Steel and Concrete Composite Structures
Tsinghua University, Beijing, China, December 3-5, 2015

CRITICAL LOADS AND FAILURE BEHAVIORS OF COMBINED

SCAFFOLD SYSTEMS
J. L. Penga, C. S. Wangb & C. M. Hob
a

Department of Construction Engineering, National Yunlin University of Science and Technology, Taiwan, R.O.C.
E-mails: pengjl@yuntech.edu.tw

Graduate School of Engineering Science and Technology, National Yunlin University of Science and Technology,
Taiwan, R.O.C.
E-mails: johnson.king@yahoo.com.tw, g9710827@yuntech.edu.tw
ABSTRACT
Keywords:
Buckling, Combined
scaffold system, Critical load,
Failure behavior, Scaffold.

Steel scaffolds are typically used in the warehouses and the technical factories of the reinforced
concrete during their constructions. The steel scaffold is a modular element. After workers
install steel scaffolds for many stories, the steel scaffolds cannot just fill up the headroom of
the reinforced concrete building. A gap exists between the top of the scaffolds and the bottom
of the formwork of slabs and beams. This gap needs to fill up with other shores. The critical
load and the failure behavior of the combined scaffold system are totally different from that of
the un-combined scaffold system. This study focused on the critical load and failure behavior
of the full-scale combined scaffold system. The research results show that the critical load of
the one-set, two-story steel scaffold does not apparently differ from that of the one-set, threestory steel scaffold. However, under the same height, a one-set, three-story un-combined steel
scaffold has higher critical load than that of a one-set, two-story combined scaffold system with
other shores. The outdoor full-scale combined scaffold system fails instantly by buckling
without any obvious warnings. When the external load attains the critical load of the entire
combined scaffold system, the whole system reaches the condition of instability. Thus, the
overall combined scaffold system collapsed immediately with a domino-style failure induced
by a small perturbation or an uneven sinking of jack bases. The traditional steel structural design
based on a single element highly estimated the critical load of the overall combined scaffold
system. This overestimated critical load of the combined scaffold system might increase the
risk of the collapse of the combined scaffold system.

systems combined with wooden shores under different

load paths and load types, and examined the relationship
between the influence-line effect and the loads. While Kuo
et al. conducted experiments on the rectangle arrangement
of the outdoor full-scale steel scaffold system, Peng et al.
conducted analysis on the rectangle, L-shaped and Ushaped arrangements of the door-type steel scaffold
system.
Peng et al. (2015) investigated the load capacities of
door-type steel scaffolds based on the single-row setup of
various bays which was different from other tests with the
setup of one bay only. Additionally, Peng et al. (2014)
conducted load tests on isolated triangle-type steel
scaffolds to identify the load capacity and failure model of
isolated triangle-type steel scaffolds with different
arrangements on the construction site.
In terms of single tube scaffolds, Liu et al. (2010)
conducted load tests on full-scale large steel scaffolds
structure without X-bracing to explore the load capacity
and dynamic behaviors of the overall steel scaffold system.

1 INTRODUCTION
Unlike frame-type steel scaffolds which are usually set
up continuously in a single row, triangle-type steel
scaffolds are often set up independently. Features of
triangle-type steel scaffolds include easy and quick setup,
no distinction between strong axis and weak axis in the
structure, and setup not restricted by environmental
conditions. Therefore, in construction of heavy-laden
reinforced concrete structures, triangle-type steel scaffolds
have raised the trend to gradually replace frame-type steel
scaffolds.
So far, there have been quite some safety studies on the
steel scaffolds. Huang et al. (2000) made a simplified 2-D
model of door-type steel scaffolds, based on which they
created a characteristic equation for structural stability
analysis of door-type steel scaffolds with different stories.
Kuo et al. (2008) and Peng et al. (2003) explored the axial
forces of vertical steel tubes of the door-type steel scaffold

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Peng et al.

The measurements of lateral braces and horizontal bars

are as follows:
The average external diameter and thickness of the
lateral braces are 42.27 mm and 1.92 mm respectively (see
cross section EE); the average external diameter and
thickness of the horizontal bar are 42.35 mm and 2.40 mm
respectively (see cross section FF).
For material tests in this study, the average elastic
modulus, E, of the 6 main rods is 203,860 MN/m2, which
is very close to the nominal E value 200,124 MN/m2.
Therefore, when the double modulus theory is used to
conduct the second-order inelastic analysis on triangletype steel scaffolds, it is recommended to directly reduce
the elastic modulus, E.

E
B

Lateral brace

Triangle-type

Scaffold unit

D
A A

Horizontal bar

In terms of system scaffolds, Peng et al. (2009) conducted

numerical analysis and load tests on system scaffolds to
identify the load capacity and mechanic behaviors of
system scaffolds with different arrangements.
In terms of probabilistic study of steel scaffolds, Zhang
et al. (2010) explored the variability of relevant parameters
that affect the strength of steel scaffolds. The issues
explored in the study included semi-rigid joint stiffness,
load eccentricity, initial geometric imperfection, and
system reliability.
As shown above, most studies are involved with the
frame-type steel scaffolds, door-type steel scaffolds, single
tube scaffolds and system scaffolds with little involvement
of the triangle-type steel scaffolds. Since the triangle-type
steel scaffolds are set up as an isolated tower structure,
which is very different from the continuous setup of the
above-mentioned scaffolding structures, the results of
those studies cannot be directly applied to the triangle-type
steel scaffolds, not to mention the mechanic behaviors of
large-scale triangle-type steel scaffold systems. Therefore,
it is worth to study further the load capacity and failure
model of full-scale triangle-type steel scaffold systems.

2 OBJECTIVES AND MATERIAL PROPERTIES

This study explores the load capacity and failure model
of the triangle-type steel scaffold system used on
construction sites. All scaffolds tested are made of fullscale members and testing installations are made
according to the real setups commonly adopted on
construction sites. The results of this study may serve as a
reference for safe design of triangle-type steel scaffolds
and construction in the construction industry in Taiwan in
order to reduce the risk of collapse of triangle-type steel
scaffolds in the future.
For the numerical analysis in this study, the Geometric
and Material Nonlinear Analysis of Frames (GMNAF)
developed by professor Siu-Lai Chan of the Hong Kong
Polytechnic University was adopted to conduct the 3D
second-order analysis with semi-rigid joints on various
setups of triangle-type steel scaffold systems.
The cross-sectional dimensions of various members
are obtained from measurements of 6 sets of triangle-type
steel scaffolds. As shown in Figure 1, the measurements of
cross sections of various members of the triangle-type
scaffold are as follows.
The average external diameter and thickness of the
main rod are 76.35 mm and 3.32 mm respectively (see
cross section AA); the average external diameter and
thickness of the upper rod are 42.26 mm and 2.24 mm
respectively (see cross section BB); the average external
diameter and thickness of the middle rod are 33.62 mm and
2.24 mm respectively (see cross section CC); the average
external diameter and thickness of the diagonal brace are
33.63 mm and 2.18 mm respectively (see cross section
DD).

Figure 1. Dimensions and setups of internal members of the

isolated Triangle-type steel scaffolds.

3 TEST PLAN
3.1 Indoor load tests on isolated triangle-type steel
scaffolds

3.1.1 Triangle-type steel scaffolds

The triangle-type steel scaffolds with different stories
have different load capacities. In this study, load tests were
conducted on 2-story and 3-story isolated triangle-type
steel scaffolds to explore the relation between the load
capacity and number of stories of triangle-type steel
scaffolds. In the test setup of triangle-type steel scaffolds,
lateral braces were used for each story, the height of each
story was 1.5 m, the height of the top jack and bottom jack
base was 0.2 m, and the total heights of the 2-story and 3story systems were 3.4 m and 4.9 m respectively.
Dimensions and configurations of the 2-story triangle-type
steel scaffolds are shown in Figure 2(A).

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Peng et al.

1.2 m

3.2 Outdoor load tests on combined scaffold systems

3.2.1 Resistance
1.5 m

In this study, outdoor load tests on combined scaffold

systems were conducted to explore the load capacity of
actual triangle-type steel scaffolds and its lower limit of
load capacity on construction sites.
To conduct the load tests, a 5.4 m5.4 m square area
was arranged at the bottom. A set of triangle-type steel
scaffolds was set at each corner of the square as shown in
Figure 3. The bottom area of each set of triangle-type steel
scaffolds was 1.2 m1.2 m and the net distance between
triangle-type steel scaffolds was 3.0 m. The theodolite was
arranged on both the north and west sides of the square
area. During the tests, the horizontal displacement of the
H-beams between triangle-type steel scaffolds and the thin
steel shores and its direction were measured by the
theodolites.
The upper-story 8 steel wire ropes above the thin steel
shores provided the system with the lateral support to
simulate the formwork of beams and slabs, supported by
the dried RC columns and walls. Thus, lateral
displacement will not happen on these formwork. The
lower-story 8 steel wire ropes on top of the triangle-type
steel scaffolds were setup for the purpose of safety during
the installation. They were used to help stabilize the
overall system in the setup process in order to reduce the
risk of collapse. On the day of tests, these 8 steel wire ropes
were detached before loading because this kind of lateral
bracing reinforcement is not used on the real construction
site.

(E)
(N)

(S)

(W)

0.2 m

0.2m

1.5 m
1.5 m
1.5 m
1.5 m
0.2 m

0.2 m

(A)

1.2 m

1.2 m

1.2 m
(B)

Figure 2. Dimensions and configurations of the 2-story triangletype steel scaffold and the 2-story triangle-type steel scaffolds
combined with 1.5 m steel shores on the top.

3.1.2 Combined scaffold systems

It is not easy that the headroom of a building is exactly
a multiple of the length of triangle-type steel scaffolds.
Therefore, when multiple stories of triangle-type steel
scaffolds are continuously setup, there is a gap between the
top story and the bottom of the slab. In order to solve this
practical problem, workers often use other shores to fill in
the gap, such as steel shores, wooden shores or tubular
steel adjustable shores, which are named as combined
scaffold systems in this study. Its worthy of exploring the
discrepancy of load capacity between the combined
scaffold systems and triangle-type steel scaffolds without
other shores.
In the tests on the combined scaffold systems, the steel
tubes with different thickness and length were used on the
top of triangle-type steel scaffolds. The test configuration
is shown in Figure 2(B). The thick steel shores are
directly cut from the main rod of triangle-type steel
scaffolds, with an average external diameter of 76.35 mm
and thickness of 3.32 mm. This kind of thick steel shores
is seldom adopted on construction sites. They were used in
this study simply for the purpose of comparison. The
thin steel shores were made of galvanized steel tubes
commonly used on construction sites in Taiwan, with an
average external diameter of 48.18 mm and thickness of
2.00 mm. On construction sites, construction contractors
always use thin steel shores mainly for the sake of
convenience and cheapness. Through these tests, it is
possible to identify the upper and lower limits of the load
capacity of the combined scaffold systems.

Figure 3. Setup of outdoor load tests of combined scaffold

systems.

3.2.2 Load
In the tests, RC blocks and sandbags were used to
simulate the load of fresh concrete during construction.
The placement of RC blocks was divided into two stories.
In each story, 10 RC blocks were placed and the placement
procedures of the two stories were the same.

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Peng et al.

4.1.2.2 Combined system with 1.5 m thin steel shores

Similar to the placement of RC blocks, the sandbags

were placed diagonally in sequence in order to achieve
evenness of load distribution on the overall scaffold
system.

Two sets of load tests were conducted on the 2-story

triangle-type steel scaffolds augmented with 1.5 m thin
steel shores on the top, which obtained an average load
capacity of 216.45 kN. The deformation mainly occurs on
the thin steel shores while the deformation of the triangletype steel scaffolds is not apparent.
The load capacity of this combined scaffold systems
(216.45 kN) is 23.5% (=(216.45/ 921.31)100%) of that of
the 3-story triangle-type steel scaffolds with the same
height (921.31 kN) and 27.2% (=(216.45/ 795.14)100%)
of that of the 2-story triangle-type steel scaffolds
augmented with 1.5 m thick steel shores on the top (795.14
kN).

4 TEST RESULTS AND ANALYSES

4.1 Indoor load tests on isolated triangle-type steel
scaffolds

4.1.1 Load capacity of triangle-type steel scaffolds

Three sets of load tests were conducted on the 2-story
triangle-type steel scaffolds, which obtained an average
load capacity of 981.72 kN.
Two sets of load tests were conducted on the 3-story
triangle-type steel scaffolds, which obtained an average
load capacity of 921.31 kN. Failure deformed shape of the
3-story triangle-type steel scaffolds as shown in Figure 4.

4.1.2.3 Combined system with 0.8 m thin steel shores

Two sets of load tests were conducted on the 2-story
triangle-type steel scaffolds augmented with 0.8 m thin
steel shores on the top, which obtained an average load
capacity of 328.80 kN. The deformation mainly occurs on
the thin steel shores while deformation of the triangle-type
steel scaffolds is not apparent.
As shown by the above test results, the load capacity of
the combined scaffold systems reduces with the increase
of length of the augmented thin shores on top of the
triangle-type steel scaffolds. The load capacity of the
combined scaffold systems augmented with thin steel
shores on the top is significantly smaller than that of the
combined scaffold systems augmented with thick steel
shores on the top. Nevertheless, in Taiwan, the combined
scaffold systems augmented with thin steel shores on the
top is commonly used on construction sites.

Figure 4. Failure deformed shape of the 3-story triangle-type steel

scaffolds.

4.2 Outdoor load tests on combined scaffold systems

4.2.1 Load

Comparing the test results on 3-story triangle-type steel

scaffolds with those on 2-story triangle-type steel
scaffolds, the average load capacity of the 3-story triangletype steel scaffolds is about 93.8% (=(921.31/
981.72)100%) of that of the 2-story triangle-type steel
scaffolds, indicating that the reduction of the 3-story
triangle-type steel scaffolds is insignificant.

4.1.2 Load capacity of combined scaffold systems

After two stories of RC blocks were laid down on the

combined scaffolds system in sequence as planned,
sandbags placement started. After the first sandbag was
laid down on the system, the theodolite observed slight but
apparent eastward displacement of the top story H-beams,
revealing signs similar to those observed in tests on the
indoor isolated combined scaffold systems before failure.

4.1.2.1 Combined system with 1.5 m thick steel shores

4.2.2 Resistance

Two sets of load tests were conducted on the 2-story

triangle-type steel scaffolds augmented with 1.5 m thick
steel shores on the top, which obtained an average load
capacity of 795.14 kN. The deformation of the thick steel
shores is not apparent. Instead, the deformation mainly
occurs on the triangle-type steel scaffolds. The load
capacity of this combined scaffold systems is 86.3%
(=(795.14/ 921.31)100%) of that of the 3-story triangletype steel scaffolds with the same height.

4.2.2.1 System failure

In this test, the scaffold system failed entirely, instead
of being caused by a domino effect induced by a single
member failure. When the first sandbag was laid down, it
was judged that the overall system might fail at any time,
so field workers were dispersed quickly and asked to wait
for around 15 minutes for observing the system. Right
before the second sandbag was laid down, the overall
combined scaffold systems collapsed suddenly without
any warnings.
644

Peng et al.

critical load of the structural system, the overall system

buckle and collapse without warning with a minor
disturbance due to its unstable equilibrium.

During failure, the upper story RC blocks and sandbags

displaced eastward, while the H-beams above the triangletype steel scaffolds displaced westward under the pushing
and jostling of the upper story thin steel shores. At the
moment, the failure load of the combined scaffold systems
was 363.405 kN.
The failure of the overall system is mainly caused by
the deformation of the EW-plane. In addition, just before
the moment of collapse of the combined scaffold systems,
all members of the triangle-type steel scaffolds and the
above thin steel shores were still intact, indicating that the
collapse of the combined scaffold systems was mainly
caused by the buckling of the overall scaffold system,
instead of the domino effect caused by the failure of any
single member.

4.2.3 Load capacity of outdoor test estimated from

indoor test
Comparing the fourfold load capacity of the indoor 2story triangle-type steel scaffolds augmented with 1.5 m
thin steel shores on the top (865.80 kN = 4216.45 kN)
with the load capacities of the outdoor 4-story triangletype steel scaffold system augmented with 1.5 m thin steel
shores on the top (363.418 kN), it was obtained that the
load capacity of the outdoor test is 42% (=(363.418/
865.80)100%) of that of the indoor test. Thus, it is not
appropriate that engineers calculate the load capacity of
outdoor combined scaffold system only based on that of
the indoor test of the isolated combined scaffold system.

4.2.2.2 Description of system failure

Figure 5 show the lateral displacements of the upper
and lower story H-beams observed by the theodolites set
up to the north of the scaffold system respectively when
the system was under loading.
At the last RC block load (i.e., No. 20 load block)
record, the displacement of the upper story H-beams
reached 15 mm. At the first sandbag load (i.e., No. 21 load
block) record when the load applied reached 363.405 kN,
the lateral displacement increased 10 mm abruptly to reach
a total displacement of 25 mm, which is obviously larger
than that observed in tests on the indoor single-story setup.
It was judged that at that moment, the outdoor scaffold
system under loading might have reached the critical load
of instability. Therefore, the test loading stopped for
around 15 minutes for quietly observing the system. Right
before the second sandbag (i.e., No. 22 load block) was
laid down, the overall combined scaffold system collapsed
suddenly without any warning.

600

Top

Bottom

400

200

-40
-20
0
20
40

Horizontal Displacement (mm)

4.3 Second-order analysis

4.3.1 Indoor combined scaffold systems
4.3.1.1 Joint stiffness

P (kN)

P (kN)

The cross dimensions of the triangle-type steel

scaffolds and thin steel shores are as described in previous
sections. The Er (reduced modulus) adopted in this study
was 147,150 MN/m2.
In this study, the joint stiffness of various members of
the triangle-type steel scaffolds were estimated as: the joint
stiffness between vertical main rods was 56.88 kN-m/rad,
the stiffness of the top jack and jack base was 98.07 kNm/rad, and the joint stiffness between horizontal bars and
between diagonal braces was the stiffness of typical hinge
joints. Based on these joint stiffnesses and by means of the
second-order analysis with semi-rigid joints, the critical
load of the isolated 2-story triangle-type steel scaffolds
combined with 1.5 m thin steel shores was estimated as
207.908 kN, which was around 96% of the test value
(=(207.908/216.45)100%). The P- curve in analysis of
the isolated 2-story triangle-type steel scaffolds combined
with 1.5 m thin steel shores is shown in Figure 6.

250

200

150

100

50

0
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5

Displacement (mm)

Figure 5. Load-displacement relation of the upper and lower story

H-beams observed by theodolites set up on the north.

Obviously, this structural system was only under

vertical loads without lateral loads. Under the fixed
vertical load and in a static state, the overall structural
system collapsed without any single member failing. This
failure model should be treated as a typical failure caused
by structural system instability. When loading reaches the

Figure 6. P- curve of the isolated 2-story triangle-type steel

scaffolds augmented with 1.5 m thin steel shores on the top.

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Peng et al.

4.3.1.2 Simulation of boundary lateral displacement with

thick steel shores on the top is very close to that of the 3story triangle-type steel scaffolds with the same height.

linear springs

By the outdoor test results, a slight lateral displacement

occurred in the scaffold system before collapse. At that
moment, the sandbag load stopped for 15 minutes for quiet
observation of the scaffold system. All of a sudden, this
overall combined scaffold system collapsed without any
warnings and without any addition of more load. When the
applied loads reached the system critical load, none of the
members of the system failed just before the collapse. The
results of the outdoor test confirmed the importance of topstory boundary constraints for the combined scaffold
systems. When combined scaffold systems are used in
construction, it is important to make sure the top-story
boundaries have good lateral constraints. In the secondorder analysis with semi-rigid joints for the outdoor
combined scaffold systems, the linear springs at the top
were used to simulate the lateral displacement of the
boundaries due to the relaxation of steel wire ropes. The
analytical values produced from this simulation method
are very close to the test values. In rough design, the load
capacity of the combined scaffold systems is mostly
estimated from that of indoor isolated triangle-type steel
scaffolds without shores. This rough method tends to
misestimate the load capacity of the overall combined
scaffold systems, leading to an extremely high risk of
collapse, which has proved by the outdoor tests in this
study.

In the outdoor load test on the combined scaffold

system, 8 steel wire ropes were set up on the top story to
provide a restrained boundary. However, in the process of
load tests, relaxation phenomenon occurred on these 8
steel wire ropes, leading to lateral displacement of the
scaffold system due to the relaxation of the boundaries of
the top story. In the second-order analysis, linear springs
were used to simulate this lateral displacement
phenomenon.
In the second-order analysis of the isolated 2-story
triangle-type steel scaffolds combined with 1.5 m thin steel
shores with spring boundary conditions, the boundaries of
the top story of the scaffold system were allowed to
displace in all x, y and z directions. However, at the top of
the 4 thin steel shores, 40 kN/m linear springs were used
to simulate the boundary conditions in x and z directions.
Through the second-order analysis, the critical load of this
scaffold system was obtained as 191.237 kN, lower than
that of the previous system with the restrained boundary
(207.908 kN).

4.3.2 Outdoor combined scaffold systems

In the tests on the outdoor combined scaffold system,
steel wire ropes were used for top story constraints but a
relaxation phenomenon occurred during the test.
Therefore, in the second-order analysis of this structural
system, linear springs were used to simulate the boundary
conditions of the top story of the scaffold system. The 40
kN/m linear springs were considered to simulate the
boundary conditions in x and z directions at the 4 corners
of the scaffold system.
Based on the joint stiffness obtained in the secondorder analysis of the above-mentioned indoor 2-story
triangle-type steel scaffold system combined with shores,
a second-order analysis of the outdoor combined scaffold
system was conducted to obtain a critical load of 356.612
kN. This analytical value is very close to the test value
(363.418 kN).

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors appreciate the Ministry of Science and
Technology for providing fund for this study (MOST 1042221-E-224-037),
Taiwan-Hao-Ji
Company
for
sponsoring test materials, and Mr. Ming-zhi Jian for
helping the test execution. Without their support, this study
would not have been completed.
REFERENCES
Huang, Y.L., Kao, Y.G. & Rosowsky, D.V. 2000. Load-carrying
Capacities and Failure Modes of Scaffolding Shoring
Systems, Part II: Analytical model and its closed-form
Solution. Structural Engineering and Mechanics 10(1): 5366.
Liu, H., Zhao, Q., Wang, X., Zhou, T., Wang, D., Liu, J. & Chen,
Z. 2010. Experimental and Analytical Studies on the Stability
of Structural Steel Tube and Couple Scaffolds without Xbracing. Engineering Structures (32): 1003-1015.
Kuo, C.C., Peng, J.L., Yen, T., & Chan, S.L. 2008. Experimental
Study of Modular Falsework System with Wooden Shores
under Various Path Loads. Advances in Structural
Engineering 11(4): 369-382.
Peng, J.L., Ho, C.M., Chen, C.Y., & Yang, Y.B. 2014.
Experimental Study on Load Capacities of Isolated HeavyDuty Scaffolds Used in Construction. Journal of Advanced
Steel Construction 10(3): 248-273.
Peng, J.L., Ho, C.M., Lin, C.C., & Chen, W.F. 2015. LoadCarrying Capacity of Single-Row Steel Scaffolds with

5 CONCLUSIONS
The research was conducted with both tests and
analyses, and the results are outlined as follows.
By the indoor test results, the load capacities of 2-story
and 3-story triangle-type steel scaffolds are close and their
failure models are similar, both being caused by the
buckling of a single main rod. Comparing with the 3-story
triangle-type steel scaffolds with the same height, the load
capacity of the 2-story triangle-type steel scaffolds
augmented with 1.5 m thin steel shores on the top is much
lower. The actual load capacity of the combined scaffold
systems tends to be overestimated. The load capacity of the
2-story triangle-type steel scaffolds augmented with 1.5 m

646

Peng et al.
Various Setups. Journal of Advanced Steel Construction
11(2): 185-210.
Peng, J.L., Yen, T., Kuo, C.C., & Chan, S.L. 2009. Analytical
and Experimental Bearing Capacities of System Scaffolds.
Journal of Zhejiang University SCIENCE A 10(1): 82-92.
Peng, J.L., Wu, C.L. & Chan, S.L. 2003. Sequential Pattern Load
Modeling and Warning-system Plan in Modular Falsework.
Structural Engineering and Mechanics 16(4): 441-468.
Zhang, H., Chandrangsu, T. & Rasmussen, K.J.R. 2010.
Probabilistic study of the strength of steel scaffold systems.
Structural Safety 32: 393-401.

647

11th International Conference on

Advances in Steel and Concrete Composite Structures
Tsinghua University, Beijing, China, December 3-5, 2015

EXPERIMENTAL STUDY ON BEARING CAPACITY OF THE

STRAW CONCRETE LIGHTWEIGHT STEEL COMPOSITE
WALLBOARD
D. Z. Liu
School of Civil Engineering, Jilin Jianzhu University, Changchun, China
E-mail: dz105@163.com
AB STRACT
Keywords:
Straw concrete; Lightweight steel
composite
structure;
Composite
wallboard; Compressive performance.

The straw concrete lightweight steel composite wallboard consists of the cold formed
thin-walled steel skeleton and cast-in-situ the straw concrete, which has many advantages,
such as light weight, good anti-seismic and better insulation performance. The straw
concrete can use local materials, green and environmental protection, and effectively
improve the shortcomings of the lightweight steel structure fire resistance and corrosion
resistance. This composite wallboard can be used for multilayer residence structure, and it
has good growth prospects. The article mainly has carried on the research and analysis of
the new multi-storey lightweight steel composite structure housing wallboard, established
the finite element model of the composite wallboard, and discussed the factors influencing
the compressive properties of the composite wallboard, such as the steel ratio, the strength
of concrete, steel cover thickness on both sides and lateral plate space. Through the new
lightweight steel composite structure wallboard model test expounds its failure mechanism,
the result of finite analysis is verified, and draw some useful conclusions.

section of midspan. When loading to 800 kN, a flank

margin of the steel pillar section appears a weak
1

INTRODCTION

Straw concrete lightweight steel composite wallboard

consists of the cold formed thin-walled steel skeleton and
cast-in-situ straw concrete, which has many advantages,
such as light weight, good anti-seismic, better insulation
performance. The straw concrete can use local materials,
green and environmental protection, and effectively
improve the shortcomings of the lightweight steel
structure fire resistance and corrosion resistance. This
composite wallboard can be used for multilayer residence
structure, and it has good growth prospects.

Figure 1. Model test installation and loading test

2
LIGHTWEIGHT
STEEL
COMPOSITE
WALLBOARD TEST AND ANALYSIS RESULTS

deformation from the graph, the strain of other parts is

not large, has been in a flexible work stage. When
loading to 1600 kN, pillar webs first yield. When the load
applied to 1700 kN, there are many places in existing
yield for the skeleton. Until the load to 1775 kN, the
composite wallboard deformation is increased, local
concrete is crushed, and the composite wallboard is
destruction.
The model test were also measured the load-strain
relationship curves of the web and flange up and down
wallboard span at the 1/3 and 1/4. When load up to 1700
kN, the wallboard at the 1/4 bending deformation and
began to yield. Figure 3 is the upper 1/4 flange load-strain
relationship curves.

Lightweight steel composite wallboard model test is

used the cold formed thin-walled steel C160602.520,
the yield strength is 240 N/mm2, the straw concrete
compressive strength is 6.5 N/mm2, the elastic modulus
of the straw concrete is 9.3103 N/mm2. The model test
is shown in figure 1.

2.1 Strain Analysis

2.1.1 Strain Analysis of the Steel Skeleton
Figure 2 is the load and strain relationship curves of
web and flange for the composite wallboard in a cross

648

Liu et al.

2.1.2 Straw Concrete Strain Analysis

0

-200

steel skeleton. The reason is that the lightweight steel

N(t)

500

10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 150 160 170 178

-400

-600

-500

-800

-1000

-1000

N(t)
0

10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 150 160 170 178

-1500

-1200

-2000

6
(
10
( 10)6 )

-1400

-2500

-1600

Serialnumberfromtoptobottomarrangement
1.middlepillarfrontflange 4.middlepillarweb

2.rightpillarfrontflange

5.rightsteelpillarbackflange
3. left pillar
front flange
6. right steel pillar
web

( 10 6 )

-3000

Serialnumberfromtoptobottomarrangement
1.rightsideconcrete 3.neutralaxisconcrete
2.leftsideconcrete

Figure 2. Cross section of the web and flange load-strain

relationship curves in midspan

-200

Figure 4. Upper 1/4 wallboard concrete load-strain relationship

curves

N(t)

0
0

10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 150 160 170 178

600

-400

400

-600
200

N(t)

-800
0

-1000

-200

-1200
-1400

10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 150 160 170 178

-400

( 10 6 )

-600

Serialnumberfromtoptobottomarrangement
1.middlesteelpillarweb 4.leftpillarbackflange

2.middlepillarbackflange 5.middlepillarbackflange

3.rightpillarbackflange 6.rightsteelpillarweb

( 10 6 )

-800

Serialnumberfromtoptobottomarrangement
1.axisbackconcrete 3.rightsideconcrete

2.axisfrontconcrete 4.leftsideconcrete

Figure 3. Upper 1/4 the web and flange load-strain relationship

curves

Figure 5. Middle wallboard concrete load-strain relationship

Figure 4 and figure 5 are the vertical load-strain

relationship curves of the upper quarter span section in
the composite wallboard. At the top 1/4 of the wallboard
strain is compressive strains, appeared bigger
deformation in central axis place, and bending
deformation along the thickness direction. The bending
deformation in lower wallboard is small, two side strain
difference is not big. To sum up, the straw concrete and
ordinary concrete are compared with strong compression
ability, which is beneficial to load transfer to steel
skeleton, and is better work together for the steel
skeleton.

curves

skeleton consists of the cold formed thin-walled steel,

under load caused the overall premature instability for
local buckling, material performance has not been fully
play a role. And after casting concrete, lightweight steel
skeleton get from surrounding the constraints of the
concrete, limited the happening of the local buckling,
improved the stability bearing capacity of the lightweight
steel skeleton. At the same time, straw concrete also
200
180
160
140
120
100
80
60
40
20
0

2.2 Displacement Analysis

Figure 6 is the load-displacement curves for the
composite wallboard. The model test results show that the
limit displacement point of the composite wallboard is not
appeared in the middle of the wallboard span, and a
slightly partial top. The main reason is that existing error
by making specimen.
3
THE
THEORY
ANALYSIS
EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS CONTRAST

N(t)

v(mm)
0

0.5

1.5

2.5

Serialnumberfromlefttorightarrangement
1.lower1/4displacement
1/5 4.midspandisplacement
1/3
2.lower1/3displacement
5.upper1/4displacement
1/2
1/3
3.upper1/3displacement
1/4

AND

Figure 6. Load-displacement relationship curves for the

composite wallboard

The finite element analysis show that the new

lightweight steel composite wallboard ultimate bearing
capacity was substantial increased than the lightweight

participated in sharing the external force, both work

649

Liu et al.

together, material performance got sufficient play, which

the composite wallboard the bearing capacity improved
greatly.

was greatly improved with the straw concrete strength

increased; the composite wallboard compression bearing
capacity approximated linear increase from figure 10.

3.1 Steel Ratio on the Influence of the Pressure

Bearing Capacity of the Composite Wallboard

3.3 Steel Cover Thickness on Both Sides on the

Influence of the Pressure Bearing Capacity of the
Composite Wallboard

The steel ratio of different load-displacement

relationship curves and the bearing capacity-the steel
ratio relationship curves for the straw concrete new
lightweight steel composite wallboard are shown in figure
7 and figure 8. The bearing capacity of the composite
wallboard changed quite gentle with changing in the steel
rate (as shown in figure 8), showed that the pressure
bearing capacity of the composite wallboard was steady
growth with the increase of the steel rate.
By changing the steel wallboard thickness caused the
steel ratio change is analyzed, improved the bearing
capacity of the composite wallboard with the increase of
steel wallboard thickness, the change rule is same to the
influence of the profile steel space change for the
pressure bearing capacity of the lightweight steel
composite wallboard.

The steel cover thickness on both sides has a play a

role of control to the steel flange deformation of the
composite wallboard, and also increased the bearing
capacity of the composite wallboard in a certain extent.
During the loading the initial stage, cover thickness on
the influence of the bearing capacity of the composite
wallboard was not obvious in the figure 11, when load
1300 kN the deformation of the composite wallboard is
constantly increasing, the role of the cover thickness has
reflected. Choosing both steel cover thickness for 30 mm,
45 mm, 60 mm respectively has been calculated and
analyzed, the cover thickness per additional 15 mm, the
bearing capacity of the composite wallboard is about
increased by 17%.
8000

2000

N(KN)

7000

N(KN)

1800

6000

1600

5000

1400

4000

1200

3000

1000

2000

800
600

1000

400

v(mm)
0

200

0.45

0.9

1.35

1.8

2.25

2.7

3.15

3.6

4.05

4.5

v(mm)

0
0

0.45 0.9 1.35 1.8 2.25 2.7 3.15 3.6 4.05 4.5

600mm
space600mm
300
space300mm

Figure 9. Load-displacement curves to different concrete

strength

space400mm
400
240
space 240mm

8000

Figure 7. Load-displacement curves for the profile steel space

change

N(KN)

7000
6000

2000

5000

N(kN)

1800

4000

1600

3000

1400

2000

1200
1000

1000

fc
0

800

600
400

0.5

1.5

Figure 8. Steel rate- bearing capacity change curves

15

20

25

30

3.4 Lateral Plate Tape Space on the Influence of the

Pressure Bearing Capacity of the Composite
Wallboard

0
0

10

Figure 10. Bearing capacity-concrete strength curves

Steelratio

200

3.2 Straw Concrete Strength on the Influence of the

Pressure Bearing Capacity of the Composite
Wallboard

Lateral plate tapes are the main tensile link role, which
are limited the deformation of the wide direction for the
steel skeleton. Because straw concrete restrictive the steel
skeleton, the deformation of the composite wallboard is

The composite wallboard compression bearing capacity

650

Liu et al.

(3) Discussed the failure mechanism of the composite

wallboard through the preliminary model test.

not big in the wide direction. The bearing capacity of the

composite wallboard is increased, but the increase was
small, as shown in figure 12.

REFERENCES
2000

N(KN)

Yu Y. 2011. New Lightweight Steel Composite Wallboard

Compression Capacity. Master Graduate Student Paper of
Jilin Institute of Architecture and Civil Engineering (in
Chinese).
Hu S.G. & Wang F.Z. 2006. Lightweight Aggregate Concrete.
Beijing: Chemical Industry Press (in Chinese).
Li P.C. 2006. Vertical Bearing Capacity of the Finite Element
Analysis Research. Master Graduate Student Paper of
Wuhan University of Science and Technology (in Chinese).

1800
1600
1400
1200
1000
800
600
400
200

v(mm)

0
0

0.45

0.9

1.35

1.8

2.25

2.7

3.15

3.6

4.05

4.5

30
45
60
cover 45
cover 60
cover 30
Figure 11. Load-displacement curves to different cover
thickness

1800

N(KN)

1600
1400
1200
1000
800
600
400
200

v(mm)

0
0

0.45

0.9

1.35

1.8

2.25

2.7

3.15

3.6

4.05

4.5

Figure 12. Load-displacement curves to different spaces

3.5 Calculated Results and Test Results Contrast

Analysis
The above analysis results and the model test results
contrast visible, the pressure bearing capacity of the
composite wallboard by finite element simulation get
1603 kN and model test measured 1775 kN, the error is
less than 10%. Using the finite element method to
simulate the work performance of the new lightweight
steel composite wallboard is feasible. Therefore, the
above analysis can reflect basically the various factors
influencing carrying capacity of the composite wallboard
and the changing laws.
4 CONCLUSIONS
Through the experimental study and theoretical
analysis can get the following conclusions:
(1) Through the finite element simulation analysis, has
been clear about the factors affecting the bearing capacity
of new lightweight steel composite wallboard, and
discussed changing the rules of the factors on the bearing
capacity of composite wallboard.
(2) The finite element analysis results was verified by
the model test, the error is less than 10%, the results show
that the simulation analysis is feasible.

651

11th International Conference on

Advances in Steel and Concrete Composite Structures
Tsinghua University, Beijing, China, December 3-5, 2015

SEISMIC BEHAVIOR OF BLIND BOLTED CFST FRAMES WITH

SEMI-RIGID CONNECTIONS
J. F. Wang a,b* & J. X. Wang a
a

School of Civil Engineering, Hefei University of Technology, Anhui Province, 230009, China
E-mails: jfwang008@163.com
b

Anhui Civil Engineering Structures and Materials Laboratory, Anhui Province, 230009, China
E-mail: 1138495094@qq.com
ABSTRACT
Keywords:
Semi-rigid connections;
Concrete-filled steel tubular
(CFST); Seismic behavior;
Numeral analysis.

To investigate seismic behavior and failure modes of semi-rigid concrete-filled steel tubular
(CFST) frames, an experimental study on two specimens of two-layer single-span CFST frames
under low cycle loading was conducted. The seismic behavior of the overall composite
structures was evaluated according to hysteretic curves, failure modes and strength degradation.
The finite element (FE) models were made by using ABAQUS software, to analyze the
structural nonlinear full process. Compared the test and the predicted results about load (P) horizontal displacement () curves and failure modes, the accuracy of the model can be
verified by the test results. It was concluded that the semi-rigid CFST frames behaves good
seismic behavior and ductility. The FE model can be used to simulate the behavior of semi-rigid
CFST frames.

semi-rigid square CFST frames. The study parameters in

this paper include the end plate type and the loading type.
The failure modes, hysteretic performance, strength
degradation, and ductility are analyzed and evaluated in
detail. The experimental studies enable improvement to
the practical design of semi-rigid CFST frames.

1 INTRODUCTION
The use of concrete-filled steel tubular (CFST) columns
is efficient and economical for both columns and bracing
members in modern structures, due to excellent static and
earthquake-resistant properties such as high strength and
stiffness, good ductility, and large energy dissipation
capacity [1].
To overcome the inconvenience of extensive welding
and the required high tolerance, there has been a growing
research interest in the blind bolted connections to CFST
columns. Yao et al. [2] completed a joint test to
investigate double built-up tees connections to square
CFST columns with Ajax oneside bolts under cyclic
loading. Wang et al. [3] studied the hysteretic behavior of
flush end plate joints to circular or square CFST columns
using Hollo-bolts. Mirza and Uy [4] investigated the
experimental behavior of composite flush end plate
connections to square CFST columns with Ajax fasteners
under low cyclic loading. France et al. [5-6] studied
extended end plate connections to square HSS or CFST
columns using flowdrill connectors under monotonic
loading. Wang et al. [7-8] conducted a series of static and
cyclic test on extended end plate connections to circular
or square CFST columns with blind bolts. However,
currently little attention has been paid to investigating
seismic performance of semi-rigid CFST frames with
blind bolts
This paper investigates the seismic behavior of

2 EXPERIMENTAL PROGRAM
2.1 Specimen descriptions
Two semi-rigid square CFST composite frames were
tested. The test specimens were subjected to a cyclic
loading to simulate seismic loading conditions. In
addition, a constant axial load was applied to each
specimen to represent the reaction from upper stories.
Fig.1 illustrates the details of the semi-rigid square
CFST frame specimens. The columns for specimen
SFH1 and SFH2 are concrete-filled steel tubes with a
cross-section of 2002008. The beams were
commercial H-shape steel sections with a cross-section
of HN3001506.59 mm for all test specimens. The
steel beams and columns were assembled by means of
extended or flush end plate connections with blind bolts.
The circular or square steel tubular columns were filled
with self-consolidating concrete (SCC) mix after the
erection of the steel framework.
The results of the material tests of the steel coupons
used in the specimens are listed in Table 2. The nominal
yield stress and ultimate stress of the Grade 10.9 M20
blind bolts were determined as 900 N/mm2 and 1000

652

Wang et al.

/ y

N/mm2, respectively. All specimen columns were filled

with commercially available self-consolidating concrete
(SCC) mix from the same batch. The compressive cube
strength (fcu) of the self-consolidating concrete was found
to be 44.34 N/mm2 at 28 days.
2000

400

M20 Grade 10.9

Blind bolts

10
8
6
4
2
0
-2
-4
-6
-8
-10
5

10

15

20

25

Number of cycles (n)

Flush-end plate

Fig.2 Test loading history

Square CFST column

2002008

1550

HN3001506.59

M20 Grade 10.9

Blind bolts

HN3001506.59

1475

Extended end plate

(a) specimen SFH1

Fig.1 Detail of specimens (unit: mm)

Table 1 Information of the test specimens
Specimen
number

Column
section
Bt(mm)

Column
length
H(mm)

End plate
type

SFH1

2008

14751st
15502nd

Flush
Extended

SFH2

2008

14751st
15502nd

Flush
Extended

loading
type
Load in
each
layer
Load in
2nd
layer

(b) specimen SFH2

Fig.3 Test set-up

3 TEST RESULTS AND HYSTERETIC

Table 2 Material properties of steel

Steel type

tw
(mm)

fy
(N/mm2)

fu
(N/mm2)

Es
(N/mm2)

End plate

12

363.8

473.9

2.08105

Beam flange

381.2

498.5

2.01105

Beam web

6.5

358.1

485.2

2.14105

tube

338.3

485.7

1.97105

BEHAVIOR

3.1 Failure modes

Detailed observations were made during the tests,
including failure modes and loaddisplacement
hysteretic curves. In the case of the blind bolted extended
end plate connections to CFST columns, the failure
occurred in the following modes: (1) deformation of the
end plate; (2) bucking deformation of the beam
compressive flange; (3) bucking deformation of the beam
web; (4) outward deformation of the column flange; (5)
welding crack between the beam compressive flange and
the thin end plate for square CFST column joints; (6)
anchorages fracture of the tensile bolts with extensions in
the square columns; (7) crushing of the concrete core due
to the larger connection rotation.

2.2 Cyclic loading apparatus

In the formal loading phase, the vertical actuator applied
the axial load to the column. Triangular waves are used
for displacement control, as shown in Fig. 2. The loading
history of the specimens was generally based on the
ATC-24 [9] guidelines for cyclic testing of structural
steel components. The magnitude of the displacement
increases gradually until the testing specimens are
damaged or have larger deformations.

653

Wang et al.

(a)

(b)

400
300

P/ kN

200
100
0

-100
-200

2nd floor

-300

(c)

-400
-150 -120 -90 -60 -30

(d)

30

60

90 120 150

/ mm

Fig. 4 Failure modes of specimen SFH1

(b) SFH2

Fig 6 Hysteretic curves of load-displacement relation

(a)

(b)

(c)

(d)

Fig. 6 indicated that there is an initial elastic response

for all specimens and the load-displacement relationship
can be considered roughly to be linear. Then, the
stiffness gradually degraded and the frame entered into
the inelastic stage.
With the increase of the displacement, slight pinching
effects were observed in the hysteretic loop for all
specimens, which reflect the bolt slippage and the end
plate deformation. After reaching the peak value in the
load-displacement hysteretic curves, the tests of
specimen SFH1 and SFH2 were stopped due to the load
drop to 85% of the peak value.
With larger deformation of the frame, degradation of
the frame stiffness was observed, as illustrated in Fig. 6.
The main reason for the stiffness degradation was
yielding of the beam compressive flange and
deformations of the end plate and the bolts.
The test results showed that the load versus
displacement hysteretic curves for the semi-rigid square
CFST frames were robust. At the same loading cycle
displacement, the hysteretic curves have no obvious
strength and stiffness degradation of the connection.
Hence, the typed frame has excellent seismic
performance.

Fig. 5 Failure modes of specimen SFH2

The test results showed the semi-rigid square CFST

frames with blind bolts exhibited high strength and
stiffness.

3.2 Hysteretic Behavior and Skeleton Curves

The behavior of the semi-rigid square CFST frames
highly dependent on the load-displacement (P)
relationship. The recorded hysteretic curves of load
versus displacement of the frames for all specimens are
shown in Fig. 6.

3.3 Strength degradation

250
200
150

The strength degradation of the test specimens was

evaluated by the strength degradation coefficient at the
same loads ( i ) suggested by specification JGJ101[10].
The strength degradation coefficient at the same loads of
the joints is defined as follows:

100

P/ kN

50
0
-50

-100
-150

1st floor

-200
-250
-200 -150 -100

-50

50

100

150

200

/ mm

250

Pji
Pj1

(2.1)

200

Where Pji and Pj1are respectively the maximum loads

under the ith and 1st loading cycles when the relative
frame displacement (/y) equals to j.
Fig. 7(a) shows the strength degradation coefficient
at the same loads of the joints versus the relative beam
displacement (/y) relationship. In Fig. 7(a), PD and
ND respectively mean Positive Direction and
Negative Direction. The strength degradation
coefficient at the same loads of the frames showed no

150

P/ kN

100
50
0
-50

-100
-150

2nd floor

-200
-250
-200 -150 -100

-50

50

100

150

200

/ mm
(a) SFH1

654

Wang et al.

obvious degradation trend.

To estimate the total strength degradation of the
specimens during the test process, the strength
degradation coefficient at the total loads (j) was also
used. The strength degradation coefficient at the total
loads of the joints was expressed as follows:

Pj

(2.2)

P max

Where Pj is the maximum load under the jth loading

cycle when the relative beam displacement (/y) equals
to j; and Pmax is the maximum loads in the whole test
process.
Fig. 7(b) described the strength degradation
coefficient at the total loads versus the relative frame
displacement. This phenomenon showed that at the
ultimate limit state, the strength of the frames reduced
rarely and the typed joint still continuously withstand
larger deformation

Fig 8 Finite element model

The constitutive model of steel tube, steel beam and

high-strength bolt used the classical metal plasticity
model in ABAQUS. The plasticity model used Von
Misses yield surfaces with the associated plastic flow law.
The material property parameters of steel were obtained
from uniaxial tensile test.
The constitutive model of the concrete employed the
concrete damaged plasticity model in ABAQUS. This
model can be applicable to concrete subjected to cyclic
loading. It consists of a combination of non-associated
multi-hardening plasticity and isotropic damaged
elasticity to describe the irreversible damage that occurs
during the cyclic loading. The uniaxial stress-strain curve
of concrete was based on the formulations considering
the confinement factor which was presented by Han [11].

1.2
0.8
SFH1,1st,PD

0.4

SFH1,1st,ND
SFH1,2nd,PD

SFH1,2nd,ND

-0.4

SFH2,2nd,PD

-0.8

SFH2,2nd,ND

-1.2
0

/ y

(a) Strength degradation coefficient at the same loads

1.2

4.2 Element and Mesh

0.8
SFH1,1st,PD

0.4

Steel tube, concrete core, high-strength bolt and steel

frame used the eight-node linear brick, reduced
integration elements with hourglass control (C3D8R).
The mesh at the beam-to-column connection region
and the column bases was locally refined, in order to
ensure the calculation accuracy.

SFH1,1st,ND
SFH1,2nd,PD

SFH1,2nd,ND
SFH2,2nd,PD

-0.4

SFH2,2nd,ND

-0.8
-1.2
0

/ y

4.3 Boundary Condition and Loading

(b) Strength degradation coefficient at the total loads

The contact interaction of this model can be divided into

the normal contact and the tangential contact. The
normal contact was defined by hard contact. For the
hard contact, pressure can be transmitted with no limit
when the surfaces are in contact. The tangential contact
was defined by penalty friction. This contact model can
defined the coulomb friction by the coefficient of friction.
The coefficient of friction between steel components was
0.3, and between steel and concrete was 0.6. The stress
distributions of models are shown in Fig. 9 and 10.

Fig 7 Strength degradation

4 NUMERICAL ANALYSIS
4.1 Material Constitutive Model
Referencing the previously experimental investigation,
FE model CFST frame was conducted, as shown in
Fig.8.

655

Wang et al.

350

2nd floor

300

P /kN

250
200
150
100

Exp. result
FEA result

50
0

30

60

90

120

/mm
(b) SFH2

Fig 11 Comparison of test and FEM envelope curves of

specimens
(a) test failure mode

(b) FEM failure mode

Fig 9 Comparison of test and predicted failure mode of SFH1

(a) test failure mode

5 CONCLUSIONS
This paper studied the seismic behavior of semi-rigid
square CFST frames. The failure modes, hysteretic
performance, and strength degradation were analyzed
and evaluated in terms of the test recorded results.
The failure modes of the frames under cyclic loading
were majority of the end plate deformation and bucking
deformation of the beam compressive flange. No
unexpected failure occurred and all the bolt connectors
performed satisfactorily.
Generally, the semi-rigid square CFST frames exhibit
large hysteretic loops, good ductility, and excellent
energy dissipation capacity. The hysteretic curves have
no obvious strength and stiffness degradation of the
connections at the same loading cycle displacement.
The FE analysis results agreed well with the
experiment results. It can be used to analysis and design
for the typed composite frames.

(b) FEM failure mode

Fig 10 Comparison of test and predicted failure mode of

SFH2

The boundary conditions of the models were same as

the specimens. The analysis was conducted under cyclic
loading. The numerical analysis completed by the FE
modeling was considered triple non-linear behavior
involving material, geometric and status non-linear. The
load-displacement envelope curves obtained from the FE
analysis are shown in Fig. 11.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The research reported in this paper is part of Project
51478158 and Project 51178156 supported by the
National Natural Science Foundation of China. The
authors would also like to acknowledge the Project
NCET-12-0838 supported by Program for New Century
Excellent Talents in University.

200

2nd floor

P /kN

150

100

50

Exp. result
FEA result
0

30

60

90

120

150

/mm
(a) SFH1

joints to concrete-filled steel tubular columns. Journal of

Constructional Steel Research, 2009; 65(8-9): 1644-1663.
[4]Mirza O, Uy B. Behaviour of composite beam-column flush
end-plate
connections
subjected
to
low-probability,
high-consequence loading. Engineering Structures, 2011; 33(2):
647-662.
[5]France J E, Davison J B, Kirby P A. Strength and rotational
response of moment connections to tubular columns using
flowdrill connectors. Journal of Constructional Steel Research,
1999; 50(1): 1-14.

REFERENCES
[1] Wang J F, Han L H, Uy B. Behavior of flush end plate joints to
concrete-filled steel tubular columns. Journal of Constructional
Steel Research, 2009; 65(4): 925-939.
[2]Yao H, Goldsworthy H, Gad E. Structural behaviour of
beam-to-RHS column connection with blind bolts. The 21st
Australasian Conference on the Mechanics of Structures and
Materials, Fragomeni et al. (eds). Melbourne, 2010, p53-58.
[3]Wang J F, Han L H, Uy B. Hysteretic behaviour of flush end plate

656

Wang et al.
[6]France J E, Davison J B, Kirby P A. Moment-capacity and
rotational stiffness of endplate connections to concrete-filled
tubular columns with flowdrilled connectors. Journal of
Constructional Steel Research, 1999; 50(1):35-48.
[7]Wang J F, Chen L P. Experimental investigation of extended end
plate joints to concrete-filled steel tubular columns, Journal of
Constructional Steel Research, 2012; 79:56-70.
[8]Wang J F, Zhang L, Spencer B F. Seismic response of extended
end plate joints to concrete-filled steel tubular columns.
Engineering Structures, 2013, 49:876-892
[9]ATC-24. Guidelines for cyclic seismic testing of components of
steel structures. Redwood City (CA): Applied Technology
Council, 1992.
[10]JGJ101-96. Specification for test methods of seismic buildings.
Beijing: Architecture Industrial Press of China, 1997. [in
Chinese]
[11]Han L H, Yao G H, Zhao X L. Tests and calculations of hollow
structural steel (HSS) stub columns filled with self-consolidating
concrete (SCC). Journal of Constructional Steel Research, 2005;
61(9):1241-1269.

657

11th International Conference on

Advances in Steel and Concrete Composite Structures
Tsinghua University, Beijing, China, December 3-5, 2015

NONLINEAR ANALYSIS ON SEISMIC BEHAVIOR OF

COMPOSITE TALL BUILDINGS BASED ON AN EFFICIENT
METHOD
Y. X. Li, M. X. Tao, R. Ding & J. G. Nie
Department of Civil Engineering, Tsinghua University, Beijing, China
E-mails: rgliyixin@163.com, taomuxuan@mail.tsinghua.edu.cn, dingran1988@163.com, niejg@mail.tsinghua.edu.cn
ABSTRACT
Keywords:
Composite structure;
Frame-core tube system; Seismic
performance; Finite element
analysis; Nonlinear analysis.

Composite frame-core tube system has been extensively applied in high-rise structures. As the
fast develop of computers, fine finite element analysis can be carried out on this complex
system. Based on secondary development of finite element program MSC.MARC, an efficient
method was proposed to meticulous simulate the dynamic nonlinear behavior of a composite
frame-core tube structure under large seismic load. Shaking table test had been used to verify the
method, and comparative results manifested high accuracy and low computational cost of the
method. The results also indicate that the frame can undertake more shear force under large
seismic load, to achieve the performance of second defense. The method proposed by this
article may provide useful reference for engineering application of steel-concrete composite
structure.

1 INTRODUCTION
As rapid development of structure technique in the
last thirty years of China, upheaval development has
happened on the height and complexity of high-rise
buildings, accompanied by higher requirements of tall
buildings. Anti-seismic system is a significant aspect for
the behavior of tall buildings, which demands appropriate
arrangement of each structural component. As an
efficient structural style, composite frame-core tube
system has been widely applied in recent years (Nie et al.
2010, Tian 2009, Wang et al. 2012, Hou et al. 2006).
A typical composite frame-core system might usually
be divided into two subsystems, i.e., the frame
subsystem, consisted of composite columns and beams
around, and the core tube subsystem formed by
connecting of shear walls and coupling beams, as shown
in Fig.1. These two subsystems are united by slabs at
each floor.
As the fast develop of computers, fine finite element
analysis can be carried out on this complex system. Based
on secondary development of finite element program
MSC.MARC, an efficient method was proposed to
meticulous simulating the dynamic nonlinear behavior of
a composite frame-core tube structure under large seismic
load. And further study has been made to research the
mechanics character of composite frame-core tube system
based on detail simulate results.

Figure 1. Simplified layout of frame-core tube structure.

2 ANALYTICAL METHODS FOR SEISMIC

BEHAVIOR OF TALL BUILDINGS

2.1 Usual methods

Accompanied by development of tall buildings, the
analytical methods have been researched on the same
time. Both theory method and computer calculate method
can be adapted to analyze the seismic behavior, which
can be classified by three categories as followed.
(1) Cantilever beam theory (Fang 1992). If the
arrangement of structural is regular and uniform along
height, the structural could be simplified as a vertical
cantilever beam, and the whole deformation may be
calculated using structural mechanics theory. For

658

Li et al.

shell element was adapted in this paper to simulate the

core tube subsystem.

composite frame-core tube system, it might be difficult to

apply this method to get an accurate solution.
(2) Static linear/nonlinear analysis (Wang et al. 2004,
ATC 1996, FEMA 1997). Usual structural design
software can conduct static linear analysis for primary
seismic design. Static nonlinear analysis (also called
Push-over analysis) has also been widely research to
simulate seismic performance.
(3) Dynamic nonlinear analysis (Lu et al. 2011). Fast
development has happened on dynamic nonlinear
analysis, based on enhancing of computer speed. This
method can be adopted to simulate the whole process of
structural response under seismic load, which is closer to
the actual mechanical behavior compared with the two
methods above.

2.2 An efficient dynamic nonlinear analytical method

Based on former research and finite element program
MSC.MARC (MSC 2007), an efficient analytical method
was proposed by authors. The simulation of frame
subsystem, core tube subsystem and slab would be
described separately as follow.

Figure 3. Diagram of RBE2/3 elements.

The slab of each floor is also an important aspect of

composite frame-core tube system, which can restrict the
deformation between frame subsystem and core tube
subsystem. As the subroutine package applied in this
paper to model frame columns and beams can simulate
slab spatial composite effect, slab may be modeled by a
simplified method using the rigid floor assume. By RBE2
element and RBE3 element consisted in MAC.MARC,
this assume can be achieved, as Fig.3 shows. RBE2
element is used to realize rigid displacement, by
connecting all nodes of one floor to a particular node.
And RBE3 element is adapted for mass distribution,
which can distribute the lumped mass of each slab to
perimeter frame beams.

Figure 2. Program of COMPONASP-MARC.

2.3 Verification of the method

The frame subsystem is consisted of composite

columns and beams, and seismic performance of this
subsystem has an important influence on whole structure.
Slab spatial composite effect of steel-concrete composite
frame structural systems has been researched (Nie & Tao
2012a,b). And the influence of the slab spatial composite
effect on the seismic behavior of the whole composite
structural system was also focused on. A subroutine
package for the nonlinear analysis of composite frame
COMPONASP-MARC (as shown in Fig.2) was
developed, of which the accuracy and the numerical
stability had been fully verified.
The core tube subsystem is the main lateral force
resisting member, for which an accurate mechanical
model is very necessary. Multilayered shell element
(Baar et al. 2000) has been proposed to simulate
reinforced concrete sheer walls and coupling beams by
researchers, with a good results of deformation and
stiffness compared with test results. And multilayered

To validate the reasonableness and accuracy of

analytical method proposed in this paper, the method was
used to simulate a shaking table test (Xu 2013), as shown
in Fig.4. This test component is a 30-stories frame-core
tube small scale model, which is 10.24m high and
2m2m wide, and the core tube subsystem is
0.88m0.88m wide. Bidirectional seismic loads were
applied during the experiment, and structural response
under large seismic loads was simulated as shown in
Fig.5. The comparison result indicates that the dynamic
nonlinear analytical method.

659

8000

8000

8000

Li et al.

Figure 4. Test model of frame-core cube structure.

Figure 6. Layout of a frame-core wall building (unit:mm).

Table 1. Dimensions and material of columns.

Thickness of

Heightwidth
No.(story)

KZ1(1~20)
KZ1(21~40)
KZ2(1~20)
KZ2(21~40)

steel

mm

Steel

Concrete

Q345
Q345
Q345
Q345

C50
C40
C50
C40

mm

800800
800800
800800
800800

30
24
28
22

(a) Top floor displacement in X direction

Table 2. Dimensions and material of beams.

Heightwidththickness of
No.(story)

webthickness of flange

Steel

Concrete

Q345
Q345
Q345
Q345

C50
C40
C50
C40

mm
KL1(1~20)
KL1(21~40)
KL2(1~20)
KL2(21~40)

8003501830
8003501830
5003501830
5003501830

Table 3. Dimensions and material of coupling beams.

Heightwidthlength

Longitudinal

mm

reinforcement

LL(1~20)

10005002000

Up 12B 22
Down12 B 24

C50

LL(21~40)

10005002000

Up 12B20

C40

No.(story)

(b) Top floor displacement in Y direction

Figure 5. Comparison of structural responses.

3 SEISMIC BEHAVIOR OF A COMPOSITE

FRAME-CORE TUBE BUILDING

Concrete

Down12B22

A simplified composite frame-core tube building was

designed to research the seismic behavior of two
subsystems, i.e., frame and core tube, under large
earthquake loads, as shown in Fig.6. This building is
160m high with 40 stories, and 24m24m wide. Concrete
filled tubular columns and steel-concrete composite
beams were adopted for frame subsystem. Reinforced
concrete was used for shear walls and coupling beams of
core tube subsystem. The parameters of each components
are shown in Table 1~Table 3.

Figure 6. Acceleration-time history of Kobe earthquake.

660

Li et al.

The earthquake load of Kobe (Fig.6) was applied to

the structure in finite element simulation of MSC.Marc,
and the peak acceleration was set to 220gal. Maximum
story displacement angle (1/238) happened at 34th floor,
and Fig.7 shows the Envelope of displacement angle at
each floor.

Shear forces of frame and total floor changing by time

of six typical floors are shown in Fig.8. At 1st floor, the
proportion of frame shear force is low, comparing with
total shear force. At top floor, the frame shear force is
larger than total shear force, because the core tube
subsystem performed a large deformation at upper stories
and had an opposite-direction shear force with frame.
By story rising, the shear force-shearing of frame
increased, as Fig.9 shows. In Fig.9, point on the average
curve indicates the average shear force-shearing value of
frame before related time. Of each floor, there is also a
increase of average frame shear force-shearing by time.
Taking Fig.9(a) as example, the average shear
force-shearing value of frame is 13% at 5s and 17.3% at
25s, because that the core tube subsystem had a large
deformation and a reduction in stiffness under large
seismic loads, and the frame subsystem could undertake
more shear force with a better ductility. The result also
indicates that the frame in frame-core tube system may
protect structures under huge seismic and then achieve
the goal of second defense.

Figure 7. Envelope of story displacement angle.

(a) 1st floor

(b) 5th floor

(c) 10th floor

(d) 20th floor

661

Li et al.

2107

1107

Total shear force

Frame shear force

1107

5106

-1107
-21070

Total shear force

Frame shear force

-5106

10

Time/s

15

20

25

(e) 30th floor

Figure 8. Shear force-time relationship.

-1107

10
15
Time/s
(f) 40th floor

(a) 1st floor

(b) 5th floor

(c) 10th floor

(d) 20th floor

(e) 30th floor

Figure 9. Shear force-sharing of frame.

(f) 40th floor

662

20

25

Li et al.

frame-core wall structures. Beijing: China Academy of

Building Research (in Chinese).

4 CONCLUSION

In this paper, an efficient nonlinear analysis method

on seismic behavior of a composite frame-core tube tall
building has been conducted. Based on former research
and finite element program MSC.Marc, this method can
simulate performance of high-rise structures under lager
earthquake. The method was also used to simulate
shaking table test with high accuracy and low
computational cost. The results indicate that the frame
could undertake more shear force under large seismic
load, to achieve the performance of second defense. The
method proposed by this article may provide useful
reference for engineering application of steel-concrete
composite structure.
REFERENCES
Applied Technology Council. 1996. Seismic evaluation and
retrofit of concrete buildings, ATC40 Report Volume 1.
Baar, Y., Itskov, M., & Eckstein, A. 2000. Composite
laminates: nonlinear interlaminar stress analysis by
multi-layer shell elements. Computer Methods in Applied
Mechanics and Engineering. 185(2), 367-397.
Fang E.H. 1992. Design of Multi-storey and high-rise building.
Beijing: Earthquake Press (in Chinese).
Federal Emergency Management Agency. 1997. NEHRP
guidelines for the seismic rehabilitation of buildings.
FEMA273/274.
Hou G.Y., Chen B.L., Miao Q.S., Liu X.Y. & Huang L. 2006.
Design and research on composite steel and concrete
frame-core wall structure. Journal of Building Structures,
27(2):1-9. (in Chinese)
Lu X., Lu X.Z., Zhang W.K. & Ye L.P. 2011. Collapse
simulation of a super high-rise building subjected to
extremely strong earthquakes. Science China Technological
Sciences, 54(10): 2549-2560.
Marc 2007r1. 2007. Newport Beach, CA, MSC Software.
Nie J.G., Tao M.X., Huang Y., Tian S.M. & Chen G. 2010.
Research advances of steel-concrete composite structural
systems. Journal of Building Structures, 31(6): 71-80 (in
Chinese).
Nie J.G. & Tao M.X. 2012. Slab spatial composite effect in
composite frame systems. I: Effective width for ultimate
loading capacity. Engineering Structures, 38(5): 171-184.
Nie J.G. & Tao M.X. 2012. Slab spatial composite effect in
composite frame systems. II: Equivalent stiffness and
verifications. Engineering Structures, 38(5): 185-199.
Tian S.M. 2009. Research on stiffness and seismic performance
of frame-concrete corewall hybrid structures. Beijing:
Tsinghua University (in Chinese).
Wang D.S., Zhou J.L. & Bao L.J. 2012. Analysis on the cost of
structural construction in super-tall buildings. Building
Structure, 42(5): 1-7 (in Chinese).
Wang D.S., He J.L. & Zhang F.X. 2004. The basic principle and
a case study of the static elastoplastic analysis (pushover
analysis). World Information on Earthquake Engineering.
20(1): 45-53 (in Chinese).
Xu Z.G. 2013. Study on the effects of story height variations to
seismic performance of high rise reinforced concrete

663

11th International Conference on

Advances in Steel and Concrete Composite Structures
Tsinghua University, Beijing, China, December 3-5, 2015

PSEUDO-DYNAMIC TESTS ON
STRUCTURE: SEISMIC BEHAVIOR

FRAME-SHEAR

WALL

C. Hana, Q. N. Lib, W. S. Jiangb & H. J. Zhaob

a

Department of Civil Engineering, Xinxiang University, Xinxiang, China

E-mails: hanchun5085@126.com

Department of Civil Engineering, Xian University of Architecture and Technology, Xian, China
E-mail:lqn952@163.com
ABSTRACT

Keywords:
Frame-shear wall structure;
Fabricated floor;
Pseudo-dynamic test; Seismic
behavior

In order to study the way how to improve the spatial action of precast monolithic composite
floor slabs, and would replace the cast-in-place surface layer for reduce the weight of structure,
using pseudo-dynamic tests on 1/4 scale models of two-span and three-story frame structure.
The lateral load tests compared the stresses and displacements with cast-in-place floor
frame-shear wall structure (SJ1) and precast monolithic floor frame-shear wall structure with X
horizontal braces at the bottom of the floor (SJ2). The results show the X horizontal braces can
improve the spatial action. Structural integrity (SJ2) as well as the effective transmission of the
horizontal force can be ensured by additional X bracing at the bottom of the rigidity of the floor
without cast-in-place concrete topping. The results show that X horizontal braces more
effectively transfer horizontal, which provides a beneficial reference for similar research.

between precast slabs or put lateral support under the

precast slabs.
This paper studies lateral support added to the boom
of the precast slab. In addition, the 50mm surface course
of the precast slab, results in the weaknesses of high cost
and big weight. If lateral support can replace the precast
slab while improving structural performance, the
anti-seismic property of the structure will be further
raised, cost input reduced and economic returns
improved.
At present, it is not common to study the fabricated
structure at home and abroad. In china, the design code
for the special effect of the assembled structured floor
slabs is not perfect. To promote the wide application of
the fabricated structure in the construction, improve its
economic benefits and social benefits and make the
design of the fabricated structure more reasonable, it has
become an important problem to solve for the
construction industry to study it further.
In this paper, the pseudo-dynamic tests are introduced
on the hybrid structure of cast-in-place floor steel
frame-shear wall and new type of precast hollow slab
steel frame shear wall. The study results provide a
reference for further theoretical research, and it is of
great significance to promote wider use of precast hybrid
structural systems in china (Lu,T.J., Qin, S.J., Luo, Y.S.
& Yu, Z.W. 2009).

1 INTRODUCTION
In our country, although the system of cast-in-place
structure has reached maturity, whether from the aspect
of design or the construction, it cannot satisfy the
requirements of higher construction function and period
Sun, G.X. et al. 2010, because of its lower level of
industrialization, longer production period and higher
production cost. In order to meet the requirements of
increasingly developing construction market, and
promote the industrial progress of housing, the
construction plan of prefabricated housing has been put
forward.
In recent years, with the increasing development of
hybrid structure, the composite structure with fabricated
floor has gradually developed Xue, W.C. 2010 .
However, the previous experimental research shows that
it is hard for the structure of prefabricated floor to reach
the same structural performance as cast-in-place slab,
whose integrality and anti-seismic property are greatly
different from that of cast-in-place structure. Recent
years, with the booming of prefabricated construction,
how to improve the prefabricated structure so as to raise
the integrality and anti-seismic property, making it
possible for the prefabricated floor structure to reach or
get close to the property of cast-in-place floor structure
system (Ren, R. & Naito, C. 2012 ,Nie,J.G. et al. 2005).
Under the earthquake, there are some promotion plans
here add the shear connector to the post-pouring strip

664

Han et al.

2 MODAL DESIGN AND EXPERIMENTAL

scale model is used in the experiment, steel chooses the

steel wire with a diameter of 3 mm. besides, as the flange
is narrow, only one row of bend reinforcing bar shear
connector is used. SJ1 beam-slab connector is shown in
Figure 3. There are two advantages for the bend
reinforcing bar. First, it can bear the horizontal shear
force more than anti-shear studs. Second, the bend
reinforcing bar is continuous, which makes it possible to
function without the tensile and anti-lift anchoring.

FACILITY
The experimental modal is modeled after Baigou
international luggage city in Baoding, Hebei province,
built by Longitaihe Industrial Limited Company, with the
reduced-scale of 1/4 and frame-shear wall structure of
unequal span.
There are two modals, model one of which is made
by pouring in-situ concrete floor on the frame after the
frame shear wall structure is finished, which is
cast-in-place floor frame shear wall structure, SJ1. The
section size is shown in the Figures 1-2. The biggest
difference between two models is changing cast-in-place
floor into prefabricated hollow floor and adding
horizontal diagonal bracing to the bottom. The diagonal
bracing is welded on the web plate of the flanged beam
with joint panel, which is assembled monolithic floor
slab-frame shear wall structure (SJ2). The shear wall is
built on the second axis of wall models layer and uses
the welding form.

bent bar

35

3@50

3@50

3@50
steel beam

Figure 3.Connector of slab-steel beam (Units: mm ).

In general, the precast concrete floors we mention

mostly adopt the two-way, single-layer reinforcement.
While in this experiment, the high strength reinforcement
is used in the new type of precast hollow floor and
meanwhile, the forced direction of the place is
double-layer reinforcement to ensure the precast floor to
better bear the vertical load, a U-shaped rebar is set at
each hollow core slab end, post-pouring joint is adopted
on the concrete and beam. Steel shear connector with a
diameter of 5mm is installed between precast slab and
girder. At the same time, the longitudinal bar, a diameter
of 3mm and installed on the upper part of the beam, is
firmly tied to the U-shaped rebar of the plate, and then
the concrete is poured, which makes it possible to share
the bending moment produced by the vertical load, as
well as increase the stiffness of boundary beam. The
connection of the beam-plate SJ2 is shown in Figure 4
under the influence of horizontal load.

Figure 1. Plan layout and bottom braces (Units: mm ).

U-shaped steel

Figure 2. Elevation layout (Units: mm ).

plug

precast hollow core slab

post-cast strip

2.1 Node Design

2.1.1 Connection between beams and plates (Zheng,
X.C. et al. 2013)
The shear connector of bend reinforcing bar is put
between cast-in-place slab and girder. The shear
connector of bend reinforcing bar is made by the girder
with a diameter of no less than 10mm, whose
construction and welding require the similarity with bend
bar connector. To enhance the connection reliability and
reduce the stress concentration.
It is proper to weld on the girder flange. Because the

Figure 4. Connector of precast hollow core slab(Units: mm ).

Use the perforated panel to replace (steel) shear

connector between girder and concrete at the second axis
and enable the longitudinal bar of cast-in-place panel

665

Han et al.

connection are fastened by high strength bolts.

bottom and negative bending reinforcement to pass

though the perfobond strip. The perforated panel and
rebar through the hole form shear connectors similar to
PBL (Leonhard F. Neues. 1987) having the function of
resisting shear is shown in Figure 5.

2.2 Model similarity relation

The scale ratio used in the test model is 1/4. The
stress ratio S 1 . The same material as proto type is
used in the model, the elastic modulus S E 1 . The
powers similarity coefficient of the model can be
derived according to the similarity theory (JGJ101-96
(1997)), as is seen in Table1. And the models sectional
dimension made according to the reduced scale relation
is shown in Table 2.

Shear wall

Table 1. Model similarity relation.

Ear plate

Physic

Le

Are

Simila

1/4

1/16

Physic

Ti

Velo

Simila

1/2

1/2

Table 2. Specimens
(Units: mm ).

Figure 5. Connector of shear wall and ear plate.

2.1.2 The connection between plates

The thickness of cast-in-place plate is 26mm,
adopting concrete strength C35, and the traditional single
two-way reinforcement 3@50 is used. The thickness of
the precast hollow slab is 35mm, and the diameter of
circular hole is 17.5mm and concrete strength C35 is also
adopted. The detailed reinforced arrangement in Figure 6.

Elastic

Shea

Mass

1/16

Accelera

Poiss

Frequ

prototype

and

scaled

dimensions

Type

The section size

The section

beam

4002001212

100684.57.

column

320320

8080

Steel plate

260026006

6506503

200160

504

square steel tu
be

2.3 Material property(Li, Q.N., Chen, M.G. & Jiang,

W.S. 2014)
The steel frame adopts the steel strength Q235 and by
material characteristic test, yield strength, ultimate
strength and ductility are 236.1MPa, 350.5MPa and
25.43%. The concrete strength C35 is adopted in precast
hollow floor while the concrete strength C40 in the
post-cast strip. By the material characteristic test, the
compressive strength of post-cast strip concrete is
31.21MPa. The precast hollow core slab in the test uses
the high-strength steel wire with the yield strength of
1200MPa.

Figure 6. B2 precast hollow core diaphragm (Units: mm ).

2.4 Loading method and testing apparatus

In SJ2, the connections of plate-plate firstly depends

on the shear connector formed by cogging of plate side to
transmit the horizontal shear; secondly, two prestressed
steel wires with a diameter of 5mm are tied to the
reinforced joints between two precast slabs, and the
post-cast strip with a width of 100 mm is formed by
concreting, apart from bearing vertical load, the bending
stiffness in the plane of precast slab can also be
increased.

2.4.1 horizontal load

The test loading is conducted in the lab of structure
and seismic of Xian University of Architecture and
Technology, the MTS electro-hydraulic servo loading
system from USA used here. In the experiment the test
model is fastened on the large-scale experiment pedestal.
By reinforced concrete reaction wall and with the help of
an electro-hydraulic servo machine, the transverse
horizontal load is applied to the models third layer, the
model joints 3-2 are loading points. Figure 7 is the
loading layout with the maximal weight 500kN and the
maximal displacement 250mm. The test is equivalent
single-degree-of-freedom system test loading and by
equivalent single partied reaction and analyzing the
displacement and base shear, an equivalent displacement

2.1.3 Other joints connection

Welding is used to connect the beam-column joints.
To increase the joints strength, the externally bonded
steel plate is welded to the square steel tube of the joint
and meanwhile, the transverse stiffer is welded to the
beam web of the joint. The model base is made by H
Beam and both integral structure and foundation
666

Han et al.

is calculated, by which the test loader is controlled(Liang,

X.W. 2011, Guo Minghao TANG Diaxian & WU
Zhensheng. 1992).

Figure 8. Elevation layout of the displacement meter

arrangement

2.4.4 Selection of seismic wave

Figure 7. Test layout (Units: mm )

The test prototype is located in Baoding, Hebei

Province, whose seismic fortification intensity is 7
degree. According to the requirement of code for seismic
design of building (GB50011 (2010)), the test chooses
two groups of seismic wave, El Centro waves and Taft
waves.
To measure the seismic response feature that the
model shows under different earthquake intensity, four
experimental conditions are designed in the test and their
intensity are 7-degree basic, 7-degree severe, 8-degree
and 9-degree severe, of which the seismic waves
duration is 10s, t=0.01s.

2.4.2 Vertical load

During the test, the load is actually applied to the test
model by the actuator and there is no need to use the
models mass to set up the inertia force. Therefore, it is
unnecessary to actually put on the test specimen the
model mass, worked out by dynamic similar relations and
it is enough to input the model mass as the numberical
value before the experiment begins. To meet the similar
condition of the vertical load, the method of evenly
arranging the balance weight in each layer of the model
is adopted (Fan, L., Zhao, B. & Lv, X.L. 2006, GB50011
(2010), JGJ101-96 (1997)). According to the reduced
scale of 1/4, every floor counter weight is SJ1(SJ2) can
be shown in Table 3.
Table 3. The test models weight Unite:

3 PROCESS AND PHENOMENON OF THE TEST

3.1 The phenomenon of cast-in-place floor-frame
shear wall structure(SJ1)

kg

prototype

the

we

18096

484

64

19401

498

71

19401

498

71

56898

1480

35

Under the influence of the earthquake with an

acceleration of 100gal and 200gal, slight clicks happen to
the shear wall. There are almost no cracks on the floor
and the structure is almost in the elastic stage.
Under EI Centro 400gal, the click increase and the
sound on the second and the third floor is louder. The
obvious change appears in the shear region when pushing
and pulling are made, which shows that under this kind
of state the shear wall has basically reached the buckling.
Under the influence of the earthquake with an
acceleration of EI Centro 620gal, the sound of the shear
wall continues to increase. Less fine cracks appear in the
direction of the floors 45-degree angel of the interaxial
floor on the third layer, whose width is about 0.1mm, the
length about 7mm. At this time, the maximum positive
displacement of the models integral level reaches
22.09mm, the maximum negative displacement
-31.53mm. Under the earthquake with a peak
acceleration of Taft 620gal, the steel shear wall on the
second layer first buckles, then the third layer but there
are no new cracks appearing. This shows that for the
whole structure, only part of the shear wall buckles.
Under 620gal, 9-degree severe, the whole structure

steel

897

2.4.3 Monitoring point arrangement

To measure the strain to different parts of the
structure, resistance strain gauges are systematically
arranged on the key parts such as column, shear wall, the
diagonal bracing and so on. To get the structures
horizontal displacement, the displacement percentage
scale is arranged at the beam-column joints and the
center of long span floor beam. The MTS magnetic
displacement sensor is arranged at the joint of
D3-2(position: the second axis of the third layer). In each
test model, 130 strain gauges and 15 displacement meters
are arranged and have the same layout position. The
layout of the displacement meter is seen in Figure 8.

667

Han et al.

D
isp
lacem
en
t/m
m

doesnt go into the plastic stage, having good

anti-seismic property.

35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
-5 0
-10
-15
-20
-25
-30
-35

3.2 The test phenomenon of assembled monolithic

floor-frame shear wall structure(SJ2)
There is almost no crack on SJ2 under the seismic
wave of the 100gal peak acceleration. When the peak
acceleration of the seismic wave increases to 200gal,
vertically a little fine crack appears on the slab side
paralleling the long axis and fine cracks happen to the
shear wall. Under El Centro 400gal, the click sound
increases and the shear region appears. A little fine crack
appears at the bottom of the long-span floor on each layer
and new vertical crack continues to appear on the slab
side. Under El Centro 620gal, fine crack appears in the
direction of 45-degree of the plate bottom and a little
concrete falls off on the floor of the second layers
beam-column joints. Meanwhile, the shear wall of the
second and the third layers buckles, obvious cross pull
strap is formed and loud click can be heard. At this time,
the maximum positive displacement of the structures
integral level reaches 28.29mm, the maximum negative
displacement -32.73mm. after the experiment is finished,
although there is a little crack on the floor, no crack
happens and it can be put into normal use. Except steel
shear wall, the other parts dont buckle and the whole
structure doesnt go into the plastic stage totally.

4.2 Joint displacement

By analyzing the data collected from different joint
displacement meters on the second axis, the envelope
graph of joint displacement of joints 1-2, 2-2, 3-2 can be
obtained under different working conditions, as is shown
in Figure 10.
Under the influence of El Centro 100gal wave and El
Centro 200gal wave, the displacement in different floor
changes uniformly and there is small peak displacement.
Under El Centro400 gal wave and EL Centro620 gal
wave, the displacement of the second and the third floors
increases suddenly. Meanwhile under the same working
condition, much deviation occurs to the horizontal
displacement in the direction of actuators push-pull,
which results from the accumulated damage with the
experiment gradually conducted, making the structures
plastic property emerging gradually. The phenomenon is
mainly because the integral rigidity of the test specimen
decreases continuously due to the shear walls gradual
buckling so as to lead to the displacements sudden
change. From Figure 10, under the different working
condition, the maximum displacement of different joints
in SJ2 is larger than that of SJ1, showing that the whole
performance of SJ2 is worse than that of SJ1 and so is the
seismic behavior.

4.1 Time-history curve

By analyzing the test data collected by the
displacement meter of the joints 3-2. Under different
working conditions, the time-history curve of the test
specimens horizontal displacement can be obtained just
as Figure 9 shows. At the same time, the time-history
curve of the test specimens top restoring force can be
obtained.

floor

flo o r

2
EI Centro(NS 100gal)push
EI Centro(NS 100gal)tensile
EI Centro(NS 200gal)push
EI Centro(NS 200gal)tensile
EI Centro(NS 400gal)push
EI Centro(NS 400gal)tensile
EI Centro(NS 620gal)push
EI Centro(NS 620gal)tensile

SJ1-EI Centro(NS 400gal)

SJ2-EI Centro(NS 400gal)

20
15

EI Centro(NS 100gal)push
EI Centro(NS 100gal)tensile
EI Centro(NS 200gal)push
EI Centro(NS 200gal)tensile
EI Centro(NS 400gal)push
EI Centro(NS 400gal)tensile
EI Centro(NS 620gal)push
EI Centro(NS 620gal)tensile

10

-40

-30

-20

-10

0
-5
-10

10
Time/s

As is seen from above, under different working

conditions the peak displacement appears at the same
time with the peak load. In different periods of time and
different measuring points, the extreme displacement of
SJ2 is a little bigger than that of SJ1, which proves that
compared with SJ1, a certain gap still exists in SJ2, both
in the integral performance and in stiffness.

With the almost same reaction rule of Taft wave and

El Centro wave and a peak acceleration of 100gal and
200gal, the displacement on the structures layer presents
the state of uniform variation on the whole. There is less
displacement at each layers peak and no obvious change
happens to the whole structure. Therefore parts of the test
results are only analyses under El Centro 620gal and no
unnecessary details are given in other case.

D
isplacem
ent/m
m

Figure 9. Roof displacement-time history curves.

4 RESULTS AND ANALYSIS OF THE TEST

25

SJ1-EI Centro(NS 620gal)

SJ2-EI Centro(NS 620gal)

10

10

20
30
40
Displacement/mm

-40

-30

-20

-10

10

Time/s

(a) SJ1

-15
-20

Figure 10. Joint displacement

-25

668

(b) SJ2

20
30
40
Displacement/mm

Han et al.

4.3 Hysteresis loops and energy dissipation

cast-in-place floor frame shear wall structure (SJ1) with a

two-span and three-story and the other is the precast
monolithic floor-frame shear wall structure with X
horizontal braces, the anti-seismic property indexes can
be analyzed and obtained, including failure mechanism,
deformation and energy dissipation and rigidity
degeneration and so on. The following conclusions can
be obtained.
1The steel shear hybrid structure is of good
deformation restoring capacity with small residual
deformation after unload. The models hysteretic curve
shows that the steel frame-shear wall composite structure
has good carrying capacity and lateral rigidity.
2The steel frame-shear wall composite structure
system has good integral performance and anti-seismic
property. Under the influence of horizontal earthquake,
the shear wall bears major shearing force of the structure,
that is to say, the shear wall goes in the plastic stage
firstly and the structural damage begins with the shear
walls yielding.
3By adding the X horizontal braces to the bottom
of the floor, the structures integral performance and
stiffness are improved, which also makes it of good
deformability. The structures full hysteretic curves
explain the good energy-dissipating capacity of the new
type of structural system.

The hysteresis loops refers to the relation between the

force on the structure and corresponding displacement. It
reflects the restoring force features under the low
frequency cyclic loading, including these mechanical
characteristics such as strength stiffness deformation,
ductility and energy-dissipating capacity and it is the
comprehensive reflection of anti-seismic property. In this
test, the study is carried out with the structural model
being the equivalent of single-freedom system.
By the top displacement, the top equivalent
displacement of the equivalent-single-freedom system
can be calculated according to the reference(Liang, X.W.
2011), corresponding to the restoring force and the
hysteresis curves of equivalent vertex force-displacement
can be obtained under different working conditions, as is
seen in Figure 11.
Under the seismic force of 100gal and 200gal, small
horizontal displacement happens to the structure. The
relationship between the equivalent force and
displacement change appears to be linear and flat
hysteresis curves are formed. With the increasing of the
seismic waves acceleration, hysteresis loop area
increases gradually and the structures energy dissipation
capacity constantly increase as well. But during the
process of the test, an apparent pinching phenomenon
appears on the hysteresis loops. The reason is that in the
steel frame-shear wall system, the steel shear wall
structure bears the horizontal load during the initial
period and plays a leading role in energy dissipation.
However, with the test load continuously increasing, the
shear wall gradually buckles, stiffness degenerates little
by little and then the pinching phenomenon appears on
the hysteresis curves(Zheng, X.C. et al. 2013, Chen, B.W.,
Wang, H.B. & Shen, P.S. 2006).
From Figure 11, under different working conditions,
although the displacement of SJ2 is bigger than that of
SJ1, the area of SJ2s hysteresis curves is larger than that
of SJ1, which shows that SJ2 has better energy
dissipation and anti-seismic property than SJ1.
SJ1
SJ2

150
100
50
0

-30

-20

-10

10

-50

20
30
Displacement/mm

-100
-150
-200

(a) EI Centro 400gal

Figure 11. Hysteresis curves

300
250
200
150
100
50
0
-10 -50 0
-100
-150
-200
-250
-300

-40

-30

-20

Chen, B.W., Wang, H.B. & Shen, P.S. 2006. Reinforced

concrete tube in tube structure pseudo dynamic test study
and theoretical analysis. Journal of Earthquake Engineering
and Engineering Vibration, 26 (6): 87 ~ 92.
Fan, L., Zhao, B. & Lv, X.L. 2006. Discussion on Some
Problems in Pseudodynamic Tests. Structural Engineers,
22(5): 50-53.
GB50011 (2010), Code for Seismic Design of Buildings.
Beijing: China Architecture Building Press.
Guo MinghaoTANG Diaxian & WU Zhensheng. 1992. An
Equivalent SDOF Method of Interface Moment Simulation
in Sub-structural PSD Test. Proceedings of PR.C/U.S.
Workshop on Experimental Methods in Earthquake
Engineering. Shanghai , China, 1012.
JGJ101-96 (1997). Specificating of Testing Methods for
Earthquake Resistant Building, China Architecture
Building Press, BeiJing.
Li, Q.N., Chen, M.G. and Jiang, W.S. 2014. Shaking table test
study on a new assembled monolithic floor-steelplate and
frame shear wall structure. Sichuan Building Science,
40(2), 158-163.
Lu,T.J., Qin, S.J., Luo, Y.S. & Yu, Z.W. 2009.
Pseudo-dynamic experimental study on high rise
steel-concrete hybrid structure. Journal of Building
Structures, 30(3), 27-35.
Liang, X.W. 2011. The design theory and method of structural
seismic performance. Beijing: China Science Press (in
Chinese).
Liu, R.J. 2004. Frame - shear wall structure pseudo dynamic
test and elastic-plastic finite element analysis. Xi 'an, Xi 'an
University of Architecture and Technology.

SJ1
SJ2

F o rc e /k N

Force/kN

200

REFERENCES

10

20 30 40
Displacement/mm

(b) EI Centro 620gal

5 CONCLUSION
By the pseudo-dynamic test research of two models
according to the reduced scale of 1/4, one of which is the

669

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Leonhard F. Neues. 1987. Vorteilhafters Verbundmittel fur
Stahlverbund-Tragwerke
mit
Hoher
Dauerfestigkeit Beuton-und Stahlbetonbau 12
325-331
Nie,J.G. et al. 2005. Experimental study of steel and concrete
composite floor space. Journal of Tsinghua University
(Science and Technology), 45(6), 749-752
Ren, R. & Naito, C. 2012. Precast concrete diaphragm
connector performance database. Journal of Building
Structures. 139(1), 15-27.
Sun, G.X. et al. 2010. Constructing assembled type residence
pushes forward industrialization of residential construction,
Housing. Science, (12), 34-37.
Xue, W.C. 2010. Research progress of precast concrete frame
residential system. Harbin: housing industrialization
promotion center of housing and urban-rural development.
Zheng, X.C. et al. 2013. The shaking table test on a
prefabricated integral frame-shear wall structure with a new
prefabricated floor. Journal of Earthquake Engineering and
Engineering Vibration, 33(3), 140-147.

670

11th International Conference on

Advances in Steel and Concrete Composite Structures
Tsinghua University, Beijing, China, December 3-5, 2015

SEISMIC BEHAVIOR OF A HYBRID STRUCTURAL SYSTEM

WITH SRC WING WALLED-FRAME
Y. Baia, G. Baib
a

Department of Civil Engineering, Xian Jiaotong University, Xian, China

E-mails: baiyongtao@mail.xjtu.edu.cn

Key Laboratory of Structure Engineering and Earthquake Resistance of China Education Ministry
School of Civil Engineering, Xi' an University of Architecture and Technology, Xi'an, China
E-mail: guoliangbai@126.com
ABSTRACT

Keywords:
Hybrid structure; steel
reinforced concrete; power plant;
pseudo dynamic test; wing wall.

Abstract: A steel-concrete hybrid structure consisting of frame and wall is a hyper-earthquake

resistant system for reducing damage and collapse when subjected to strong ground motions.
This paper presents an experimental study on seismic behavior of the hybrid structural system
with steel reinforced concrete (SRC) frame and reinforced concrete (RC) wing-walls. A series of
tests were conducted on a large scale specimen by employing pseudo-dynamic and quasi-static
loading procedures. Experimental results indicated that the seismic behavior was significantly
improved subjected to the maximum capacity earthquake, after placing bi-directional RC wing
walls. In beam-column connections with inevitable strong-beam weak-column mechanism,
longitudinal wing walls contributed to energy dissipation and efficiently prevented the potential
collapse of column. In addition, transverse wing wall (TWW) can avoid the fragile shear failure
of short columns and strengthen bending capacity of the panel zones of beam-column
connections. Failure mechanism of this hybrid system was identified as the combination of arch
and truss mechanisms. This hybrid system is anticipated to provide high ductility in
high-seismic regions.

exhibit superior seismic behavior than bare RC frames,

since RC wall enhances ductility when improving the
deflection pattern at the lower stories of the frame. For
the factory buildings in power plants, generators and
facilities limit the space to use continuous RC wall
systems. The RC wing-wall system is beneficial because
it not only effectively avoids the weak-story mechanism
by increasing the lateral stiffness, but save the space for
non-structural components and facilities. Existing
experimental studies on the flexural and shear strengths
of RC columns with wing walls(Yamatawa et al. 2006;
Kabeyasawa et al. 2011; Nakamura et al. 2011; and Liu et
al. 2010) and RC wing-walled frames (Higashi et al.
1970; Kabeyasawa et al. 2008; Kim et al. 2012; and
Wallace et al. 2008) have been conducted. These studies
found that brittle flexural failure was likely to occur at
RC columns and shear failure occurred at wing walls,and
shear failure of column and wing wall was observed as
well. In addition, RC columns with wing walls barely
demonstrate ductile behavior under high axial load.The
literature review indicates that the study on SRC frame
system with RC wing walls is very limited.
Considering the irregular characteristics existing in
the main factory buildings of TPPs, seismic behavior of

1 INTRODUCTION
Steel-concrete composite structures become more and
more popular because they combine the advantages of
both materials.During the 1994 Northridge Earthquake
(Hueste and Wight 1997; Llera et al. 2001; and Ivanovi
et al. 2000) and 1995 Hyogoken-Nanbu (Kobe)
Earthquake(Azizinamini and Ghosh 1997), a large
number of RC and SRC frame buildings experienced
severe damages. Moreover, in the 2011 Tohoku
Earthquake (AIJ 2011), the Fukushima No. 1 nuclear
power plant and thermal power plant buildings
constructed by steel-concrete composite frame suffered
severe damages and massive loss of casualties. These
industrial building structures face failure risks because of
large span and story height, split-level floor layout and
massive vertical loads. Accordingly, special design is
required
considering
strong-beam
weak-column
mechanism, discontinuous stiffness over height and high
axial force on columns.
SRC columns demonstrated ductile behavior because
the core concrete is confined by steel hoops, and the
buckling of longitudinal bars is contrarily restrained the
encased concrete. On the other hand, RC walled-frames

671

Bai et al.

Fig. 2 shows the elevation view of the tested

specimen with three spans and three bays in longitudinal
and transverse directions, respectively. There were three
primary story levels located at 0.00, 2.40, and 7.20 meters
high. Rectangular SRC columns were used as the interior
and exterior columns from alignment B to D, and RC
wing walls were arranged within the width and depth of
the exterior columns. RC slabs with 50 mm thickness
were constructed at each floor. Column bases were fixed
by the embedded RC beam foundations.
The loading system was supported bythe reaction wall
with height of 12.5 meters high. Three hydraulic
actuators were fixed respectively at 2.40, 4.80, and 7.20
meter. The loading protocol of each actuator was
controlled by an online computing system based on PDT
and QST procedures.Displacement transducers (e.g.
wy004) were laterally installed at each floor as shown in
Fig. 2, to record the lateral drifts. Displacement
transducers (e.g. wy054) were vertically installed at the
bottom story to measure the vertical deformation
occurring at the longitudinal wing walls.

such building structures motivates us to enhance their

seismic behavior and ductility. For this purpose, a dual
structural system with irregular SRC frame combined
with RC wing walls is proposed.
This paper presents a series of pseudo-dynamic
testing and quasi-static testing on a large scale walledframe specimen were conducted for evaluating the
seismic behavior under incremental seismic actions.

2 PROTOTYPE AND DESIGN OF SPECIMEN

The prototype structure is a factory building in
thermal power plants in high seismicity zone of China.
As shown in Fig. 1, the overall width, length and height
of the building are 58, 122, and 59.5 m, respectively.
Note that irregular components and large spans are
widely distributed because of facility requirements. The
prototype structure was designed by the 8-degree seismic
demand and assumed to be located on the type 2 soil site
based on China seismic design code. The 8-degree
seismic demand specifies that the structure should satisfy
seismic demands under three seismic hazard levels,
namely, minor earthquake having 63.3% probability in 50
years, moderate earthquake having 10% probability in 50
years, and major earthquake having 2% probability in 50
years. The peak ground acceleration (PGA) of 0.15 g was
used for minor earthquake, 0.30 g for moderate
earthquake and 0.40 g for major earthquake. Particularly,
the moderate and major earthquakes are respectively
associated with the design basis earthquake (DBE) and
maximum considered earthquake (MCE) in ASCE-7-10
15.

7.200m
1200

wy001
No.2 hydraulic
actuator

wy005

700

wy053

wy051

4.800m
4.100m

1700

wy007

No.1 hydraulic
actuator

6.000m

650 550

2.400m

wy004

No.3 hydraulic
actuator
wall-frame
joint zone

wy054

500
2000

750
D

1.850m
1.200m

1200

Reaction wall

wy055
wy052

1200

wy003

1400
6500
C

800
B

750

800
1/A

0.000m
-0.140m

Fig. 2Elevation views and loading facilities of the specimen

3 TEST PROGRAM
Prototype Structure

Seismic resistant capacity and hysteretic behavior of

building structures subjected to earthquake waves16. The
PDT techniques involve online computers that are
networked with each other to control the input forces.
With the PDT techniques, we can not only simulate the
responses of large-scale structures subjected to
earthquake and shock actions, but also observe closely
the seismic-resistant capacity of structures using slow
loading procedures.
A series of PDTs and subsequent cyclic QSTs were
conducted to investigate the seismic behavior and
ultimate failure mechanism (Bai and Bai 2015). In the
online PDT procedure, the explicit Newmark-
integration method was adopted to calculate the input
force provided by electro-hydraulic actuators. The
dynamic equation can be expressed as follows:
(1)
m

Selected specimen

Fig. 1 Prototype structure andthe specimen

Due to limitation of the test field and big dimension

of the prototype structure, a scaled sub-structural
specimen was selected, as shown in Fig. 1. Three
fundamental scale dimensions of mass M, length L and
time T need to be considered as independent scale
factors. Then, other scale factors can be obtained by the
principle of dimensional analysis. For the structural
system in this study, the scale factor for length L was
determined as 1/7. In addition, around 1/5 of the vertical
additional mass was added on each floor by sand bags to
accommodate the limitation in space and enormous
vertical loads. Therefore, the mass factor M should
further incorporate the effectcaused by insufficient
vertical loads.

672

Bai et al.
wherem is the mass matrix, c is the damping matrix, and are
is the
thevectors for the acceleration and velocity responses,
restoring force vector obtained from the hydraulic actuators, and
is the input earthquake acceleration.

Horizontal drift (mm)

200

Initially, the damping and inertial forces of each step

were calculated by solving the equation of motion for the
responses acquired from the computer. Then, the
servo-controller drove the hydraulic actuators to exert the
target displacement on the specimen. The computer
solved the associated equation of motion for the next step
of loading. The data for the restoring force, seismic
responses were collected and stored in the computer. For
each step, the base shear force method was used to
calculate the restoring force of the load cells as

Newmark-
based online
Computation

Fig. 5 presents the design spectra and pseudo

acceleration spectra of the input wave El-Centro (NS).
The spectral acceleration of the El-Centro (NS) wave
increases with the PGA ranging from 0.1 to 3.0g. The
fundamental periods of the specimen in the longitudinal
and transverse directions (T1-l, T1-t) are located within the
range of the maximum acceleration of the design
spectra.The design criteria are as follows: PGA of 0.20 g
implies the moderate earthquake and 0.9 g implies the
rare earthquake.
3

Hydraulic
control system

T1-l

Damping ratio: h=0.05

1-t

Restoring force: F i Transducers of

displacement

Actuator and
specimen

The time increment for each input step was set as 0.01
second to meet the convergence condition. An initial part
of the El-Centro (N-S) wave was selected as the input
ground motion, and the intensity was incrementally
increased to have the peak ground accelerations (PGA) of
0.10, 0.25, 0.50, 1.00, 1.50, 2.00, and 3.00 g. The scaled
input PGA is 1/5 of the original PGA according to the
scale factor on acceleration. Fig. 4 (a) shows the selected
initial 8 seconds of the El-Centro (N-S) wave with a PGA
of 0.50 g which was loaded by 800 quasi-static steps, and
subsequent 2 seconds was loaded by 200 steps to
simulate free vibration. After the final PDT case with
PGA of 3.0 g, cyclic QST was conducted by controlling
the amplitude of the lateral drifts as shown in Fig. 6(b).

0
0

El-Centro (N-S)
PGA=0.50g
10

20

30

40

Duration time (s)

(a) Accelerationtime historyofPDT

50

4.1 System identification

0
-2.5

4 TEST RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Original wave
Selected wave

2.5

Natural period (sec)

Fig. 5Pseudo acceleration spectra and design spectra

Input acceration (g)

PGA=0.10g
PGA=0.25g
PGA=0.50g
PGA=1.00g
PGA=1.50g
PGA=2.00g
PGA=3.00g
Moderate earthquake
Rare earthquake

Fig. 3 Schematic of PDT procedure

-5
0

2.4m (1/3 height)

4.8m (2/3 height)
7.2m (Top point)

Loading steps
(b) Displacement controlled QST
Fig. 4Pseudo dynamic test and static loading procedures

whereVB is the base shear force, uithe modal displacement

at the i-th floor, Fi the exterior force applied at the i-th
floor. A schematic diagram of the framework employed in
the PDT is shown in Fig. 3.

Displacement

-100
-200

(2)

Sa (g)

100

60

673

Dynamic characteristics were tested before

connecting the hydraulic actuators to the specimen. Free
vibrations were excited by the artificial pulse method, and
the vibration sensors were attached at each floor to
measure the associated displacement. A data acquisition
and signal processing (DASP) system was used to collect,
store, analyze and show the vibration mode and damping.
Natural period and the associated damping ratio were
derived from the damped free vibration. The first
fundamental periods in the transverse and longitudinal
directions are 0.22 secondand 0.28 second,
respectively.Figs. 6shows the first mode of vibration in
the longitudinal and transverse directions, respectively.
Fig.8(c) compares the mode shapes at 5-axis and 7-axis,

Bai et al.

where asymmetric torsion was obtained at 4.8 m height

due to thelarger rigidity at the 7-axis.

8.4

0.10g
0.25g
0.50g (Level 1)
1.00g (Level 2)
1.50g
2.00g (Level 3)

7.2

Height (m)

6
4.8
3.6
2.4
1.2
0

0.005

0.01

0.015

Maximum story drift angle (rad)

(b) Maximum story drift angle

(a) Longitudinal direction (b) Transverse direction

0.02

Fig. 7 Responses of the wing-walled frame specimenunderPDTs

Fig. 6Mode shapes of the specimen

4.3 Hysteresis curve

4.2 Story drift response

Following the PDTs, hydraulic actuators were

controlled by the cyclic displacement for the QST
loadings. A sequence of reserved displacement cycles
were applied with a single cycle at each level of
amplitude. Hysteretic curves for thenormalized shear
force coefficient versus story drift angle of threeprimary
story levels are presented in Fig. 13, with the ordinates
being the shear force normalized by floor mass M .
As shown in Fig. 8(a), the first primary story suffered
from strength degradation since large axial forces were
applied. In contrast, the strength of the second primary
story was 1.15 times that of the first primary story,
whereas the ductility at the first and second primary
stories were respectively 2.42 and 1.79. The strength
degradation ratios calculated by the peak strength over
the strength at the last loop were nearly 83% at both of
the first and second primary stories. Furthermore, the
second primary story suffered from obvious strength and
stiffness deteriorations as shown in Figs. 8(b).The third
primarystory in Fig.8(c) remained in the elastic range,
which suggests that plastic damages such as crushing of
concrete and yielding of steel bar did not occur at this
story level.
In addition, the ductility behavior of the second
main-story was lower than that of the first main-story
with respect to the gradient of the post-peak negative
slope which represents the ductility behavior after the
peak point. Larger values captured in the second
main-story than that in the first main-story was mainly
due to the different failure modes of the two main-story
levels. Excessively large vertical load of 30.9% of the
overall vertical load and strong beam at 4.80m height of
the C-D span caused the second primary story to
demonstrate non-ductile behavior compared with the first
primary story.

As aforementioned, seven scaled PGAs were planned

for the PDT procedure. Before theeach case, a
two-second free vibration were continued to measure the
natural periods of the damaged specimen experienced by
the former cases.
Fig. 7shows the hysteretic curves for the base shear
force versus the roof drift angle subjected to incremental
pseudo-dynamic tests. The horizontal drifts at the 1.85,
2.40, 4.10, 4.80, 6.00 and 7.20m were recorded by the
transducers wy004, wy006, wy007, wy005, wy003 and
wy001, respectively. As shown in Fig. 7(a), the initial and
unloading stiffness of the wing-walled frame specimen
progressively decreased with the increase of intensity.
Concrete Cracking at the bottom of the wing walls and
yielding of the steel bars at the beam ends werethe main
reasons accounting for the stiffness reduction. Fig. 7(b)
presents the maximum story drift angle versus the
specimen height. Drift concentration of the specimen
occurredatthe height ranging from 1.85 to 4.80meter, in
which the peak of maximum story drift angle occurred at
the height of 2.40meter.

Base shear force (kN)

500

250

0.10g
0.25g
0.50g (Level 1)
1.00g (Level 2)
1.50g
2.00g (Level 3)
3.00g

-250

-500
-0.01

-0.005

0.005

Roof drift angle (rad)

(a) Roof drift angle versus base shear

0.01

674

Bai et al.

the SRC columns. Shear failure is induced by the arch

mechanism and truss mechanism. For the C-2 column
with W-2 wing wall, the first and second terms were
calculated as 2.67 and 17.73kN, respectively. Thus, the
shear force was mainly sustained by the hoop part and the
truss mechanism tended to be the ultimate failure mode
for the SRC column with wing wall.

Shear force coefficient

0.00m~2.40m
1

-1

N
M

-2
-0.05

Q
-0.025

0.025

0.05

Story drift angle (rad)

(a) First primary story

RC/SRC
column

Shear force coefficient

2.40m~4.80m
1

Longitudinal
wing wall
0

-1

-2
-0.05

M Arch mechanism
of column-wall

Q
-0.025

0.025

0.05

Story drift angle (rad)

(b) Second primary story

Arch mechanism
of wing-wall

Fig. 9Shear failure mechanisms of walled columns

Shear force coefficient

Column in compression
1

-1

Longitudinal
wing-wall
Transverse wing-wall

4.80m~7.20m
-2
-0.05

-0.025

0.025

Story drift angle (rad)

0.05

(c) Third primary story

Wing-wall in compression

Fig. 8Hysteresis relation between story shear force versusstory

drift angle

4.4 Failure modes

Hybrid failure mechanisms due to shear failure of
wing walls and flexural failure ofbeam-columns are
shown in Fig. 9 and Fig. 10. Based on the arch
mechanism for shear failure as shown in Fig. 8, diagonal
cracks grown from the longitudinal wing walls (LWW) to
columns, but the columns should be prevented from shear
failure that significantly decreases axial resistant capacity
of columns base. Thus, the encased steel in SRC column
efficiently avoided the arch mechanismthrough
column-wall. Fig. 10 shows the transverse wing walls
(TWW) which can be treated as an extended section to

Longitudinal
wing-wall
Transverse wing wall
Fig. 10Flexural failure mechanisms of walled columns

675

Bai et al.

5 CONCLUSIONS

seismic retrofit of RCcolumn with wing-wall, J. Struct.&

Const. Eng.,AIJ608:109-117.
Kabeyasawa, T. Kim, Y., Mitsuharu, S.,Hyun S. H. &Yoji H.
2011. Experimental study on deformability of RC columns
with wingwall : Part 3 : Evaluation of deformability based on
flexure theory,Summaries of technical papers of annual
meeting AIJ C-2, Structures IV:139-140.
Nakamura, A.,Teshigawara, M.,InoueY. &Ohta T. 2011. Shear
strength estimation of seismic retrofitted RC column by
extended wing walls,J. Struct. & Const. Eng.,AIJ
76(661):619-627. (in Japanese)
Liu, K.,Liu, Y.,Huang W.& Chen C. 2010.The structure
behavior of reinforced concrete wing-wall under
earthquake,Int. J. of the Phy. Sci.,5(7):1164-1174.
Higashi, Y.,OhkuboM.
&EtoH.
1970. Cracks and
staticalhysteresis-loops of reinforced concrete frames with
spandrel-walls cast simultaneously,J. Struct. & Const.
Eng.,AIJ 169: 1-8. (in Japanese)
Kabeyasawa, T.,Kabeyasawa, T.,MatsumoriT.&Kim Y. 2008.
Full-scale dynamic collapse tests of three-story reinforced
concrete buildings on flexible foundation at E-Defense,the
14th World Conf. on Earth. Eng., S15-002. Beijing.
Kim, Y., Kabeyasawa,T.,Matsumori, T.&Kabeyasawa T. 2012.
Numerical study of a full-scale six-story reinforced concrete
wall-frame structure tested at E-Defense,Earth. Eng.
&Struct.Dyn.,41(8): 1217-1239.
Wallace, J.,Elwood, K. & Massone, L. 2008.Investigation of the
axial load capacity for lightly reinforced wall piers, J. Struct.
Eng., ASCE134(9):15481557.
Bai, Y.T.& Bai, G.L. 2016. Pseudo-Dynamic and Quasi-Static
Testing of an Irregular Steel Concrete Composite Frame
with Wing Walls, International Journal of Structural
Stability and Dynamics, available online.

This paper developed dual wing-walled frame system

consists of irregular SRC frame with bi-directional RC
wing walls. Through a series of PDT and QST
experiments on a large scale steel-concrete moment frame
with SRC columns and RC wing walls, the seismic
behavior and failure mechanism have been investigated.
From the tests, the specimen demonstrated ductile
behavior to resist severe earthquakes with PGA=3.0 g
which is beyond the code requirement of PGA=3.0 g
whose return period is 2 % in 50 years, whereas a region
of drift concentration was found in the range of 2.40~4.80
m.
The influences of wing walls on the failure
mechanisms of the wing-walled frame system have been
discussed.The wing walls vertical to the loading direction
increases the effective area for columns, and shear failure
of the panel zones at beam-columns connections was
avoided.For the beam-column connections with
strong-beam weak-column mechanism, potential collapse
of the SRC column was efficiently avoided by the wing
walls that sustained severe damages. Overall, the
proposed hybrid structural system for the main factory
buildings in the power plants demonstrates high
performance and ductile failure modes under strong
earthquakes and cyclic loading.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

he deadline for submission.

This paper is supported by the National Natural

Science Foundation of China (NSFC) under Grant No.
51508459. This financial support is gratefully
acknowledged. The authors would like to thank graduate
students Lingguo Kang, Longxing Yin, and others for
their invaluable assistance in the experiments.
REFERENCES
Hueste, M. B. D. & Wight,J. K. 1997. Evaluation of a four story
reinforced concrete building damaged during the Northridge
earthquake. Earthquake Spectra, 13(3):387-414.
Llera, J.,Chopra, A.& Almazn, J.2001. Three-dimensional
inelastic response of an RC building during the Northridge
earthquake, J. Struct. Eng., ASCE127(5): 482489.
Ivanovi,
S.
S.,Trifunac,
M.
D.,
Novikova,
E.
I.,GladkovA.A.&Todorovska,M.I.2000. Ambient vibration
tests of a seven-story reinforced concrete building in Van
Nuys, California, damaged by the 1994 Northridge
Earthquake, Soil Dynamics and Earthquake Engineering.,
19(6):391-411.
Azizinamini, A.& Ghosh, S. 1997.Steel reinforced concrete
structures in 1995 Hyogoken-Nanbuearthquake, J. Struct.
Eng.,ASCE123(8): 986992.
Architectural Institute of Japan. 2012. Preliminary
reconnaissance report on the 2011 Tohoku-Chiho
Taiheiyo-Oki earthquake,AIJ. (in Japanese)
Yamakawa,
T.,Rahman
M.N.&Morishita,
Y.
2006.Experimentalinvestigation and analyticalapproach for

676

11th International Conference on

Advances in Steel and Concrete Composite Structures
Tsinghua University, Beijing, China, December 3-5, 2015

STUDY ON VIBRATION PROPERTIES OF AIR COOLED

SUPPORT STRUCTURE IN LARGE THERMAL POWER PLANT
Z. L. Yaoa, G. L. Baib, & Y. T. Baic
a

School of Civil Engineering and Architecture, Xian University of Technology, Xian, China
E-mail: yaozeliang@sina.com

School of Civil Engineering, Xian University of Architecture & Technology, Xian, China
E-mail: baiguoliang@sina.com

Department of Civil Engineering, Xian Jiaotong University, Xian, China

E-mails: baiyongtao@mail.xjtu.edu.cn
ABSTRACT

Keywords:
Air cooled condenser;
Composite structure; Vibration
properties; Model test; Finite
element analysis.

Air cooled condenser support structure in large thermal power plant is a new special industrial
structure. It is a steel-concrete vertical composite structure. One eighth scale experiment model
of the structure is built. Its natural vibration frequencies and modes are tested with the free
vibration method. The dynamic displacement and strain of typical members under the excitation
of different fan frequencies is tested with frequency scanning method. The structural calculation
model is established with finite element analysis soft ANSYS in order to compare with the
experiment results. Its natural vibration frequencies, modes and resonance response under the
excitation of the fans are calculated. The structural dynamic properties on natural vibration,
resonant forms, forced vibration, dynamic displacement and dynamic strain are studied through
model test and finite element analysis method. Results show that experimental data agrees well
with calculated results. Its torsion effect is significant. The first three modes are highly coupled.
There are coupled modes and torsion mode. The tested frequencies are bigger than the
calculated frequencies. Back-calculated archetypal structure frequencies are bigger than
calculated frequencies. Its forced vibration response is bigger than that of ordinary structures.
The internal force change of members under operating conditions is acute. The experimental
displacement peaks lag behind the calculated peaks. The peak range of the experimental
displacement-frequency curves is gentler than that of the calculated curves. When the members
are loaded by the low frequencies, its vibration displacement is big. Its dynamic strain is not
beyond the elastic range. Fan frequencies should be far away from the structural low
frequencies. Some rational construction measures should be considered in order to prevent the
member fatigue failure.

companies mainly use STAAD program to design the

structure, the structural properties arent be systematically
tested. The structural seismic resistance must be
considered in most area of China. There are some
problems in the structure constructions, for example,
whether the foreign design of the structure is safe or not,
it is accordant with China codes or not, it is economical
or not. So it is very important to study the air cooled
structure properties.
There are few references on the air cooled structure
because of its particularity. Some electric power
designing institutes of China try to design the structure
based on the foreign data, but they feel blindfold in the
design process because there isnt any codes. China
electric power investment aggregative company organizes
north-west electric power designing institute etc. to tackle
key problem on the air cooled structure and consigns

1 INTRODUCTION
Air cooled condenser support structure in large
thermal power plants is a new special industrial structure.
It will be widely established in the north area of China
having rich coal and lacking water in the future. Its shape
is particular. It is composed with a spatial steel truss and
reinforcingconcrete tubular columns. It is a typical
steel-concrete vertical hybrid structure, its stiffness and
mass is highly non-uniform at vertical direction. On
account of the function need, tens of large-diameter fans
are installed in the structure, so its loads are very
complicated.
The air cooled condenser support structures are
mainly designed by foreign companies up to now because
the structure develops slowly in China. Foreign

677

Yao et al.

signal. The signal collected is automatically processed

with DASP program. The structural dynamic property
parameters are discerned with the mode analysis method.
Ten collection vibration implements are installed at the
structural typical positions, the experiment points are
arranged on the east-west and north-south directions
respectively. The east-west experiment point positions are
shown as the black triangles (see Figure 2).
According to the model volume, its properties cant
be tested with the low frequency hammering method. Its
dynamic properties are tested ten times by manpower
swag during the experiment process. The breakage
structural dynamic properties are also tested after
imitative dynamic and static experiment.
According to the time domain waveform analysis
results, the point waveform sizes are different with their
different positions. East-west and north-south point
vibration responses are different. Middle and corner point
vibration responses are different. East-west and
north-south peaks of a same point dont appear at the
same time because the east-west and north-south dynamic
properties are different. The corner point response is
bigger than that of middle point because of the torsion
effect. The experiment results of its dynamic property are
shown in Table1. Its mode is shown in Figure 4.

Xian University of Architecture & Technology etc. to do

basic research in order to realize independent air cooled
structure design.
Dynamic properties of an air cooled support structure
and its properties under the fan excitation are tested with
experimental model and simulated with finite element
method in this paper.

2 EXPERIMENT MODEL DESIGN

2.1 Structure antitype
The structural spatial steel truss height is 7.5m. There
are 16 reinforcing-concrete columns in total, their length
is 37.5m. A type support structure is located at the top
of the truss, and its height is 10.36m. Wind-break wall is
located around the truss flat roof. There are 64
large-diameter fans installed at the top. The middle span
width is 22.16m. The side span cantilever length is 12.08
m (see Figure 1).

11.25m 8=90m

12.08m 8=96.64m

B
AD
C

AB

755

AF

A2

Figure 1. Structure plane.

AD

755

AC

603 304 603 755

755

2.2 Experiment model

According to the experiment room conditions and
model production feasibility, a quarter of the structural
antitype is chosen to model. According to Figure 1, there
is a moment in the model boundary if the middle span is
cut at half of its span. Three-quarter middle span is built
in the practical model in order to avoid the boundary
moment because the boundary moment is difficultly
simulated, the model range is shown as the dashed
rectangle (see Figure 1). The boundary is considered as a
horizontally movable and vertical support based on the
internal force at three-quarter middle span. Designed
experiment model and its picture are shown in Figure 2
and Figure 3 respectively.

703 703 703 703 703 703 703 560

A6 A5

A4

A3

A2

286

AB

AA

560

A1

5
1
4

8 9

10

10

2400

1295

A4

937.5

4687.5
7520

3 EXPERIMENT RESULTS ANALYSIS

AD

AB

Figure 2. Model section.

3.1 Tested dynamic properties

891-II type seismograph produced by engineering

mechanics graduate school of national seism bureau is
adopted, it includes ten collection vibration implements
and an amplifier, its frequency range is 0.5-100Hz.
INV306 intelligent signal collection processing
analysis system is chosen to collect and analyze the

678

600

755 755

755

AE

A4

A2

Yao et al.

3.3 Tested dynamic properties under the excitation of

fans

1.192

0.707

1.135

0.463

0.261

0.744

0.279

1.000

2.488

1.075

Figure 4. Experiment model modes.

According to Figure 4, the structural bottom strain is

relatively bigger than that of its top. A type support
structure vibration has a decreasing trend, and it shows
that the stiffness and mass of A type support structure
is abruptly changed. The model first and second mode is
similar, it shows that there isnt a main vibration mode,
and there can be the coupling of some modes when the
structure vibrates. So the structural seismic effect cant be
calculated with the base shearing force method.

Table 1. Tested dynamic properties.

Direction

Step

1
2
1
North-south
2
East-west
1
(breakage)

East-west

Frequency
Hz
3.2
4.59
3.21
4.63

Period
s
0.313
0.218
0.312
0.216

1.351

0.740

Remarks

The damp
ratio is from
2.7% to
3.8%.

3.2 Tested Sympathetic vibration frequencies

The structural sympathetic vibration frequencies are
tested with the sympathetic vibration method in order to
provide basic data for the structural experiment under the
fan excitation.
The fans are the vibration exciters. Some mutation
points appear in the structural vibration wave with the
change of the fan frequency during the experiment
process, the fan frequencies which result in the wave
mutation are considered as the sympathetic vibration
frequencies. According to the results, the structural
vibration is maximal when the fan frequency is 3Hz,
3.5Hz or 4.5Hz, and it shows that sympathetic vibration
frequency is 3Hz, 3.5Hz or 4.5Hz.

0.05
0.04
0.03
0.02
0.01
0
1.5
0.05
0.04
0.03
0.02
0.01
0
1.5
0.1
0.08
0.06
0.04
0.02
0
1.5

A / mm

0.737

1.000

3-1#

2.5

3.5
f / Hz

4.5

4.5

0.08
0.06
0.04
0.02
0
1.5

4.5

0.06
0.05
0.04
0.03
0.02
0.01
0
1.5

3-5#

2.5

3.5
f / Hz

3-8#

2.5

3
3.5
f / Hz

0.05
0.04
0.03
0.02
0.01
0
1.5

A / mm

1.000

A / mm

1.000

A / mm

A / mm

Figure 3. Experiment model.

A / mm

The structural sympathetic vibration frequencies are

tested with the sympathetic vibration method in order to
provide basic data for the structural experiment under the
fan excitation.
The structural work properties on four different
conditions are tested with the sympathetic vibration
method. More data collection points are arranged in
sympathetic
vibration
frequencies
than
in
non-sympathetic vibration frequencies. The fans are
numbered (see Figure 1). According to the opening fan
condition, there are four experiment conditions such as
row, , and rows, all fans, and

rows
respectively.
The
vibration
amplitude-frequency curves of part experiment points
under all fan excitation are shown in Figure 5. According
to the first condition results, its top vibration is bigger
than its bottom vibration in the whole. Middle point
vibration displacement on A type support structure is
0.025mm, it is less than that of its corner point, and their
vibration is similar when the frequency is bigger than
2.5Hz. The truss corner point vibration is maximal
because its position is close to the fan, its displacement is
0.1mm, the member local vibration should be noticed. All
point vibration peaks are similar, and their vibration is
maximal when the fan frequency is 3Hz, 3.5Hz or 4.5Hz.
There isnt a clear peak when the fan frequency is more
than 5Hz, the structural vibration is always big because of
the fan high frequency effect, and the sympathetic
vibration cant appear.
According to the second condition results, most point
vibration is bigger than that under first condition, and the
maximum is 0.06mm. The truss corner point vibration
near row fans is decreased because row fans
are close. All point peaks are more obvious. The peaks
appear when the fan frequency is 3.5Hz or 4.5Hz.
According to the third condition results, all point
displacement is increased in the whole, all vibration
response increment except that of the truss corner is little.
According to the forth condition results, the truss
middle point vibration is clearly added, its peak is near to
0.08mm. The curve peak points are relatively decreased,
they are located at 3-3.5Hz.

3-4#

2.5

3.5
f / Hz

679

4.5

3-7#

2.5

3
3.5
f / Hz

4.5

3-9#

2.5

3
3.5
f / Hz

Figure 5. Tested amplitude-frequency curves.

4.5

Yao et al.

direction flat movement, its frequency is 2.8334Hz. Its

third vibration mode is z direction vibration, and its
frequency is 2.8975Hz. The modes after the third step are
mainly the member local vibration. The structural basic
frequency based on the mode analysis results is little
smaller than that of the experiment results. The reasons
are that the experiment model is only a quarter of the
structural antitype, its vertical support in the boundary is
simulated with the steel wheel in practical model
production, its stiffness is artificially added because the
steel wheel has some friction restriction to the structure,
there isnt any horizontal restriction in the finite element
model.

According to the analysis results, the structural

vibration displacement is maximal when all fans are
opened, and its maximum is about 0.1mm. The
displacement has little effect on the structure if it is a
static displacement, it cant be neglected because it is a
dynamic displacement, and the structural fatigue
breakage should be considered in the structural design.

3.4 Tested dynamic strain

S 10-6

150
120
90
60
30
0
1.5

D-1#

6.5

11.5

-6
S 10

There are twelve experiment points in total, eleven

points are located at the truss, and one point is located at
a column. The structural dynamic strain is tested when all
fans turn on at the continuously changing frequencies.
The frequency-strain curves are obtained.
According to the results, the structural maximal
response almost appears when the fan frequency is less
than 4Hz, it shows that the low frequency sympathetic
vibration is bigger than that of high frequency. Its
maximal strain is 256.510-6, it shows that the structure is
still in elastic range, the effect under the fan excitation is
relatively small, the structural fatigue breakage and joints
breakage should be noticed because of the dynamic
displacement.

14

f / Hz

6.5

11.5

14

f / Hz
S 10-6

250
200
150
100
50
0
1.5

D-9#

6.5

11.5

14

f / Hz
S 10-6

300
250
200
150
100
50
0
1.5

D-11#

6.5

f / Hz

11.5

14

6.5

f / Hz

-6
S 10

300
250
200
150
100
50
0
1.5

250
200
150
100
50
0
1.5
100
80
60
40
20
0
1.5

11.5

M u C u K u F a

14

..

(1)

D-8#

6.5

f / Hz

-6
S 10

D-5#

The resonance response analysis method can better

analyze vibration of a linear structure loaded a sinusoidal
load which is changed with time. Its vibration
displacement under different frequencies can be
calculated with the method, its amplitude-frequency
curves can also be obtained. According to the curves, the
response peak can be obtained, and the frequency peak
corresponding stress can be also obtained.
The athletics equation on the resonance response
method can be written as Equation 1.

D-4#

11.5

Where M ,

14

mass

D-10#

6.5

11.5

6.5

11.5

matrix,

rigidity

matrix,

damping

matrix,

load vector respectively.

On account of the hysteresis damping, the
displacement vector should be defined as Equation 2.

D-12#

K , C , u , u , u and F a are

acceleration vector, velocity vector, displacement vector,

14

f / Hz

-6
S 10

S 10-6

160
120
80
40
0
1.5

200
160
120
80
40
0
1.5

4.2 Calculated resonance response

14

f / Hz

2
u u max e i e it
u

Where max , ,
and t are maximal displacement,

Figure 6. Tested strain-frequency curves

4 NUMERICAL CALCULATION ANALYSIS

circle frequency, phase difference and time respectively.

4.1 Calculated modes

On account of every point

The structural calculation model is established with

ANSYS, it is shown in Figure 7.

u max and , Equation 2

can be written as follow.

u u1 iu 2 e it

(3)

According to Equation 3 form, the force vector can be

written as follow.
(4)
F F1 F2 eit
According to Equation 3 and Equation 4, Equation 1
can be written as follow.
K 2 M iC u1 iu2 F1 iF2 (5)

Figure 7. Calculation model and its first mode.

An ideal fan cant bring any interferential force. It

cant cause the structural vibration too. An actual fan
brings interferential force because its mass isnt
symmetrical. Its interferential force can be considered as
a simple harmonic load. According to the fan balanceable

The structural mode is analyzed. According to the

results, the structural first vibration mode is torsion. Its
frequency is 2.682Hz. Its second vibration mode is x

680

Yao et al.

points almost appear when fan frequency is less than 5Hz,

the former three steps frequencies should be avoided in
practical production.
(3) The structural vibration response increases with
increasing the opening fans. Its dynamic displacement
and internal force is frequently changed with the change
of the fan frequency. Its maximum dynamic displacement
appears when all fans are opened at a same time. Local
member vibration can appear when the fans are opened
with high frequencies. The structural maximum dynamic
strain belongs to its elastic range. The structural fatigue
should be noticed because of the dynamic displacement.
(4) The steel having nicer impact toughness and cool
bend properties and the friction high strength bolts should
be used in the structure in order to avoid the structural
fatigue. The fan excitation force except the fan weight
can be omitted during the structural calculation process
when the structural fatigue is considered.

quality grade, its maximal eccentric length e can be

obtained. The radial imbalance force at rated velocity can
be calculated as follow.
2
2
n (6)
2n
3
2
Pj mew me

1700 0.8789 10
30
60

A / mm

0.05
0.04
0.03
0.02
0.01
0
1.3

0.05
3-4#
0.04
0.03
0.02
0.01
0
1.3 1.8 2.3 2.8 3.3 3.8 4.3 4.8 5.3
f / Hz

A / mm

0.04
3-1#
0.03
0.02
0.01
0
1.3 1.8 2.3 2.8 3.3 3.8 4.3 4.8 5.3
f / Hz

0.05
0.04
0.03
0.02
0.01
0
1.3

3-5#

1.8 2.3

0.05
0.04
0.03
0.02
0.01
0
1.3 1.8

2.8 3.3
f / Hz

3.8

4.3 4.8
3-8#
A / mm

A / mm

A / mm

A / mm

According to the results, the structural vibration is

the biggest when all fans are opened. The
amplitude-frequency curves on the same condition as
Figure 5 are illustrated in order to comparatively analyze
(see Figure 7). The finite element analysis effect is good
in the whole. There is some difference between the
calculation results and the experiment results because the
finite element model cant be same as the practical
structure. The calculation frequency is smaller than that
of the experiment. The calculation displacement peak and
its position are a little different with the experiment
results. The calculation displacement peak formerly
appears than the experiment result. The calculation
displacement peak isnt as sharp-pointed as the
experiment result. All but the point 8 calculation
displacement maximum is almost same as the experiment
result, the maximum is 0.05mm. The point 8 dynamic
experiment displacement is amplified during the
experiment process because the collection vibration
instrument is affected by the member local vibration, the
practical amplified condition cant be embodied during
the numerical simulation analysis.

2.3

2.8 3.3 3.8

f / Hz

4.3

4.8

0.05
0.04
0.03
0.02
0.01
0
1.3

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The research work was supported by National
Natural Science Foundation under Grant No. 51208422,
National Scholarship Foundation under Grant No.
201408615069, China Academy of Science Light of
West Foundation under Grant No. 2011DF042, Shaanxi
Nature Science Foundation under Grant No. 2012JQ7016
and No. 2014K08-19, Shaanxi Provincial Education
Department Foundation under Grant No. 15JS070 and
Xian University of Technology Foundation under Grant
No. 118-211105 and No. 118-211101.

3-7#

1.8

2.3

2.8 3.3
f / Hz

3.8

4.3

REFERENCES

4.8

Yao, Z.L., Bai, G.L. & Dang, F.N. 2011. Study on nonlinear
seismic response of steel-concrete hybrid structure based on
beam element. Journal of Civil Engineering 44 (8): 66-71.
GB50152-1992. Testing methods of concrete structure. Beijing:
China Architecture & Building Press(in Chinese).
Feng, P., Jin, F.F. & Ye, L.P. 2013. Quantification of
pedestrian s comfort level and dynamic properties of
footbridge vibration based on in-situ measurement. Journal
of Vibration Engineering 26(4): 545-553.
Ling Q.h., Yan, X.Q. & Zhang, Q. D. 2014. Nonlinear
horizontal vibration characteristics of working rolls of a hot
rolling mill with dual power source. Journal of Vibration
and Shock 33(12): 133-137.
Xue, Z.C., Wang, Z.Q. & Wang, L.T. 2012. Parallel finite
element computing of nuclear power station structure
earthquake dynamic response. Journal of Tsinghua
Univ(Sci. Tech. ) 52(8): 1096-1101.
Yu, F., Zhou, F.L. & Su, J. 2010. Investigation of the Coupling
Dynamic Response between Bidirectional Seismic Isolated
Railway Bridge and Train Load. Journal of Hunan
University(Natural Sciences) 37(6): 17-21.
Xie, S.L. & Zhang, X.N. 2004. Study on characteristic of block
piezoelectric actuator. Journal of Vibration Engineering
17(1):112-115.

3-9#

1.8

2.3

2.8 3.3
f / Hz

3.8

4.3

4.8

Figure 7. Calculated amplitude-frequency curves.

5 CONCLUSIONS
The natural dynamic properties of the air cooled
support structure and its mechanical properties under the
excitation of fans are tested and calculated, some
conclusions are obtained as follows.
(1) The tested first and second modes are similar,
and there can be the couple of some modes. The seismic
response of the structure shouldnt be calculated with the
base shearing force method. The structural two horizontal
dynamic properties are different. East-west and
north-south peaks of the tested points cant appear at a
same time. The corner tested points vibration is bigger
than those of the middle tested point because of the
structural torsion effect.
(2) The structural low frequency vibration is bigger
than that of its high frequency, its maximal vibration

Ren, Z. 1998. ANSYS - guidelines for high technology

analysis. Beijing: Beijing University Press.

681

11th International Conference on

Advances in Steel and Concrete Composite Structures
Tsinghua University, Beijing, China, December 3-5, 2015

STRUCTURAL RESPONSES OF 3D BEAM-SLAB SYSTEMS

UNDER PROGRESSIVE COLLAPSE EVENTS INDUCED BY
BLAST
A. T. Phama & K. H. Tana
a

School of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore

E-mails: atpham@ntu.edu.sg, ckhtan@ntu.edu.sg
ABSTRACT
Keywords:

Progressive collapse,
Catenary action, Tensile
membrane action, Numerical
models, Blast loads.

Progressive collapse is categorized as a low-probability but high-consequence event due to

catastrophic loss of human lives when it happens. It is unnecessary to design all normal
buildings against such threat. Instead, upper-bound limit analysis such as catenary action or
tensile membrane action is a more economical means of assessment of RC structures. However,
to date there is limited number of experimental studies of structural response of beam-slab
systems under the collapse event triggered by a sudden loss of a supporting column due to huge
costs and complexity. Therefore, one of the suitable ways to study the behaviour of structures
under progressive collapse is to employ advanced finite element packages using physics-based
modelling with robust material models. In this paper, numerical simulations are conducted and
validated by actual static tests on three-dimensional beam and beam-slab structures. After
which, investigations are carried out to study the development of catenary and tensile membrane
actions and their relationships in the beam-slab structures. The effect of blast loads on the
ultimate capacity of beam-slab systems to mitigate progressive collapse is also considered.

rebars and tensile membrane action through mesh

reinforcement at the centre of the slab. However, the
combined effects of these two advanced mechanisms
have not been fully understood yet. Although the
development of both actions are associated with large
deformations and are sensitive to restraint conditions
from adjacent members, the way they are mobilised are
somehow different. Catenary action in beams starts
mobilising when vertical deflection at the location of the
removed column reaches one beams depth, and can be
fully developed through top reinforcement at the
maximum deformation of one-tenth of the double span.
On the other hand, tensile membrane action includes the
tensile net at centre region of the slab and the peripheral
compressive ring. Their effects are noticeable when the
central deformation reaches one to two times the slab
thickness.
The conduct of actual tests on beam-slab structures is
constrained by cost and space under real explosive
environments. Normally, only a limited number of
small-scale tests is carried out under quasi-static or
free-fall dynamic tests. After which, numerical analyses
can be conducted to extend the studies to include more
parameters as well as the effect of blast loads. In this
research, numerical models using physics-based finite
element method (FEM) are employed and validated by
actual static tests of three-dimensional (3D) beam and

1 INTRODUCTION
Since the collapse of the Ronan Point building in
1969, progressive collapse has been widely studied and
national structural requirements have been implemented
into codes of practice to prevent similar occurrences.
Recently, guidelines on progressive collapse introduces a
threat-independent method called alternate load path, in
which a vertical component such as a supporting column
is notionally removed without considering any effect
from the initial event, even if it is a blast attack. This
assumption is generally accepted in previous studies on
progressive collapse.
To take into account ductility of structural members
as well as dynamic effect, DOD (2013) provides some
equations to calculate load increase factors for both
concrete and structural steel frames. However, such
equations only consider flexural behaviour but do not
reflect other mechanisms such as catenary or tensile
membrane action. Moreover, no equation or procedure to
consider the effect of slabs, which can provide significant
strength through load redistribution, is provided in this
guideline.
Separate studies on frames (Yi et al. 2008, Sadek et
al. 2011, Yu & Tan 2013) and slabs (Park 1964, Bailey
2001) investigated the upper bound limits of tensile
effects, i.e. catenary chain action in beams through top

682

Pham et al.

edge columns. Such behaviour of compressive arch and

catenary actions agreed well with those observed in
previous tests on RC sub-assemblages (Sasani &
Kropelnicki 2008, Yu & Tan 2013).

beam-slab systems of reinforced concrete (RC) structures.

Thereafter, the numerical tool is used to investigate the
combined effects of beams and slabs in mitigating
progressive collapse, as well as the blast effect on the
ultimate capacity of RC structures.

2 NUMERICAL MODELS AND VALIDATIONS

2.1 Static tests on RC structures
With the purpose to investigate the beam-slab effect
against progressive collapse, Qian et al. (2014) conducted
a series of quarter-scaled quasi-static tests on 3D
beam-only and 3D beam-slab systems under an internal
column loss scenario using concentrated loading
condition. In the present study, test results from one 3D
beam-only specimen (T2) and one 3D beam-slab
specimen (S2) are used to validate the numerical models
developed using LS-Dyna software (Hallquist 2007).
Specimens T2 and S2 were designed from the same
prototype building which had symmetric conditions in
terms of geometry and reinforcement design in both
directions. While S2 represented a 2-by-2-span slab
structure with internal beams and slab extension to
simulate actual boundary condition, T2 only included the
two-directional internal beams with column stubs
restrained by rigid steel supports. The detailed
information on reinforcement design of both specimens is
shown in Table 1 while Figure 1 describes the overall
setup of the two tests. Longitudinal reinforcement in the
beams consisted of T10 deformed bars with a yield
strength of 437 MPa while longitudinal reinforcement in
the slab consisted of R6 round bars R6 with a yield
strength of 355 MPa.

a) Specimen T2

b) Specimen S2
Figure 1. Test setup

Table 1. Reinforcement design

Beam

Slab

dimension

thickness

(mm)

(mm)

T2

140 80

S2

140 80

Test

Beam rebars

Slab rebars
Top

Bottom

2T10

NA

NA

2T10

0.25* 0.25

Top

Bottom

NA

2T10

55

2T10

The behaviour of S2 showed the same trend with the

beam test for the first period of compressive membrane
action as well as the following descending and ascending
parts. As the displacement kept increasing, punching
shear at the middle column and fracture of the transverse
beams bottom rebars sequentially occurred at 165 and
170 mm deformations, leading to a sudden drop in the
structural capacity. After which, there was no noticeable
increase in the load-carrying capacity and the structure
was considered as reaching the failure state. Compared to
the first peak (123 kN), the ultimate capacity of S2 at the
final stage is 166 kN. Detailed information on testing
procedure can be found in the experimental paper (Qian
et al. 2014).

* Top reinforcement was arranged on the slab edges and was

2.2 The FEM models

extended to one quarter of the span

In this part, numerical analyses are conducted to study

the behaviour of RC beam-slabs under the scenario of
supporting column loss. An explicit finite element
software LS-Dyna (Hallquist 2007) is used to simulate
the behavior of RC structures due to its wide variety of
concrete constitutive models for blast effect.
A full model of T2 is developed whereas only a
quarter model of S2 is used to save computational time.
Concrete is simulated with 8-node solid elements which
use reduced integration scheme. To avoid zero energy
modes (hour-glass modes) that may arise within the
analysis procedure, the Flanagan-Belyschko stiffness

Observations from the test of T2 showed the first peak

of compressive arch action of 64 kN at a small
deformation of 35 mm. Thereafter, when the middle
column kept moving downwards, structural response
decreased and bottom rebars in the beams near the
interfaces with the middle column started fracturing at a
displacement of 125 mm. After the deformation exceeded
one beams depth, catenary action started kicking in and
the capacity kept increasing until final failure occurred,
denoted by the fracture of top reinforcement near the

683

Pham et al.

is equal to 50,000 kN/m. The spring is assumed to behave

elastically for both the beam-only and the beam-slab
models. Figure 2(b) shows the simplified supports used in
the numerical simulations and Figure 3 shows the FEM
models for the validation of T2 and S2.

form is applied. Reinforcing bars are explicitly modelled

by the 2-node Hughes-Liu beam element with 2x2 Gauss
quadrature integration. This beam formulation is based on
a degeneration of the 8-node solid element. Therefore, it
is fully compatible with solid elements, and yet still
provides computational efficiency.
The continuous surface cap model MAT_159 is
employed to simulate the behaviour of concrete material.
It was shown from previous studies (Bao et al. 2014,
Pham & Tan 2015) that this model can simulate actual
responses and failure modes of RC structures against
progressive collapse under both quasi-static and blast
conditions. It can effectively capture post-peak softening,
shear dilation, confinement effect, and strain rate
hardening. An isotropic elastic-plastic material model
Mat Piecewise Linear Plasticity (MAT_024) is used for
steel reinforcement which incorporates strain rate effect.
The steel material is assumed to be identical in tension
and compression.
Two types of mesh size are applied for internal beams
in the models of both T2 and S2, including 10 mm length
for the joint regions and 20 mm length for the other beam
regions. Only one mesh size of 20x20x6 mm is used for
the concrete slab. The beam elements have the mesh size
of 20 mm except at the joint regions where a finer mesh
of 10 mm is used instead.
Although element erosion is not a physical
phenomenon for concrete material, this attribute allows
modelling of spalling and separation of concrete under
extremely high tensile force. In this study, the criterion
for elements to be eroded is based on the maximum
principal strain value. Validation study is conducted to
achieve similarity in terms of concrete failure patterns
between the tests and the FEM models. After repeated
trial and error, a value of 0.1 is chosen for the maximum
principal strain as the erosion criterion.

column
stub

LVDT
K

steel
support

strong
floor

a)

b)

Figure 2. Horizontal supports of the system

a) Measurement of horizontal displacement, b) Simplified
supports at beams end

a) T2 model

b) S2 model

Figure 3. The simplified model of T2 and S2

2.4 Validation results

Gravity load is gradually applied, and then the middle
column is forcibly moved downwards in a
displacement-controlled manner until the model loses
most of its load-carrying capacity. Explicit analysis
procedure is applied to ensure stability and convergence.
For T2 specimen, the FEM model shows reasonably
good agreement with the experimental data in terms of
overall response, horizontal deformations as well as
failure modes. The numerical simulation overestimates
the first peak of compressive arch action by 5% compared
to the actual result but underestimates the final peak of
catenary action by 21%. However, it has good agreement
with the test result for the fracture for both bottom and
top reinforcement. The FEM model also provides good
matching with the test for horizontal deflection of the
edge column, which verifies the modelling of the restraint
(Figure 4). The damage patterns of concrete (cracking and
spalling) are also replicated in the model (Figure 5).
The validation results from S2 have good agreement

2.3 Boundary conditions

In the actual tests, the boundary restraints were
simulated by connections between the column stubs at the
ends of the internal beams and the steel supports which
were rigidly fixed to the strong floor. However,
horizontal forces in the supports were not measured.
Instead, linear variable displacement transducers
(LVDTs) were arranged to measure horizontal
movements of the supports (Figure 2(a)). The actual
lateral deformations of the column stubs are extrapolated
from the readings of the LVDTs and are used to compare
with those predicted from the numerical models. For
simplicity, it is assumed that the connections between the
column stubs and the steel supports are rigid to ensure
rotational restraint of the beam-column joint. Besides, the
horizontal restraint of the joint at each beams end is
simulated by horizontal springs connected to the centre of
the column stub. The stiffness of the horizontal spring is
selected based on the strength of the steel supports, which

with the test for the load-carrying capacity (Figure 6). At

large-deformation stage, the formation of tensile net in
the centre and compressive ring near the slabs edges are
observed in the numerical model (Figure 7). The model
also successfully replicates the actual failure modes that
occurred in the test, i.e. punching shear failure around the
middle column and fracture of internal beams bottom
rebars near the middle column (Figure 8 & Figure 9). That
684

Pham et al.

is to say, the FEM tool is reliable in representing the

actual tests of middle column removal for the grillage of
Rebarfracture

RC beams (T2) and beam-slab systems (S2).

Vertical Displacement (mm)
10

80

60

40

20

2
0

-20

50

100

-40
-60

150
200
250
Applied load - test
Applied load - FEM
Horizontal disp. - test
Horizontal disp. - FEM

300

Horizontal disp (mm)

12

100

Applied load (kN)

120

Figure 8. Damages of concrete and rebars

-2
-4

Punching

-6

shear

-8

-80

Figure 4. Validation results of T2

rebars fracture

Figure 9. Punching shear failure

3 COMBINED EFFECTS OF BEAMS AND SLABS

UNDER COLUMN LOSS SCENARIO

3.1 Concentrated and uniformly distributed loads

Figure 5. Failure modes of T2

Based on the validated models for quasi-static case,

parametric studies are conducted and the results are
presented in this part. The development and the influence
of both catenary and tensile membrane actions are
investigated for two loading cases, namely, concentrated
load (CL) and uniform distributed load (UDL) conditions.
Three types of structural systems are compared to one
another including beam-only, slab-only and beam-slab
systems. The beam-only and the beam-slab models are
similar to T2 and S2, respectively. The slab-only model
has similar edge beams and slab extension compared to
S2 but does not have internal beams. For the slab-only
and the beam-slab models, horizontal springs are
arranged along the edges to represent horizontal restraints
in actual buildings. The models of these systems are
shown in Figure 10.

Displacement (mm)
Applied load (kN)

200
150
100
50

S2 - Test
S2 - FEM

0
0

100

200

Figure 6. Validation results of S2

Compressive ring

Tensile net

Figure 7. Tensile and compressive zones

a) Slab-only model
Figure 10. FEM models

685

b) Beam-slab model

Pham et al.

the beam-slab system is the total value from the

beam-only and slab-only structures.
(1)
2
where
and
are the negative and positive
moment capacity per unit width of the slab (similar for
both directions).
(2)
2 2

Under the condition of concentrated load acting at the

middle column, structural responses of the three systems
are presented in Figure 11. For the slab-only model, the
maximum deformation is small due to early punching
shear failure. The effect from tensile membrane action is
very limited. For the beam-only system, catenary action
starts kicking in at the deformation of one beams depth,
and develops during the phase after bottom rebars have
fractured. For the beam-slab model, not only structural
capacity increases compared to the slab-only model, but
also the maximum deformation increases because
punching shear occurs later due to shear strength
contribution from the internal beams. Additionally, its
maximum displacement is similar to the displacement of
the beam-only structure at the time when the bottom
rebars start fracturing. In other words, from the numerical
simulations failure modes of the beam-slab system at the
final stage are a combination of failure modes from both
the beam-only and the slab-only systems. The final peak
of its load-carrying capacity is denoted by the fracturing
of the beams bottom rebars. Up to the time before final
failure occurs in the beam-slab system, catenary action in
beams has not been remarkably mobilised because the
maximum vertical deflection is only slightly larger than
one beam depth. Nevertheless, tensile membrane action
has been significantly mobilised after the slab deflection
has exceeded one slabs thickness.

and
are the negative and positive
where
moment capacity of the internal beams (similar for both
directions).
is the clear span before the middle
column is removed.
Comparison results are presented in Table 2. It is
shown that the theoretical predictions underestimate 48 to
96% of structural capacity for the 1st peak of compressive
arch action and underestimate 77 to 113% for the last
peak of catenary and/or tensile membrane actions.
Table 2. Comparisons of structural capacity (CL condition)
Plastic hinge/ Actual response
Structures
yield line

1st peak

Last peak

28

55

196%

56

200%

Beam-only 48

71

148%

85

177%

Beam-slab

115

151%

162

213%

Slab-only

76

* Unit: kN

Displacement (mm)
Applied load (kN)

200
Beam-slab
Beam-only
Slab-only

150

Similar analyses are conducted for all three systems

under the UDL condition and the results for structural
capacity are shown in Figure 12. It is shown that the
maximum displacement of the beam-only system is
smaller than the values from both the beam-slab and the
slab-only systems.
In terms of failure modes, the beam-only structure has
a sudden drop in load-carrying capacity when the top
rebars fracture near the edge column, subsequently
leading to the total collapse. Besides, there is no sign of
catenary action mobilizing in the beam. For the slab-only
system, it is considered as the final failure when
full-depth cracks form near the edge beams and
longitudinal rebars at slab edges start fracturing. Tensile
membrane action effectively develops in the slabs
denoted by the formation of both tensile net and
compressive ring. For the beam-slab system, the failure
modes include full-depth cracks near the edge beams and
fracturing of beams top rebars at the end joints. Similar
to the CL case, in the UDL condition, the failure mode of
the beam-slab system is a combination of failure modes
from both the beam-only and the slab-only systems.
Moreover, top rebars in beams from the beam-slab
system fracture later compared to those from the
beam-only system. This is due to the T-beam effect in the

100
50
0
0

50

100

150

200

250

300

Figure 11. Structural responses under CL condition

In normal design, the yield-line mechanism is a

convenient lower-bound approach to calculate structural
capacity of RC slab systems. However, this method is too
conservative when applied to progressive collapse
analysis. In this study, comparisons are made between the
actual capacity and the values obtained from normal
design methods using plastic-hinge and yield-line
theories. For the slab-only case, it is assumed that the
yield-line pattern has circular segments for punching
shear resistance. Therefore, the yield-line load is
calculated following Eq. (1) proposed by Park & Gamble
(2000). For the beam-only system, plastic hinges are
developed at two ends of each beam to form a collapse
mechanism and the maximum load based on plastic
theory is derived by Eq. (2). The theoretical capacity of

686

Pham et al.

the restraint condition has significant influence on the

structural response of the beam-only system, especially
the mobilization of catenary action at the final stage. In
the beam-slab structure, the first peak of compressive
membrane action from rigid restraint condition is 17%
large than the one from zero restraint condition.
However, there is almost no difference between the two
restraint conditions for the last peak before the structure
fails. That is to say, the restraint stiffness has only little
effect on compressive membrane action and hardly any
effect on tensile membrane action. In fact, the formation
of the peripheral compressive ring has provided enough
restraint for the mobilisation of tensile forces at the
central net.

beam-slab system. Tensile membrane action is also

shown to develop in the beam-slab structure.
Displacement

Applied load (kN)

600

Beam-slab
Slab-only
Beam-only

500
400
300
200
100
0
0

50

100

150

200

Figure 12. Structural responses under UDL condition

Displacement (mm)

200

Rigid restraint
150

k=5e4kN/m
Zero restraint

100
50
0
0

50

100

150

200

250

300

Figure 13. Effect of restraint stiffness under CL (beam-only)

Displacement (mm)

200
160

(4)

Applied load (kN)

Applied load (kN)

Comparisons between analytical predictions using

plastic/yield-line theories and the numerical predictions
are also conducted for the UDL condition. The ultimate
capacity of the slab-only system is calculated by Eq. (3)
assuming that the yield-line pattern includes four
triangular segments whereas the one for the beam-only
system is derived by Eq. (4). Similar to the CL condition,
the results from UDL condition (Table 3) clearly show the
conservatism of the analytical predictions compared to
the actual load-carrying capacity of the structures.
(3)
24

120

Table 3. Comparisons of structural capacity (UDL condition)

80
Rigid restraint
k=5e4kN/m
Zero restraint

40
Plastic hinge/ Actual response
Structures
yield line

1st peak

Last peak

85

203

239%

328

386%

Beam-only 96

137

143%

N.A

Beam-slab

357

197%

491

Slab-only

181

0
0

50

100

150

Figure 14. Effect of restraint stiffness under CL (beam-slab)

271%

For the beam-slab system, failure modes of all

restraint cases are similar, which include the fracture of
bottom rebars in the interior beams at the interface with
the removed column together with punching shear failure
at the middle of the affected slab. Hence, the behaviour of
the beam-slab system against middle column removal
under CL condition does not benefit from catenary action
from the top rebars of the interior beams due to early
failure of the slab compared to the beam-only system. In
terms of horizontal restraint, the numerical predictions
show that it only affects the first peak of compressive
membrane action and almost has no influence on the
subsequent part of tensile membrane action. Therefore,
the beam-slab system is less influenced by the stiffness of
the horizontal restraint.
Similar simulations are conducted using the UDL
condition and the results are shown in Figure 15 and Figure
16. For the beam-only system, horizontal restraints only

3.2 Effect of boundary restraint to the mobilization of

catenary and tensile membrane actions
To study the sensitiveness of both catenary and tensile
membrane actions to the support restraint conditions,
several values of spring stiffness are chosen including
zero stiffness, perfectly rigid, and 50,000 kN/m. Two
models are employed for the study, i.e. the beam-only
and the beam-slab models. Both the CL and the UDL
conditions are considered.
The results from different restraint cases using CL
conditions are presented in Figure 13 and Figure 14 for
the beam-only and the beam-slab modes, respectively. In
the beam-only structure, the difference in terms of the
first peak of compressive arch action between rigid and
zero restraint conditions are 29%. For the last peak before
the top rebars fracture, the difference is 109%. Therefore,

687

Pham et al.

pseudo-static response which represents maximum

dynamic displacement with regard to a certain level of
dynamic load applied. The maximum value from this
curve denotes the ultimate progressive collapse load that
the structure can sustain. It can be used to compare with
the load partial safety factors defined from guidelines for
progressive collapse, such as the combination values of
1.2 for dead load and 0.5 for live load prescribed in the
DOD (2013). In this study, the Izzuddins method is used
to convert the static response of specimen S2 into a
pseudo-static response. As a result, the maximum
progressive collapse load of S2 acting on the middle
column is 126 kN. To investigate the effect of blast loads,
a series of dynamic analyses which consider a real
detonation scenario at the middle column is carried out.
The detonation is assumed at 750 mm below the bottom
surface of the slab. The Load_blast function integrated in
LS-Dyna is employed to calculate the blast pressure and
to assign this effect to the bottom surfaces of the
structure. The detonation is defined as spherical air-burst.
The imposed load level at the top of the middle column is
kept unchanged as 100 kN which is equal to 79% of the
predicted dynamic capacity. Several charge weights are
used including 1, 2 and 4 kg of equivalent TNT.
Additionally, one free-fall dynamic analysis (without
blast) is also conducted as a baseline for comparison. At
the beginning of the analysis, the explosive is activated
and lasts only for a few milliseconds. Under the blast
pressure, the slab system starts to deform upwards. At the
moment it attains the maximum uplift deflection, gravity
load and imposed load are applied. Then, the structure
starts oscillating and gradually obtains its equilibrium
position.
The numerical results for displacement time-history
are presented in Figure 17. It clearly shows a remarkable
increase in deformation between the case without blast
effect and those with blast effect. The structure can only
survive after a sudden loss of the middle column if the
charge weight is not greater than 1 kg of TNT. For 2 and
4 kg of TNT, the slab system fails to resist the given
applied load and totally collapses. Figure 18 describes the
response and the damages of the models under blast
effects at the moment when the slab attains its maximum
uplift movement. As observed, the structure attacked by 4
kg of TNT has the most severe damage for both the slab
and the internal beams in the vicinity of the middle
column. On the other hand, the structures with 1 and 2 kg
of TNT only sustain minor and moderate damages caused
by the blast loads.

affect the initial stage of compressive arch action. The

difference between rigid and zero restraints at this stage is
30%. For the last peak before top rebars fracture, there is
no difference for all three cases of restraint and also no
sign of catenary action. Therefore, the restraint condition
has noticeable influence on the structural response of the
beam-only structure under UDL condition for
compressive arch action only. In the beam-slab system,
the first peak of compressive membrane action from the
rigid restraint is 25% greater than the value from the zero
restraint. Nonetheless, there is almost no difference in the
last peak before the structures fail. Hence, it is concluded
that the restraint stiffness only has noticeable effect on
compressive membrane action but has no effect on tensile
membrane action under UDL condition.
Displacement (mm)

Applied load (kN)

120

80

80
40

40

0
-40 0

20

40

60

80

100 120 140 160

-40

-80
-80

-120
-160

Applied load - Rigid restraint

Applied load - k=5e4kN/m
Applied load - Zero restraint
Horizontal reaction - Zero restraint
Horizontal reaction - k=5e4kN/m
Horizontal reaction - Rigid restraint

Horizontal reaction (kN)

120

160

-120

Applied load (kN)

Figure 15. Effect of restraint stiffness under UDL (beam-only)

Displacement (mm)

600
500
400
300
200
100
0

Rigid restraint
k=5e4kN/m
Zero restraint

20

40

60

80 100 120 140 160

Figure 16. Effect of restraint stiffness under UDL (beam-slab)

4 EFFECT OF BLAST UNDER DYNAMIC

CONDITION
Since progressive collapse is truly a dynamic
phenomenon, structural dynamic analysis is compulsory
in the design procedure. For the sake of simplicity, the
dynamic load-carrying capacity of a structure under
progressive collapse can be investigated through its
nonlinear static response using some simplified
assessment methods such as the energy-based approach
proposed by Izzuddin et al. (2008). Based on the
assumption of energy conservation, this method
transforms the nonlinear static response into a
688

Pham et al.

Horizontal restraint has significant influence on the

beams behaviour for both compressive arch and catenary
actions. However, it has only some small effect on the
beam-slab system for the 1st peak of compressive
membrane action and has almost no influence on the final
capacity of tensile membrane mechanism.
When the blast loads are taken into account, the
structural capacity of the beam-slab system is
significantly reduced due to initial damages caused by
blast pressure. The threat-independent assumption of a
single column being notionally removed is then no longer
conservative.

Time (ms)
Displacement (mm)

50
0
-50

200

400

600

800

1000

-100
-150
-200
-250

Free-fall
Blast 2 kg TNT

Blast 1 kg TNT
Blast 4 kg TNT

Figure 17. Dynamic response of the slab structure

4 kg TNT

REFERENCES
Bailey, C. G. 2001. Membrane action of unrestrained lightly
reinforced concrete slabs at large displacements.
Engineering Structures 23(5): 470-483.
Bao, Y., Lew, H. S. & Kunnath, S. K. 2014. Modeling of
Reinforced Concrete Assemblies under Column-Removal
Scenario. Journal of Structural Engineering 140(1):
04013026.
Department of Defense (DOD) 2013. Design of buildings to
resist progressive collapse, Unified Facilities Criteria (UFC)
4-023-03. Washington, D.C
Hallquist, J. O. (2007). LS-DYNA Keyword Users Manual
Version 971. Livermore Software Technology Corporation.
Izzuddin, B., Vlassis, A., Elghazouli, A. & Nethercot, D. 2008.
Progressive collapse of multi-storey buildings due to sudden
column lossPart I: Simplified assessment framework.
Engineering Structures 30(5): 1308-1318.
Park, R. (1964). Tensile membrane behaviour of uniformly
loaded rectangular reinforced concrete slabs with fully
restrained edges. Magazine of Concrete Research 16(46):
39-44.
Park, R. & Gamble, W. L. (2000). Reinforced concrete slabs,
John Wiley & Sons.
Pham, A. T. & Tan, K. H. (2015). Numerical studies on
reinforced concrete sub-structures under progressive
collapse caused by contact detonation. The Fifth
International Conference on Design and Analysis of
Protective Structures (DAPS2015) May 19-21 2015.
Singapore.
Qian, K., Li, B. & Ma, J.-X. 2014. Load-carrying mechanism
to resist progressive collapse of RC buildings. Journal of
Structural Engineering 141(2): 04014107.
Sadek, F., Main, J. A., Lew, H. S. & Bao, Y. 2011. Testing and
Analysis of Steel and Concrete Beam-Column Assemblies
under a Column Removal Scenario. Journal of Structural
Engineering 137(9): 881-892.
Sasani, M. & Kropelnicki, J. 2008. Progressive collapse
analysis of an RC structure. The Structural Design of Tall
and Special Buildings 17(4): 757-771.
Yi, W.-J., He, Q.-F., Xiao, Y. & Kunnath, S. K. (2008).
Experimental study on progressive collapse-resistant
behavior of reinforced concrete frame structures. ACI
Structural Journal 105(4).
Yu, J. & Tan, K.-H. (2013). Experimental and numerical
investigation on progressive collapse resistance of reinforced
concrete beam column sub-assemblages. Engineering
Structures 55(0): 90-106.

2 kg TNT

1 kg TNT

Figure 18. Effects of blast loads at maximum uplift deformation

5 CONCLUSIONS
Although catenary action is shown to provide
significant enhancement in terms of load-carrying
capacity for skeletal beam-column structures, it has
almost no influence for beam-slab models for both the CL
and the UDL conditions due to early failure of the slab
systems. On the other hand, tensile membrane action can
be efficiently mobilised because the final deformation is
up to three times the slabs thickness. Therefore, at the
final failure of the slab, the beam system only has flexural
contribution to the overall bearing capacity.

689

11th International Conference on

Advances in Steel and Concrete Composite Structures
Tsinghua University, Beijing, China, December 3-5, 2015

INELASTIC POSTBUCKLING PERFORMANCE OF STEEL

BRACED MOMENT RESISTING FRAME SYSTEM WITH AND
WITHOUT COMPOSITE FLOOR SLAB
M. Lotfollahia,b, M. M. Aliniaa & E. Taciroglub
a

Department of Civil Engineering, Amirkabir University of Technology, Tehran, Iran

E-mail: mehrdad.lotfollahi@gmail.com
b

Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of California, Los Angeles, CA 90095, USA
ABSTRACT

Keywords:
Braced moment resisting
frame; Composite floor slab;
Diagonal bracing and X-bracing;
Finite element; Ductility; Energy.

The inelastic performance and post buckling behavior of steel braced moment resisting frames
(BMRFs) with and without composite floor slab are discussed. The main focus in this research
will be on global and local responses from the beginning loading step till the ultimate state of
the system while different gusset-brace configurations (viz., diagonal bracing and X-bracing)
with dissimilar gusset plate types and sizes are considered. An accurate high fidelity
three-dimensional finite element modeling approach of the proposed systems is firstly developed
and validated against available experimental data. The Eigen buckling analysis are performed to
predict the buckling mode shapes and strengths, and the most appropriate brace imperfection to
initiate the post-buckling behavior of each BMRF system is evaluated. The results of stiffness,
strength, and ductility of the aforementioned system are then appraised, and the energy
dissipation ratios and distributions in different performance levels and for different system
constituents of the above systems are calculated. Furthermore, the results for local behavior, i.e.,
plastic equivalent strain, in the critical locations of each system are also compared and reported.
Finally, the effect of concrete floor slab on the proposed balanced design criteria of BMRF
systems are practically determined.

realistic approach between the modeling stages and the

constructed structure should be implemented.
Recent researches have demonstrated the use of finite
element models for evaluation the effect of concrete floor
slab on the nonlinear behavior of the SCBFs with single
story diagonal bracing (Yoo et al. 2008a) and multi-story
X-braced frame systems (Yoo et al. 2009).
The more recent works have considered the
experimental set up for evaluation the effect of composite
floor on the behavior of braced frame systems. Roeder et
al. (2010) conducted three full-scale, two-story
concentrically braced frames in the multi-story X-braced
configuration including rectangular and tapered gusset
plate connections for both HSS and wide-flange brace
sections in which the frame was reused and only the
gusset plate and braces were replaced. The test
illuminated on some issues for the mid-span gusset plate
connections: (i) the performance of mid span gusset plate
connection did meet the expectation obtained from the
numerical simulation, (ii) the edge stiffeners provide
adequate stability at the mid connection but resulted in
less effective performance than the corner gusset plate
connections. Moreover, they added considerable costs
and increased the complexity of the connection response.

1 INTRODUCTION
Special concentrically braced frames (SCBFs) are
common lateral resisting system specifically in high
seismic zone. SCBFs provide economically high stiffness
and strength which can assure serviceability and
operability during small frequent earthquakes almost
through the elastic stiffness of the gusset-brace system.
However, they have lower ductility capacity than the
special moment frame systems (SMFs). During large
infrequent earthquakes the system resist greater demand,
which results in tensile yielding and post buckling
inelastic deformation or even plasticity across the gusset
plates. However, by the severe earthquakes, the
deformation capacity is reached and the system should
tolerate extensive deformation leading to the brace
fracturing as initial and desirable failure mode and/or
gusset weld tearing. The frame members must tolerate
inelastic deformation to assure life safety and collapse
prevention prior to brace fracture. All the above
performance requirements should be appropriately
implemented through a well-design SCBFs. Thus, the
frame modeling should have adequate accuracy, and also

690

Lotfollahi et al.

X-BMRF systems, and the effect of concrete floor slab on

the higher modes of buckling deformation of such
systems is omitted here for brevity.

However, the results of this study showed better

distribution of inelastic deformation between the two
stories than expected.
The research conducted by Lumpkin et al. (2012) on
two three-story SCBFs presented a new design approach
for the mid span gusset plate connections. The braces had
HSS or wide-flange braces with typical framing members
and gusset plate were design in regions of high
seismicity. Composite and concrete slab were placed on
each floor. The test were detailed using the previous
balanced designed approach to balance the desired yield
mechanisms to from yielding hierarchy. The results show
that the SCBF with proper design detailing exhibit good
inelastic seismic performance. The test provided design
recommendation for SCBF with a thinner more compact
corner gusset plates, a rational method for the
dimensioning the mid span gusset plates, and a balanced
design procedure for enhanced ductility.
More importantly, the previous balanced design
approach of SCBFs proposed by Lehman et al. (2008)
and then by Roeder et al. (2011) were obtained form the
numerical and experimental research plans, wherein for
the most cases, the effect of concrete floor slab is
excluded from the system modeling. As a result, the
influence of composite floor on the inelastic stress and
strain demands of the corner and middle gusset plate
connections have been also considered through the
parametric sensitivity study of such systems with separate
research works as explained above (e.g., Yoo et al.
2008a, Yoo et al. 2009). Nonetheless, a well-balanced
design criteria of SCBF system should be included the
effect of floor slab, since the modeling can affect the
inelastic deformation capacity and proposed balanced
design criteria of the braced frame systems.
The most recent research work has been implied on
the nonlinear behavior and post buckling response of
braced moment resisting frames (BMRFs) as an
alternative structural systems that have both
advantageous of SCBFs and SMFs (Lotfollahi et al.
2015). More specifically, the effect of BMRF systems
with and without composite floor slab have been
considered during design, modeling and analyses up to
the proposing new and improved balanced design criteria
of such systems. In this study, we aim to investigate more
details about this fact that is deliberated during the
nonlinear post buckling behavior of BMRFs via diagonal
and X-bracing systems, namely, diagonally braced
moment resisting frame (DBMRF) and X-braced moment
resisting frame (X-BMRF) with and without the
composite floor slab, which is employed to present the
balanced dissipative behavior of BMRF systems. The
effect of composite floor on the nonlinear post buckling
behavior of such systems with the consideration of global
and local responses are also compared and discussed.
Note that the results of this study is presented for the first
mode of buckling deformation of the DBMRF and

2 NUMERICAL MODELING
The finite element (FE) analysis package ABAQUS
(2010) was used during all modal, pushover and cyclic
analyses. The frame members, gusset plates and brace
elements were all modeled using the four node doubly
curved general purpose element with reduced integration
and hourglass control (S4R), which is appropriate for
modeling thin to moderately thick steel sections and has
six degrees of freedom at each of its nodes. The reduced
integration option was used because it provides
adequately accurate results and significantly reduces
run-times, which is a major concern for the detailed
three-dimensional finite element models (3D-FEMs) used
in the present study. A large displacement formulation
was used to simulate buckling and von Mises yield
criterion was considered for plasticity propagation
through the system.
Through the nonlinear analysis in this paper, two
complementary analyses for calculation of the buckling
mode shape, buckling load and post buckling behavior of
the above systems are performed. The Eigen buckling
analysis was conducted to obtain the buckling mode
shape of each BMRF system. The mode shapes were then
scaled with properly chosen "imperfection amplitude" to
generate the initial diagonal bracing and X-bracing
geometry of the gusset-brace subsystems. The subsequent
nonlinear FE analyses need the brace initial imperfection

(a) DBMRF without slab

(b) X-BMRF without slab

(c) DBMRF with slab

(d) X-BMRF with slab

Figure 1. Illustration of the DBMRF and X-BMRF systems with

and without the composite floor slab.

691

Lotfollahi et al.

along with geometric and material nonlinearity to

accurately capture the post buckling behavior of each
BMRF system.
For the models without the slab, the lateral load are
applied to the beam-to-column connection as shown in
Figure 1(a, b); and are gradually increased from zero to a
magnitude beyond the ultimate state of the system. Also,
models including a concrete floor slab are loaded through
the slab, see Figure 1(c, d). Shear connections between
the composite slab and steel beam are modeled as shared
nodes at approximately 250 mm intervals. The slab is not
connected to the beam flange along the length of the
corner gusset plate. To simulate the fixed condition of the
columns, the bottom nodes of both columns flanges and
webs are restrained from the movement in all directions.
To replicate the constraints imposed by slab of the story
floors, the out-of-plane displacements of top flange of top
beams are restrained. Also, the constraints imposed by the
composite floor is simulated by restraining part of
column passed through the composite diaphragms from
out-of-plane movements.
The composite floor slab is considered as 250 mm
thick concrete slab reinforced with 0.5% steel fiber, and
with 1750 mm width and 3795 mm length. The slab is
simulated using elastic solid elements with stiffness equal
to the elastic modulus of concrete. The slab elements are
modeled with approximately 62.5 mm dimensions in all
directions (length, width, and thickness). The applied
lateral load is transferred through the slab to the frame.
The ASTM A501, A572, A992 are considered for the
brace element, gusset plate and frame members as
considered in the previous research work (Lehman et al.
2008). The uniaxial stress-strain diagrams for these three
types of steel (all with E = 250 GPa and = 0.3) are
shown in Fig 2. The stress-strain are piecewise linear and
the date points are obtained from a best fit of
Ramberg-Osgood formula and transition region from the
elastic to plastic behavior was kept highly refined in order
to improve numerical convergence in the simulations.
The yield stress for the brace, gusset brace and frame
members are 345, 415, and 420 MPa, respectively, and
isotropic and kinematic hardening rules are adopted for
monotonic and cyclic analyses of all models, respectively.

Figure 2. Stress-strain backbone diagrams for the brace element,

gusset plate and frame members of the BMRF systems.
Table 1. Gusset-brace subsystem of HSS1 system (Lehman et al.
2008).
G.P.
size*
863.6767

G.P.
thickness*
12.8

Clearance
requirement
2t=25.6

Brace-to-gusset
welding length
374.7

Brace
length
3479

*) all dimensions are in mm; G.P.: gusset plate.

Table 2. Material properties of the HSS1 system constituents.

Thickness*

Beam
web: 8.8
flange: 14.3
410

Yield stress
Tensile
516
Strength
Mat. standard
A992
*) all dimension are in mm.

3 VALIDATION AND VERIFICATION

Experimental program conducted by Lehman et al.
(2008) were used for validating the FE analysis procedure,
the mesh sizes, and the boundary conditions. A particular
specimen from their experiments, dubbed "HSS1," was
modeled and analyzed (see Fig. 1) in this study using the
previously reduced integrated shell element (S4R). The
geometry of the gusset-brace system of the test specimen
is presented in Table 1, and the material properties and
member thicknesses are shown in Table 2.

692

Column
Gusset
web: 10.9
12.8
flange: 17.02
413
820

Brace
9.5
482

505

875

529

A992

A572

A500

Two different beam-to-column connections types

were also considered for the HSS1 model during the
modeling and analyses. The first type was the rigid
beam-to-column connection at the beams end with the
gusset plate connection, and the simple beam-to-column
connection was used at the beams end without the gusset
plate connection. The rigid connections were modeled by
merging the nodes between the beam (flanges and web)
and their corresponding nodes on the column flanges with
the aim of mimicking complete joint penetration welds
for the beam flanges and web, and supplemental fillet
weld between the column web and the shear tab. The
simple connections were modeled by using nonlinear
spring models to model the beam-to-column shear-tab
connection. At each bolt location, nonlinear translational
spring elements were imposed to connect the beam web
and shear tab in the global directions. The initial yielding
was defined by the bolt bearing capacity and the post
yield resistance was defined by the bolt shear capacity.
The appropriate nonlinear stiffness of the above springs
was selected using the previous cyclic inelastic
deformation tests on shear-tab connections conducted by
Liu & Astaneh Asl (2000).
The validation study of the above simple and rigid
connections through the HSS1 model is discussed in this
section; however, the verified rigid connection is then
adopted through the forthcoming sections in this study
implemented at the both ends of beams of the proposed

Lotfollahi et al.

above procedure can be confidently extended to the

BMRF systems as presented in the forthcoming sections
of this paper. More explanations of these results can be
seen through the previous researches of the authors
(Lotfollahi et al. 2011a, b).

DBMRF and X-BMRF systems for subsequent steps of

the 3D-FEMs of such systems.
In a successive numerical simulations different mesh

4 BMRF SYSTEMS WITH AND WITHOUT SLAB

(a) Mesh refinement study

(b) Experiment vs. 3D FEM

Figure 3. Mesh refinement study and comparison between

experiment (Lehman et al. 2008) and proposed 3D-FEM.
Table 3. Specifications of the considered BMRF systems.

Model
D-1.0-14-w/ S
D-1.0-14 -w/o S
X-1.0-11.5-w/ S
X-1.0-11.5-w/o S

Abrace
AX-bracing
20.2
20.2
9.3
9.3

Ibrace
IX-bracing
195.7
195.7
33.4
33.4

Composite
Slab
37951750
--37951750
---

G.P.
Dimension
654.4620.8
654.4620.8
243.2 264.4
243.2 264.4

refinement levels were considered to determine the

optimal mesh sizes and distribution. Using an
imperfection magnitude of L/750 = 4.6 mm three
different mesh refinement levels were considered. In each
level of mesh refinement, the mesh sizes was varied
independently within the gusset-brace system and the
beam/column sections. The maximum FE mesh size of
12.512.5 mm, 2525 mm, and 37.537.5 mm for the
gusset-brace system were used with the corresponding
mesh sizes of 2020 mm, 4040 mm, and 6060 mm for
the beam/column sections. The results for these three
mesh arrangements are shown in Figure 3(a). The
maximum FE size of 2525 mm for the gusset-brace
system and 4040 mm for the beam/column sections
were selected for the subsequent section of this study.
The computed force-displacement relationships for
the rigid and simple beam-to-column connections are
shown in Figure 3(b). The results display a maximum of
5.3% difference in the compression phase between the
previous test and current 3D-FEM of the proposed system.
The results also reveal that using the rigid connections at
both beam ends (i.e., as indicated by BMRF system)
compared with corresponding SCBF system comprising
rigid and simple connections (i.e., as represented by
HSS1 test model) results in almost similar post buckling
response (less than 3.0% difference). However, the local
response in the form of von Mises stress distribution and
equivalent plastic strain variation may have a
considerable difference, which results in different failure
modes occurrence. This paper is focused on the BMRF
systems with rigid beam-to-column connection.
Note that the results of validation and verification
procedure are also summarized here for the sake of
brevity; however, the validation results obtained from the

693

With the aim of developing a systematic procedure

that can evaluate the effect of the concrete floor slab on
the nonlinear behavior of BMRF systems, a number of
single-story, single bay DBMRF and X-BMRF systems
with width-to-height ratio of 1.0 (B/H = 1.0, where H =
3.5 m) and gusset-brace systems comprising hollow
square section (HSS) of diagonal bracing and X-bracing
systems are designed according to the AISC 341-10
(2010) provisions and AISC 360-10 (2010) rules. The
gusset-brace subsystem of DBMRF and X-BMRF
systems are designed according to the "special
concentrically braced frame requirements," through
which the brace is assumed to accommodate the
excessive nonlinear deformation due to the brace post
buckling effect. The corner gusset plates for both
DBMRF and X-BMRF systems are designed according to
the linear clearance rectangular gusset plate connections
and the middle gusset plate connection are also designed
according to the through plate mid connection detail.
Beams and columns are designed according to the
"special moment resisting frame requirements" in order to
allow plastic hinge propagation to occur through the
gusset-brace system, such that they can resist the
corresponding forces from the gusset-brace subsystem
and remain stable. Also, due to the strong-column, weak
beam design criteria, plastic hinges are only allowed to
from at the beam ends and at the lower ends of columns;
so that, the system could maintain stability even after full
or partial mechanism formation within the gusset-brace
system.
The frames of DBMRF and X-BMRF systems are
identical, and have W1022, and W1245 sections for
the beams, and columns, respectively; but they have
different gusset-brace configurations designed according
to the current seismic provisions. In order to make logical
comparison between different gusset-brace configurations
of BMRF systems with and without the concrete slab, the
gusset-brace subsystem for each DBMRF and X-BMRF
are designed according to the constant demandto-capacity ratio, and the axial capacity of corner gusset
plate connections are set exactly equal to the expected
axial capacity of diagonal bracing and X-bracing systems.
Note that here each model is tagged by the
gusset-brace configuration (D or X), width-to-height ratio
(B/H) of the frame, gusset plate thickness (in mm), and
the state of BMRF with or without composite floor slab
(w/ S or w/o S), as presented in Table 3.

Lotfollahi et al.

5 NONLINEAR POST BUCKLING BEHAVIOR

are appraised and the results are compared together in this

study. For the DBMRF system, the plastic hinge
formation in the middle of buckled diagonal (y1), gusset
plate plasticity (y2 ), panel zone yielding (y3), plastic
hinge formation in the beams (y4), and ultimate state of
the system (max) are calculated for the yielding
propagation in the DBMRF system. For the X-BMRF
system, in addition to the above ductilities, tensile
yielding of the X-bracing diagonals (y2) are also
included, and the results are used to evaluate the yielding
hierarchy of the X-BMRF system.

The nonlinear post buckling behavior of BMRF

(a) DBMRF system

(b) X-BMRF system

Figure 4. Lateral load vs. displacement curves for the BMRFs.

systems having different gusset-brace configurations

(DBMRF or X-BMRF) with and without the concrete
slab are defined and the results are summarized in two
different global and local behavior as follows:

5.1 Stiffness and strength

The nonlinear post buckling behavior of BMRF
systems with and without composite floor slab are shown
in Figure 4. The results show that the composite floor can
increase the stiffness of the system by 9.1% and 5.4% for
DBMRF and X-BMRF systems, respectively. Also, the
buckling displacement of the system with slab decreases
by 5.7% and 2.3% for DBMRF and X-BMRF,
respectively. Moreover, the post buckling strength of the
system is increased by 1.9% and 1.2% for DBMRF and
X-BMRF systems, respectively, when the slab are applied.
The results also show that the ultimate strength of BMRF
systems with and without the concrete slab are almost the
same.
The results reveal that the gusset plate thickness have
minor effect on the nonlinear behavior of the BMRF
systems, but on the other hand, the gusset-brace to
moment frame rigidity ratio has superior effect than the
gusset plate thickness on the post buckling performance
of such systems. Figure 5 shows that the ultimate strength
of DBMRF and X-BMRF systems with and without
composite floor is less affected from the gusset plate
thickness. These results show that the maximum increase
of 57% and 34% for the gusset plate thickness of
DBMRF and X-BMRF systems can increase the ultimate
strength of the BMRF systems with/without the concrete
floor slab around 8.2%/6.9% and 1.3%/1.6%,
respectively.

5.2 Ductility
In this section, the calculated ductilities for possible
yield mechanisms and probable failure modes of the
BMRFs with and without the composite floor are
discussed.

5.2.1 Yielding propagation

The ductility values for different nonlinear
performance levels of the DBMRF and X-BMRF systems

694

(a) DBMRF system

(b) X-BMRF system

Figure 5. Gusset plate thickness vs. ultimate state of the BMRFs.

(a) DBMRF system

(b) X-BMRF system

Figure 6. Ductility for various performance levels of the BMRFs.

Figure 6 presents the above results for BMRF systems

with and without concrete floor slab. The results show
that the use of composite slab can increase the ductility of
multiple secondary yield mechanisms; however, the
continuity of yielding formation for different levels of
nonlinear performance are kept constant, and the
variation for each level of yielding formation are almost
continuously constant. The use of composite slab in
DBMRF system results in maximum 14.2%, and 7.1%
increase of ductility for the yielding mechanisms
formation of the gusset-brace and moment frame
subsystems, respectively. These results in X-BMRF
system are respectively 16.2% decrease and 7.8%
increase of ductility for the yield mechanisms formation
of the gusset-brace and moment frame subsystems. The
reason of reduced ductility for the gusset-brace system is
getting conversion of the buckling deformation mode
shape from the discontinuous diagonal buckling of
X-BMRF without the slab to the continuous diagonal
buckling of X-BMRF with the slab. This may delay the
gusset plate plasticity of the X-BMRF system without the
slab due to the incomplete buckling of discontinuous
diagonal.
Alternatively, the increase of ductility for the ultimate
state of DBMRF and X-BMRF systems with slab

Lotfollahi et al.

different locations of DBMRF and X-BMRF systems are

calculated from the results of cyclic analysis (cf. Yoo et al.
2008b) as shown in Figure 8. Figure 7 presents the
percentage variation of the equivalent plastic strain at
different locations of BMRFs with the slab compared to
the values of this parameters at similar locations of
BMRFs without the slab. The results show that the use of
composite floor slab results in the increase of the values
of this parameter in the middle of buckled brace (Mid. of
brace) by 6.1% (11.4%) and reentrant corner of gusset
plate to the beams (G.P. to beam) by 18.6% (62.8%) for
DBMRF (X-BMRF) systems. Also, the use of composite

compared with the system without the slab is 8.1% and

6.3%. These results correspond to the maximum ductility
of 15.1, and 13.9 for DBMRF system with and without
the slab as well as 13.4 and 12.6 for X-BMRF system
with and without the slab.
The above results reveal that proposing a balanced
design criteria for BMRF systems are independent than
the concrete slab, and thus, any proposed criteria for the
systems with composite slab can be effectively
implemented to the systems without composite floor slab.

5.2.2 Failure occurrence

Figure 6, on the other hand, demonstrates the ductility
of the failure occurrence of the BMRF systems with and
without composite floor slab (f1). As can be seen from
the results, the slab cannot significantly alter the results
of failure mode occurrence in DBMRF system, since the
buckling mode shape of DBMRFs with and without the
slab are almost the same. Moreover, the slab cannot
increase the values of stress/strain concentration in the
critical locations of DBMRF as much as it occurs in the
X-BMRFs when the cyclic responses of BMRF systems
are obtained. However, in X-BMRF system with (without)
the composite floor slab, the failure modes are occurred
before (after) the ultimate state of the system. This is
because of the fact that the floor slab can alter the
buckling mode shape from discontinuous diagonal
buckling into the continuous diagonal buckling. Also, the
slab can significantly increase the equivalent plastic strain
in the critical locations of X-BMRF (see Fig. 7). This is
due to the tensile diagonal action of the X-bracing system,
and smaller size of gusset plate connections, which can
affect the failure modes occurrence in the X-BMRF with
slab to be happened earlier than the ultimate state of the
system.

Figure 7. Percentage variation of the equivalent plastic strain.

(a) DBMRF system

(b) X-BMRF system

Figure 8. Typical results of the cyclic analysis for the BMRFs.

floor slab results in the decrease of the values of this

parameter in the reentrant corner of gusset plate to the
columns (G.P. to column) by 11.3% (27.6%) for DBMRF
(X-BMRF) systems.

5.3 Contribution shares of story shear

(a) DBMRF system with slab

(b) DBMRF system without slab

(a) X-BMRF system with slab

(b) X-BMRF system without slab

Figure 7. Energy dissipation (%) distribution for the BMRFs.

The equivalent plastic strain are used as an indicator

for evaluation of the above failure modes (Lotfollahi et al.
2011c). In this study the value of this parameter for
695

An alternative method to evaluate the effectiveness of

gusset-brace system is to measure the amount of absorbed
story shear. The absorbed shear forces are calculated by
means of integrating shear stresses across the moment
frame and gusset-brace subsystem at a specific level. The
two sets of curves presented in Figure 9, illustrate the
amount of shear forces carried by the gusset-brace system
in BMRF system having different gusset-brace
configuration with and without composite floor slab. The
results show that the slab can increase the gusset-brace
share of shear story in the elastic phase of BMRF system;
however, the contribution share of gusset-brace system in
the inelastic phase is not affected from the floor slab. The
maximum difference of abovementioned difference is
about 6.7%, and 3.4% at the buckling displacement of
DBMRF and X-BMRF systems, respectively. On the
other hand, the results reveal that the slab cannot alter the
moment frame share of story shear in the elastic phase,
but the contribution share of moment frame system have

Lotfollahi et al.

with composite floor slab can be confidently applied to

the system without the slab, and thus the balanced
dissipative behavior and related criteria can be effectively
evaluated through the BMRF system with the floor slab.

maximum difference of 3.4% and 2.8% after the first

point of yielding occurrence in the moment frame
members of DBMRF and X-BMRF systems, respectively.

6 CONCLUSION

(a) DBMRF system

In this paper, we aim to evaluate the effect of

composite floor slab on the nonlinear post buckling
behavior of the braced moment resisting frame (BMRF)
system with different gusset-brace configurations,
namely, diagonally braced moment resisting frame
(DBMRF) and X-braced moment resisting frame
(X-BMRF). An accurate high fidelity three-dimensional
finite element model of the above system is developed,
and then validated against available experimental data
and/or numerical simulations. The proposed FE model
are then used to evaluate the global and local responses of
BMRF systems, and the effect of concrete floor slab on
the stiffness, strength, and ductility of such systems are
evaluated. The system ductility is evaluated in two

(b) X-BMRF system

Figure 9. Load shares of story shear for the BMRFs.

The results also show that the different thicknesses of

gusset plate have the minor effect on the contribution
share of story shear, but the rigidity between the
gusset-brace and moment frame subsystems have the
superior effect on the values of contribution share of story
shear between the gusset-brace and moment frame
subsystems. Also, the gusset-brace configuration have
important effect on the load share of story shear of the
gusset-brace systems. The results show that the maximum
contribution share of story shear for the gusset-brace
systems of X-BMRF and DBMRF are respectively 286
kN and 374 kN.
More importantly, the results reveal that the slab
cannot alter the contribution shares of story shear for the
gusset-brace and moment frame subsystems. Therefore,
the values of this parameter is continuously constant; and
thus, the proposed balanced design criteria for BMRF
systems with the concrete floor slab can be extended to
the systems without the slab.

different levels including the multiple secondary yield

mechanisms and probable failure modes. Moreover, the
effect of composite floor slab on the load share of story
shear between the gusset-brace and moment frame
subsystems as well as energy dissipation ratio and
distribution of DBMRFs and X-BMRFs are sensibly
appraised. The results show that when new and improved
balanced design measures are proposed in the BMRF
systems, the results are implicitly independent from the
effect of concrete slab; and thus, any further balanced
design criteria for the BMRF systems with composite
floor slab can be expressively extended to the similar
systems without the slab, which can be executable for the
both of DBMRF and X-BMRF systems. It is noteworthy
that the effect of slab thickness is not presented herein
and omitted for brevity; so that, the value of design
thickness are considered for the composite floor slab
during the numerical modeling and analysis as well as
discussion of the results presented in this paper.
Furthermore, the effect of steel reinforcement ratio is not
evaluated in this study since the composite floor slab
through the abovementioned BMRF models are modeled
elastically, and the cracking effect of the reinforced
concrete slab; and thus, the steel reinforcement ratio are
not evaluated in this paper.

5.4 Energy dissipation ratio and distribution

Another Method to appraise the nonlinear behavior of
BMRF system and to evaluate an improved balanced
design criteria and subsequently to estimate the degree of
effectiveness of the gusset-brace system is the evaluation
of the energy dissipation ratio and distribution of the
DBMRF and X-BMRF system constituents. Figure 10
present the above results for the systems with and without
composite floor slab. The results show that the slab can
increase the energy dissipation ratio of DBMRF and
X-BMRF systems by 2.6% and 3.2%, respectively. These
results in the ultimate state of BMRF systems correspond
to the increase of 2.8% and 4.3% for the moment frame
and gusset-brace subsystems of DBMRF system and
increase of 6.3% and decrease of 3.1% for the moment
frame and gusset-brace subsystems of X-BMRF systems,
respectively.
More specifically, the continuity over the EDR
variation for different levels of nonlinear performance are
kept constant, and the variation of the energy dissipation
distribution through different BMRF system constituents
are nearly continuously constant. This can assure that any
available balanced design criteria obtained from a system

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The first author has formerly been a visiting PhD
student at the University of California, Los Angeles
(UCLA). He gratefully acknowledges the support,
including financial support, from the Department of Civil
and Environmental Engineering at UCLA.

696

Lotfollahi et al.

REFERENCES
ABAQUS Analysis Users Manual, v.6.10. 2010. Dassault
Systmes Simulia Corporation.
AISC, ANSI/AISC 341-05. 2005. Seismic Provisions for
Structural Steel Buildings, American Institute of Steel
Construction, Chicago (IL).
AISC, ANSI/AISC 360-05. 2005. Specification for Structural
Steel Buildings, American Institute of Steel Construction,
Chicago (IL).
Lehman, D.E., Roeder, C.W., Herman, D., Johnson, S. &
Kotulka, B. 2008. Improved Seismic Performance of Gusset
Plate Connections. Journal of Structural Engineering, ASCE
134(6): 890-901.
Liu, J. & Astaneh-Asl, A. 2000. Cyclic testing of simple
connections including effects of the slab. Journal of
Structural Engineering, ASCE 126(1): 32-39.
Lotfollahi, M., Alinia, M.M. & Taciroglu, E. 2015. Criteria for
balanced design of diagonally braced moment resisting
frames based on hierarchical yielding and failure sequences
and their application. Engineering Structures 87: 198-219.
Lotfollahi, M., Alinia, M.M. & Taciroglu, E. 2011a. Inelastic
buckling simulation of steel braces through explicit dynamic
analyses. Numerical Analysis and Applied Mathematics,
ICNAAM 2011, AIP Conference Proceedings 1389:
2012-2015.
Lotfollahi, M., Alinia, M.M. & Taciroglu, E. 2011b. A
validated finite element procedure for buckling simulation
of diagonally braced moment resisting frames. Numerical
Analysis & Applied Mathematics, ICNAAM 2011, AIP
Conference Proceedings 1389: 2016-2019.
Lotfollahi, M., Alinia, M.M. & Taciroglu, E. 2011c. Collapse
assessment of diagonally braced moment resisting frames.
The 2011 world congress on Advances in Structural
Engineering and Mechanics (ASEM11+), September 18-22.
Seoul, Korea.
Lumpkin, E.J., Hsiao, P.C., Roeder, C.W., Lehman, D.E., Tsai,
C.Y., Wu, A.C., Wei, C.Y. & Tsai, K.C. 2012. Investigation
of the seismic response of three-story special concentrically
braced frames. Journal of Constructional of Steel Research
77: 131-144.
Roeder, C.W., Lehman, D.E., Clark, K., Powell, J., Yoo, J.H.,
Tsai, K.C., Lin, C.H. & Wei, C.Y. 2010. Influence of gusset
plate connections and braces on the seismic performance of
X-braced frames. Earthquake Engineering and Structural
Dynamics 40(4): 355-374.
Roeder, C.W., Lumpkin, E.J. & Lehman, D.E. 2011. A balanced
design procedure for special concentrically braced frame
connections. Journal of Constructional Steel Research 67:
1760-1772.
Yoo, J.H., Roeder, C.W. & Lehman, D.E. 2008a. Influence of
connection design parameters on the seismic performance of
braced frames. Journal of Constructional Steel Research
64(6): 607-623.
Yoo, J.H., Roeder, C.W. & Lehman, D.E. 2008b. Analytical
performance simulation of special concentrically braced
frames. Journal of Structural Engineering, ASCE 134(6):
881-889.
Yoo, J.H., Roeder C.W. & Lehman DE. 2009. Simulated
behavior of multi-story X-braced frames. Engineering
Structures 31(1): 182-197.

697

11th International Conference on

Advances in Steel and Concrete Composite Structures
Tsinghua University, Beijing, China, December 3-5, 2015

TEST OF SEMI-RIGID COMPOSITE FRAME UNDER COLUMN

LOSS
L. H. Guoa, S. Gaob & M. Xuc
a

School of Civil Engineering, Harbin Institute of Technology, Heilongjiang, China

E-mail:

China Mobile Group Design Institute Co. Ltd. Hebei Branch, Hebei, China
E-mail:
c

School of Civil Engineering, Northeast Forestry University, Harbin, China

E-mail:
ABSTRACT
Keywords:
Composite structure; Semirigid connection; Material
fracture; Progressive Collapse.

The catenary action associated to significant second order effects plays an important role in
resisting the additional loads when structural column is destroyed under unexpected loads. The
capacity of the beam-to-column connections is one of the key factors in the formation and
performance of catenary action. To study the behavior of the semi-rigid connection under single
column removal scenario, a pseudo-static test of a 1/3 scaled composite frame with flushendplate connections under the loss of middle column was carried out. The results of the test
showed that six phases are involved in the collapse process of semi-rigid composite frame under
column removal: elastic phase, elastic-plastic phase, arch phase, plastic phase, transient phase
and catenary phase. The expression for predicting the response of new arch model was derived
and validated by comparing with the experimental results.

combined bending moment and tensional force, as a result

of column loss. Compared with bare steel connections and
reinforcement concrete (RC) connections, composite
connections consisting of steel beams and RC slabs exhibit
a higher load resistance and better deformation ability [710]. In addition, the steel mesh in the composite slabs are
also contributing to catenary action while the bare steel
connections can not satisfy the rotation demand for
forming catenary action.
Many analytical and numerical studies on the behavior
of structure under column loss have been performed. A
concise methodology for evaluating the predisposition of
a structure to progressive collapse was proposed by
Buscemi and Marjanishvili. The progressive collapse issue
was reduced to a conventional dynamic problem by using
the pendulum analogy method. Khandelwal and EI-Tawil
performed a computational simulation to investigate
catenary action in moment resisting steel frames. Some
parameters such as hardening, softening and ductile
fracture behavior of steel were considered. A new designoriented methodology for progressive collapse assessment
of multi-storey composite buildings was developed by
Izzuddin et al. Structural robustness at various levels of
structural idealization could be easily assessed by using
this new methodology which makes progressive collapse
assessment more practical. Fu developed a 3-D finite
element model of 20-storey composite building. The

1 INTRODUCTION
The partial collapse of the Ronan Point apartment in
UK in 1968 is a milestone of the research in the structural
integrity of buildings. But the most recent catastrophes,
such as the terrorist attack of the World Trade Center in
2001, have attracted increasing interest of the engineering
community on this topic. According to national design
codes such as British Standard , Eurocode and ACI , the
structural integrity should be ensured through appropriate
measures. But in most of the cases, no precise practical
guidelines on how to achieve this goal are provided.
After a vertical structural component is destroyed by
exceptional event, the loads on superstructures cannot be
transferred downwards. Instead, the membrane effects
appear within the structure to carry the additional loads and
redistribute the internal force. Based on this phenomenon,
a series of design codes, standards and guidelines have
been published to prevent the progressive collapse of the
structure, such as GSA2003 , DoD2009 and ASCE7-05. In
these codes and standards, several methods are proposed,
including Alternate Load Path, Tie Force and especially so
called catenary action.
The behavior of the beam-to-column connections plays
an important role in the formation and performance of
catenary action. The connections are subjected to a

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Guo et al.

different combined loading. Li finished two full-scale tests

on steel beam-to-tubular column moment connections.
The results showed that the bolted-web connection was
more redundant in terms of strength and deformability than
the welded-web connection. Guo conducted a 1/3 scaled
progressive collapse resistance test of a rigid steelconcrete composite frame. The results showed that the
progressive collapse mechanism of composite frame
consisted of six stages: elastic stage, elastic-plastic stage,
arch stage, plastic stage, transient stage and catenary stage.
Most of the studies on progressive collapse are focused
on numerical and theoretical analysis. Although Some
experimental studies were conducted recently to
investigate the performance of the connection under the
scenario of column loss, in these tests, only the beam-tocolumn connections were tested within a simplified
boundary condition and no frame tests has been done so
far. And also, as a result of using simplified boundary
condition, only the performance of the connections
directly above the removal column was studied.
In this paper, a composite frame with flush-endplate
connections which is a typical semi-rigid connection was
tested under the loss of middle column. No extra lateral
restraint on the frame is provided which allows the
connections to be tested in practical frame level. In
addition, a finite element model incorporating the criteria
of material fracture was developed using ABAQUS to
investigate the performance of semi-rigid composite frame
under column loss.

numerical results represented the overall behavior of the

20-storey building further to a sudden column loss and
provided important information for the assessment highrise buildings under column loss in practice.
Some tests of structure under the different scenario of
column loss have also been conducted. A 1/3 scaled
progressive collapse test of a 3-story reinforced concrete
frame building with 4-bay was conducted by Yi et al. The
experimental results showed that there were 4 phases
which RC frame under column loss would go through.
Demonceau et al. Demonceau J.F. and Jaspart J.P
conducted a test simulating the loss of a column in a 2-D
composite frame. Horizontal brace was used as the lateral
restraint of the frame. The catenary action in the frame was
observed evidently and the development of membrane
force in the beams was confirmed by the experimental
results. Yang and Tan conducted seven experimental tests
focusing on the performance of bolted steel beam-column
connections in catenary action. The extremity of beams in
the test was pinned which was a simplified boundary
condition. The experimental results displayed the behavior
and failure modes of different bolted connections,
especially their deformation ability in catenary action. The
numerical analyses of steel beam-column joints subjected
to catenary action were also done. Oosterhof and Driver
conducted a series of tests on steel shear connections under
the scenario of middle-column removal. Three types of
shear connections were studied in a test set-up which is
capable of applying any independent combination of
moment, shear and tension. The study indicated the

(a) Detail dimension of frame (mm)

-130x12
220
d0=18mm

(b) Flush-endplate beam-to-column connection

(c) Cross section of composite beam

Figure 1. Details and layout of frame

relative performance of three connection types under

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Guo et al.

2 EXPERIMENTAL PROGRAM

2.2 Experimental setup

2.1 Design and fabrication of specimen

The bottom of columns A, B, D and E were welded to

two base beams which were fixed on the ground. Column
C was not supported, and this is to simulate the loss of
column C. A 500 kN hydraulic jack was installed at the top
of the middle column C to apply vertical load in succession
(see Fig. 2 (a)). It is easy to observe and investigate the
redistribution and transferring of internal force after the
loss of the middle column in the frame by using this
loading method. In elastic phase, the vertical load was
applied with a load control method. After yielding was
observed for the steel members, displacement control
method was adopted until the frame lost its load-bearing
capacity.
One linear variable displacement transducers (LVDT)
was placed vertically underneath middle column C to
measure its vertical displacement, while four LVDTs were
placed horizontally to measure the horizontal displacement
of columns A, B, D and E. The locations of LVDTs are
shown in Fig. 2 (b).

A 1-storey composite frame with 4-bay was designed

and fabricated in 1/3 scale. Flush-endplate bolted
connection which is a typical semi-rigid connection was
chosen as the beams to steel columns connection
throughout the frame. M16 high-strength bolts with grade
10.9 were used in the connections. The height of storey
was 1.2 m with a span of 2 m. The cross sections of steel
beam and column were H2001005.58 and
H200200812 respectively [H-overall depth (d)
flange width (bf) web thickness (tw) flange thickness
(tf)]. The thickness of the endplate was 12 mm which was
equal to the thickness of column flange. The depth and
width of RC slab were designed as 100 mm and 800 mm
respectively. Two layers of 12-mm-diameter plane
reinforcements were placed in longitudinal plane with
equal spacing along the width of the slab. 8-mm-diameter
bars were used as transverse reinforcement to prevent
longitudinal splitting failure of the concrete slab. The shear
studs of 16-mm-diameter with spacing of 100 mm were
employed to achieve full shear interaction. The strength of
studs is 235 MPa. Detailed dimension of the specimen is
shown in Figure. 1. The middle column was not supported
which is to simulate the loss of a column.
In the test, grade Q235 structural steel were used for
all beams and columns, whereas grade HPB235 was
used for the steel reinforcement. Three coupons were
cut from structural steel member to determine the
material properties. Grade 10.9 bolts with a nominal
ultimate tensile strength of 1000 MPa and nominal yield
strength of 900 MPa were used. The results of material
test are listed in Table 1, where fy, fu, Es are yield stress,
tensile strength and elastic modulus of structural steel
respectively. 150150 mm cubes tests for strength and
150150300 mm cylinder tests for Youngs modulus
were carried out at the same time. They were cured in
similar conditions as the composite slab. The average
compressive strength of concrete cubes obtained is 26.4
MPa. The Youngs modulus of concrete is
2.65 104 MPa .

(a) Experimental set-up

Vertical load
LVDT-A

Column
Reinforcement
Grade
10.9 bolt

Steel ties

LVDT-C

LVDT-E

LVDT-D
Column E

Column D

Base beam

Figure 2. Experimental setup

3 EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS AND

Beam

Base beam

Column C
Column B

(b) Distribution of LVDTs

Table 1 Mechanical properties of steel

Flange
Web
Flange
Web
8
12

fy
MPa
269
275
247
276
325
331

fu
MPa
401
411
396
415
487
464

Es
105MPa
1.96
2.09
2.00
1.98
1.95

16

1067.4

1186

2.00

Se.

LVDT-B
Column A

DISCUSSIONS

3.1 Observations
The initial behavior of the specimen was elastic
without any evident change. The first cracks appeared at
the top of RC slab when the load reached 60 kN as shown
in Fig. 3(b). At the load of 200 kN, the flange and web of
steel beams at the inner side of columns B and D tended to
buckle as shown in Fig. 3(c). After the load exceeded 220
kN (corresponding to the vertical displacement of 60 mm),
the resistance of the frame began to decrease and the
vertical displacement of column C increased rapidly. The

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Guo et al.

gap between the endplate and flange of column C was

about 10 mm as shown in Fig. 3(d).
The displacement control method was adopted
subsequently. When the vertical displacement of column
C was increased to 70 mm, slight crushing of RC slab
around the flanges of column C was observed as shown in
Fig. 3 (e). When the vertical displacement of column C
reached 90 mm, some debris of concrete at the bottom of
slab near column C began to peel off while the flange and
web of steel beam BC on the inner side of columns B and
D buckled severely. After the vertical displacement of
column C exceeded 150 mm, the load began to increase.
At the vertical displacement of 338 mm, fracture of the
bolts occurred in lower row of connection at column C
while the test was terminated. It indicates that the tensile
strength and deformation ability of bolts are both
important in resisting progressive collapse for frame with
semi-rigid connections.

and the vertical displacement of column C which is not

supported. Except the descending phase (after point F), the
curve consists of six phases including: elastic phase,
elastic-plastic phase, arch phase, plastic phase, transient
phase and catenary phase.
The part OA in the curve represents the first phase:
"elastic phase". The load-deformation relationship of the
frame in elastic phase is linear as the specimen is almost in
elastic and the deformation is small. After the load reaches
107 kN, the curve goes into the second phase-"elasticplastic phase" which is from point A to point B. Within
this phase, the load increases non-linearly with the increase
of displacement, meanwhile the stiffness of the curve
decreases.
350
Ultimate resistance

Load of column C/kN

300
250

Plastic resistance

200

150

100

(a) Overall experimental phenomenon

(b) Inclination of column A and B

5.Transient phase
3.Arch phase 4.Plastic phase

2.Elastic-Plastic phase

O
0

50

100
150
200
250
Displacement of column C/mm

300

350

Figure 5. Vertical load v.s. displacement of middle column

relationship curve

The third phase is from point B to point C. This phase

in which the curve presents a trend as arch is named as
"Arch phase". The resistance of the frame increases until it
reaches the peak value of 220 kN which is defined as "Peak
resistance" when it starts to reverse. The load value of 206
kN at start-point B and end-point C is defined as "Plastic
resistance". This phenomenon is as a result of "Arch
action" which refers to the feature of composite joints.
As shown in Fig. 6, as there is no support underneath
column C, the joints on column C and column B (also
column D) are subjected to sagging moment and hogging
moment respectively under vertical load P. The asymmetry
of cross section of composite beam results in the elevation
difference between sagging moment rotation center and
hogging moment rotation center of composite joint.
Normally, the hogging moment rotation center of flush
endplate composite joint is assumed to locate in the bottom
flange of steel beam. The location of sagging moment
rotation center is higher than that of hogging moment
center. As a result of that, "arch action" is formed when
the vertical load applies. The rotation center of sagging
moment is treated as arch crown while the hogging
moment rotation centers perform as arch spring. "Arch
action" also was observed in rigid composite frame [21].
Arch action is advantageous to the performance of the
frame subjected to column loss. As shown in Fig. 5, arch

(c) Buckling of beam by column B

(e) Fracture of weld seam

1.Elastic phase

50
0

6.Catenary phase

Peak resistance

(f) Fracture of bolt

(g) Crack on the slab near column C (h) Crack on the slab near column B

Figure 4. Phenomena of frame after experiment

3.2 Results and discussions

Fig. 5 shows the relationship between the vertical load

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Guo et al.

action would produce a higher resistance so called "peak

resistance" which is higher than the plastic resistance.

Horizontal displacement of column top/mm

30

M+

M+

M-

M-

Figure 6. Arch action

After the elevation of rotation centers goes into the

same under vertical loading, the resistance of the frame
returns to the load of 206 kN which is the plastic resistance.
And then the fourth phase from point C to point D defined
as "plastic phase" begins, when plastic hinges are fully
formed in the joint C and inner-side of joints B and D.
During this phase, the resistance of the frame maintains
about 206 kN while the vertical deflection increases
successively.
During the "Plastic phase", 65 mm of extra vertical
displacement was obaserved before the resistance of the
frame begins to rise. And then the curve enters the
"transient phase" from point D to point E. During this
phase, the loadbearing mechanism of frame transforms
from "plastic hinge action" to "catenary action".
After the a slight declination in the stiffness of frame ,
the curve goes into the final phase named "catenary phase".
During this phase, the vertical load is sustained by catenary
action. The loss of the moment resistance in the joints of
column C and the inner-side joints of columns B and D
ceased "plastic hinge action". The slab reinforcement and
steel beam provided the tensional force caused by catenary
action. The vertical load increases linearly with the
increase of vertical displacement.
The maximum resistance of frame before the collapse
happens is defined as "Ultimate resistance" which is 1.1
times higher than peak resistance and 1.2 times higher than
plastic
resistance.
The
vertical
displacement
correspondent to the ultimate resistance is 4 times bigger
than the displacement correspondent to the peak resistance.
It can be seen that the composite frame with flush endplate
connections under middle column removal do not perform
as well as the rigid composite frame in Ref. A comparison
of main results between semi-rigid frame and rigid frame
is shown in Table 2.

Semi-rigid
frame
Rigid
frame

Ultimate
resistance
(kN)

Initial
stiffness
(kN/mm)

Ultimate
displacement
(mm)

203.7

250.9

15.8

286.2

249.8

402.3

25.1

443.2

24
18

200

250

12
6
0
0

50

100

150

300

350

Vertical displacement of column C/mm

Figure 7. Horizontal displacement of column top v.s. vertical

displacement of middle column curves

Fig. 7 shows the relationship between horizontal

displacement at the top of columns and the vertical
displacement of middle column C. The vertical lines refer
to the vertical displacement of point A to point F in Fig. 5,
while the bold vertical line refers to the vertical
displacement at peak resistance. Displacement leanning
towards column C is defined as positive value. As shown
in Fig. 7, the horizontal displacement at the top of each
column is negative value before the bold vertical line
which means all the columns deform outwards from
column C. This phenomenon verified the existance of
"arch action" presented in Fig. 5. Moreover, it reveals the
fact that "arch action" starts as soon as the load is applied,
not purely existing in the arch phase. The horizontal
displacement increases reversely after the bold vertical
line plotted in Fig. 5 corresponding to peak resistance
while all the columns begin to move towards column C.
When "arch phase" ends at point C in Fig. 5, the horizontal
displacement of all the columns in Fig. 7 becomes zero.
Subsequently, the horizontal displacement of column top
continues to increase following the increase of vertical
displacement, until the test finishes. The horizontal
displacement of columns B and column D becomes larger
than that of column A and column E during the loading
process, especially after the plastic phase. This is because
column B and column D are subjected to hogging moment
and tensional force simultaneously while column A and
column E are only subjected to tensional force caused by
catenary action.

3.3 Simplified mechanical model

According to the test results and analysis, a simplified
analysis from Ref. was performed here When a column is
lost in a frame, the frame can be divided into two parts: the
directly affected part (DAP) and the indirectly affected part
(IAP) as shown in Fig. 8. The indirectly affected part in
Fig. 8 consists of two columns and a composite beam
which could be simplified to a horizontal spring restraining
the horizontal displacement of beam end. The joints in the

Table 2. Detailed results of semi-rigid frame and rigid frame

Plastic
resistance
(kN)

column D
column B
column E
column A

702

Guo et al.

beam ends could be considered as rotational springs

restraining the rotation of beam end. The simplified
mechanical model is shown in Fig. 9. The stiffness of
horizontal springs Kh depends upon bending rigidity of
steel columns Kc as shown in Fig. 10. The stiffness of
rotation springs in extremity Kr depends upon bending
rigidity of composite joints under hogging moment while
the stiffness of rotation springs in middle span Ksr depends
upon bending rigidity of composite joints under sagging
moment. With the simplified mechanical model, the
behavior of the one-storey frame with 4 bays could be
analyzed more easily. The performance of semi-rigid
frame in different phases is similar to that of rigid frame
which was described in detail in Ref. The main difference
between two frames in different phases is the spring
stiffness.

2 K
2( v)
l

( K d d K
)
P l v
l
l

(0 v )

P 2 K (2 v) 2(v ) ( K d K l )

l
l
l
( v 2 )

where K and K d are the spring stiffness in the

span and support, and d is the elongation of the
spring in the span and support.
According to the results above, the increment of the
resistance brought by arch action was 14 kN. The result
calculated by the above expression is 16.5 kN which is
close to the experimental one.
The horizontal displacement-deflection response (d-v)
can be expressed as:

d l0 2 ( v)2 l
(0 v 2)
Indirectly Affected Part

Fig. 12 shows the comparison of d-v response bewteen

the test results and calculation results. It can be seen that a
good agreement was obtained. The expression could
represent the horizontal displacement-deflection response
well.

Indirectly Affected Part

Directly Affected Part

Figure 8. Definition of DAP and IAP

1.0
Indirectly Affected Part

Indirectly Affected Part

Directly Affected Part

Test
Formular

0.8
A

d /mm

Figure 9. Simplified mechanical model

Kh

0.6

0.4

Kc

0.2

Kc

Figure 10. Simplification of horizontal restrain condition

0.0
0

20

P
Kd

60
v/mm

80

100

120

(a) Rigid frame

1.4

l0

Test
Formular

1.2

1.0

l
d /mm

Figure 11. Arch model with springs

40

As shown in Fig. 7, the increase of load-resistance

brought by arch action are existing from elastic phase to
arch phase. The mechancal model of arch action was
developed in Ref. as shown in Fig. 11. Using this model,
the vertical load would come to its peak value when the
horizontal displacement of arch springs and tensional
springs reaches the maximum. This model should be
combined with the simplified mechanical model to analyze
the behavior of the frame from elastic phase to arch phase.
Based on the model, the vertical load-deflection
response (P-v) of arch action can be expressed as:

0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.0
0

20

40

60
80
v/mm

(b)Semirigidframe
Figure 12. Comparison of d-v response

703

100

120

140

Guo et al.

4 CONCLUSIONS

Fu F. 2009. Progressive collapse analysis of high-rise building

with 3-D finite element modeling method. J Constr Steel
Res 64:1269-1278.
Guo L.H., Gao S., Fu F., Wang Y.Y. 2013. Experimental study
and numerical analysis of progressive collapse resistance of
composite frames. J Constr Steel Res 89:236-251.
Izzuddin B.A., Vlassis A.G., Elghazouli A.Y., Nethercot D.A.
2008. Progressive collapse of multi-storey buildings due to
sudden column loss-Part 1: Simplified assessment
framework. Eng Struct 30(5): 1308-1318.
Khandelwal K., EI-Tawil S. 2007. Collapse behavior of steel
special moment resisting frame connections. J Struct EngASCE 133(5):646-655.
Leon RT. 1990. Semi-rigid composite construction. J Constr
Steel Res 15(2):99-120.
Li L., Wang W., Chen Y.Y., Lu Y. 2013. Experimental
investigation of beam-to-tubular column moment
connections under column removal scenario. J Constr Steel
Res 88:244-255
Liew, Richard J.Y., Teo T.H., Shanmugam N.E., Yu C.H. 2000.
Testing of steel concrete composite connections and
appraisal of results. J Constr Steel Res 56(2):117-150.
Li, Y., Lu, X., Guan, H. & Ye L. 2011. An improved tie force
method for progressive collapse resistance design of
reinforced concrete frame structures. Eng Struct 33:29312942
Oosterhof, S.A. & Driver, R.G. 2012.Performance of steel shear
connections under combined moment, shear and tension.
The Structures congress.
United States General Services Administration (GSA). 2003.
Progressive collapse analysis and design guidelines for new
federal office buildings and major modernization projects.
Washington (DC).
Yang, B. & Tan K.H. 2012. Numerical analyses of steel beam
column joints subjected to catenary action. J Constr Steel
Res 70:1-11
Yang, B. & Tan K.H. 2013. Experimental tests of different types
of bolted steel beamcolumn joints under a central-columnremoval scenario. Eng Struct 54:112-130
Yi W.J., He Q.F., Xiao Y. Collapse performance of RC frame
structure. 2007. J Building Struct 28(5):104-117. (in
Chinese)

A 1/3 scaled steel-concrete composite frame with semirigid flush endplate connections was tested. The
performance of the frame under column removal in
different phase was studied. Based on the experimental and
numerical analysis, following conclusions were made.
1. The composite frame with flush endplate connection
exhibited good progressive resistance behavior. Catenary
action plays an important role in resisting progressive
collapse of frame.
2. Six phases are involved in the collapse process of
semi-rigid composite frame under column removal: elastic
phase, elastic-plastic phase, arch phase, plastic phase,
transient phase and catenary phase.
3. The flush endplate connection failed by fracture of
bolts under catenary action. It indicates that the tensile
strength and deformation ability are both important in
resisting progressive collapse for frame with semi-rigid
connections.
4. Based on the mechanical model, the analytical study
has been made for semi-rigid composite frame. An
expression for predicting the response of arch model is
developed and validated.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The project is supported by National Natural Science
Foundation of China (NO. 50878066, NO. 51408106),
which are gratefully acknowledged.
REFERENCES
ABAQUS theory manual. Version 10.0.1 Hibbitt. Pawtucket (RI):
Karlsson and Sorensen, Inc. 2003.
American Concrete Institute (ACI). Building code requirements for
structural concrete and commentary (ACI 318m-08). Detroit
(Michigan). 2008.
American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE). Minimum design
loads for buildings and other structures (ASCE7-05). Reston
(VA). 2005.
Anderson D., Najafi AA. Performance of composite connections
major axis end plate joints. J Constr Steel Res 1994; 31(1):3157.
British Standard Institute. BS6399: loading for buildings, part 1:
code of practice for dead and imposed loads. London (United
Kingdom). 1996.
Buscemi, N.& Marjanishvili S. 2005. SDOF model for progressive
collapse analysis. Proceedings of the 2005 Structures Congress.
ASCE.
Demonceau, J.F. & Jaspart J.P. 2005. Experimental test simulating
a column loss in a composite frame. Adv Steel Constr 6:891913.
Department of Defense (DoD). 2009. Unified facilities criteria
(UFC): Design of structures to resist progressive collapse.
Washington (DC).
European Committee for Standardization. EN 1994-1-1: 2003,
Eurocode 4: design of composite steel and concrete structures.
Part 1: general rules and rules for buildings. Brussels (Belgium).
2003.

704

11th International Conference on

Advances in Steel and Concrete Composite Structures
Tsinghua University, Beijing, China, December 3-5, 2015

NEW ENGINEERING THEORY FOR MIXED TORSION OF

STEEL- CONCRETE- STEEL COMPOSITE WALLS
W. F. Zhanga
a

Northeast Petroleum University,Daqing, HeilongjiangChina

E-mail: zhang_wenfu@126.com
ABSTRACT

Keywords:
Steel-concrete composite
walls; Torsion; Torsional
stiffness; Energy variational
model; Differential equation
model.

Torsion theory is the theoretical foundation in the design of high-rise buildings and towers. In
this study, the plate-beam theory recently presented by the author is extended to establish a new
engineering theory for the mixed torsion of the steel-concrete-steel (CSC) composite walls. Two
kinds of new mechanical models, i.e. the energy variational model and the differential equation
model for the mixed torsion problem of the narrow steel-concrete-steel (CSC) composite walls
are put forward and derived systematically. Furthermore, the design formula of the elastic
stiffness of uniform and non-uniform torsion of the narrow CSC composite walls is derived and
verified theoretically and numerically. Finally, the design problems for the selection of the
elastic stiffness are discussed.

structural system(Katagiri,2002). Furthermore, for the

building located in earthquake zone with high intensity,
the elastic torsional stiffness should be used to determine
the fundamental torsion frequency, and thus to estimate
the influence of torsional response. In other words, the
torsion problem and its torsional stiffness of SCS
composite walls are also the fundamental mechanical
problem of SCS composite walls, especially for those in
super high-rise buildings or towers.
It is well know that SCS composite walls could be
used to form the coupled shear-walls or core cubes,
which could be regard as the composite thin-walled
members, to resist the lateralearthquake or windforces
effectively in high-rise buildings. Reviewing the research
history, we could find that, although the first problem
about non-uniform torsion of the open thin-walled
members was put forward and solved by Timoshenko in
Russia in 1905(Timoshenko,1961), but the correct
engineering theory of torsion, buckling and vibration of
thin-walled members was formulated systematically by
Vlasov and Wumanski, respectively (Vlasov,1961, 1962).
However, though the careful studies it can also be
found that Vlasov and Wumanski's theory have several
problems as follows: (1) the existing theory is established
based upon the quilibrium method, and needed to
introduce the concepts of sectorial coordinate, shear flow
and warping function; (2) the section deformation and
properties are replaced by the ones of the mid-surface,
thus the deformation and stress changes in the direction
of thickness are ignored to simplify the theory; (3) the
requirement of integral continuity for sectorial coordinate
also lead to that the existing theory is only suitable for

1 INTRODUCTION
Steel-concrete- steel (SCS) composite walls are new
type of sandwich wall which are composed of double
skin-plates and infill concrete. This concept of sandwich
plate (shell) was first proposed by Prof. Shantong Zhong
who is the pioneer of steel composite structures in China
and the mechanical behavior of steel-concrete-steel
composite shells was studied by his student F.Y.Wang.
However, the development of this concept in practical
large-span structures is very slow, instead, recently this
concept has been put into practice in high-rise buildings
(Ho,2009) and towers (Ding,2011) in China, since the
SCS composite walls have high loading capacity, good
ability of avoiding the exposure of concrete cracks and
superior ductility
With the rapid development of engineering
application of SCS composite walls in high-rise buildings
and towers, its fundamental mechanical behavior aroused
the attention of many researchers(Sun,2008; Nie,2011;
Ma,2014). From the paper reviews, however, we could
observe that current studies are mainly focused on the
flexural and shear behavior of SCS composite walls, and
its torsional behavior has not been reported yet.
As is known, when the SCS composite walls are used
to form the anti-lateral structures (such as coupled
shear-walls or core cubes) of high-rise buildings and
towers, its torsional behavior and response under wind &
earthquake action are of most concerned for engineers,
since wind can cause the building to vibrate tosionally,
depending on the aspect ratio of building plane and attack
angle of wind with respect to the principal axis of

705

Zhang

that when the narrow SCS composite wall takes place

torsional deformation, the corresponding rigid rotation of
cross section is (z).

members with mono material, and the effect of different

materials properties could not be considered naturally,
namely traditional theory is not suitable for the analysis
of steel-concrete composite members; (4) perhaps
because of the development history of scientific research,
the existing torsion theory contains two sets of separate
theory, namely uniform torsion theory and non-uniform
torsion theory. As a result, in the existing theoretical
torsion analysis only the non-uniform torsion strain
energy is considered, and the important free torsion strain
energy need to add artificially, otherwise there will be no
correct conclusions derived. Therefore, how to unify the
two types of torsion theory is one of the key problems
needed to be solved.
As is known to all, the Kirchhoff & Midlins plate
theory and Euler &Timoshenkos beam theory are the
most widely used and mature engineering mechanics
theories with the advantages of high precision, easy to
understand, etc, and they have been generally recognized
and accepted in engineering community. Could a new
mechanical model and theory of torsion and buckling
problems of steel-concrete composite thin-walled
members be formulated based upon the engineering
theory of beam and plate? The answer is yes. We have
presented some success examples in pervious work
(Zhang, 2014, 2015). This paper is a new attempt on this
issue, in which new mechanical models and theory for the
mixed torsion of the SCS composite walls are formulated
based upon the Kirchhoffs thin plate theory. As a basis
of non-uniform torsion of anti-lateral structures (such as
double shear-wall or core cube), only the models and
stiffness analysis of the narrow SCS composite walls is
presented.

Figure 1. Section definition and its deformation of the narrow

SCS composite wall

2.2 Assumptions

2 NEW ENGINEERING THEORY

(1)Peripheral
rigidity
assumption(Vlasov,1961;
Vlasov,1962);
(2)Deformation of the SCS composite walls can be
divided into two parts, namely the in-plane deformation
and out-of-plane deformation;
(3)Strain energy and initial stress potential of in-plane
and out-of-plane are determined by the Eulers beam
theory and Kirchhoffs thin plate theory, respectively;
(4)There no slippage in the interface between the
infill concrete and double skin plates. i.e. the
deformations of steel and concrete are compatible in the
interface during the torsion of the SCS composite walls.
Among these assumptions, the first one was clearly
put forward in Vlasov' work(Vlasov, 1961), which is the
general theoretical basis for elastic torsion and
flexure-torsional buckling for thin-walled members at
present. The last assumption was widely adopted in the
analysis of steel-concrete composite members. The
second and third assumptions are first proposed by author
(Zhang, 2014, 2015), in which the second assumption is
the foundation of deformation decomposition method,
this decomposition idea of total deformation is helpful to

2.1 Problem descriptions

Without lose of generality, the research object in this
paper is a narrow SCS composite wall under torsion
loads, as shown in Fig.1. Assuming that the double skins
are steel, its elastic modulus is Es, shear modulus is Gs
Poisson ratio is s; infill concretes elastic modulus is Ec,
shear modulus is Gc, Poisson ratio is c. The length of the
narrow SCS composite wall is L, the width is hw, and the
total thickness is tw., which is the sum of the thickness of
infill concrete, tc, and the thickness of skin plate, ts. i.e.

tw tc 2ts (0.1)
To describe the deformation of the cross section
easily, two sets of orthotropic coordinate systems are
introduced, i.e. the global coordinate system designated
as x-y coordinate and the local coordinate system
designated as n-s coordinate, which can be used to
describe the position of separated components. Assuming

706

Zhang

simplify our theoretical analysis; the third assumption is

the theoretical basis to calculate strain energy and initial
stress potential. It is precisely because of these two
assumptions that we can give up the concept of sectorial
coordinate and the law of sectorial areas presented by
Vlasov, and the displacement function, the stress and
strain will be naturally derived based upon the basic
knowledge of mechanics, rather than guessing or deriving
from the geometric space transformation. These
characters make the new theory look more like mechanics
than geometry.

u
ww n, s, z n w
z

2
ww
ns 2 (0.9)

z
z
L
z

sL
szL

SCS composite walls

steel plates

cos
vs
2

vn sin 3

2

0

3
2
3
cos
2
0
sin

(0.11)

(0.2)

(0.3)

out plane

U wc

1
( z2 ) G sz2 dndsdz

2
1

(0.13)

SCS composite wall is

uw0 0; vw0 0; ww0 0; w0 z (0.5)

E
1
c

2 Vwc 1 c2

dndsdz

2
2
1 L Ec 2

I
G
J

c
c c
dz
2 0 1 c2 z 2
z

(0.14)
In which, I c

Which indicate that, in this case only torsion deformation

n s dnds J
2 2

Awc

takes place for the narrow SCS composite wall.

4 n dnds .
2

Awc

Similarly, we can get the torsional strain energy of the

double skin plates as follows
2
2
E

2 2
s

n
s

2
2
1 s
z
1
out plane
U ws

dndsdz
(0.15)
2 Vws
2 2
Gs 4n

z

2
2
2
1 L E

s 2 I s 2 Gs J s
dz
2 0 1 s
z
z

According to the deformation decomposition assumption,

the transverse displacement of arbitrary point caused by
the out-plane deformation of wall is determined as

(0.7)

2
2
E

2 2
1
2 2
c

n
s

2 Gc 4n
dndsdz
2

z
z
2 Vwc 1 c

vw n, z n

2

ns 2 Gc 2n

z
z

That is, the displacement of centroid of the narrow

(0.6)

sz G szL (0.12)

and substituting eqs. (0.9) and (0.11) into eq. (0.13), we

can get the torsional strain energy of the infill concrete as
follows

n
0 n

0 s (0.4)

uw s, z s

E
( zL );
2
1

Using the above derived relationship, the torsional

strain energy of the narrow SCS composite wall can be
obtained easily.
Firstly, with the expression of strain energy

cos

2 n n

3 s s
sin
2

ww vw

2n
s
z
z

In the global coordinate system, the coordinate of

centroid of the narrow SCS composite wall is 0, 0 , and
the coordinate of arbitrary point is n, s . By the
peripheral rigidity assumption, the displacement of
arbitrary point is determined as follows

sin
rs
2

r
3
n cos
2

vw
0 (0.10)
s

In this case, according to Kirchhoffs plate theory,

the corresponding constitutive equations are

2.3.1 Torsional strain energy of infill concrete and

3
x x0 n y y0 s
2
3
3

(0.8)

The geometrical equation in the plate theory is

2.3 Mechanical model of mixed torsion of narrow

ns z

and the longitudinal displacement of arbitrary point

can be determined by the Kirchhoffs plate theory as

707

Zhang

In which,

I s n 2 s 2 dnds J s 4 n 2 dnds .
Aws

2
2

2

1 L EI comp 2 GJ k comp


z dz
z
0
2

mz z

M t zL

As

2.3.2 Total Torsional strain energy of the narrow SCS

composite walls
out plane
out plane
U U wc
U ws

(0.21)

2
2
2
1 L E

c 2 I c 2 Gc J c
2.3.4 The energy variational model
dz
z
z
2 0 1 c

It is well known that the static equilibrium principle

2
2
2

and static energy criterion are two kinds of basic

1 L E

s 2 I s 2 Gs J s
dz principles

in the study on the static equilibrium of

2 0 1 s
z
z

structures. As a result, two kinds of the mechanical

2
model, i.e. the energy variational model and the
E
Es 2

c
differential equation model, for the mixed torsion
I
I s

2 c
1 s2 z 2
1 L 1 c
problem of the narrow SCS composite wall are put

dz
2
forward in this paper. It can be proven that (omitted):
2 0
G J G J

although the two kinds of mechanical models are

s s

c c

z
different in form, the two models are essentially

(0.16) equivalent, since they describe the same mechanical

problems.
If setting
Using expression of the total potential energy (0.21),
the non-uniform torsion problem of the narrow SCS
E
E
EI comp c 2 I c s 2 I s (0.17) composite wall can be translated into such an energy
1 c
1 s
variational model: looking for a function (z) in the
range, 0zL, to make it satisfy the specified geometric
Which is the non-uniform torsional stiffness or
boundary conditions, i.e. the endpoint constraints, and the
warping torsion stiffness of the narrow SCS composite
energy functional defined by the following formula is
wall, and
minimum.

GJ k comp Gc J c Gs J s

F ' , ' ' dz

L

(0.18)

Which is the uniform torsional stiffness of the narrow

SCS composite wall, now the total potential energy (0.16)
reduces to

(0.22)

Where

F ' , ''

2
2
2
1 L

U EI comp 2 GJ k comp
dz
2 0
z
z

1
EI comp ' '2 GJ k comp '2
2

(0.23)

2.3.5 The differential equation model

According to the principle of energy variational

(0.19)

method, the static equilibrium of the mixed torsion

problem of the narrow SCS composite wall can be

2.3.3 The load potential energy and the total potential

energy

expressed as

0 (0.24)

In the case of a concentrated torque is applied at the

free end and a distributed torque is applied along the
length of a cantilever member , the load potential energy
is

V M t z L mz z dz
L

or

EI comp ' ' ' ' GJ k comp ' '

dz
0 m z
(0.25)

M t z L 0
L

(0.20)

Now the total potential energy of the torsion problem

of the narrow SCS composite wall can be expressed as

In terms of integration by parts, we can get

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Zhang

and non-uniform torsion theory. Moreover, to determine

the secondary torsional stiffness, the secondary torsional
theory should be incorporated. In this study, all these
kinds of torsion, i.e. the mixed torsion of the narrow SCS
composite wall are integrated into a whole theory frame.
Furthermore, the process of the theoretical derivation is
more natural and simple, and only the most basic
Kirchhoffs thin plate theory and Vlasov's rigid section
assumption are used.

zL

GJ k ' ' dz GJ k '

comp
comp

z 0
L

(0.26)

GJ k comp dz

0
L

EI
0

comp

''

'' '' dz

zL
L
EI
'' ' dz
EI comp '' '

z 0 0 x comp

zL

zL

EI comp '' ' EI comp '''

z 0
z 0

2.3.7 Verification of the mechanical model

Since the differential equation model is the strong form of

EI comp IV dz

the static equilibrium of the mixed torsion problem, while

(0.27)
Substitute the above two expressions into eq. (0.25),
we get

the energy variational model is week form of the static

equilibrium, we will use the solutions of the differential
equation model to verify the correctness of the presented

EI IV GJ k '' mz z dz
comp
comp

zL

mechanical model of the narrow SCS composite wall.

zL

In the case of the narrow SCS composite wall under tip

EI comp '' ' EI comp '''

z 0

z 0
zL

GJ k comp ' M t
z 0

zL

torsion loads (Fig.1), the static equilibrium equation of

(0.29) can be rewritten as

EI comp IV GJ k comp ' ' 0

(0.28)
Due to the is arbitrary, the equilibrium equation
of the non-uniform torsion problem of the narrow SCS
composite wall is read as

Whose solutions for the cantilever wall are

EI comp IV GJ k comp '' mz z 0 (0.29)

max 1

(0.30)

(0.31)

EI comp GJ k comp
EI comp ' ' 0

'

Mt L
GJ k comp

(3) Free end (cross section can freely rotate and warp)
'''

1 z

1z
K L sinh[ K L ]

1z
1
(cosh[ ] 1)tanh[ ]
K L
K

(0.34)

1 Ktanh[ K ]

(0.35)
In which, K is the non-dimensional torsion parameter,
which can be used as the measure to determine the type
of torsion, i.e. uniform torsion dominated or non-uniform
torsion dominated. Its definition is as follows

(2) Fixed end (cross section can not rotate, nor freely
warp)

' 0

M L

t

L
GJ
k comp

and the corresponding boundary conditions are as

follows:
(1) Simply supported end (cross section can't rotate,
but can freely warp)

''
EI comp 0

(0.33)

EI comp
GJ k comp L2

(0.36)

To simulate the behavior of non-uniform torsion of

the narrow SCS composite wall, the solid45 element of
ANSYS software is used to model the sandwich wall.
The FEM model and its deformation under the action of
tip torque are shown in figure 2, and the error curves of
the section rotation at the tip obtained from the uniform
torsion solutions and FEM solutions, with the changing
of torsion parameter K, is plotted in figure 3.
From figure 3, we can conclude that the presented
mechanical models and thus the new engineering theory

(0.32)

2.3.6 Remarks on the new engineering theory

From the equilibrium equation (0.29), it is observed
that it is consistent with the result of traditional torsion
theory in the form. However, it is separated derived by
using two different theories, i.e. uniform torsion theory
709

Zhang

are correct, and the theoretical formula of the stiffness for

the uniform and non-uniform torsion are of high
accuracy, and can be used in practical design and further
scientific investigation.

J s 4 n 2 dnds 8
Aws

hw
2

t
( ts c )
2

hw
2

n 2 dn)ds

tc
2

(0.38)

t
h
w 8 ts c tc3

2
3

I c n 2 s 2 dnds
Awc

hw
2

tc
2

( n 2 s 2 dn)ds

hw
t
c
2
2

I s n 2 s 2 dnds 2
Aws

hw
2

t
( ts c )
2

hw
2

tc3hw3 (0.39)
144

n 2 s 2 dn)ds

tc
2

(0.40)

t h3 t 3
1 3
hw ts c w c
18
2 144

thus the uniform torsion stiffness of the narrow CSC

composite walls can be written as

Fig.2 FEM model and its deformation

GJ k comp Gc J c Gs J s
3

t 3h
t
h
Gc c w Gs w 8 ts c tc3

2
3
3

t 3h G
Gc c w 1 s
3 Gc

(0.41)

ts 1

8 1

tc 2

and the non-uniform torsion stiffness of the narrow

CSC composite walls can be written as

EI comp

3
Ec tc3 hw3
Es 1 3
tc hw3 tc3
t
h

w s

1 c2 144 1 s2 18
2 144

Ec tc3 hw3 Es 1 c2 ts 1

8
1

1 c2 144 Ec 1 s2 tc 2

Fig.3 error curves of uniform torsion

3 STIFFNESS ANALYSIS OF NARROW SCS

Ec
Es
Ic
Is
1 c2
1 s2

COMPOSITE WALLS
(0.42)

3.1 Formula of torsional stiffness of CSC composite

walls with equal thickness

3.2 Formula of torsional stiffness of CSC composite

For the narrow SCS composite walls with equal

thickness, the expressions of the torsional stiffness of the
infill concrete and the double skin plates can be
obtained by the definite integration as follows

J c 4 n 2 dnds 4
Awc

hw
2

tc
2

( n 2 dn)ds

hw
t
c
2
2

walls with constant thickness and mono material

For the narrow SCS composite wall with constant
thickness and mono material, e.g. steel, the expressions of
the torsional stiffness of the narrow CSC composite walls
can be simplified, which can also be used as a checking
on the correctness of derived torsion stiffness.
In this case, the uniform torsion stiffness of the
narrow CSC composite walls can be simplified as

tc3hw
(0.37)
3

710

Zhang

GJ k Gs J c Gs J s

obtained based upon the three basic stiffness as follows

(Ding ,2011)

t 3h G
Gs c w 1 s
3 Gs

3
(0.43)
ts 1
8 1

tc 2

3
t 3h t 1
Gs c w 8 s
3 tc 2

EAcomp Es As Ec Ac

GAcomp Gs As Gc Ac (0.47)

EI comp Es I s Ec I c
which are the exact formula for axial stiffness, shear
stiffness and bending stiffness for any type of the
steel-concrete composite structures (Zhong,1994,2006),
respectively.
However, there is one shortcoming in the
mechanical simulation of Yancheng TV tower, that is,
due to the lack of the expression of the elastic torsion
stiffness in the design code, the equivalent stiffness
obtained from the three elastic stiffness listed in eq.(0.47)
can not guarantee its equivalence to the torsional
stiffness. This is one of the motivation of our recent
research.
From our recently research results (Zhang, 2014,
2015), we have found that all the exact formula for the
thin-walled, steel-concrete composite structures can be
generally expressed in the simple form as follows

If setting tw 2ts tc , then the above expression

can be equivalently written as

GJ k Gs

2ts tc
3

hw

Gs

tw3 hw
(0.44)
3

which is the same as the that obtained by the author for

the narrow plate made of mono material(Zhang,2014).
This indicates that both the derivation process and the
theory presented here are correct.
Similarly, the non-uniform torsion stiffness of the
CSC composite walls can also be simplified as
EI

Es
Es
Is
Is
1 s2
1 s2

Es tc3hw3 Es 1 s2 ts 1

8 1
1
2
2

1 s 144 Es 1 s tc 2

3
3 3

Es hwtc ts 1

8
1 s2 144 tc 2

GJ k comp Gc J c Gs J s

(0.45)

EI comp
in which

If setting t w 2ts tc , then the above expression can

or

be equivalently written as

free

Ec
Es (0.48)

Ic
Is
1 c2
1 s2

GJ k comp is the uniform torsional stiffness

torsion

stiffnesse,

and

EI comp

the

non-uniform torsional stiffness or warping torsion

3 3
Es 2ts tc hw
Es tw3 hw3
(0.46)
EI

1 s2 144
1 s2
144

stiffness; the expression of

J c , J s , I c and I s depends

on the type of the steel-concrete composite structures. For

which is the same as the that obtained by the author

for the narrow plate made of mono material(Zhang,2014).
Therefore, the correctness of the presented torsion
stiffness of the narrow CSC composite walls is verified
by these simplified expressions theoretically.

the SCS composite walls illustrated in Fig.1, its

corresponding expressions can be summarized as follows
3

t 3h
t
h
J c c w ; J s w 8 ts c tc3
(0.49)
2
3
3

3
3 3
3 3

t
h
t
h
t
1 3

c w
c
w c
Ic
; I s hw ts
18
2 144
14 4

3.3 Summary on the elastic stiffness of narrow SCS

composite walls
The elastic stiffness, i.e. the short term stiffness of the
narrow SCS composite walls are the fundamental
parameters for the design of high-rise buildings and
towers. For example, in the design practice of Yancheng
TV tower made of the SCS composite walls, MADIS was
used to simulate its static and dynamic behavior.
However, since MADIS do not have the sandwich shell
element, instead the equivalent stiffness method was
adopted (Ding ,2011), and the equivalent stiffness was

which could be adopted in the further design code of

the SCS composite walls, and can directly used in the
equivalent stiffness method for practical design.
Moreover, from our new research result (ommited),
it is found that, if the transformed-section method is used
to analyze the mixed torsion deformation or lateral
-torsional buckling of coupled shear-wall or core tube
constructed by the narrow CSC composite walls, even
more greater error will be observed. Therefore, one

711

Zhang
Vlasov,B.1961.Thin-walled elastic beams. Jerusalem: Israel
Program for Scientific Translations.
Vlasov,B.1962. Architectural mechanics of Thin-walled space
structures. Beijing: China Architecture & Building Press.
Zhang,W.F. 2014. Unified theory of free and restricted torsion
for narrow rectangular plate, China Science and technology
paperonline,http://www.paper.edu.cn/html/releasepaper/04/
143/
Zhang,W.F. 2015. New theory of flexure-torsional buckling for
axial loaded H-shape steel columns. Proc. of the 15th
National Symposium on Modern Structure Engineering.
pp:725-735 (In Chinese)
Zhang,W.F. 2015. New theory of elastic torsional buckling for
axial loaded box-shape steel columns. Proc. of the 15th
National Symposium on Modern Structure Engineering.
pp:793-804 (In Chinese)
Zhang,W.F. 2015. New theory of torsion and flexure-torsional
buckling for narrow plates. Proc. of the 15th National
Symposium on Modern Structure Engineering. pp:
1728-1743 (In Chinese)
Zhang,W.F. 2015. New engineering theory for mixed torsion of
steel-concrete composite box beams. Proc. of 11th
International Conference on Advances in Steel and
Concrete Composite Structures.
Zhang,W.F. 2015. New engineering Theory for torsional
buckling of steel-concrete composite I-columns. Proc. of
11th International Conference on Advances in Steel and
Concrete Composite Structures.
Zhong, S.T. 1994. Concrete-filled steel tube structures. Harbin:
Heilongjiang Technology Press.
Zhong, S.T. 2006. Unified theory of concrete filled steel tube.
Beijing: Tsinghua University Press.

should be cautious when using the transformed-section

method.

4 CONCLUSION
Two kinds of new mechanical models, i.e. the energy
variational model and the differential equation model for
the mixed torsion problem of the narrow SCS composite
wall are put forward in this paper.
From the procedure of derivations, it can be seen that,
by comparing with the traditional torsion theory, the new
engineering theory for mixed torsion presented in this
paper abandons the concept of warping function and
shear flow which is generally not familiar to the
practicing design engineers, and only the classic thin
plate theory and Vlasovs peripheral rigidity assumption
are used. Analytical practice shows that the new
plate-beam theory has clear mechanics concept, and its
easy to understand and master for the practicing design
engineers.
Furthermore, the theoretical formula of the uniform
and non-uniform torsion stiffness of the narrow CSC
composite walls is derived and discussed, and their
correctness is verified theoretically and numerically.

5 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors acknowledge the valuable support of
natural science foundation of China (51178087).

6 REFERENCES
Chen, B.Z.1988. Thin-walled structure mechanics, Shanghai:
Shanghai Jiaotong University Press.
Chen, T.Xiao, C.Z.Tian, C.Y.et al2011. Experimental
study of the compression bending behavior of composite
shear walls of high axial compression ratiosChina Civil
Engineering Journal44( 6) : 1-7( in Chinese)
Ding,C.H. Jiang, H.C. et al 2011. An innovation
application of SCS composite wall: structural design of
Yancheng TV Tower Building Structure, 41(12):
87-91( in Chinese)
Ho, G.MLiu, P.Yin, C.et al2009. Design and study on
super high-rise structural system of Beijing Fortune Plaza 2
office towerBuilding Structure39(11): 1-8 ( in Chinese)
Katagiri J., et al 2002. Analytical method for coupled
across-wind and torsional wind responses with
motion-induced wind forces. Journal of Wind Engineering
and Industrial Aerodynamics 90:17951805.
Ma, X.W., Nie, J.G., Tao, M.X. 2014. Effective stiffness of
steel plate-concrete composite shear wall structures in
serviceability state China Civil Engineering Journal
47( 7) : 18-26( in Chinese)
Nie,J.G.Bu,F.M.Fan, J.S. 2011. Experimental research on
seismic behavior of low shear-span ratio composite shear
wall with double steel plate sand infill concreteJournal of
Building Structures 32( 11) : 74-81( in Chinese)
Sun, J.CXu, P.F.Xiao, C.Zet al2008. Experimental
study on shear behavior of steel plate-concrete composite
wallBuilding Structure 38( 6) : 1-5( in Chinese)
Timoshenko,SP., Gere,JM. Theory of elastic stability.
New-York: McGraw-Hill, 1961.

712

11th International Conference on

Advances in Steel and Concrete Composite Structures
Tsinghua University, Beijing, China, December 3-5, 2015

TEMPERATURE FIELD ANALYSIS OF CONCRETE FILLED

STEEL TUBULAR COLUMN-WALL
J. Q. Liua, L. H. Hana, W. B. Lib & X. L. Zhaoc
a

Department of Civil Engineering, Tsinghua University, Beijing, China

E-mails: liujiaqi13@mails.tsinghua.edu.cn, lhhan@mail.tsinghua.edu.cn

Hangxiao Steel Structure Corporation, Hangzhou, China.

E-mail: li.wenbin@hxss.com.cn

Department of Civil Engineering, Monash University, Melbourne, Australia

E-mail: zhao.xiao.ling@monash.edu
ABSTRACT

Keywords:
CFST; Column-wall;
Temperature Field; FEA model

This paper presents an analysis of the temperature field distribution of a new kind of
concrete-steel composite structure to be used in multi-story residential buildings in China,
named as concrete filled steel tubular (CFST) column-wall. A brief introduction of CFST
column-wall was given firstly. A finite element analysis model was then established to calculate
the temperature field distribution of this kind of composite structure under fire. The commercial
software package ABAQUS was employed for the analysis. A set of experimental data of three
specimens with two sides exposed to ISO-834 standard was used to verify the FEA model. It
turned out that the proposed FEA model was relatively accurate to predict the temperature
distribution of CFST column-walls. Typical temperature-time curves at different locations of the
cross section were given and the heat transfer process as well as the effect of water evaporation
were discussed and analyzed.

Figure 2 shows the schematics of different shapes of

CFST column-walls.

1 INTRODUCTION
Concrete-steel composite structures are gaining more
and more popularity in the construction field all over the
world for its high capacity, ductility and relatively good
fire performance. With increasing applications of
concrete filled steel tubular (CFST) members in
multi-story residential buildings, engineers in China
recently came up with a novel type of concrete-steel
composite structure called CFST column-wall, which is
an assemble of several single rectangular CFST columns
welded together, functioning as both the load-bearing
column and shear wall. A typical floor plan using this
kind of composite structure is shown in Figure 1.

Figure 1. Typical floor plan

(a)Chain-shaped

(b) L-shaped

(c) T-shaped

(d) Cross-shaped

Figure 2. Different shapes of CFST column-walls

Apart from the traditional advantages of composite

structures, a significant feature of CFST column-walls is
that by welding together several U-shaped hot-rolled steel
tubes together and pouring concrete inside, CFST
column-walls can be quite flexible in shapes, so that they
can be easily fit into all kinds of designs. This also
contributes to the pre-fabrication process of the entire
building. Additionally, unlike traditional circular or
rectangular columns, which are located at the corner of
the room and take up certain clear space, CFST

CFST column-wall

713

Liu et al.

column-walls can make full use of the room space, thus

bring about lots of convenience to both designers and
residents.
The Chinese code for fire protection design (GB
50016-2014) gives provisions for the fire resistance time
of load-bearing columns and walls in different buildings.
For residential buildings classified as grade one (higher
than 54m), the fire resistance limit is three hours. In order
to meet this compulsory provision, studies have to be
made into the fire performance of CFST column-walls,
and the first step is temperature field analysis.
With the help of the commercial finite element
analysis software ABAQUS, this paper established a FEA
model to predict the temperature field distribution of
CFST column-walls and then, the FEA model was
verified against typical test data. The design of the
specimens were based on a real projected in China. They
were exposed to ISO-834 standard fire on two sides, and
no insulation on the fire-exposed sides was applied.
Characteristic heating curves of typical positions inside
the specimens and the temperature field distribution
across the section were introduced and analyzed.

-0.00124 T + 1.7162
(0.004T + 3.3) 10

s cs =

c c c =

(-0.050T + 25.007) 106

410<T445

2.566 10 6

445<T500
6

(0.016T - 5.449) 10

500<T635

(0.0167T - 100.902) 106

-(0.221T + 176.073) 10
6

kc =

T>785

1.355

0T293

-0.022T + 48

0T900

28 .2

T>900

c ' cc ' = 4.2 106

T=100

0.95 c cc + 0.05 wcw

T<100

c cc

T100

(4)
(5)
(6)

2.3 Fire exposure

Different fire curves can be used as the fire exposure.
For example, the ISO-834 (1975) standard fire curve, and
the parametric fire curves introduced in Eurocode 1
(2002). Both uniform and non-uniform fire exposure can
be adopted according to the thermal boundary conditions
of the structure.

2.4 Boundary conditions

The simulation of the thermal boundary condition and
contact between different materials adopted the ways
suggested by Song (2009), which has been proved of
acceptable accuracy to calculate the temperature
distribution of CFST columns under fire. The convective
heat transfer coefficient is taken to be 25 W/(m), and
the surface radiation emissivity is taken to be 0.5,
according to ECCS-Technical Committee 3 (1988).
As for the interaction between steel and concrete, the
tie contact is employed so that the steel tube and inner
concrete share the same temperature at the same position,
ignoring the heat contact conductance at the interface.
The contact between the main part of the structure and
the end plates are not considered in heat transfer analysis
since the end plates are usually insulated during fire
exposure.

3 TEST AND VERIFICATIONS

The FEA model introduced in Section 2 has been
adopted by several researchers to simulate the heat
transfer process of different kinds of CFST columns,
joints and frames, see Yang (2008), Han (2012), Song
(2014). However, no published test data can be found
about CFST column-walls. Therefore, a set of
experiments were carried out to investigate the fire
behavior of this new type of composite structure.

(1)

715<T785

2.566 10

T>800

A 3D finite element model was established in the

FEA model. The 8-node brick elements are used to model
the inner concrete and the end plates. 4-node quadrilateral
shell elements are used for the outer steel tube. A typical
meshing of the FEA model is shown in Figure 6 (b).

635<T715
6

4.55 106

(3)

2.2 Element type and meshing

Lie (1994) proposed a set of formulas for the thermal

capacity ccc (scs) and conductivity kc (ks) of concrete
and steel under elevated temperatures, which had been
used by Han (2003), Yang (2008, 2013), and Song (2010,
2014) to predict the temperatures in CFST columns under
both uniform and non-uniform fire, the predicted results
were accurate when compared with measured ones.
Detailed formulas are given in Equations (1)~(4). Han
(2007) suggested a way to consider the water evaporation
effect of the inner concrete, it is assumed that all water
would vaporize at 100 and only affecting the thermal
capacity of the concrete with modifications shown in
Equations (5) and (6).
400<T410

650<T725
6

725<T800

c ' cc ' =

2.1 Thermal properties

0T400

(0.068T + 38.3) 10
(-0.068T + 73.35) 10

ks =

This paper referred to the modelling methods adopted

by previous researchers to investigate the temperature
distribution of traditional CFST columns, since CFST
column-walls can be treated as several rectangular CFST
columns welded together or a rectangular CFST column
with ribs.

(0.177T - 68.034) 106

0T650

2 FEA MODEL

2.566 106

T>293

(2)

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Liu et al.

3.1 Specimen information

label

The basic parameters of the specimens are based on a

90 meters tall, 33-storey residential building constructed
by Hangxiao Steel Structure Corporation in China.
Considering the complexity of T-shaped, L-shaped and
cross-shaped CFST column-walls, the most elementary
chain-shaped ones are chosen as the typical shape of the
specimens.
The test included three specimens (S1, S2, S3). Their
geometrical features were exact the same, as well as their
material types for steel and concrete. While two different
load ratios were considered. All Specimens were
subjected to axial compression with both ends pinned to
the reaction frame. To minimize the possible errors that
may occur during fire test, two identical specimens (S2
and S3) were fabricated and tested.
The schematic of their cross sectional size is shown in
Figure 3. Each of them was consisted of three
200mm130mm4mm U-shaped hot-rolled steel tubes
welded up together, with a 4mm-thick steel plate welded
as an extra rib between two of the steel tubes to enclose
the cross section. The total height of the specimens is
2900mm, which is the height of a standard floor between
the two center of the slabs in the real structure.

43

S3

0.45

2320

41

Temperature ( )

1000
800
600

ISO-834
Measured-S1
Measured-S2
Measured-S3

400
200
0
0

10

20

30
40
Time (min)

50

60

Figure 4. ISO-834 standard fire curve and measured ones

Steel tube

During a real fire in a residential building, it is very

likely that the fire spreads through windows, doors and
separation walls which are non-fireproofed. Therefore,
the CFST column-walls were treated as two-side fire
-exposed. Since the specimens are regarded as a
sub-structure inside a long chain-shaped CFST wall, the
other two sides of them are not exposed to fire directly.
During the test, they were covered with 80mm-thick
mineral wools to simulate the real case, as illustrated in
Figure 5. The mineral wool was fixed at the non-fire
exposed sides of the specimen by C-shaped steel frames
with a thickness of 0.8mm.
Inside the middle-height cross section of each
specimens, 3 thermocouples were embedded before the
pouring of the concrete. The position of them are also
shown in Figure 5.
C-shaped steel

Mineral wool

130

1
2

80

50

200

Thermocouple

130

604
Figure 5. Fire exposure scenario of the specimens (unit: mm)

Thermocouples with a diameter of 6mm were first

tied to a thin steel bar and enter the steel tube through the
reserved holes on the tube surface. When the sensor at the
tip of the thermocouple reached its design position, the

Table 1. Specimen information

Load

63

2320

1200

The steel used in the specimen including the steel

tube, steel plate and the connection devices was carbon
steel. The yield stress was 363MPa, the tensile strength
was 503MPa, and the modulus of elasticity was 1.80105
in average, tested at ambient temperature. The inner
concrete was calcareous concrete with a mix proportion
of cement: 368kg/m3, water: 200 kg/m3, sand: 652 kg/m3,
coarse aggregate: 939 kg/m3, and fly ash: 158 kg/m3. The
specimens were cured in standard condition and stood
upright while air-drying before the test. The compressive
cube strength of the concrete was 39.36MPa at 28 days
curing and 40.70MPa at the time of the test.
Table 1 gives the other information that are different
from each other for the three specimens, where load ratio
means the load applied to the Specimen to its ultimate
compression strength calculated by FEA model. Every
specimen was heated up to its fire limit according to the
criteria suggested by ISO-834 (1975).

Load ratio

1547

0.45

The standard fire curve recommended in ISO-834

(1975) was adopted as the fire exposure. Theoretical and
measured curves are shown in Figure 4.

604

Specimen

0.30

S2

3.2 Fire exposure

Steel rib

Figure 3. Cross section of specimen S1~S3 (unit: mm)

S1

130

200

(min)

61

Welding

Concrete

(kN)

Heating time

715

Liu et al.

steel bar was welded to the steel tube to fix the position
of the thermocouple.

3000
1000

3.3 Test setup

Figure 6 shows the photo of the fabricated specimen
and the corresponding FEA mesh. The round corner of
the U-shaped steel was treated as a right-angle for
simplicity.
The connection devices at the top and bottom of the
specimen were made of steel and were surrounded by
thick rock wool in the furnace. The main purpose of the
connection devices was to make it easier for the
specimens to fit in the furnace, and also to maintain the
slenderness of the specimen to match the value in real
project. They were cover with 10mm-thick fire proof
coating and surrounded by thick rock wool blanket during
the heating process. The connection devices are also
simulated in the FEA model, since they are relatively
rigid comparing to the main part of the specimen, it is
assumed they only provide boundary conditions to the
specimen, their temperature and deformation are not
considered. Holes with a diameter of 20mm were made
on the surface of the steel tube to function as vent holes
for water vapor to get out.

Reacting
frame

Pin end

Upper
connection
device

Rock
wool

Retaining
wall

4700

2900

3740

Specimen

Lower
connection
device

Rock
wool

Floor

(a) Testsetup (unit: mm)

Upper connection
device
Specimen
C-shaped steel
frame
Thermocouples

Thermocouples
Vent

Rock wool blanket

hole
Lower connection
device

(b) Typical specimen

(a) Fabricated specimen

Figure 7. Schematic of test setup and typical specimen

(b) FEA mesh

Figure 6. Fire exposure scenario of the tested specimens

3.4 Verification
Adopting the modelling methods proposed in Section
2, a 3D finite element model was established to simulate
the heat transfer process of the test.
The test results of the measured heating curves and
the calculated ones by FEA model are given and
compared in Figure 8. First of all, the heating curves of
temperature measure points 1, 2 and 3 in all three
specimens are compared separately with the calculated
ones, and then a summary of the comparison between the

The test was carried out in the furnace of Tianjin Fire

Research Institute, China. The furnace has a height of
4.7m and a plane size of 3.0m3.0m, as described by Han
(2013). Figure 7 shows the schematic of the test setup
and typical specimen.

716

Liu et al.

average measured curves and the calculated ones are

given. In the figures, curve S1-1 indicates the heating
curve of measure point 1 in the first specimen S1, et
cetera. The position of measure points 1, 2 and 3 are
shown in Figure 5.
It should be noted that the actual position of the
measure points can be different from their design
positions because of the pouring of the concrete, for
example, the concrete pouring from the top of the tube
may hit on the steel bar used to fastening the
thermocouple, and there may be some cement between
the steel surface and the sensor of the thermocouple.
Therefore, this deviation is taken into consideration when
defining the proper measure points in the FEA model.
1000
Measured(S1-1)
Measured(S2-1)

Temperature ( )

800

Temperature ( )

1000

40

50

60

Heating time (min)

1000

1
3

Temperature ( )

Measured(S1-2)
Measured(S2-2)

600

Calculated(FEA)

Measured(S3-2)

400

10

15

20

25

30

35

40

Generally speaking, the calculated results fit well

with the measured ones.
For measure points 1 and 2, the calculated results tend
to be higher than measured ones when the temperature
exceeds 300. This is probably because of the fact that it
is impossible to place the thermocouple exact in its
designed position, that is, at the inner surface of the steel
tube. Therefore, the cement between the thermocouple
and the steel surface may slow the heat transfer process at
this point, yielding a relatively lower measured result.
For measure point 3, the effect of water evaporation is
very obvious according to the measured results, since the
temperature stays at around 100 for 34 minutes, 33
minutes and 27 minutes respectively for the three
specimens. This phenomenon is simulated in the FEA
model by raising the specific heat of the concrete below
100 as mention above.

200

4 DISCUSSION AND ANALYSIS

0
0

10

20

30

40

50

4.1 Typical heating curve

60

Heating time (min)

300

(b) Temperature measure point 2

Measured(S1-3)

800

Measured(S2-3)
Measured(S3-3)

600

Calculated(FEA)

250
Temperature ( )

1000
Temperature ( )

200

(a) Temperature measure point 1

800

400

Figure 8. Comparisons between measured and calculated

results

1
3

0
30

1
3

(d) Average measured results vs calculated ones

200

20

Heating time (min)

400

10

600

Calculated(FEA)

800

Measured(S3-1)

600

1-Average
1-FEA
2-Average
2-FEA
3-Average
3-FEA

1
3

200

150

100
50

400

200

10

20

30

40

50

60

Heating time (min)

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

Figure 9. Typical temperature versus heating time curve

Heating time (min)

(c) Temperature measure point 3

717

Figure 9 shows the typical temperature versus heating

time curve of characteristic measure points inside CFST

Liu et al.

(3) The area that is closer to the core concrete tends to

have a longer duration of platform phase. When
vaporized free water travels through the cross section and
escapes from the vent holes, large amount of heat is
carried away, making the core part of the section a low
temperature zone.

column-walls. The heating process can be divided into

four main phases.
(1) Initial phase (OA): In this phase, the heating
process just begins, and the temperature of the
characteristic measure point changes slowly within a
small range from 15 to 30. The duration of this
phase mainly depends on the distance from the
fire-exposed surface.
(2) Rapid rising phase (AB): In this phase, the
temperature of the measure points rise rapidly from
around 30 to 90 . This is probably due to the
evaporation of free water inside the concrete. When free
water take in enough heat for vaporization, they travel
through the pores in the concrete. Some of them escape
from the vent holes on the surface of the steel, as can be
seen from the water spots in Figure 10. Others move
deeper into the concrete and meanwhile carry the heat
around.
(3) Platform phase (BC): In this phase, the free water
in the concrete continue to take in large amount of heat to
fulfill the vaporization process, thus the temperature stays
at around 100, which is known as the boiling point of
water. The duration of this phase is mainly affected by
the water content of the inner concrete, and is also related
to the distance from the fire-exposed surface. Higher
water content, and longer distance from the fire-exposed
surface may lead to longer duration of this phase.
(4) Steady rising phase (CD): When all free water
inside the concrete has been vaporized and escaped from
the specimen, the temperature of the measure points rise
steadily. The connection between the heating rate and the
distance from fire-exposed surface is not obvious.

Table 2 Duration of differences phases of the Specimens

Specimen
S1

S2

S3

Measure
points
1
2
3
1
2
3
1
2
3

Duration of different phases (min)

OA
AB
BC
1
2
10
7
4
15
6
4
34
1
4
4
6
10
23
7
3
33
1
4
5
6
4
19
8
5
27

4.2 Temperature distribution of the cross section

Since the measured temperature results were quite
limited in fire test, verified FEA model can be a useful
tool to analyze the heat transfer process across the
section.
Figure 11 shows the whole isotherm of the cross
section, where NT11 indicates the temperature in degrees
celsius.
Quarterly isotherm region

Figure 11. Isotherm of the whole cross section at 60 min

(unit: )

It can be seen that due to the two-side fire exposure,

the temperature distribution of every single U-shaped
steel tube is identical with each other, so only a quarter of
the U-shaped steel tube will be shown for symmetry in
the coming analysis. Another fact that can be derived
from the isotherm is that the steel rib inside the specimen
serves as a thermal bridge that transfers certain heat from
the outer steel tube to the inner concrete because of the
higher conductivity and lower specific heat of steel.
The quarterly isotherms of the middle U-shaped steel
tube (region shown in Figure 11) at different heating
times are shown in Figure 12. As can be seen in these
figures, temperature drops slowly from the fire-exposed
surface to the inner concrete. The temperature at the
corner zone rises faster than other areas of the cross
section, since its surrounded by steel in both sides. The
temperature gradient is bigger for areas nearer to the

Figure 10. Water spots on the steel surface after heating

The duration of the first three phases of all the

specimens are summarized in Table 2. It can be
concluded that,
(1) The duration time of the initial phase OA is
shorter for measure point 1, while no obvious difference
can be seen between point 2 and 3. This indicates that the
area which is nearer to the fire-exposed surface tends to
be heated up faster than the inner area of the specimen.
(2) For the duration of the rapid rising phase, the
difference between all three measure points are not
obvious.

718

Liu et al.

Tsinghua Initiative Scientific Research Program

(No.20131089347). The support of Tianjin Fire Research
Institute on the experiments is appreciated as well.

fire-exposed surface, and for areas nearer to the concrete

core, the temperature gradient is relatively small. When
the outer steel tube reaches around 600, which is the
critical temperature for steel structure with a utilization
factor of 0.45 according to Eurocode 3 ( EN
1993-1-2:2005 ), the temperature of the inner concrete is
still below 200 , which means they can provide
effective lateral constraint to the outer tube for a longer
time. Meanwhile, this may also cause the redistribution of
inner forces between steel and concrete, which should be
further analyzed.
185
218
152
120
88
55

392
336
276
218
160
102

(a) Heated for 10 mins

530
455
379
303
228
152

REFERENCES

(b) Heated for 20 mins

620
446
360
273
186

533

(c) Heated for 30 mins

(d) Heated for 60 mins

Figure 12. Quarterly isotherm for different heating times

5 CONCLUDING MARKS
This study established a finite element analysis model
for concrete filled steel tubular column-wall using
ABAQUS to calculate its temperature field distribution
under fire. The test of three CFST column-walls under
ISO-834 standard fire two-sidedly were used to verify the
FEA model and it was proved that the proposed FEA
model can predict the temperature field distribution of
CFST column-walls within a reasonably range of
accuracy. Typical heating curves of characteristic
positions in CFST column-wall were analyzed as well as
the whole temperature distribution across the section.
Based on similar modelling methods and the results of
the temperature field distribution, further researches on
the structural behavior of this kind of composite structure
under fire should be carried out to investigate its fire limit,
failure mode, internal force redistribution and so on.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This research is part of the project supported by the
National Key Project of Science and Technical
Supporting Programs Funded by Ministry of Science &
Technology of China (No. 2014BAL05B04) and

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Standard GB 50016-2014 (in Chinese)
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resistance of centrally loaded composite steel-concrete
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structures, technical note.
Eurocode 1.EN 1991-1-2: 2002. Actions on structures-Part 1-2:
General actions - Actions on structures exposed to fire.
European Committee for Standardization, Brussels.
Eurocode 3. EN 1993-1-2: 2005. Design of steel structures-Part
1-2: General rules - Structural fire design. European
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Han, L.H., Xu, L., Zhao, X.L. 2003. Tests and analysis on the
temperature field within concrete filled steel tubes with or
without protection subjected to a standard fire. Advances in
Structural Engineering 6(2): 121-33.
Han, L.H. 2007. Concrete-filled steel tubular structures-theory
and practice (2nd ed.). Beijing: China Science Press (in
Chinese).
Han, L.H., Wang, W. H. & Yu, H. X. 2012. Analytical
behaviour of RC beam to CFST column frames subjected to
fire. Engineering Structures 36: 394-410.
Han, L.H., Chen, F., Liao, F.Y., Tao, Z. & Uy, B. 2013. Fire
performance of concrete filled stainless steel tubular
columns. Engineering Structures 56: 165-181.
ISO-834. 1975. Fire-resistance tests-elements of building
construction. International Standard ISO 834.
Lie, T.T. 1994. Fire resistance of circular steel columns filled
with bar-reinforced concrete. Journal of Structural
Engineering 120(5): 1489-1509.
Lie, T.T. & Chabot, M. 1992. Experimental studies on the fire
resistance of hollow steel columns filled with plain concrete.
Ottawa, Canada: NRC-CNRC Internal Report. No. 611.
Song, T.Y., Han, L.H & Yu, H.X. 2009. Concrete filled steel
tube columns under combined temperature and loading.
Journal of Constructional Steel Research 66: 369-384.
Song, T.Y., Han, L.H., Uy, B. 2010. Performance of CFST to
steel beam joints subjected to simulated fire including the
cooling phase. Journal of Constructional Steel Research 66:
591-604.
Song, T.Y. & Han, L.H. 2014. Post-fire behaviour of
concrete-filled steel tubular column to axially and
rotationally restrained steel beam joint. Fire Safety Journal
69: 147-163.
Yang, H., Han, L.H. & Wang, Y.C. 2008. Effects of heating and
loading histories on post fire cooling behaviour of concrete
filled steel tubular columns. Journal of Constructional Steel
Research 64(5): 123-134.
Yang, H., Liu, F.Q., Zhang, S.M. & Lv, X.T. 2013.
Experimental investigation of concrete-filled square hollow
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Engineering Structures 48: 292-312.

11th International Conference on

Advances in Steel and Concrete Composite Structures
Tsinghua University, Beijing, China, December 3-5, 2015

CONCRETE FILLED STEEL TUBES FOR BRIDGE PIER AND

FOUNDATION CONSTRUCTION
Charles W. Roedera, Dawn E. Lehmana & Max Stephensa
a

Department of Civil Engineering, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98195-2700 USA

E-mails: croeder@uw.edu, delehman@uw.edu, and maxs3@uw.edue
ABSTRACT

Keywords:
Concrete filled tubes;
Composite; Research; Seismic
design

Concrete filled steel tubes (CFST) are composite members that are commonly used in many
countries today. CFST is used in the United States, but its use has been limited compared to
many countries in Asia, because US labor costs are relatively high and CFST connections used
in Asia are quite expensive. US design specifications are prepared by separate groups for steel
and concrete structures and so composite systems such as CFST are frequently subject to
conflicting standards. In the US, steel tubes of CFST are more slender than many countries, and
labor practices also cause potential conflicts in construction. As a result, CFST has had some
use in building construction, but very limited use in bridge construction. A research program at
the University of Washington has been in progress to address many of these issues. The
primary focuses of this research are to develop economical and practical CFST connections for
accelerated construction. The research has resulted in recent changes to the American
Association of State Highway Officials (AASHTO) bridge design specification, and this should
increase the use of CFST in bridge piers and pile and drilled shaft foundations. An experimental
research study including 19 CFST pier to foundation or pile cap connection tests and 8 CFST to
precast pier cap tests was performed. The connections provide good performance under both
seismic and gravity load and address the concerns of US construction. These connections, their
design rules and requirements, and their impact on composite behavior and system performance
are discussed. Ongoing research on shear resistance and member behavior of CFST is noted.
These results permit rapid and economical construction of CFST bridge piers, piles and drilled
shaft foundations. They encourage the use of more slender and more economical tubes, while
achieving the benefits of composite construction.

bridges and a discussion of potential future use of these

composite members.

1 INTRODUCTION
Concrete filled steel tubes (CFST) are widely used for
bridge construction in Asia, but the use of CFST in
bridge construction is limited in the US. The historical
use of steel and concrete in US bridge construction has
resulted in perceptions and misconceptions that have
limited the use of CFST. Bridge construction in the US
is inherently different than in Asia because of differences
in construction costs and practices. As a consequence of
these differences, design and construction practices that
are economical and practical in other countries may not
be practical for US bridge construction. Nevertheless,
CFST offers many potential advantages for US bridge
construction, because of its high strength, stiffness and
ductility, and because of the accelerated construction that
can be provided by CFST. This paper provides a brief
review of the current use of CFST in US bridge
construction, recent research into the use of CFST in

2 HISTORICAL USE OF CONCRETE FILLED

TUBES
While composite CFST construction has had limited
use in US bridge construction, steel tubes filled with
concrete have been used frequently. However, they are
seldom designed as composite members, and as a result,
the full benefits of CFST construction are seldom
attained. There are 3 current seismic applications of steel
tubes with concrete infill in US bridge construction. The
first and perhaps most common application is jacketing
for seismic retrofit of reinforced concrete bridge piers.
Older reinforced concrete piers often have inadequate
shear reinforcement and the confinement needed to assure
good inelastic performance. Further, splice and
development lengths for the reinforcing bars are
frequently inadequate. These older reinforced concrete

720

Roeder et al.

increased dramatically in recent years, and seismic design

of bridges increasingly requires pile or drilled shaft
foundations.
Pile foundations may use precast concrete piles, steel
H-piles, or steel tube piles.
The pile-to-pile cap
connections used in bridge design are often simple
embedded shear resisting connections. These connections
may develop moment resistance, but the flexural
resistance of the connection is often neglected in design.
Steel tube piles offer significant advantages, and they are
today commonly used. Steel tube piles can be vibrated or
driven into place, cleaned of soil for a portion of its depth,
and then filled with concrete. The concrete may
increase the end bearing capacity and stiffness the pile.
The composite behavior of the pile also significantly
increases resistance of the pile, but this composite
resistance is commonly neglected in design. Instead a
reinforcing cage may be inserted into the pile to provide a
calculable flexural resistance and may be extend into the
pile cap to provide shear and moment transfer at the
connection. However, the CFST composite capacity of
the pile is not considered.
Bridges are frequently constructed on deep, soft soil
deposits that have relatively poor resistance to
liquefaction and require deep-drilled shaft foundations.
Today, drilled shaft foundations may be 2 or 3m in
diameter and more than 80 to 90m in depth for seismic
design. A steel tube is inserted to hold back any loose
soil and facilitate construction (see Fig. 2a). A steel
reinforcing cage in inserted into the tube and the tube is
filled with concrete. The resistance of the shaft is
evaluated as a reinforced concrete member with no
consideration of the composite action or the steel tube.

bridge piers suffer severe damage during earthquake load

as illustrated in Fig 1.

Figure 1. Seismic damage to a reinforced concrete bridge pier.

Extensive research has been performed on this

common problem (Priestley et al. 1994) and jacketing of
the deficient reinforced column with a steel tube has been
widely used. Jacketing specifically avoids development
of composite action and increased resistance of the bridge
pier, because increased pier resistance results in greater
demands on foundations and other parts of the structure.
Jacketing is designed so that the tube confines the
concrete but avoids shear stress transfer between the
reinforced concrete column and the steel tube. This may
be accomplished by using a steel jacket that is a bit larger
than the outside diameter of the reinforced concrete pier
and by filling the recess with sand or similar material. In
addition, the steel jacket is stopped short of the footing or
pier cap to prevent transfer of bending moment to the
foundations or pier caps. Research shows that this
practice dramatically increases the inelastic deformation
capacity of the reinforced concrete pier. It confines the
concrete, develops the reinforcing within the concrete,
and increases the shear capacity of the bridge pier.
Bridge engineers have used this concept for seismic
retrofit of thousands of reinforced concrete bridge piers,
and some bridge engineers confuse steel jacketing with
CFST construction. Hence, they may think they are
using CFST construction, when they are really using
jacketing design concepts.
Bridge design in the US employs a range of structural
foundations. Spread footings are often the most
economical alternative, and they are used whenever
possible.
However, bridges designed for seismic
loadings often are limited to deep foundations unless the
footing is on bedrock or very firm soil. Seismic design
induces inertial lateral loads on the bridge and its
foundation. Today, seismic bridge design is usually
based up an expected seismic hazard with a recurrence
interval of approximately 1000 years. Bridges built 15
to 20 years ago, were designed to a much smaller
earthquake hazard (perhaps only 100 year recurrence
interval). For many locations, seismic design loads have

a)

b)

Figure 2. Deep drilled shaft foundations; a) Inserting the steel

tube, b) Inserting the reinforcing cage.

Engineers often view these 3 applications as CFST

even though they do not consider composite resistance.
CFST design provisions have historically been included
in 3 major US design specifications (AISC 2010, ACI
2011, AASHTO 2012), but the 3 specifications have been
very different. The
AASHTO
provisions
have
historically waivered between the AISC and ACI
provisions, and a brief comparison focusing on these

721

Roeder et al.

provisions is warranted. Both AISC and ACI

specifications have specific methods for predicting the
flexural and axial resistance of circular CFST. AISC
(2010) permits both the plastic stress distribution (see Fig.
3a) and the strain-compatibility (see Fig. 3b) methods.
The plastic stress distribution method assumes that the
section develops the full yield stress of the steel in
tension and compression and a uniform compressive
stress of 0.95fc in the concrete of circular CFST where
fc is the specified compressive strength of the concrete.
Equilibrium is applied over the cross section for each
possible neutral axis location to develop axial
load-bending moment interaction curves. These curves
are affected by the slenderness, D/t, of the tube. Smaller
D/t values result in larger resistance due to larger area of
steel. Larger D/t values significantly increase bending
moment for modest axial loads, because of the increased
contribution of concrete fill in compression. However, the
total resistance is smaller, since the concrete contributes
more to the resistance. Bishop (2009) evaluated these
alternate methods and showed the plastic stress
distribution method is conservative and consistently
provides more accurate predictions of circular CFST
resistance.
The strain compatibility method has
considerable appeal, since it is the basis of reinforced
concrete design, but it is not particularly reliable for
CFST, because it requires a strain or deformation limit to
establish the resistance. Bishop showed the steel tube
confines the concrete extremely well in CFST, and the
strain limits currently used with the strain compatibility
method are not meaningful for CFST.

compression fiber of the concrete (which is within the

tube) is 0.003 mm/mm. For each neutral axis position, a
point on the interaction curve is developed. The ACI
design procedure shown in Fig. 1c is similar to the AISC
strain compatibility method, except that the concrete
stress distribution is a rectangular stress block with a
0.85fc compressive stress acting over a depth, 1dc. The
value of 1 depends on the concrete strength; dc is the
maximum depth of the concrete in compression.
Slender tubes depend on their own stiffness and
strength as well as the stiffness and strength of the
concrete fill to control local buckling. Limitations on the
D/t ratio are:
D
E
0.15
t
Fy

(AISC)

(1a)

D
8E

t
Fy

(ACI )

(1b)

D
E
2
t
Fy

(AASHTO)

(1c)

These are very different limits, since the D/t limits for
using the plastic capacity of circular CFST with steel
yield stress of 345 MPa are 87, 68, and 48 for the AISC,
ACI and AASHTO provisions, respectively.
The effective member stiffness, EIeff, of CFST is
needed to compute deflections and define buckling
capacity. These also vary:
EI eff Es I s C3 Ec I c

AISC

(2a)

where
As
C3 0.6

Ac As
EI eff Es I s

.2Ec I g
1 d

(2b)
ACI

E A
EI eff Es I s 0.4 c c I s AASHTO
As

(2c)
(2d)

The subscripts c, s, and g refer to properties of the steel,

concrete, and gross concrete section, respectively, and E,
I and A are the elastic modulus, moment of inertia, and
area of the respective sections. The d in Equation 2c is
usually approximately 1.0, and so it can be seen that the
AASHTO and AISC provisions predict a greater EIeff than
that predicted by ACI.

Figure 3. Evaluation models for CFST; a. AISC plastic stress

distribution method, b) AISC strain compatibility, c) ACI strain
compatibility

3 RECENT DEVELOPMENTS

Some recent developments have changed the

prospects for using CFST in bridge design. First,
significant changes have been made to the AASHTO
LRFD Specification to modernize the design
requirements for CFST (AASHTO 2014). These changes
provide more accurate estimates of CFST resistance by

The AISC strain compatibility method employs a

linear strain distribution, a bilinear steel material curve, a
parabolic unconfined concrete material behavior, and
equilibrium to determine axial and flexural capacity as
shown in Fig. 3b. The maximum strain in the extreme

722

Roeder et al.

connection illustrated in Fig. 4b. The footing is cast with

a recess formed by a light gauge corrugated steel tube.
The CFST tube is placed into the recess and grouted with
high strength reinforced grout. The tube is then filled
with concrete, and construction proceeds as with other
connections.

placing increased emphasis on the plastic stress

distribution method. Improved models of stiffness,
slenderness limits and methods of evaluating the stability
and combined load capacity of CFST have been
incorporated into the specification based upon
comparison with experimental results (Bishop 2009,
Roeder et al. 2010). These developments show that CFST
elements offer greater resistance with significantly less
weight and material than reinforced concrete. Further,
engineers today are focused on accelerated bridge
construction, and CFST facilitates rapid field
construction. Hence, there is increased interest in the
use of CFST for bridge construction, and these combined
benefits are expected to result in increased usage of CFST
in bridge design. It is likely that the usage will continue
to focus on piles, drilled shafts and bridge piers or
columns, but more frequent usage is anticipated.

4 CFST BRIDGE RESEARCH

Connections of CFST to other structural elements
also limit the use of CFST in bridge construction.
Significant research has been performed on CFST
connections with primary funding provided by the
California Department of Transportation. Two CFST
column-to-footing or pile-to-pile cap connections have
been evaluated as shown in Fig. 4 (Lehman and Roeder
2012). Three CFST column-to-precast cap beam
connections illustrated in Fig. 5 have been evaluated to
facilitate the use of precast pier caps with CFST pier
columns and to further enhance accelerated bridge
construction (Stephens et al. 2014). Twenty-seven
large-scale CFST connections were tested (Lehman and
Roeder 2012, and Stephens et al. 2014 and 2015) and
extensive nonlinear analyses were performed (Moon et al.
2012 and 2013).

Figure 5. CFST column to cap beam connections; a) Embedded

connection, b) Welded dowel connection, c) Reinforced
concrete connection.

Figure 6. Annular Ring.

Eighteen foundation connection specimens were built

and tested under cyclic lateral load in the setup illustrated
in Fig. 7 (Lehman and Roeder 2012). The connection
performance is strongly influenced by footing thickness
and embedment depth, since they relate to punching shear
and cone pullout of the tube in flexure, and these issues
were a focus of the research. Specimens with shallow
embedment depths cause significant damage to the
reinforced concrete footing or pile cap as shown in lateral
force-story drift plot of Fig. 8a and the photo of Fig. 9a.
Specimens with adequate embedment depth cause
virtually no damage to the footing as shown in Figs. 9b
and 9d.
These specimens sustain large inelastic
deformations with no deterioration in resistance as shown

Figure 4. CFST column to footing connection; a) Embedded

connection, and c) Grouted embedded connection.

Both foundation connections are embedded

connections with an annular ring as shown in Fig. 6.
Figure 4a shows a cast-in-place embedded connection
where the annular ring is temporarily supported on a lift
or pedestal and then cast into the footing or pile cap.
Construction labor issues in US may result in a
preference for the recessed grouted foundation

723

Roeder et al.

placement and curing of the concrete fill. Creep and

shrinkage of the concrete is minimized with CFST
construction
compared
to
reinforced
concrete
construction (Lehman et al. 2013). Environmentally
friendly construction practices such as cement
replacement can be employed, because the high strength
of the steel tube supports loads during the long period
required for the concrete to gain its full strength with
these alternate materials. No reinforcement or shear
connectors are required within the steel tube, and no
shoring or formwork is required. Fabrication is quite
simple since it consists of forming and cutting the tube
and welding an annular ring to the end of the tube. CFST
pier columns can be constructed in days rather than
weeks or months normally required for bridge
construction.

in Fig. 8b. The steel tube ultimately sustains local

buckling after achieving large inelastic deformations as
shown in Fig. 9b. After many cycles of large inelastic
deformation, the cyclic plastic strains of the buckled steel
ultimately lead to ductile tearing of the tube as illustrated
in Fig. 9c. The concrete inside the tube is very well
confined, and no damage to the concrete fill occurred
until after severe local buckling of the tube. After
severe local buckling, the compressive concrete is less
well confined in the buckled region, and crushing of the
concrete in this local area occurs with increased inelastic
deformation. Severe local buckling occurs only after
relatively large inelastic deformation, because the steel
tube must have sufficient tensile yield elongation for the
buckled shape to form. After multiple large deformation
cycles, the concrete fill in the local area of local buckling
of the tube is large pulverized and pours out of the tear as
damage to the tube occurs. The required embedment
depth and footing thickness required for punching shear
were established from this research.

Figure 9. Photos of typical footing connection behaviors; a)

Foot damage due to inadequate embedment, b) Local buckling
and not footing damage with adequate embedment, c) Severe
tearing of the tube after multiple buckling cycles, and d)
Limited cracking in footing after local buckling of tube.

Figure 7. Test Setup.

To further advance accelerated bridge construction

the CFST-to-precast pier cap connections (see Fig. 5)
were investigated. These connections are divided into
three broad categories based on their reinforcing details,
geometry and behavior: (1) embedded connections (see
Fig. 5a), (2) welded dowel connections (see Fig. 5b), and
(3) reinforced concrete connections (see Fig. 5c), and
they were evaluated for earthquake deformations in both
the longitudinal and transverse directions of the bridge
pier. The longitudinal and transverse directions are
fundamentally different because one develops bending
moment normal to the plane of the axis of the cap beam,
and the other is in the plane of the axis of the cap beam.
The embedded connection (Fig. 5a) is a natural
extension of the grouted-recessed foundation connection
(see Fig. 4b). A recess is formed and cast into the
precast cap beam. The steel tube has an annular ring,
which extend a distance 8 times the tube thickness both
inside and outside of the tube, at the end of the tube. The
recess of the cap beam is placed over the CFST column,

Figure 8. Typical force-displacement behavior; a) Shallow,

inadequate embedment, b) Adequate embedment.

CFST bridge piers are simple, economical and rapidly

constructed. Research shows that CFST members can be
constructed with 30% to 40% less weight, mass, and
material than for a reinforced concrete pier of equivalent
strength and stiffness. Further, they may provide better
performance than the heavier reinforced concrete
member. The CFST member is rapidly constructed
because the steel tube is fabricated off site and self
supported on site. The steel tube supports the
construction loads during erection and subsequent

724

Roeder et al.

connection, because of the desire to limit the forces and

moments transferred to other structural elements during
an earthquake. Its strength depends upon the size and
spacing of the rebar, and these parameters are limited by
available space on the inside perimeter of the tube. The
welded dowel connection will normally be significantly
stronger than a reinforced concrete connection, because
the reinforcing bar is entirely within the steel tube and
concrete cover is not required. The steel tube does not
penetrate into the pier cap with either the welded dowel
or the reinforced concrete connection. Figure 5b, shows a
welded dowel connection with debonded reinforcing bars,
since debonded bars significantly increase the inelastic
deformation capacity and reduce the damage to the pier
cap. However, dowel bar connections with bonded bars
were tested and significant damage to the pier cap was
noted as shown in the photo of Fig. 11b.
The
unbounded dowels provided better inelastic performance
(see Fig. 10b) with little damage to the pier cap (see Fig.
11c). The actual behavior of this connection is a
rocking behavior due to the large axial deformations of
the unbonded bars, and significant separation between the
tube and the cap beam were noted as illustrated in Fig.
11c. The resistance of the welded dowel connection in
Fig. 10b is fairly close to that of embedded connection,
because the internal reinforcement had 87% of steel area
of the tube and the specified yield stress of the rebar was
45% larger than that of the tube. While the resistance of
this welded dowel connection is greater than that possible
with a reinforced concrete column due to the larger
effective diameter of the rebar and the better confinement
of the steel, the resistance of welded dowel connections is
smaller than that of a CFST embedded connection,
because it is difficult to weld adequate rebar into the tube
to develop the resistance of the tube.
The welded dowel connection also has substantial
penalties with regard to accelerated construction. The
embedded CFST connection easily supports the weight of
the cap beam, girders, and construction equipment during
erection, and so shoring is not required. However,
welded dowel connections cannot support the weight of
the cap beam, and therefore shoring or other support
system is required to support the pier cap while the cap is
grouted into place and while the grout cures.
The placement and design of the welds joining the
reinforcing bars to the inside of the tube was a critical
issue for this connection. A flare bevel weld was
designed to develop the tensile strength and inelastic
deformation capacity of the reinforcing bar. An
experimental study of this weld was completed prior to
testing of the full connections to assure that the
performance goals were achieved. Design and placement
of the weld was completed in accordance with American
Welding Society (AWS) Bridge Welding Code
(AASHTO/AWS 2010). A total of 16 No. 7, 4 No. 9, and
4 No. 11 dowels were welded to inside of 4 508-mm

and the column supports the full construction load. Then,

the end of the CFST is grouted into the recess with
reinforced grout. This connection develops the full
resistance of the CFST as illustrated in lateral force-story
drift plot of Fig. 10a.
As with the foundation
connection, the embedment depth is important, because
this relates to potential cone pullout and damage to pier
cap. The required width of the cap beam is important to
the economy, esthetics, and performance of the
connection, and it was also investigated. The ultimate
failure of this connection is again associated with local
buckling of the steel and tearing of the steel in the local
buckled region after numerous cycles of large inelastic
deformation as shown in Fig. 11a.

Figure 10. Force-deflection behavior of precast pier cap

connections; a) Embedded connection, b) Welded dowel
connection, and c) Reinforced concrete connection.

Figure 11. Photos of typical precast pier cap connection

behavior; a) Tear in tube after cyclic local buckling of
embedded connection, b) Footing damage cause by welded
dowel connection when no debonding was provided, c) Welded
dowel connection with debonded bars, and d) Fracture of
reinforcing bars and spiral in reinforced concrete connection.

The embedded connection develops the full strength

of the CFST column, and it has high stiffness and
excellent ductility and inelastic performance. The welded
dowel connection shown in Fig. 5b was developed
because bridge engineers may prefer a weaker

725

Roeder et al.

is establishing the shear capacity of CFST under different

applications and load conditions.
The Washington State Department of Transportation
is currently funding a study to address this issue. A few
prior shear tests have been performed (Xu et al. 2009,
Xiao et al 2012, and Nakahara and Tokuda 2012), but
these prior tests are on tubes of moderately small
diameter under idealized conditions. Actual piles and
drilled shafts are of much larger size and the actual
applications may have dirt or contamination inside the
tube, have inaccurate geometric placement and other
concerns. The ongoing research is evaluating larger tubes
and tubes reflecting current field conditions. The work
is in progress, and significant conclusions are not
possible at this time. Figure 12 shows the test setup and
deformation of one of the test specimens.

diameter steel tubes with 6.35-mm wall thickness, and the

tubes were filled with self-consolidating low shrinkage
concrete. The primary test parameters included weld
strength, bonding or debonding the dowels from the
concrete, and the embedment depth of the bar into the
steel tube. Weld strengths ranging from 80% to 120% of
the dowels strength and embedment depths of 16db and
24db were evaluated. The bars were pulled to failure
using a hydraulic ram placed into a self-reacting system.
The failure mode in all tests was characterized by dowel
yielding followed by strain hardening and fracture of the
steel bar. Debonding the reinforcing decreased the visible
concrete damage, and no damage to the tubes in the weld
region was observed in any of the tests.
As noted in prior discussion, bridge engineers often
think of CFST as a reinforced concrete member, which
happens to have a steel tube as formwork. This is not
viewed as ideal CFST behavior, but it is not uncommon
for bridge engineers to use this design concept.
Connections designed by this concept (see Fig. 10c) were
also designed, built and tested. This connection also
exhibited a ductile hysteretic response, since the inelastic
deformation was limited to the longitudinal dowels and
grout in the soffit region. This connection was weaker
and more flexible than the embedded CFST connection.
Its stiffness was 69% of the stiffness of the embedded
CFST of identical size and properties. Significant
damage to internal longitudinal bars and spiral
reinforcing were noted in these specimens. Buckling
and fracture of the bars were also noted (see Fig. 11d).
Comparison
of
these
experiments
clearly
demonstrates the different behaviors of the proposed
connections as well as the influence of varying
parameters on each connection type. The embedded
connections exhibited larger stiffness, strength, and
energy dissipation than the other connections.

5 CURRENT ONGOING WORK

The prior research focused on work done to develop
economical and practical connections for CFST
applications. The work to date continues to focus CFST
used for piles, drilled shafts, bridge piers and columns.
While there are other potential applications for CFST in
US bridge construction, the current focus remains on the
foundation and substructure issues. However, some
questions remain for these applications. The primary
focus of CFST is for seismic design, because the
foundation and substructure demands are quite large for
these systems. Since bridges are commonly built on deep
soil deposits, foundation design is often concerned with
liquefiable layers of soil that may introduce lateral
spreading or movement during large earthquakes.
Movements of this type may cause large shear forces in
piles and drilled shafts. There is currently great interest

Figure 12. Shear test program of CFST; a) Test setup, b) Photo

of test specimen, and c) Photo of test specimen after significant
shear deformation.

6 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

This has been a brief overview of the use of CFST in
US bridge construction. It is clear that the use of CFST

726

Roeder et al.
Constructional Steel Research, Vol. 78, November 2012,
pgs. 212-25, Elsevier.
Lehman,D.E., Kuder, K., Gunnarsson, A.K., Roeder, C.W., and
Berman, J.W. (2013) "Circular Concrete Filled Tubes for
Improved Sustainability and Seismically Resilience",
Journal of Structural Engineering, ASCE, Reston, VA,
ISSN 0733-9445/B4014008(12).
Moon, J., Lehman, D.E., Roeder, C.W., and Lee, H-E (2013)
"Evaluation of Embedded Concrete Filled Tube (CFT)
Column-to-Foundation
Connections,"
Engineering
Structures, Vol. 56, pgs 22-35, Elsevier.
Moon, J., Lehman, D.E., and Roeder, C.W. (2012) "Strength of
Circular Concrete Filled Tubes (CFT) with and without
Internal Reinforcement Under Combined Loading," Journal
of Structural Engineering, ASCE, Reston, VA,
DOI:10.1061(ASCE)ST1943-541X.000078.
Moon, J., Roeder, C.W., Lehman, D.E., and Lee, H-E (2012)
"Analytical Modeling of Bending of Circular
Concrete-Filled Tubes," submitted for publication review,
Engineering Structures, Elsevier.
Nakahara, H., and Tokuda, S., (2012). Shearing Behavior of
Circular CFT Short Columns, Proceedings of 10th
International Conference on Steel Concrete Composite and
Hybrid Structures, Singapore, pgs 362-369.
Priestley, M.J., Seible, F., and Xiao, Y. (1994) Steel jacket
retrofitting of reinforced concrete bridge columns for
enhanced shear strength; test results and comparison with
theory, ACI Structural Journal, Vol 91, pp 537-551.
Roeder, C.W., and Lehman, D.E. (2012) Initial Investigation
of Reinforced Concrete Filled Tubes for use in Bridge
Foundations, Washington State Dept. of Transportation
Report WA-RD 776.1, Olympia, WA.
Roeder, C.W., Lehman, D.E., Stephens, M. (2014) "Concrete
Filled Steel Tubes for Accelerated Bridge Construction,"
Transportation Research Record No. 2406, Vol. 1,
Washington, DC, pgs 49-58.
Roeder, C.W., Lehman, D.E., and Bishop, E. (2010) Strength
and Stiffness of Circular Concrete Filled Tubes," ASCE,
Journal of Structural Engineering, Vol 136, No. 12, pgs
1545-53, Reston, VA.
Stephens, M. T., Berg, L. M, Lehman, D.E. and Roeder, C.W.
(2014) Circular concrete filled tube bridge pier connections
for accelerated bridge construction, Proceedings: 2014
National Accelerated Bridge Construction Conference,
Miami, FL, pgs 354-363.
Xiao, C., Cai, S., Chen, T., and Xu, C., (2012). Experimental
study on shear capacity of circular concrete filled steel
tubes, Steel and Composite Structures, Vol 13, No 5, pgs
437-449, Techno Press.
Xu, C., Haixiao, L., and Chengkui, H, (2009). Experimental
study on shear resistance of self-stressing concrete filled
circular steel tubes, Journal of Constructional Steel
Research, Vol 65, pgs 801-807, Elsevier.

in bridge construction is less advanced in the US than in

many other countries.
Nevertheless, significant
advances have been made in recent years, and it is
expected that the use of CFST in US bridge construction
will increase significantly in the future. The primary
usage of CFST has been and will likely continue to be for
piles, drilled shafts and bridge pier columns. Connections
suitable for seismic design of bridge pier columns have
been discussed. These connections are practical and
economical and they facilitate accelerated bridge
construction. Research continues in these areas.

7 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Research was sponsored by the Army Research
Laboratory and was accomplished under Cooperative
Agreement Number DAAD19-03-2-0036, by the
California Department of Transportation (CALTRANS)
and the Washington State Department of Transportation
(WSDOT). The views and conclusions contained in this
document are those of the authors and should not be
interpreted as representing official policies, either
expressed or implied, of the Army Research Laboratory,
the US. Government, CALTRANS or WSDOT. The U.S.
Government is authorized to reproduce and distribute
reprints for Government purposed notwithstanding any
copyright notation heron. The authors gratefully
acknowledge the financial support of these organizations.
In addition, the advice and assistance provided by Ron
Bromenschenkel, Michael Cullen, and Peter Lee of the
CALTRANS, Bijan Khalighi of WSDOT, and Jon Tirpak
of the Advanced Technology Institute and the Vanadium
Technology Partnership.

8 REFERENCES
American Association of State Highway and Transportation
Officials (AASHTO) (2012) AASHTO LRFD Bridge
Design Specifications, Washington, D.C.
American Association of State Highway and Transportation
Officials (AASHTO) (2014) AASHTO LRFD Bridge
Construction Specifications, 3rd Edition with 2010 through
2014 Interims, Washington, D.C.
American Concrete Institute (ACI) (2011) Building Code
Requirements for Structural Concrete (ACI 318-11),
Farmington Hills, MI
American Institute of Steel Construction (AISC) (2010).
Specification for Structural Steel Buildings, AISC, Chicago,
Illinois.
American Welding Society (AWS) (2010) Bridge Welding
Code, AASHTO/AWS D1.5:2010 Standard, Miama, FL.
Bishop, E. (2009) Evaluation of the Flexural Resistance and
Stiffness Models for Circular Concrete-Filled Steel Tube
Members Subjected to Combined Axial-Flexural Loading, a
thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of the Master of Science
in Civil Engineering Degree, University of Washington,
Seattle, December 2009.
Lehman, D.E. and Roeder, C.W. (2012) "Foundation
Connection for Circular Concrete Filled Tubes," Journal of

727

11th International Conference on

Advances in Steel and Concrete Composite Structures
Tsinghua University, Beijing, China, December 3-5, 2015

IN-PLANE
STRENGTH
AND
DESIGN
OF
FIXED
CONCRETE-FILLED STEEL TUBULAR PARABOLIC ARCHES
C. Y. Liu, Q. Hu, Y. Y. Wang & S. M. Zhang
Key Lab of Structures Dynamic Behavior and Control of the Ministry of Education
Harbin Institute of Technology, Harbin, China
E-mails: liuchangyong@hit.edu.cn, hit1113220206@163.com,wangyuyin@hit.edu.cn, smzhang@hit.edu.cn
ABSTRACT
Keywords:
CFST; Arches; stability;
Design; Fixed.

Concrete-filled steel tubular (CFST) arch bridges have the advantages of high compressive
strength, light self-weight and convenience in construction, and thus are widely used in recent
years. The current codes or specifications use the equivalent beam-column method to predict the
in-plane strength of CFST arches. In this method, the CFST arches are considered under central
or eccentric axial compression and are treated similarly to CFST columns. However, different
from the CFST columns, the in-plane strength of CFST arches is affected by not only the
slenderness ratio but also the rise-span ratio. Especially for the arches with small rise-span
ratios, the pre-buckling deformation becomes quite nonlinear, leading to a remarkable decrease
in in-plane strength. Therefore, it is doubtful if the current method for in-plane strength design
of CFST arches can provide correct predictions. In this paper, the elastic buckling and
elastic-plastic buckling behaviors of fixed CFST parabolic arches that are subjected to uniform
axial compression are investigated. The effect of the rise-span ratio on both the elastic buckling
load and the in-plane strength are studied. A new method, for the prediction of the in-plane
strength of fixed CFST parabolic arches that are subjected to uniform axial compression, is
developed by considering both the slenderness ratio and the rise-span ratio.

uniform axial compression or uniform eccentric

compression, to calculate the in-plane strength according
to the stability theory of CFST columns. However, this
method ignores the effect of an important parameter that
characterizes the arches, the rise-span ratio, on archs
in-plane strength. According to the study of Liu (Liu,
C.Y. 2011), it shows that when the archs rise-span ratio
is less than 1/5 (i.e. shallow arch), the in-plane strength of
an arch will be decreased significantly with the decrease
of rise-span ratio. At present, more than 1/4 of the CFST
arch bridges in the world are shallow arches, such as the
Xiejiang Bridge (China) with rise-span ratio of 1/7, the
Arco del Escudo Bridge (Spain) with rise-span ratio of
1/8.24, and the Chang'an University pedestrian bridges
(China) rise-span ratio even reached 1/9.6. Thus, safety
issue exists during the prediction of the in-plane strength
of CFST arches, by using the equivalent beam-column
method with ignorance of the effect of rise-span ratio.
This paper is intended to investigate the in-plane
elastic-plastic buckling behaviors and strength of fixed
CFST parabolic arches that are in uniform axial
compression. Both of the geometric and material
nonlinearities are taken into account in the work. A new
design method, for the prediction of the in-plane strength
of fixed CFST parabolic arches that are subjected to

1 INTRODUCTION
Concrete-filled steel tubular (CFST) arch bridges
have the advantages of high compressive strength, light
self-weight and convenience in construction, and thus are
widely used in recent years. Compared with reinforced
concrete arch bridge, not only CFST arch bridge has good
compressive and seismic performance, but also the steel
tube can be used as formwork in pouring concrete, thus
eliminating the complex process of formwork. Compared
with the steel arch bridge, the arch rib stiffness of CFST
arch bridge is increased obviously, the local buckling
behavior of steel tube is improved, and steel consumption
is also significantly reduced. The past 20 years has seen
the rapid development of CFST arch bridges in the world:
more than 300 CFST arch bridges are in construction or
have been built, in which about 40 bridges span lengths
are over 200 meters, and the largest span length of CFST
arch bridges is more than 500 meters (Fig. 1).
With the increasing span length of CFST arches, the
in-plane buckling is becoming one of the major concerns
in the strength design. The current code or specification
adopted the equivalent beam-column method to predict
the in-plane strength of CFST arches. In this method,
CFST arches are considered as CFST columns under

728

Liu et al.

imperfections. In addition, the maximum amplitude of the

initial geometric imperfection is determined to be S/1000
(S is the length of an arch), according to the requirement
of the specification for CFST arch bridges (Fujian
Provincial Department of Housing and Urban-Rural
Development 2011).
Residual stresses exist in the steel tubes of real CFST
arches, which may cause premature yielding and inelastic
buckling of the steel tubes. However, according to the
previous study on CFST circular arches (Pi, Y.L. et al.
2012), the effect of residual stresses on the in-plane
strength of CFST arches are quite small and can be
neglected, thus the residual stresses in the steel tubes are
not taken into account in this study.
The significant influence of the confinement provided
by the steel tube on the strength of the concrete core has
to be included in the stress-strain relationship. A uniaxial
stress-strain curve (Han, L.H. et al. 2005) based on
numerous experimental results is adopted for the confined
concrete core in compression in this paper (Fig. 2):

uniform axial compression, is proposed by considering

both the slenderness ratio and the rise-span ratio.

(a) Zhijing River Bridge (430m, 2009)

y 2 x x2

( x 1)

(1)

1 q0 x 0.1 1 ( 1.12)

y
x
( 1.12)

2
x 1 x

(b) Bosideng Bridge (530m, 2013)

Figure 1. Typical CFST arch bridges.

2 FINITE ELEMENT MODEL

( x 1)

(2)

where x / 0 ;

The commonly used modeling methods of CFST

components include fiber model method, beam element
method and solid element method. The beam element
method uses two beam elements in same location with
shared nodes to create steel and concrete separately. It not
only can ensure the plane section assumption for beam
section after deformation, but also can reflect the
confinement effect of steel tube to core concrete by using
the constitutive model of concrete with confinement
effect being considered. It is suitable to simulate the
mechanical properties of CFST arches.
The B21 beam element in ABAQUS software is
adopted to simulate the CFST arches. Geometric
nonlinearity and material nonlinearity can be considered
in the element. In order to realize the material definition
of two different materials, steel and concrete at the same
position, two beam elements were superimposed and
created along the arch axis in creating an arch, and were
defined by material properties of steel and concrete
separately. TIE command was used to bind the steel tube
element and concrete element in the superimposed
position, to ensure the joint work of steel and concrete.
The initial geometric imperfections affect the strength
of CFST members significantly and have to be
considered in the FE modelling. In this investigation, the
eigenform corresponding to the lowest in-plane buckling
mode of an arch under nominal axial compression is used
to determine the shape of the in-plane initial geometric

y / 0 ;

0 cc 1400 800 (

f c'
1) 0.2 () ;
24

cc 1300 12.5 fc' () ;

q0

0.745
;
2

0 1 (0.054 2 0.4 )(

0.25 ( 0.5)7

(2.36 105 )

24 0.45 '
) f c ;
f c'

f c' 2 3.51104 .

is the confinement coefficient and defined as:

As f y
Ac f ck

(3)

where As and Ac are the areas of the steel tube and

concrete core respectively; fy is the yield strength of the
steel; fck is the characteristic value of the compressive
strength of the concrete core (fck equals to 0.67 times of
the cube strength fcu or 0.88 times of cylinder strength fc).
When the compressive stresses of concrete are less
than 35% of the ultimate stress, the stress-strain

729

Liu et al.

relationship is assumed to be linear. The Youngs

modulus of elasticity Ec given by ACI 318-11 is used in
this range.
The tensile behavior of the core concrete is defined
as:
( t )
Ec

t
( t )
f t 1
tmax t

e e1

e2

e3

3 GEOMETRY AND CROSS SECTION

The parabolic CFST arches with fixed endings are
widely used in engineering. The geometry and cross
section of a fixed parabolic CFST arch is shown in Figure
4, and the axis of the arch can be described as:
y [ x 2 ( L / 2) 2 ] / 2 p

A five-stage stress-strain curve for steel is adopted in

the FE model: the linear-elastic stage (oa), the
elastic-plastic stage (ab), the plastic stage (bc), the strain
hardening stage (cd) and the necking stage (de), as shown
in Figure 3. In elastic-plastic stage, e at a is defined as:

( fy s ) s
( f y fp ) fp

(9)

i is the radius of gyration of the cross section and I =

ds/4 for circular cross section; ds is the diameter of the
steel tube. is the steel ratio and obtained as:
2
2
As ds d c / 4 d s2
(10)

2 1

Ac
dc
d c2 / 4

(5)

Es

(8)

2
2

L 4 f

4f
4 f L
S 1
ln
1


4f L
L
L 2

where fp is the proportional limit, fp = 0.8fy; Es is the

elastic Youngs modulus of steel. In elastic-plastic stage,
straine1 at point b equals to 1.5e, and the tangent
modulus of the steel is given by:

Est

L0
i

where L0 is the equivalent length of an arch and L0 =

0.36S for fixed arches; S is the arch length, given by Eqn.
(9):

e f p / Es

(7)

where L denotes the span length; f is the height of the

arch; p = L2/8f.
is the slenderness ratio of an arch and defined by
Eqn. (8):

ft
Figure 2. Stress-strain curve for concrete core.

<1.12

where dc is the diameter of core concrete.

q

(6)

Steel
tube

Concrete

where s is the stress of steel. In the plastic stage, strain

e2 at point c equals to 10e1. In the strain hardening stage,
stress at point d is the ultimate strength of the steel fu =
1.6fy. Strain e3 at point d equals to 100e1.

dc

tmax

Figure 3. Stress-strain curve for steel (Han et al 2005; Zhong

2003).

1.12

fy
fp

(4)

where the tensile strength of the concrete ft = 0.1fck and

tmax is the maximum tensile strain.
The stress-strain relationship of the confined core
concrete is implemented in ABAQUS with UMAT
subroutine. This method enables the stress-strain
relationship of concrete determined only by input
parameters fck, fcu, Ec, fy, As, Ac.

fu

x
y

ds

Figure 4. Geometry and cross section of a parabolic CFST arch.

730

Liu et al.

4 IN-PLANE ELASTIC-PLASTIC BUCKLING OF

Figure 5b demonstrates the corresponding stress states

in the arch spring for the ultimate states of A, B, and C
respectively. It is seen in Figure 5b that, for the arch with
slenderness ratio = 60, both the top and bottom fibers in
steel and concrete are under compression. However,
tensile stresses occur in the top fibers of both steel and
concrete for the arch with slenderness ratio120, and
the tensile stresses turn to be more remarkable when the
slenderness ratio reaches 180. This indicates that the
bending moment has more influence on slender arches
under ultimate state.
The in-plane strength of the fixed CFST parabolic
arches under the condition of different slenderness ratios
( = 40-200), steel ratios (= 0.04-0.2) and rise-span
ratios (f/L = 1/10-1/2) are calculated and accordingly, the
slenderness reduction factor and the slenderness ratio .
From the figure, it is observed that, under the condition of
a specific rise-span ratio, the slenderness reduction factor
exhibits a significant decreasing trend with the increase
of the slenderness ratio. This is the same as the buckling
behavior of CFST columns. However, under the condition
of the same slenderness ratio, the slenderness reduction
factor decreases significantly with the decrease of
rise-span ratio, which is different from CFST columns. It
can be found that the rise-span ratio significantly affects
the in-plane strength of CFST parabolic arches.

FIXED CFST PARABOLIC ARCHES

4.1 Effect of rise-span ratio on the in-plane strength

The in-plane strength Nac of a fixed CFST parabolic
arch that is subjected to nominal uniform compression is
proposed as:
N ac N Y N Y

(11)
where is slenderness reduction factor. NY is the
compressive carrying capacity of the cross section, which
is determined by Eqn. (12):

N Y Ac f ck (1 )

(12)

The FE model mentioned above is used to calculate

the in-plane strength of fixed CFST parabolic arches that
are subjected to uniform distributed vertical load. The
Riks method, which allows effective static equilibrium
solutions for unstable problems, is used to obtain the
complete load-deflection curves. Typical load-deflection
curves are shown in Figure 5a, where N is the axial force
in the arch spring. It can be indicated from Figure 5a that
these three CFST parabolic arches have experienced a
typical limit point buckling when subjected to uniform
distributed vertical load. During the ultimate state (i.e.,
point A, B, or C on the load-deflection curves), the
corresponding axial force N is adopted as the in-plane
strength Nac.

1.0
f/L=1/10
f/L=1/5
f/L=3/10
f/L=2/5
f/L=1/2

0.8

1.0
=60
=120
=180

0.6

0.8

0.4

N/NY

0.6

0.2
B

0.4

= 0.12

0.0
0

120
160
200
240

Figure 6. Variation between the slenderness reduction factor

and the slenderness ratio .

0.2
C

0.0
0

f/L=1/5, =0.12

4
vmax/

-55.38MPa
2.94MPa
1.44MPa

-345.00MPa
249.62MPa

-44.71MPa
2.47MPa
2.27MPa

80

4.2 Comparison of the in-plane strength between the

(a) Typical load-deflection curves

Stresses at
in the arch spring
Steel Tube Core Concrete
-5.42MPa
-33.89MPa
A
-345.00MPa
75.52MPa

40

equivalent beam-column method and FE

predictions
The specification (Fujian Provincial Department of
Housing and Urban-Rural Development 2011) for CFST
arch bridges adopted the equivalent beam-column method
to predict the in-plane strength of the CFST arches. In
this method, the slenderness reduction factor adopted
the slenderness reduction factor of steel columns
recommended by America Institute of Steel Construction
(AISC) in LRFD specification (American Institute of
Steel Construction 2005):

C
-345.00MPa
-39.65MPa

(b) Stress states under ultimate state

Figure 5. Load-deflection curves and corresponding stress states
in the arch spring.

731

Liu et al.

0.658n ,

2
0.877 / n ,
2

1.0

n 1.5

Nac /NY

f scy

200 150

Nac /NY

0.6

-20%
f/L=1/10
0.4

1.0

0.6

Nac /NY

+30%

0.6

0.8

1.0

200 150

50

100

Nac /NY

+50%
0.6

-10%

0.4

= 0.04
= 0.08
= 0.12
= 0.16
= 0.20

0.2
0.0
0.0

f/L=2/5
0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

1.0

(d) f/L = 2/5

Figure 7. Comparison between the slenderness reduction factor
given by Eqn. (13) and the FE results.

Based on the FE results, rise-span ratio is introduced

to modify the slenderness reduction factor recommended
by AISC. The slenderness reduction factor is modified
as followed:

0.8

( +1.185

f
n L
,
(0.560 +0.437)
L

f
8.199L 0.082/ ( 0.723 f 0.285)2 ,
n

L
f

1.0

f/L=1/5
0.4

0.6

= 0.04
= 0.08
= 0.12
= 0.16
= 0.20

0.8

n 1.5

(15)
n 1.5

The comparison between the modified slenderness

reduction factor obtained by Eqn. (15) and the FE
results Nac/NY is shown in Figure 8. It can be observed
that Eqn. (15) agrees well with the FE results in different
rise-span ratios, and most of the FE results are above the
curve. The steel ratio also has influence on the
modified slenderness reduction factor : for arches with
the same rise-span ratio f/L and slenderness ratio , the
non-dimensional slenderness ratio n has a slight decrease
with the increase of steel ratio , leading to an increase of
the modified slenderness reduction factor . However,
this influence is much smaller compared with the
rise-span ratio f/L and slenderness ratio
Figure 8 shows differences between the modified
slenderness reduction factor obtained by Eqn. (15) and
the FE results. It can be seen from Figure 8 that the
percentage differences between the modified slenderness

-10%

0.2
0.2

+10%

+10%

0.4

0.0
0.0

0.4

0.8

= 0.04
= 0.08
= 0.12
= 0.16
= 0.20

50

100

0.8
0.6

1.0

(a) f/L = 1/10

200 150

0.2

(c) f/L = 3/10

-10%

0.2
0.2

f/L=3/10

= 0.04
= 0.08
= 0.12
= 0.16
= 0.20

4.3 Modified slenderness reduction factor

+20%

0.4

0.0
0.0

0.4

0.0
0.0

+10%

0.8

-10%

0.2

50

100

+40%

(14)

Esc

The comparison between the slenderness reduction

factor given by Eqn. (13) and the FE results Nac/NY is
shown in Figure 7. From Figure 7, it is observed that for
arch of rise-span ratio 1/10, the FE results with the
slenderness ratio within range of 50-100, are near 20%
lower than the specification calculation results. This
indicates that in this situation the method in the current
specification is prone to be unsafe. In other three
rise-span ratios (i.e. 1/5, 3/10 and 2/5), calculation results
of specification in the range of = 100-200 exceed the
actual capacity by 20%, with the largest gap more than
50%. It means the design in this situation is
over-conservative. In summary, because Eqn. (13) does
not consider the effect of rise-span ratio, it cannot exactly
predict the in-plane strength of CFST parabolic arches.
1.0

0.6

+10%

0.8

where, n is the non-dimensional slenderness ratio of

CFST components, which is defined as:

50

100

(13)

n 1.5

NY
n =

N cr

200 150

1.0

(b) f/L = 1/5

732

Liu et al.

reduction factor obtained by Eqn. (15) and the FE

results range from +10% to -3%. The mean value of
(Nac/NY)/ is 1.03, with a standard deviation of 0.025 and
coefficient of variation equaling to 2.43%. This indicates
that it is safe and economical to use the modified
slenderness reduction factor to predict the in-plane
strength of fixed CFST parabolic arches.
1.0

= 0.04
= 0.08
= 0.12
= 0.16
= 0.20
f/L=2/5

0.8

0.6
0.4

arches. Journal of Constructional Steel Research, 69(1):

77-94.
Han, L.H., Yao, G.H. & Zhao, X. L. 2005. Tests and
calculations for hollow structural steel (HSS) stub columns
filled with self-consolidating concrete (SCC). Journal of
Constructional Steel Research, 61(9): 1241-1269.
American Institute of Steel Construction (AISC). 2005. Load
and resistance factor design specification for structural
steel buildings. Chicago.

f/L=1/10

f/L=1/2

f/L=1/5

0.2
0.0
0.0

Eqn. (20)
0.5

1.0

f/L=3/10
1.5
n

1.0

0.6

2.5

3.0

= 0.04
= 0.08
= 0.12
= 0.16
= 0.20
f/L=2/5

0.8

0.4

2.0

f/L=1/10

f/L=1/2

f/L=1/5

0.2
0.0
0.0

Eqn. (20)
0.5

1.0

f/L=3/10
1.5
n

2.0

2.5

3.0

Figure 8. Comparison between the modified slenderness

reduction factor and the FE results.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The work described in this paper was supported by

the National Natural Science Foundation of China (No.
51208148) and the National Science and Technology
Pillar Program during the twelfth Five-year Plan Period
(2011BAJ09B02-03). These supports are gratefully
acknowledged.
REFERENCES
Liu, C.Y. 2011. Static stability and seismic behavior of circular
concrete-filled steel tubular arches. Doctoral Thesis of the
University of Sydney, 2011:70-75.
Fujian Provincial Department of Housing and Urban-Rural
Development.
2011.
Technical
specification
for
concrete-filled steel tubular arch bridges. DBJ/T
13-136-2011, Fujian. (in Chinese)
Pi, Y.L., Liu, C.Y., Bradford, M.A., & Zhang, S.M. 2012.
In-plane strength of concrete-filled steel tubular circular

733

11th International Conference on

Advances in Steel and Concrete Composite Structures
Tsinghua University, Beijing, China, December 3-5, 2015

DESIGN AND VIBRATION CONTROL OF AN URBAN STEEL

ARCH BRIDGE WITH SPATIAL CABLES
H. J. Xu a & Y. Q. Liu a
a

Department of Bridge Engineering, Tongji University, Shanghai 200092, China

E-mails: stingtsu@sina.com, yql@tongji.edu.cn
ABSTRACT
Keywords:
Arch bridge; Structural
design; Vibration Control; TMD

The North Bay Bridge is a landmark bridge with arch rib and curved main girder which are
connected with spatial cable. Another curved girder is laid outside of the bridge deck as
sidewalk which not only connects the parks of both river sides but also serves as the viewing
platform. This paper describe the detail design of this special steel bridge. The light-weight
structure and high-strength materials result in the low natural frequency of the bridge, which
induce vibration problems under the excitation of crowd load. To solve this problem, control
measures based on the structure optimization and damping increase methods are discussed and
compared. Through theoretical analysis, the vertical TMDs with a total mass of 4t are installed
on this pedestrian bridge, and its effectiveness is validated by field measurement.

1 GENERAL INTRODUCTION
Recently, more and more landmark bridge with
unusual architectural appearance were built in China. In
order to meet the requirements of urban landscape and
bridge aesthetics, light-weight high-strength materials,
which results in the low natural frequency, are extensively
used in the construction of long-span and flexible modern
bridges. The North Bay Bridge, located in Shanghai
Jiading District, is such an arch bridge with a main span 89
m. The main arch rib is skewed across the curved main
girder, which suspended by 30 spatial cables. The most
special design of the bridge is a separated footbridge which
set beside the main bridge, connected by cross beams to
the main girder and 2 cables by the main arch rib together.
Because of these, this bridge exhibits a coupled vibration
in vertical and lateral directions, which demand a control
system to reduce the vibration to an acceptable level. The
control measures based on structural optimization and
damping methods are discussed and compared in this
study. Through theoretical analysis, the vertical TMDs
with total mass of 4t are applied on this pedestrian bridge.

Figure 1. Design sketch of the North Bay Bridge.

The main girder is in a curve with radius of 608 m and

has a span of 89m and 25m in width. The arch rib with
span of 76 m is skewed across the girder and its rise-tospan ratio is up to 0.5, making the arch stand out. The angle
of intersection between the arc rib and the girder is 28.6.
The 15 pairs of hangers are anchored outsides the main
girder and distributes in a spatial way (not coplanar). The
footbridge is laterally made up of two sections of circular
arcs and two segments of straight lines, 84.568m in span,
with a trapezoidal cross section of 1.2m high, 2.5m and
1.11m wide for the top and the bottom respectively.
The footbridge is supported by 2 piers at both ends, 6
cross beams connected to the main girder and 2 cables
suspended from the arc rib. The bearings at both piers can
be treated as fixed supports while the cross beams and
cables are elastic supports. Anchored at the outer side of
the girder webs, the cables intersect the longitudinal and
transverse directions at different angles, and they do not
intersect the girder at the centroid of the cross-section (see

2 DESIGN OF THE BRIDGE

The North Bay Bridge is an arc bridge with arch rib
and curved main girder which are connected with spatial
cables, as shown in Fig. 1. Another curved girder is laid
outside of the bridge deck as sidewalk which not only
connects the parks of both river sides but also serves as the
viewing platform during the Chinese traditional Dragon
Boat Race.

734

Xu et al.

3.2 Pedestrian load model

Figure2). Consequently, it inevitably takes on coupled

characteristics of lateral and vertical vibration. So how to
control the excessive vibration in both lateral and vertical
directions simultaneously is the focus of our study.

In order to study the dynamic behaviors of the

footbridge under pedestrian load, it is necessary to
simulate the response of the bridge under human-load
excitation. The time-history curve of the vertical human
excitation is given by IABSE[2], and this model takes into
account the increase of dynamic load factor with pacing
rate in first vertical bending. The model can be defined as:

Fy t P 1 3i 1 i sin 2 if s t i

Figure 2. Sketch of the plan layout and supporting systems of the

footbridge.

3 ANALYSIS OF HUMAN-INDUCED
VIBRATION

3.1 Dynamic characteristic

Fz t 1 Fy t / 20
j

Vibration of the footbridge is related to the natural

frequency of the structure, and only when the walking
frequency is close to its natural vibration frequency will
resonance take place. The finite element model is used to
the study the dynamic characteristics of the whole bridge.
The FEA model is simplified as a spatial bar system, using
beam element for the arc rib, the girders and the cross
beams and the truss element for the cables. The first 12
vibration modes are listed in Table 1. There are 11 models
with frequency lower than 5Hz that can arouse resonance,
most of which fall into the sensitive range of stride
frequency (1st lateral 0.5~1.2Hz, 1st vertical 1.6~2.4Hz
and 2nd vertical 3.2~4.8Hz) [1].

Modal

Vibration

Mass(kg)

Description

1.311

333721

vertical

1.629

572596

vertical & lateral

1.952

586775

vertical & lateral

2.239

67513

vertical & lateral

2.653

635084

vertical & lateral

3.432

49767

vertical & lateral

3.729

440083

vertical & lateral

3.928

408627

vertical & lateral

4.288

406126

vertical & lateral

10

4.747

324891

vertical & lateral

11

4.905

450658

vertical & lateral

12

5.190

51885

vertical & lateral

(2)

Where j is the step order.

According to the study of London Millennium Bridge
[1]
, the maximum human load is set to be 1.5persons/m2.
The striding frequency tends to be synchronized, and the
only difference is phase angle. In line with the simulation
method of random probability distribution, the equivalent
load density should be:

N p 1.85 n

(3)

Where N p is the effective load density, n is the total

number of people on bridge.

3.3 Calculation of human-induced vibration response

Table 1. Natural vibration frequencies of the bridge.

Frequency(Hz)

(1)

where Fy t is the vertical striding force, P is the

weight of human, i is the dynamic load factor of ith
order
harmonic
component,
e.g.
1 0.4 0.25 f s 2 , 2 3 0.1 , f s is the
pacing frequency, is the time, s is the phase angle of
ith order harmonic component, e.g. 1 0 ,
2 3 / 2 .
Due to the swaying of gravity center during striding,
lateral exciting force is exerted on the bridge. The
frequency of lateral force is half that of vertical, while it is
assumed that the force amplitude ratio is 1/20. So the
formula of vertical force can be written as:

Modal

Acceleration response should be analyzed for those

frequencies which are within the range of striding
frequencies (1.6~2.4Hz) which means Mode 2 (1.629Hz),
Mode 3 (1.952Hz), Mode 4 (2.239Hz) should be
calculated. Taking into account of the contribution in the
stiffness by auxiliaries like balustrade and pavement, the
real frequency value is always larger than the calculated,
which means Mode 1 (1.311Hz) might also bring about
resonance and should be calculated. In addition, Mode 6
(3.432Hz) falls into the sensitive frequency range of
second vertical striding excitation, and although the
corresponding load factor is only 1/4 that of the first order,
it might also lead to human-induced vibration due to the
small modal mass of Mode 6, see Table 1. To sum up, this
design has all together studied 5 modes of human-induced
vibration which are 1.311Hz, 1.629Hz, 1.952Hz, 2.239Hz

735

Xu et al.

and 3.432Hz. The calculated maximum vertical and lateral

accelerations are listed in Table 2.
Table 2. Maximum acceleration responses.

Modal
1
2
3
4
6

Frequency

Vertical

Lateral

(Hz)
1.311
1.629
1.952
2.239
3.432

Acceleration(g)
0.019
0.025
0.036
0.220
0.017

Acceleration(g)
0.0013
0.0143
0.0210
0.150
0.019

Figure 3. Three Layouts of TMD.

The maximum acceleration responses of humaninduced vibration for the three schemes are presented in
Table 3.
Table 3. The maximum acceleration responses of three schemes.

4 DESIGN OF CONTROL MEASURES OF

HUMAN-INDUCED VIBRATION

4.1 Comfortableness standard

Scheme

The comfortable standard on vertical direction is

somewhat varied among the codes. The value in UK
BS5400 is limited to , which is related to frequency of the
vibration[3], and the limited value of 0.7m/s2[4] is given
by code of European Norm (EN 1990) and a value of 0.05g
is given by the code of U.S. AISC Design Guide-11. In
addition, the vibration acceleration is divided to four levels
in German code (EN 03) [1]: (a)very comfortable (
0.05g), (b) moderately comfortable (0.05g to 0.1g), (c)
uncomfortable (0.1g to 0.25g), and (d) intolerable (>
0.25g). Thus the limited vertical acceleration is taken as
0.05g in this paper.
Similar to its standard in vertical direction, the
acceleration of comfortableness standard on lateral
direction is limited to 0.03g in the code of ISO 101371992[5], 0.025g in BS5400 (BD/01)[3], 0.02gand less than
0.04g when crowded in European Norm (EN 1990)[4], and
0.028g in the Chinese code of JGJ 99-98[6]. In German
code (EN 03) [1], the vibration acceleration on lateral
direction is also divided to four levels: (a) very
comfortable (), (b) moderately comfortable (0.01g~0.03g),
(c) uncomfortable (0.03g~0.08g), and (d) intolerable
(>0.08g).Thus the limited lateral acceleration is taken as
0.028g in this paper.

Vertical
Lateral
acceleration
acceleration
response
response
Mass of
TMD (t)
Amplitude
Amplitude
amax
amax
of
of
(g)
(g)
reduction
reduction

Vertical
2.7 0.032 85.5% 0.030 80.0%
TMD
LateralTMD 2.7 0.043 80.5% 0.036 76.0%
Bidirectional
2.7 0.023 89.5% 0.020 86.7%
TMD
As shown in Table 3, the effectiveness of the three
schemes is different. The bi-directional TMD shows the
most effectiveness to the coupling vibration, which can be
decomposed into the vertical and lateral directions.
However, the case of vertical connection is also effective
enough and it is practical for installing. Thus the scheme
with vertical connection is selected in practice.

4.3 Parameters of TMD

4.2 Design of vibration reduction

In order to meet the requirement of vibration
reduction, three layouts of TMD are compared in this study,
which includes vertical connection, lateral connection and
bi-directional connection as shown in Figure 3.

The effectiveness of TMD with different mass ratios is

compared as shown in Table 4.It can be found that the
response of human-induced vibration decreases
significantly with installing TMD, and the amplitude of
reduction increases with an increase in mass ratio.
Considering the effectiveness and economy, the TMD with
mass ratio of 0.06 (the mass of about 4t) is applied in
practice, where the maximum acceleration responses are
0.279 m/s2 and 0.268 m/s2 in the vertical and lateral
direction, respectively. Thus it meets the requirement of
the comfortableness as mentioned in Section 4.1. In
addition, Figure 4 and Figure 5 compare the time history
of acceleration response with TMD and without TMD in
the vertical and lateral direction, respectively.

Table 4. The variation of maximum acceleration responses with mass ratio.

Mass

Mass of

Frequency

Damping

ratio

TMD (t)

(Hz)

ratio

2.24

0.100

Vertical acceleration
response
Amplitude of
amax(g)
reduction
0.220
--

736

Lateral acceleration
response
Amplitude
amax (g)
of reduction
0.150
--

Xu et al.

0.03

2.03

2.21

0.106

0.035

84.10%

0.033

78.00%

0.04

2.7

2.20

0.122

0.032

85.50%

0.03

80.00%

0.05

3.38

2.19

0.137

0.030

86.40%

0.028

81.30%

0.06

4.05

2.18

0.149

0.028

87.30%

0.027

82.00%

0.07

4.73

2.17

0.161

0.026

88.20%

0.025

83.30%

vertical direction and lateral direction, respectively.

Meanwhile, the amplitude reductions are 78.4% and
72.0% in practice according to the field-measured data.
Thus the TMD is a significant and effective way to control
human-induced vibration of the long-span curved
pedestrian arch bridge.
2. As for the bridge with coupled vibration, the TMD
with bi-directional connection is most effective to reduce
the human-induced vibration. As for the TMD with
unidirectional connection, it should be set at the position
with maximum vibration displacement, and its working
direction should be determined based on the direction of
maximum displacement, instead of the main damping
direction.

It can be found that the response of human-induced

vibration decreases significantly with installing TMD, and
the amplitude of reduction increases with an increase in
mass ratio. Considering the effectiveness and economy,
the TMD with mass ratio of 0.06 (the mass of about 4t) is
applied in practice, where the maximum acceleration
responses are 0.279 m/s2 and 0.268 m/s2 in the vertical
and lateral direction, respectively. Thus it meets the
requirement of the comfortableness as mentioned in
Section 4.1. In addition, Figure 4 and Figure 5 compare the
time history of acceleration response with TMD and
without TMD in the vertical and lateral direction,
respectively.
0.25

withoutTMD

0.2

withTMD

Acceleration(g)

0.15

REFERENCES

0.1
0.05

[1] EN03. Design of Footbridge Guideline. [S].

Germany :Background Document. 2008.
[2] Bachmann H. and AmmannW. Vibrations in
Structures: Induced by Man and Machines. [M].
Zurich: IABSE-AIPC-IVBH. 1987.
[3] BS 5400. Vibration Serviceability Requirements for
Foot and Cycle Track Bridges. [S]. London: British
Standards Association, 1978.
[4] EN 1990. Eurocode: Basis of structural design. [S].
London: British Standards Institution, 2002.
[5] ISO 10137. Bases for design of structures
Serviceability of buildings against vibration. [S].
Geneva: International Standardization Organization,
1992.
[6] JGJ99-1998. Technical Specification of Steel Structure
of Tall Buildings. [S],Beijing: China Building Industry
Press. 1998.

0
0.05 0

10

15

20

25

0.1
0.15
0.2
0.25

Time(s)

Figure 4. Comparison of the time history of acceleration with

TMD and without TMD in the vertical direction.
0.2

withoutTMD

Acceleration(g)

0.15

withTMD

0.1
0.05
0
0.05

10

15

20

25

0.1
0.15
0.2

Time(s)

Figure 5. Comparison of the time history of acceleration with

TMD and without TMD in the lateral direction.

5 CONCLUSIONS
1. Human-induced vibration of the North Bay Bridge,
which features with low-frequency and coupled vibration,
is investigated theoretically. The results show that the
maximum values of vibration acceleration reach 0.22g and
0.15g for Modal 4 in the vertical and lateral directions
respectively, which dissatisfy the requirement of
comfortable standard. When vertical TMD with a mass of
4t is installed on the bridge, theoretical analysis shows that
the maximum accelerations reduce to 0.028g and 0.027g
with the reduction amplitudes of 87.3% and 82.0% in
737

11th International Conference on

Advances in Steel and Concrete Composite Structures
Tsinghua University, Beijing, China, December 3-5, 2015

RESEARCH & DESIGN ON NEW STRUCTURE OF WAVE-TRUSS

COMPOSITE ARCH BRIDGE
Y. Li*a, C. Zhanga, M. Lia, Y. Y. Wangb & L. X. Daic
a

Shenzhen Bridge-Doctor Design & Research Institute Co., Ltd., Shenzhen, China
E-mails: liy2000@163.com, zhangchzy0808@163.com, 1656068645@qq.com
b

Harbin Institute of Technology, Harbin, China

E-mail: wangyuyin@hit.edu.cn
c

China Construction Steel Structure Co., Ltd., Shenzhen, China

E-mail:dailx@cscec.com
ABSTRACT
Keywords:
New structure; Steel-concrete
composite structure; Concrete
Filled steel tubular truss;
Corrugated steel web; Arch
bridge.

The main bridge of Shenzhen Bay Bridge creatively uses curve alien asymmetric rib
arch-wave-truss new composite structure design. Bridge upper structure uses asymmetric rib
arch, the arch rib shows outside-large cantilever modeling. It is divided into arch rib section of
steel-box and steel-concrete composite structure, the two pieces of the main arch rib inward tilt,
forming curve basket type. Arch rib section of Steel-box uses the single box and room section of
equivalent width and height, enhances the stability of the whole bridge, and arch rib section uses
steel-concrete composite structure within the scope of the arch foot. The main girder uses the
new composite structure that is composed of curve special-shaped arch structure, corrugated
steel web structure and steel truss structure. What is more, the arch uses the curve
special-shaped composite structure arch; and the girder uses the combination structure of
corrugated steel web and steel truss. The corrugated steel web PC composite structure becomes
a longitudinal box structure, in order to solve the longitudinal shear; however, the concrete filled
steel tubular truss becomes a horizontal structure, in order to solve the transverse bending, and it
can improve the performance of main girder longitudinal shear and lateral bending. Main bridge
uses the large-scale simulation Midas/Civil software for spatial structure calculation and
analysis, showing the elastic performance of steel tube-concrete composite bridge pier.

advantages of the steel and concrete structures, and also

has some characteristics - that neither do the two have.
The background of the project is Shenzhen Bay
Bridge. The main girder uses the new composite structure
that is composed of curve special-shaped arch structure,
corrugated steel web structure and steel truss structure.
What is more, the arch uses the curve special-shaped
composite structure arch; and the girder uses the
combination structure of corrugated steel web and steel
truss. The corrugated steel web PC composite structure
becomes longitudinal box structure to solve the
longitudinal shear; however, the concrete filled steel
tubular truss becomes horizontal structure to solve the
transverse bending, which can improve the performance
of main girder longitudinal shear and lateral bending.

1 GENERAL INTRODUCTION
1.1 Introduction
With the development of bridges, more and more
composite structure bridges have been built. In recent
years, composite structure bridges have been rapidly
developed in our country. It is a kind of high strength,
high performance structure. It will become a new
developing direction of urban bridges. At present, the
research of composite beam is more focused on
components, but less on structural system. However, the
change of the structure system can fundamentally change
the stress state of structure, thereby gaining economic
benefit. Therefore, it is of great significance to study the
transformation process by using cross-section variation
characteristics of composite structure.
Composite structure bridges have light structure
weight, good seismic performance, short construction
period, high degree of industrialization, good
environment effect and so on. It combines many of the

1.2 Project Profile

The Shenzhen Bay Bridge is located in the Shenzhen
Bay F1 race course for VII level travel channel. The
bridge near Shahe West Road, back to Shenzhen Bay
Sports Center, the total length is 230.41m

738

Li et al.

(L=30.205+170+30.205230.41m), and its main span

length is 236.37 m, as shown in Figure 1.
The arch uses the curve special-shaped composite
structure arch; and then the using half-through bridge
steel box arch rib with the inside main arch single span of
176.26 m and the lateral main arch single span of 164.40
m. And the girder uses curve corrugated steel web plate truss composite structure with the full width of 10.0 m
and the high beam of 2.25 m. What is more, the bridge
deck longitudinal slope is controlled by 5%, and its
approach roads connect smoothly the roads on both sides
of the planning. In addition, the radii of the center lines of
the main girder on the curve are 188 m and 154 m
respectively. At last, the bridge deck transverse slope is
two-way 1%.

(4) The corrugated steel web PC composite structure

becomes longitudinal box structure to solve the
longitudinal shear; however, the concrete filled steel
tubular truss becomes horizontal structure to solve the
transverse bending, which can improve the performance
of main girder longitudinal shear and lateral bending.
(5) The combination structure of the corrugated steel
web PC composite structure and the steel truss structure
form a cantilever composite girder structure that has
increased the bridge deck width. What is more, the
advantage of the corrugated steel web PC composite
structure with the light quality and the high shear yield
strength has improved the ability of main girder
longitudinal shear and lateral bending.
(6) For the concrete filled steel tubular truss of
compression, filling micro expansive concrete in the
internal to increase the buckling strength; however, for
the concrete filled steel tubular truss of tension, using
prestressed concrete filled steel tube.
(7) The bridge deck uses an anticorrosive wood floor,
laying common channel steel hot rolling after the main
girder joining together form a whole structure, to reduce
weight, convenient construction.
(8) The bridge deck adds the transverse prestressing,
to prevent producing longitudinal cracks, forming a
cantilever bridge deck.

Figure 1. Bridge layout

2.2 Design Points

2 BRIDGE DESIGN

2.2.1 Arch Axis Shape

The main arch of the bridge adopts a basket type
asymmetric steel box rib that is divided into the steel box
arch rib section and the steel concrete composite arch rib
section. Two pieces of the main arch ribs tilt inward, it is
an organic whole repeatedly through steel box wind
brace, forming a curve basket type, as shown in Figure 2.
The arch axis linear of two main arch ribs adopts a
catenary with m = 1.756; their calculation bridge spans
are 176.26 m and 164.10 m; in addition, their calculation
bridge heights are both 36.00 m; What is more, their
rise-span ratios are 1/4.90 and 1/4.56 .
The inside arch rib section adopts a circular curve
with R=125m, However, the outside arch rib section
adopts a composite circular curve with R=198.61m and
R=205m.

2.1 Structure Characteristics

The main structural characteristics of the Shenzhen
Bay Bridge are as follows:
(1) The main arch of the bridge adopts basket typed,
asymmetric steel box ribs, divided into a steel box arch
rib section and a steel concrete composited arch rib
section. and two pieces of the main arch ribs tilt inward,
It is an organic whole repeatedly through steel box
wind brace, forming a curve basket type (aesthetically
pleasing and to adapt to the environment).
(2) The steel box arch rib section adopts the cross
section of single box and single room with identical
width and height, to improve the overall stability of the
bridge; and the arch rib section adopts the steel concrete
composite structure within the scope of the arch foot. The
arrangement of the longitudinal stiffening rib on the web
is parallel to the roof and floor, in order to avoid
complicating the chamfer structure and ensure welding
construction space.
(3) The main girder adopts the curve wave-truss
composite structure. The web uses a corrugated steel web
plate; the main girder sets up two diagonal braces
between the roof and bottom chords, between one chord
and another , forming a triangular section in the box, to
improve local torsional ability of the main girder.

Figure 2. Elevation of bridge

739

Li et al.

roof and bottom chord, and with specifications of 299 x

12 mm between one chord and another, forming a
triangular section in the box, to improve local torsional
ability of the main girder.
What is more, the bridge deck adopts an anticorrosive
wood floor with a thickness of 3 cm; laying a common
channel steel hot rolling after waiting for the main girder
joining together to form a whole structure, every 50 cm
sets a common channel steel hot rolling with the welding
and the roof of the girder fixed link; adding a vertical
wooden purline between the bridge deck and the common
channel steel hot rolling with the thickness of 5 cm and
the horizontal spacing of 50 cm, as shown in Figure 4.

2.2.2 Arch Rib Design

The steel box arch rib section adopts the cross section
of single box and single room with identical width and
with a section size of 1.8 m * 2.4 m, to improve the
overall stability of the bridge; And the arch rib section
adopts the steel concrete composite structure within the
scope of the arch foot, and is filled C50 micro expansive
concrete. The thickness of the bridge deck for the steel
box arch rib section is 20 mm. Set up the flat steel
longitudinal stiffener in the lining of the steel box arch rib
section, and its size is 16 mm x 150 mm. Longitudinal
and transverse diaphragm spacing of stiffening rib web
control for distance is between 0.4 m and 3.75 m
respectively. The arrangement form of longitudinal
stiffening rib on the web to the roof and floor is parallel,
to avoid complicating the chamfer area structure and
ensure welding construction space, as shown in Figure 3.

Figure 4. Section of Main Girder

3 INTERNAL FORCE ANALYSIS

Figure 3. Section of Steel Box Arch Rib

3.1 Load Combination

Among them, the D said the dead load, the M said the
live load, T represent temperature load.
Combination : 1.2 D + 1.4 M
Combination : 1.2 D + 1.4 T
Combination : basic combination 1.2 D + 1.4 M +
1.12 T
Combination : elastic stage stress calculation
combined 1.0 D + 1.0 M + 1.0 T
Bearing capacity limit state load combination for
combination , normal use limit state for combination
load combinations.

2.2.3 Corrugated steel web-cantilever truss composite

beam design
Firstly, the main girder adopts the curve wave-truss
composite structure, and the main girder axis is composed
of two circular curve by R = 154.41 m and R = 188 m
respectively. In order to make the main not interferencing
with the main arch, the size of the circular curve from the
most main lateral suspender to the end central axis is R =
188 m. From every 2.5 m on both ends of the bridge,
central axis to arrange a standard corrugated steel web
plate - truss segment, and set a suspender every 7.5 m,
making a total of 17.
Secondly, the thickness of the main girder is 20 mm;
the length of the lateral cantilever girder is 3.75 m; the
girder center line every 2.5 m sets a diagonal brace with
specifications for 299 x 16 mm; The bottom chord of
the steel truss structure adopts a steel tube with
specifications for 600 x 16 mm, filled C50 micro
expansive concrete. What is more, the bridge deck, the
diagonal brace and the bottom chord adopt Q345q - C.
Thirdly, the web uses a corrugated steel web plate; the
web center distance is 2.5 m; the wavelength of the
corrugated steel web is 1 m; the height of corrugated steel
web is 16 cm; the thickness of the corrugated steel web is
12 mm; a stiffening column web is set every five meters.
In addition, the main girder sets up the two diagonal
braces with specifications for 245 x 12 mm between the

3.2 Main Materials and Performance

As shown in Figures 1, 2 and 3.
Table 1 Reinforced technology index
Elasticity

Tensile

Compressive

Standard

Modulus

Design

Design

Intensity

/MPa

Strength /MPa

Strength /MP

/MPa

d=8~20

2.1105

195

195

235

HRB335

2.0105

280

280

335

Types

HPB235

d=6~50

740

Li et al.
Table 2 The strength index of the concrete

Types

Design Strength

Standard Intensity

/MPa

/MPa

Axial

Axial

Compressive
C60

26.5

Tensile
1.96

Axial
Compressive
38.5

Elasticity
Modulus
Axial

/MPa

Tensile
2.85

Figure 5. Structure analysis of discrete model (3D view)

3.6104

Table 3 The mechanical properties of prestressed steel beam

Elasticity

Tensile

Compressive

Standard

Modulus

Design

Design Strength

Intensity

/MPa

Strength /MPa

/MPa

/MPa

1.95105

1260

390

1860

Table 4 Technical indexes of the concrete

axial

bending

Steel

stress

stress

types

[]

[w]

/MPa

/MPa

220

220

Q345q-C

Shear

Elasticity

Shear

stress

Modulus

modulus

[]/MPa

E /MPa

G/MPa

180

2.1105

0.81105

3.3 Finite Element Analysis Model

The large-scale simulation Midas/Civil software was
used for spatial structure calculation and analysis on the
main bridge, and the result shows that the elastic
performance of steel tube-concrete composite bridge pier.
The purpose of the finite element analysis is to get the
needs of calculation accuracy of the whole bridge model.
And the reliability of the finite element analysis of the
bridge is dependent on the rationality of the finite element
model. However, the rationality of the model depends on
the accuracy of the simulation.
In setting up the bridge model, based on the forms of
the components, the difference of the mechanical
characteristics and the calculation accuracy requirements,
requires different cell types. In the Midas calculation
results, a total of 3078 nodes, 4168 units, including 736
plate units and 17 truss units, and the main calculation of
the main arch, main girder and cable force analysis were
conducted under various conditions, as shown in Figure 5.

3.3.1 Arch Rib Simulation

The arch ribs mainly bear axial pressure under load.
The arch ribs of the bridge use finite element simulation
of beam element. the finite element model of arch rib
section did not include consideration of diaphragm plates.
The steel arch ribs use Q345qC steel, and the concrete
arch ribs use the C50 concrete. The Arch rib section and a
simplified model are shown in the Figures 6 and 7.
Division of the arch rib units should not be too thick.
There are two main reasons: 1) To ensure the arch rib
linetype being precise enough; 2) Division of arch rib
units determines its weight distribution, dynamic
characteristics analysis, gravity into a quality process.
Cell division thickness affect vibration mode shape and
the distribution of the seismic force. Among them, the
arch rib sets node in the wind and beam, in order to
model the coupling of different building blocks. Due to
the complexity of arch rib cross section structure, the
model was set through the CAD drawing, imported into
the calculator of the SPC section of the Midas/civil
2013 for analysis, and then exported as a Midas section
file as a cross section of beam element.

Figure 6. Arch rib section

Figure 7. Arch rib simulation

3.3.2 Rainfall Distribution on 10-12 Derrick Simulation

The derrick can connect the plane curve girder and the
arch rib as an organic unit repeatedly by a single cable
plane system. According to the characteristics of the
plane curve girder, the unique advantages of using single
cable plane arch bridge landscape, can avoid interlacing

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Li et al.

visual clutter for double cable plane. The derrick truss

element is adopted to simulate, from left to right in turn
Numbers for S1, S2, S3, ... , S17. The finite element
model of derrick is shown in the Figure 8.

Figure 11. Inclined strut stress diagram

As shown in Figure 11, the calculation result is the

combined by different loads. The maximum compressive
stress of the lateral brace of main girder is 32.9 MPa, the
maximum compressive stress of the inside of the brace is
119.5 MPa and the maximum tensile stress of the inside
of the brace is 111.9 MPa. In a word, they can satisfy the
requirements of bearing capacity of structure.

Figure 8. Derrick simulation

3.3.3 Girder to Simulate

Main girder bears the action of bending moment
under dead weight and live load under. Therefore, the
beam element and plate unit was adopted to simulate the
model. The girder adopts corrugated steel web plate truss composite structure. The structure of the cross
section is very complex, the main girder model was set up
by CAD drawing, and then imported to the Midas/civil
2013 modeling for analysis. The main girder simulation
is shown in the Figure 9.

Figure 12. Lower chord stress diagram

As shown in Figure 12, the calculation result of the

combined by different loads, the maximum compressive
stress of the main girder bottom chord is 44.98 MPa, and
the maximum tensile stress of the main girder bottom
chord is 53.54 MPa. In a word, they can satisfy the
requirements of bearing capacity of structure.

Figure 9. Main girder simulation

3.4 Stress Analysis

Figure 13. Lower chord stress diagram

As shown in Figure 13, under the working conditions

of various combinations, the maximum axial force of the
derrick is located at the lateral of the two ends, and its
value is 2245.9 kN less than 3920 kN of the derrick
damage load. In a word, it can satisfy the requirements of
bearing capacity of structure.
Arch rib section is given priority to with compression,
and the bending moment is smaller. The arch rib of the
bridge adopts a steel and concrete composite structure, to
solve the maximum axial pressure of the arch foot area of
arch rib, the maximum axial strain of side-span arch rib,

Figure 10. Bridge arch rib stress diagram

As shown in figure 10, the calculation result is the

combined by different loads, and the maximum
compressive stress of the bridge arch rib section is
located at the crossings of main-span arch rib and
side-span arch rib, with a value of 121.32 MPa; the
maximum tensile stress is located in the edge up arch rib,
and its value is 67.88 MPa. In a word, they can satisfy the
requirements of bearing capacity of the structure.

742

Li et al.

and the horizontal thrust of the arch foot area of arch rib,
avoiding the local buckling at the same time.
The overall design of the bridge is reasonable, and the
arch axis coefficient is appropriate.

3.5 Space Dynamic Analysis

Through the space dynamic analysis of the bridge the
following answers can be obtained, the percentage points
of the vibration mode and quality is more than 90%, the
first natural frequency of vibration for the main girder is
1.008 Hz, and the structure stiffness is good. The
frequencies and cycles of the modal are shown in the
Table 4:

Figure (d). Mode 4

Figures (a)-(d): For the first order modal.

3.6 Spatial Stability Analysis

Through the space stability analysis of the bridge the
following answers can be obtained, the first characteristic
value of buckling stability analysis is 82.04, and the
structure stability is good. The characteristic values of
buckling stability of the modal as shown in the Table 5:

Table 4 Analysis results tables of eigenvalue

f /Hz

mode number

frequency

1.008

0.992

1.166

0.857

1.203

0.831

1.363

0.734

1.501

0.666

1.606

0.623

1.739

0.575

1.769

0.565

cycle

1.844

0.542

10

2.014

0.497

/s

Table 5 Buckling analysis results

mode number

characteristic value

82.04

83.92

99.16

101.48

117.97

118.25

120.86

122.21

123.27

10

131.95

Figure (a). Mode 1

Figure (e). Mode 1

Figure (b). Mode 2

Figure (f). Mode 2

Figure (c). Mode 3

743

Li et al.

5 REFERENCES
Li Yong. Wave-truss composite bridge structure. Beijing:
Science Press, 2014.
Bin Luo. Introduction to the special-shaped arch bridge design.
Urban road and bridge and flood control, 2003, (2):56-59.
LI Yong, FANG Qinhan, ZHANG Jiandong etc. Double-deck
steel truss web PC composite bridge design and
construction method. Journal of Building Structures, 2014,
Vol.34.SUP1: 123-125.
Chen Baochun. Design and construction of concrete filled steel
tube arch bridges. Beijing: China Communication Press,
1999.
Li Yong, Fang Qin-han, Zhu Hong-ping, Nie Jian-guo. Study on
prestressed transfer efficiency and moment amplitude
modulation of steel-concrete composite bridge. Journal of
Harbin Institute of technology, 2011, Vol. 43.SUP2: 357 361.
Chen Zengshun, Zhang Cheng, Zhou Jianting, Song Jun &
Huang Chunrong. Study of Cable Force of Construction
Control and Alignment Control of Main Girders for
Long-Span Railway Cable-Stayed Bridges. Modern Applied
Science,2013,Vol.7,No.9:47-56.
Li Yong, Xiao.Xiong.Zha, CHong.Li.Zhu. Shenzhen Bay
Flying Swallow Type Composite Arch Bridge Design.
International Conference on Civil, Materials and
Environmental Sciences (CMES 2015):65-67
Li Yong, Chen Yiyan, Nie Jianguo, etc. Design and application
for steel and concrete composite bridges. Beijing: Science
Press, 2002.
Liu Yu-Qing. Composite structure bridges. Beijing: China
Communication Press,2005.
Nie Jianguo. Steel beam structure and mixed structure test, the
theory and application. Beijing: Science Press, 2012.
Li Yong, Nie Jianguo, Yu Zhiwu, Chen Yiyan. Stuty on
stiffness of steel and concrete composite beams. Journal of
Tsinghua University (Science and Technology), 1998,38
(10): 38 - 41.
Wang Yijun, Zhang Jiandong. Scheme design for steel truss
bridges load test. Shanxi building, 2013, 39(15):165-166.
LI Yong, LI Min, SHI Ming, etc. Design and research of
composite bridge with cantilever truss and corrugated steel
web. Journal of Building Structures, 2013, Vol. 34. SUP1:
39 - 44.

Figure (g). Mode 3

Figure (h). Mode 4

Figures (e)-(h): For the first order buckling mode.

4 CONCLUSION
Firstly, the main bridge adopts the new
arch-wave-truss composite structure. The corrugated steel
web PC composite structure forms a longitudinal box
structure, in order to solve the longitudinal shear. In
addition, the concrete filled steel tubular truss forms a
horizontal structure, to solve the transverse bending, and
to improve the performance of main girder longitudinal
shear and lateral bending.
Secondly, the main arch of the bridge adopts basket
type asymmetric steel box ribs, divided into the steel box
arch rib section and the steel concrete composite arch rib
section. and two pieces of the main arch ribs inward tilt, it
is an organic whole repeatedly through steel box wind
brace, forming a curve basket type (aesthetically pleasing
and to adapt to the environment).
Thirdly, the first natural frequency of vibration for the
main girder is 1.008 Hz, and the structure stiffness on the
whole is good. The first characteristic value of buckling
stability analysis is 82.04, the structure stability is good.
Fourthly, the construction of the main girder adopts a
prestressed assembly method. At the scene of the
construction, the method of segmental prefabrication was
used to build the roof and bottom plates; in the factory,
the steel truss abdomen was manufactured, making, the
construction convenient.
Fifthly, compared with the traditional steel beam
bridges, the wave-truss composite bridges can save steel
for 30% ~ 40%, and reduce the cost by 20% ~ 30%; when
compared with the concrete beam bridges, it can reduce
the weight of 30% ~ 50%, and reduce cost by 5% ~ 15%.
What is more, the bridge adopts several clever design
elements such as large span, streamline arch, asymmetric,
composite girder, basket arch, three-dimensional stability,
and so on. It enables the bridge to be designed into a rich
aesthetic form, with a novel and beautiful structure, using
clever and novel modelling, and advanced technology.

744

11th International Conference on

Advances in Steel and Concrete Composite Structures
Tsinghua University, Beijing, China, December 3-5, 2015

EXPERIMENT ON THE AXIALLY LOADED CONCRETE FILLED

STEEL TUBE COMPOSITE STUB COLUMNS
Q.L. Yana, B.C. Chena, X.M. Yub & J.Y. Xuec
a

College of Civil Engineering, Fuzhou University , Fujian, China

E-mails: fzuyql_076@163.com, baochunchen@fzu.edu.cn

Department of Civil Engineering, Dongguan University of Technology, Guangdong, China

E-mails: xinmengyu@gmail.com
c

School of Civil Engineering, Xi'an University of Architecture and Technology, Shanxi, China
E-mails: jianyang_xue@163.com
ABSTRACT
Keywords:
Concrete-filled steel tube
(CFT); Reinforced concrete
(RC); Composite columns;
Experimental tests.

Concrete filled steel tube (CFT) composite structure, which is composed of CFT longitudinal
elements and connected by reinforced concrete (RC) plates (instead of the steel tubes), has been
used in large slender compression members to reduce unfavorable shear effect. Based on a
practical engineering project, a study on the axially-loaded CFT-RC composite stub columns
was carried out, focusing on basic static structural behaviors and failure modes. The
experimental specimens included 7 CFT-RC composite columns, 4 CFT single tube columns
and 3 rectangular RC columns. The wall-thickness of the steel tube and the thickness of the RC
plate were selected as the main parameters of study. Experimental results showed that the failure
of axially loaded CFST-RC composite stub columns was due to the crushing of RC plate near
the mid-height section while the CFST members did not fully play their role as the main bearing
components. Therefore, a reduction coefficient K has been introduced to account for the
contribution of CFT members to the ultimate load-carrying capacity of the CFT-RC composite
stub column.

Research Institute, 2007). However, this practice lacks

1 INTRODUCTION
Concrete filled steel tube (CFT) laced columns consist
of CFT longitudinal elements tied together by steel tubes.
CFT laced columns have been used in compression
dominant structures with large slenderness ratio, e.g.,
long span arch ribs, tall piers of bridges and high-rise
building columns (Chen et al. 2007). However, shear
distortion in a laced column reduces its compressive
stability. In order to improve shear resistance, the steel
tubes are replaced with solid reinforced concrete (RC)
plates when the CFT laced column has a large
slenderness ratio, hence named as CFT-RC column.
Though CFT-RC columns have been used in many bridge
structures, such as in the bottom parts of the piers of
Ganhaizi Bridge, in Sichuan Province, China (Huang et al.
2014), in the springing section of Xiyangping CFT arch
bridge, in Fujian Province, China (Chen et al. 2009),
little research has been reported on its load-carrying
capacity. At present, it is designed as if it is a CFT laced
column in general engineering practice (Sichun Provincial
Transport department Highway Planning, Survey, Design and

745

sound scientific background.

Aiming to understand the basic static behaviors and to
provide suggestions for structural design, a series of
researches on CFT-RC columns have been conducted by
the authors. In this study, experimental research of 7
CFT-RC axially-loaded stub columns has been carried out,
along with 4 CFST and 3 RC specimens. The research
focuses on the failure mode, mechanical behavior and
compressive strength.

2 EXPERIMENTAL PROGAME
2.1 Specimens
A total of 14 specimens were tested in this study,
including seven CFT-RC columns, four CFT columns,
and three RC plates. The CFT and RC specimens are
control specimens of the CFT-RC specimens. According
to the nominal capacity of the loading machine in the
laboratory, the specimens were designed and fabricated
with a scale of 1:8 to the pier structure of Ganhaizi
Bridge (Huang et al. 2014).

Yan et al.

The configurations of CFT-RC specimen are showed

in Fig.1. For example, Fig. 1(a) and Fig. 1(c) show the
profiles of CFT-RC specimens, Fig. 5(b) and Fig. 5(e)
show the layout and details of rebars in the RC plate
respectively, and Fig. 1(d) shows the details of locating
pieces. In order to connect the CFT members and the RC
plate, steel strips with a thickness of 2mm are welded
continually along the outside wall of the steel tube of
CFT members, and the lateral rebars in RC plate are
welded with the steel plate connector. Steel pieces, with a
thickness of 2mm are applied as locating pieces
positioned at intervals along the steel strip connector. The
location pieces are both welded with the steel strips and
steel tube of CFT members. The steel tubes of CFT
members, the steel strips and the meshed rebars together
form the steel skeleton of a CFT-RC specimen.
92 114

30

a-30

indicates the value of tp, using 1, 2 and 3 to denote 50mm,

80mm and 114mm respectively. The width of the steel
strip (a) in Fig.1 varies from 30mm to 80mm due to the
variation in parameter tp, but it does not constitute an
experimental parameter.
Four CFT columns with varying steel tube thicknesses
(ts, as summarized in Table 2) were tested to evaluate the
behavior and axial compressive strength of stub CFT
columns. The height (h) of these columns was 350 mm,
and the resulting height-to-depth ratio was 3.07. Other
details of the CFT specimens (e.g., Specimen CFT-2) are
the same as the corresponding CFT-RC specimens with
the same steel tube thickness (e.g., CFT-RC-2-1).
Table 2 Parameters of CFT specimens

CFT member RC plate CFT member

Specimen ID

ts (mm)

D (mm)

Nt,CFT0.2(kN)

Nt,CFT(kN)

CFT-1

1.11

114

465

420

CFT-2

1.88

114

575

425

10

CFT-3

3.03

114

830

575

11

CFT-4

3.86

114

930

658

Steel strip

(c) Section: A-A

408
706

Three RC plates with varying plate thicknesses (tp, as

summarized in Table 3) were tested to evaluate the
behavior and axial compressive strength of stub RC
plates. The height (h) of these plates was 350 mm, and
the resulting height-to-depth ratio was 1.50. Rectangular
cross-section was used for the RC specimens; this is
different from the cross-section of the RC plates in the
CFT-RC specimens. Therefore, the width (b1) and
thickness of the RC specimen were selected so that the
cross-section area of the RC specimens (e.g., Specimen
RC-2) were equal to the cross-section area of the
corresponding RC plates of CFT-RC specimens with the
same plate thickness (e.g., CFT-RC-1-2).

h-7.5

15

R57

Locating piece
Steel strip
150

60

60

800

150

15

(d) Details of locating piece

(a) Front elevation

234

Steel tube

350

114ts

N2 N1

15 h-30 15
h

15

N2

5100

6
12

270

Steel strip

12

N1
6

350

800a2

23

843
706

23

(b) Layout of rebars

Table 3 Parameters of RC specimens

(e) Details of rebars

Figure 1. Configurations of the CFT-RC specimens (unit: mm

The thickness of the steel tube wall (ts) and the RC

plate (tp), were selected as the parameters to study, as
summarized in Table 1. The label is represented as
CFT-RC-x-y, in which x indicates the value of ts, using 1,
2, 3 and 4 to denote 1mm, 2mm, 3mm and 4mm, and y

Specimen ID

tp (mm)

b1 (mm)

Nt,RC (kN)

12

RC-1

55

300

650

13

RC-2

85

310

1105

14

RC-3

110

340

1320

Table 1 Parameter of CFT-RC Specimens

Specimen ID

h (mm)

ts (mm)

D (mm)

tp (mm)

D/ts

Nt,CFT-RC (kN)

Pf (kN)

CFT-RC-1-1*

800

1.11

114

55

102.7

CFT-RC-2-1

800

1.88

114

55

60.6

1742

1586

CFT-RC-3-1

800

3.03

114

55

37.6

1998

1830

CFT-RC-4-1

800

3.86

114

55

29.5

2168

1942

CFT-RC-2-2

800

1.88

114

85

60.6

1967

1981

CFT-RC-1-3

800

1.11

114

110

102.7

2170

2118

CFT-RC-2-3

800

1.88

114

110

60.6

2325

2196

* CFT-RC-1-1 specimen was failed due to the local concrete collapsing during the preloaded test.

746

Yan et al.

Other details of the CFT and RC specimens are the

same as the corresponding CFT-RC specimens, as shown
in Fig.2. The nomenclatures used in Table 2 and Table 3
are similar to that used in Table 1. For example, CFT-2
represents a CFT specimen with the steel tube thickness
(ts) of 2 mm, while RC-2 represents a RC specimen
with the plate (tp) of 80 mm

114

b1

50

(a) Elevation of CFT

Steel tube
114ts

tp-30
tp

15

(b) Elevation of RC

15

Steel strip

(c)Section: A-A
15

a-15

(d)Section: B-B

N1

N3
6
N1
6

b1 -30

750

N2

b1 -30

tp-30

50

15

The experiment was carried out in the Structural

Engineering Laboratory at Fuzhou University. The test
set-up is shown in Fig.3. The load was applied through
the jack, and measured via load cell. A horizontal support
at the mid-height of the specimen was provided to avoid
lateral buckling as shown in Fig. 3(b). Two end plates of
size 706mm214mm15mm were welded to both ends
of the specimen for the convenience to apply load.

350

350

214

2.2 Test set-up and loading protocol

Steel strip
N2
6

20

tp

N3

350a2

15

3e

15

20

(e) Layout of rebars of RC

(f) Details of rebars of RC

Figure 2. Configurations of CFT and RC specimens (unit: mm

The material properties of the steel and concrete were

determined by conducting coupon tests in accordance
with China standard for tensile testing of metallic
material, Part 1: Method of test at room temperature
(GB/T 228.1-2010) and China standard for test method
of mechanical properties on ordinary concrete (GB/T
50081-2010).
The average cube compressive strength of concrete,
fcu, with dimension of 150mm150mm150mm are
45.83MPa and 50.84Mpa for CFT members and RC
plates respectively. The elastic modulus of concrete, Ec,
are 0.31105MPa and 0.34105MPa for the CFST
members and RC plate respectively. The material test
results of steel are listed in Table 4, where Es, fy and fu are
the elastic modulus, yield strength and ultimate strength
of steel respectively.

Figure 3. Test set-up of CFT-RC specimens

CFT-RC specimen was instrumented with 2 linear

variable displacement transducers (LVDT) and 32 strain
gauges, while for the CFT and RC component specimen,
only 8 LVDT and 32 strain gauges are used as shown in
Fig.4.
CFT
175

CFT-RC

175

Table 4 Measured steel properties (Unit: MPa)

fu

Steel tube (t=1mm)

Steel tube (t=2mm)
Steel tube (t=3mm)
Steel tube (t=4mm)
Reinforcing bar

2.19105
1.83105
1.86105
1.85105
2.13105

238
347
354
324
410

361
412
409
379
608

57 57
57

57

RC
100

fy

150

Es

100

Steel

39 78 78 39
39 78 78 39

Displacement transducer
Steel strain gauge

Concrete strain gauge

Steel strain gauge (bi-directional)

Figure 4. Arrangement of test measurements

747

Yan et al.

Before formal testing, preloading test with 30% of the

estimated ultimate load (Pu) was carried out. In formal
testing, the load increment was 0.05 Pu until the applied
load was about 0.7Pu. After the applied load was greater
than 0.7Pu, the load was continuously applied and the
displacements and strains were continuously recorded.
Test was stopped when the loading speed of the jack
could not keep up with the deformation of the specimen.

varied almost linearly with the applied load. When the

applied loads were 86%~89% of the peak load, due to
cracking and spalling of concrete near the mid-height
section of the RC plate, the specimen entered into the
second (elasto-plastic) stage, AB section in the P-Uz
curves. With the increase of the applied load, in the RC
plate, the cracking and spalling of concrete further
developed, and reinforcing bars and the steel strips in the
mid-height section were seen buckled and bulged
out-ward. Subsequently, concrete of RC plate crushed at
the zone near the mid-height section and the P-Uz curves
reached its peak load, Pu, as point B in the P-Uz curves.
Fig. 5 shows the failure mode of CFST-RC specimens
after testing. Beyond the peak point, the P-Uz curves
dropped sharply due to crushing of almost the entire
cross-section of the RC plate, the specimen entered into
the third stage, i.e. the descent stage as presented in BC
section of the P-Uz curves. And then, when the applied
load fell down to 90%~79% of the peak loads, point C,
the RC plate lost all its bearing capacity, the CFST
members became the only bearer. After that, as the P-Uz
curves showed a slight decrease, the test was stopped at
the D point. The CD section in the P-Uz curve is the
fourth stage named as gentle stage.

3 TEST RESULTS
During the preloading, Specimen CFT-RC-1-1 failed
due to the local collapsing of RC plate near the top of
column, therefore no valid data was obtained and the test
results were not reported. The test results of the other 13
specimens are presented in this section as follows.

3.1 Behavior of CFT-RC specimens

Fig.4 shows the load (P) versus deformation (Uz)
curves of all the CFST-RC specimens, in which the
deformation Uz is the average of axial shortening
measured on two sides. It can be seen from Fig.4, all
P-Uz curves of the CFST-RC specimens are similar;
which can be divided into four stages. In the first stage,
i.e. elastic stage of OA section in the P-Uz curves, the
specimens were in the elastic range, the deformation

748

Yan et al.

Figure 4. Load (P)-axial axial deformation (Uz) curves of CFT-RC specimens

the CFT member in CFT-RC specimens, which differs

from the failure mode of CFT specimen in Fig. 6.

(a) CFST-RC-1-1
(b) CFST-RC-4-1
(c) CFST-RC-2-3
Figure 5. CFST-RC specimens after testing

3.2 Behavior of CFT specimens

(a) CFT-2
(b) test by Yu Z.W (c) test by Walter L.
Figure 6. Failure modes of CFT specimens

After testing, it was found that the failure modes for

CFT specimens were characterized by the bucking of
steel tube, as shown in Fig. 6. This phenomenon has been
heavily documented in literatures, such as the tests
conducted by Yu Z.W. et al. (2007) and by Walter L. et
al. (2009) as shown in Fig. 6(b) and Fig. 6(c)
respectively. In Fig. 5, no local buckling can be seen in

For better understanding, the load (P) versus steel

strain (s) curves of CFT-RC specimens and of the CFT
component specimens are compared in Fig.7, where the
horizontal coordinate presents the average value of
longitudinal strain on the steel tube at the mid-height
section of the specimen.

749

Yan et al.

Figure 7. Load (P)-axial steel strain (s) curves of CFT-RC and CFT specimens

The results in Fig.7 showed that the peak strain of

steel tube (us) in CFT specimen was obviously greater
than that of CFT-RC specimens. It indicates that when
the CFT-RC specimens failed (i.e., the peak load was
reached), the axial strength of the CFT members was not
reached.

3.3 Behavior of RC specimens

(a) RC-2
(b) test by Tarabia A.M
Figure 8. Failure modes of RC specimens

As shown in Fig.8, RC specimens failed by crushing

of concrete and yielding of reinforcing bars, the same as
those observed by others (Tarabia A. et al. 2014).
The curves of load (P) versus longitudinal concrete
strain (c) in CFT-RC specimens and in the corresponding
RC specimens are shown in Fig.9, where the horizontal
coordinate is the average of longitudinal strains in the
concrete.

As can be seen from Fig.9, until the peak load, the

P-c curves of the RC specimens are similar as those of
the CFT-RC specimens. After the peak load, the curves of
CFT-RC specimens declined in converse direction due to
the sudden unloading of the RC plate. This is quite
different from the smooth development of the P-c curve
of RC component specimens.

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Yan et al.

Figure 9. Load (P)-average concrete strain (c) curves of CFT-RC and RC specimen

Fig. 9 indicates that the concrete peak strains (uc) of

the CFT-RC specimens are greater than the
corresponding RC specimens. This is explained as
follows. For RC specimens, the concrete peak strains (uc)
represent the strains when the axial strength of the RC
plate reached. For CFT-RC specimens, the concrete peak
strains (uc) represent the strains when the axial strength
of the CFT-RC column is reached, which occurred after
the axial strength of the RC plate reached.
Fig. 9 also indicates that, in most cases, the concrete
peak strains (uc) of the CFT-RC specimens are greater
than 0.002. The only exceptions are Specimens
CFT-RC-2-2 and CFT-RC-1-3, where concrete crushing
occurred in the upper-height region instead of the
mid-height region where the strain was measured.
Therefore, the measured strain values are less than the
actual peak strain values.

Figure 10. Comparisons between Ni and Nt,CFT-RC

In light of that the load resistance of the CFT

component in CFT-RC is not fully developed, a
simplified formulation can be proposed as shown in Eq.
(3).

3.4 Axial compressive strength

N3 2KNt ,CFT Nt , RC

The peak load (Pu) during the test program is regarded

as the compressive strength (Nt) of all the specimens. All
the Nt of 14 specimens are listed in the last columns in
Table 1, Table 2, and Table 3. The simple superposition
values of the strength of the two CFT components (N1),
as described in Eq. (1), and the simple superposition
values of the CFT components and the RC plate (N2), as
described in Eq. (2), are also calculated.
N1 2 Nt ,CFT

(1)

N2 2 Nt ,CFT Nt , RC

(2)

(3)

where K is the reduction coefficient for the axial

compressive strength of CFST component.
The experimental tests show that the CFT-RC
specimens failed due to entire cross-section crushing of
the RC plate, and the concrete peak strains (uc) are
greater than 0.002. When the strain is equal to 0.002, the
RC plate has reached axial capacity, while the CFT
columns can sustain more loads.
According to the deformation compatibility condition,
the longitudinal strain of the CFT is also 200010-6 when
the CFT-RC columns research its defined ultimate
load-carrying capacity. The corresponding load, Nt,CFT0.2,
is the contribution of CFT members to the axial
compressive strength of CFST-RC column, as show in
Eq. (4).

where Nt,CFT is the test compressive strength of a CFT

member; Nt,RC is the test compressive strength of a RC
plate.
Fig. 10 shows the comparison between the test results
Nt,CFT-RC and calculated results, N1 and N2. It can be seen
from Fig. 10 that the compressive strength of CFT-RC
(Nt,CFT-RC) is much greater than N1 (the min N1/Nt,CFT-RC is
only 0.43) and smaller than N2.

KNt ,CFT Nt ,CFT 0.2

(4)

where Nt,CFT0.2 is the axial compressive strength of the

CFT column when the axial strain is equal to 0.002.
From Eq. (3) and Eq. (4), N3 can be described as Eq.
(5):

751

Yan et al.

N3 2 Nt ,CFT 0.2 Nt , RC

REFERENCES

(5)

Chen, B.C. 2007. An overview of concrete and CFST arch

Bridges in China, Pro., 5th Int. Conf. Arch Bridge, Univ. of
Minho, Guimaraes, Portugal.
Chen, B.C. & Wang, T.L. 2009. Overview of Concrete Filled
Steel Tube Arch Bridges in China. Pract Period Struct Des
Constr, 14(2): 70-80.
GB/T 228.1-2010. 2010. Metallic materials. Tensile testing.
Part 1:Method of test at room temperature. Beijing, China:
Center Iron & Steel Research Center; 2010. [in Chinese]
GB/T 50081-2010. 2010. Code for design of concrete structures.
Beijing, China: Academy of Building Research; 2010. [in
Chinese]
Huang, Y.F., Briseghella, B., Zordan, T., Wu Q.X. & Chen B.C.
2014. Shaking table tests for the evaluation of the seismic
performance of an innovative lightweight bridge with CFST
composite truss girder and lattice pier. Journal of of
Engineering Structure, 75: 73-86.
Sichun Provincial Transport department Highway Planning,
Survey, Design and Research Institute. 2007. Guide to
design and construction technology of road steel tube
concrete bridge. Beijing: China Communications Press. [in
Chinese]
Tarabia A.M. & Albakry H.F. 2010. Strengthening of RC
columns by steel angles and strips. Alexandria University
Journal, 53(3): 615-626.
Walter, L., Silvana, D., Ana, L. & Mounir, K. 2009. Influence
of concrete strength and length/diameter on the axial
capacity of CFT columns. Journal of Constructional Steel
Researches, 65(12): 2103-2110.
Yu Z.W, Ding F.X. & Cai C.S. 2007. Experimental behavior of
circular concrete-filled steel tube stub columns. Journal of
Constructional Steel Research, 63(12): 165-174

The comparison between N3 and the test results

Nt,CFT-RC is also showed in Fig. 10. The mean value and
the standard deviation of N3/Nt,CFT-RC are 0.93 and 0.05
respectively, which means that the Eq.(5) is correct.
It should be noticed that the method in Eq.(5) is
feasible only on the condition that the test result of
Nt,CFT0.2 is known. So the Further study should focus on
the calculation method of the reduction coefficient K.

4 CONCLUSIONS
This paper presents the behavior of CFT-RC columns.
Experimental tests on 14 specimens were first conducted
to evaluate the behavior and axial compressive strength
of CFT-RC columns. The test results indicated that an
axially-loaded CFST-RC stub column exhibits four stages
during the test, i.e., the elastic state before the loads of
86%~89% peak load, a short elasto-plastic stage to peak
load, a sharply descending stage as well as a gentle stage.
The failure of an axially loaded CFT-RC specimen is due
to the crushing of concrete and yielding of reinforced bars
of the RC plate while the CFT member does not reach its
ultimate resistance. Based on the test results, a
superposition method was proposed for predicting the
axial compressive strength of CFST-RC column, in
which the reduction coefficient K is introduced to
consider the incomplete contribution of the ultimate
strength of CFT members. Further study will focus on the
calculation the reduction coefficient K.

752

11th International Conference on

Advances in Steel and Concrete Composite Structures
Tsinghua University, Beijing, China, December 3-5, 2015

RESEARCH ON CALCULATION METHOD OF ANTIOVERTURNING CAPACITY FOR SINGLE COLUMN PIER

BRIDGE WITH STEEL-CONCRETE COMPOSITE GIRDER
W.B. Penga, B. Jiaoa &Y.Z. Zhuanga
a College of Civil Engineering and architecture, Zhejiang University of Technology, Hangzhou, China
E-mail: bridge@zjut.edu.cn, 1070309021@qq.com, 478372092@qq.com
ABSTRACT
Keywords:
Composite structures; antioverturn; single column pier
bridge; bridge collapse.

This document describes various calculation methods for anti-overturning capacity of SingleColumn bridges subject to overloading. The aim of these methods is to maintain a reasonable
and accurate method to predict its anti-overturning capacity. A simple method is proposed here
and its veracity is evaluated using data collected from a collapsed bridge in China as well as
detailed finite element simulations of this event. The simple method is shown to be effective,
which explicitly delineates the effects of gravity and the sizes and intervals of bearings on the
stability of Single-Column pier bridges.

Table 1. Recent single-column pier bridges collapses in China

1 GENERAL INTRODUCTION
Single-Column pier bridges with Steel-Concrete
composite girder are common throughout the world. As
they are inherently more susceptible to collapse than other
bridge types, it is important to accurately predict their
behavior when they are loaded beyond their service
standard. For most Single-Column bridges, the
overturning failure mode is induced by lateral inertial
loads due to seismic events. As such, the ductility and
strength capacity of Single-Column pier bridges have been
well investigated from this perspective and findings were
incorporated into design criteria of seismic codes (see, for
example, Priestley and Park, 1987; Priestley et al., 1996;
Hashimoto et al., 2005). Bridge failures/collapses can also
occur under service conditions, and examples of postevent forensic studies include those by Lichtenstein
(1993), Wardhana and Hadipriono (2003), Le Beau and
Wadia-Fascetti (2007), Naito et al. (2008), Liao et al.
(2011), and Salem and Helmy (2014).
To the authors best knowledge, the overturning
stability of Single-Column pier bridges and their potential
progressive collapse modes initiated by overloaded
vehicles have not been explored in prior (forensic or
theoretical) studies. This is primarily because overturning
is not perceived as a major mode of bridge collapse under
service loads. Nevertheless, vehicle overloading is very
common (see, e.g., Edgar and Federico, 2009), especially
in developing countries, worldwide (see, e.g., Blower and
Woodrooffe, 2012) and can cause overturning collapses.
Indeed, there have been six Single-Column Pier bridges
collapses due to vehicle overloading in China in recent
years (Table. 1).

Date

Collapsed bridges

Oct. 2007

National Road Viaduct in Baotou

July 2009

Jin-Jin Highway bridge in Tianjin

Feb. 2011

Chunhui bridge in Shangyu, Zhejiang

August 2012

Hongfu Road Viaduct, Harbin

December 2014

Overpass in Jiangbei, Chongqing

June 2015

Yue-Gan Highway Viaduct, Heyuan

This is not surprising, because in Chinas current

highway and bridge codes, there are no direct provisions
on transverse overturning stability (JTGD62-2004,
TGD60-2004). However, Chinas railway bridge design
code (TB10002.3-2005) limits the maximum partial load
on to less than 30 percent of the vertical design load in
order to avoid superstructures overturning. As for vertical
loads in US provisions, limits are not related to overturning
stability. For example, AASHTO specifications require the
minimum vertical load on a pot bearing to be no less than
20 percent of the vertical design load.
Solicit Opinions Manuscript of Chinas highway
bridge design code (JTGD62-20XX) limits the negative
reaction and avoids girder rotation according to rigid
rotation theory.
Given the gap in the current guidelines, three
calculation methods are compared. Firstly, a simple
method is proposed here with which overturning stability
of Single-Column bridges due to overloading can be
quickly evaluated. Secondly, detailed finite element
simulations that accounted for contact, material and
geometric nonlinearities are put forward. Lastly, an
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Peng et al.

Where kqf is safety factor of overturning, kqf=2.5 when

the lane load was used and kqf =1.3 when the vehicle load
was used.
Sbk,i-The counter overturning moment
Ssk,i-The overturning moment.

integral before it fell onto the ground. C50 (i.e., Concrete

Grade 50) are employed at deck of Hongfu Bridge
respectively.
Because simulating the process of bridge collapse is
solving a dropping problem, meanwhile by comparing the
two
main
analysis
modules
of
ABAQUS,
ABAQUS/Standard and ABAQUS/Explicit, we adopt the
latter one. The C3D8R brick elements with the reduced
integration option were used throughout the model.
Practice has proved that: by using relatively homogeneous
unit and doing mesh refinement partially, the hourglass can
be effectively avoided.
Vehicle loads were applied on bridges by three
identical vehicles with average weights of overload
vehicle because three overload vehicles are with similar
weight. The analysis process is divided into two steps, Step
1 is to load self-weight, and Step 2 is to load the vehicle
load. In first stage, a linear loading way - 5% total vehicle
weight per unit time - was used for the vehicle load in Step
2, which is proved the obtained critical load values are
larger. But it also helps to determine the approximate range
of the critical load. Then in second stage, an instantaneous
loading way was adopted in Step 2, and the loading value
every time is determined according to the Dichotomy, such
as when loading 100t, the bridge is not collapse; when
loading 120t, the bridge is collapsed, then next time we
load 110t, and so forth.

2.2 Nonlinear Finite Element Model of Collapse

2.3 A simplified overturning stability calculation

Simulation (NFEM)

method (SOSCM)

A three-dimensional finite element model of the

collapsed Hongfu Road Viaduct was constructed and
analyzed using the ABAQUS (v.6.10) software. The
geometry was based on data collected using photograph
and other field measurements.
Contact analysis procedures were used in order to
properly simulate the sequence of events throughout
collapse event. The friction coefficients between the truck
tires and the deck, and between the bearings and the deck
were assumed to be 0.7 and 0.35, respectively. For contact
modeling, ABAQUS uses a master-slave concept where
the nodes on the slave surface are constrained not to
penetrate the master surface. As such, only the master
surface is considered explicitly as a surface, and its
geometry and orientation are taken into consideration.
Generally, the master surface should be selected as the
surface of the stiffer body in contact, or as the surface with
the coarser mesh if the two surfaces have comparable
stiffness. For the present analyses, the bridge deck surfaces
were selected at the master surfaces (tires and bearings
were the slaves).
Concrete material parameters were chosen to be
identical to the ABAQUS built-in model. The concrete
behavior was assumed to remain elastic throughout the
simulations, since the box-beam was deemed to remain

Beam element was adopted in traditional antioverturning capacity for Bridge. The default reaction
position is the center of the support bearings. Actually, this
position is directly related to the rotation of the girder. The
calculation of anti-overturning capacity for single column
pier Girder Bridge can be realized after the accuracy
calculation of the actions on the girder were finished
(including the value, position and direction). The detailed
overturning calculation consists of the following steps:
Step I. position, value of the support reaction and the
twisting rotation angle of the girder of each bearing should
be calculated.
For the i-th pier, the value of reaction Ri and the
rotation angle i of the box girder could be determined by
the calculation software of continuous beam bridge, such
as the GQJS, the Dr.Bridge and MIDAS.
According to the following equation, the position of
each reaction can be calculated as following.
ci ki i
(2)
ci - The distance between the i-th bearing center to the
i-th action point of resultant force of the bearing
ki - The calculation parameter of the rigidity for the i-th
bearing
i-The rotation angle of the position where the support
reaction react on the superstructure, this value cant exceed

calculation method based on Solicit Opinions Manuscript

of Chinas highway bridge design code (JTGD62-20XX)
was studied and checked. The procedure is developed
through the help of a detailed investigation of the Hongfu
Road Viaduct(Hongfu Bridge) located in the Heilongjiang
province, which collapsed suddenly on August 24, 2012
correspondingly. The investigation involves using data
from a forensic survey of the collapsed bridge-namely,
geometry, material properties, collapse sequence.

2 CALCULATION METHODS
2.1 Methods recommended by specification (MRS)
The criteria about overturning can be calculated by
equation (1) and without negative reaction on every
bearings according to Solicit Opinions Manuscript of
Chinas highway bridge design code (JTGD62-20XX)
The rotation axis should be determined by the central
line of the support of two end bearings on the overload
vehicle side for orthogonal bridges.

S
S

bk ,i

k qf

sk , i

(1)

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Peng et al.

Where Pi is the truck load on the overturning side of

the single column pier girder bridge

the design value of ultimate rotation angle which based on

the instruction from the manufacturer.
The calculation parameter of the rigidity for the i-th
bearing was calculated as equation (3).
ki

Ebi I bi
Ri A bi

3 CASE STUDY IMPLEMENTATION

3.1 Detail information of collapsed Hongfu Bridge

(3)

Hongfu bridge, a ramp bridge in Harbin, is a three-span

continuous girder bridge. The elevation, plan views and
cross section views of this bridge is shown in Figure 1 to
Figure 2. The Hongfu Road Viaduct is supported on two
0.85m diameter bearings in the middle, and four 0.4m
diameter bearings at the both ends. The laminated rubber
bearings were used in Hongfu Bridge as the bearings, the
plan view of bearings are shown in Figure 3. Through the
formula in Code (JT/T4-2004), we can get its Youngs
modulus, Poissons Ratio and bulk density were about to
be E = 2.05 MPa, = 0.5 and 2200 kg/m3. The collapse
accident was tripped by the eccentric overload vehicles.

The support reaction Ri cant exceed the design value

of ultimate reaction which based on the instruction from
the manufacturer.
Where Ebi is the elastic modulus of the i-th bearing; Ibi
is the moment of inertia about the i-th bearing.
Abi is the calculation parameter related to the shape of
the bearings, Abi is diameter for circular bearing and Abi is
the width for rectangle bearing.
Step II. The line links the two end bearings on the
overloading vehicle side was used as the rotation axis of
the curve beam bridge for convenience of calculation.
Step III. Based on the value and the direction of the
action on the superstructure, the overturning moment and
anti-overturning moment can be determined respectively
according to the theory of space moment. The criteria for
overturning of single column pier Girder Bridge can be
judged according to the following formula.
LR L
(4)
Where LR=L1+L2+L3
L1 is the moment of the anti-overturning side, as given
in equation (5).
L2 is the moment of anti-torsion support reaction of the
overturning side, can be calculated by equation (6).
L3 is the moment of the box beam gravity, is defined by
equation (7).
L is overturning moment by the load of the overturning
side, can be obtained by equation (8).
n

L1 PAi l Ai
i 1

Figure 1. Elevation and plan views of the Hongfu Road Bridge

(5)

Where PjAis the i-th truck load on the anti-overturning

side; liA= the distance between the i-th truck and the rotation
axis, i=1,2, n, n is the number of the truck on the antioverturning side.
m

L2 Ri lBi
i 1

Figure 2. Cross Section views of Hongfu Bridge

(6)
Figure 3. The arrangement of bearings for Hongfu Bridge

Where Ri is the anti-overturning reations of the i-th

anti-torsion support on the overturning side.
liB is the distance between the point of the reaction of
the i-th anti-torsion support on the overturning side and the
overturning axis.
m is the number of bearings without disengaging.
L3 G lG
(7)
Where G is gravity of the superstructure.
lG is the vertical distance between the projection point
of the center of the superstructure on the bottom surface of
the box beam and the overturning axis.
L Pli i
(8)

The geometry of the trucks and positions of each truck

were estimated through the field investigation (using tire
tracks on the deck and the location of the trucks after the
collapse), as shown in Figure 4.
A1
A2

P116

20.0

P117

20.0

A4

7.2

A3
5.0

Figure 4. Estimated longitudinal positions (meters) of the trucks

on the Bridges at the time of the collapse.

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Peng et al.

3.2 Validation of the Finite Element Model and

distance between the end bearings varies from 1.6m, to

3.6m. Again, the results indicate a linear relationship;
relatively conservative results were achieved by SOSCM,
as shown in Figs. 6. Second-order relationship between
overturning load and transverse distance between the end
bearings was indicted by NFEM, and these results also
imply the affection of geometry nonlinearity.

SOSCM
The collapse loads of Hongfu Bridge were evaluated
by the SOSCM, MRS and NFEM simulations. Results
from these three methods are evaluated by comparing the
overturning loads they produced to those through the
forensic investigation. Table 2 displays the results of
SOSCM, MRS and NFEM, which indicate that both
SOSCM and NFEM methods produce acceptable results
but MRS.

140

Name
Hongfu
Bridge

SOSCM

MRS

Truck load(t)

Table 2. Predicted versus measured overturning ultimate loads.

Bridge

Field

NFEA

measured

130

120

110

147t

362t

152.6t

155.3t
100 1.4

120

110

100
0.8

2.4

2.6

2.8

3.0

3.2

Three methods for the overturning study on SingleColumn pier bridges are proposed in this paper. FE model
with contact and SOSCM were proven to be a suitable
numerical tool that was capable of analyzing and
investigating on the cause of collapse of Hongfu Bridge.
Bridge behavior till its complete collapse was analyzed.
The cause of collapse was obtained from the analysis, and
it was found to be good agreement with the investigations
of the collapsed bridge.
In the proposed methods, moment of Anti-Overturning
can be obtained by integrating the different moment due to
each end of bearing reactions multiplied by distance from
bearing center to rotation axis and moment due to box
beam weight multiplied by changed size of rotation axis.
Each end of bearing reactions can be calculated without
considering rotation axis changing during overturning
process.

0.7

2.2

CONCLUSIONS

130

0.6

2.0

4 SUMMARY, RECOMMENDATIONS, AND

NFEM
SOSCM

0.5

1.8

Figure 6. The relationship between the distance of torsion

bearings and the ultimate truck load

3.3 Influence of the Bearing Size

140

1.6

Distance Between end torsion bearings (m)

The average errors of the two methods are less than 5%

for Hongfu Bridge event, and as such, it is reasonable to
assume that they will generally produce accurate
predictions the ultimate overturning loads for SingleColumn pier bridges.

Truck load(t)

NFEM
SOSCM

150

0.9

Size of bearings (m)

Figure 5. The relationship between the bearing radius and the

ultimate truck load

A similar sensitivity study was performed by varying

the radius of bearing from 0.5m to 0.9m. Results from this
parametric study are shown in Figure. 5.
The findings suggest linear relationships between the
overturning load and the bearing radius; relatively
conservative results were achieved by SOSCM. On the
other hand, second-order relationship between overturning
load and bearing size was indicted by NFEM, and these
results imply the affection of geometry nonlinearity.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This research is financially supported by the Zhejiang
Provincial Natural Science Foundation of China (Grant no.
LY13E080014). This support is gratefully acknowledged.
Any opinions, findings, and conclusions or
recommendations expressed in this material are those of
authors.

3.4 Influence of the Transverse Distance between the

End Bearings

REFERENCES

The transverse distance between the end bearings

intuitively plays an important role in the overturning
stability of Single-Column pier bridges. As such, four
additional analyses were performed by varying the

AASHTOAmerican Association of State Highway and

Transportation Officials (2012). Standard Specifications for
Highway Bridges(6th ed.), Washington, D.C.

756

Peng et al.
Edgar E. Muoz Diaz; Federico Nez Moreno; and Jamshid
Mohammadi. Investigation of Common Causes of Bridge
Collapse in Colombia. ASCE Practice Periodical on
Structural Design and Construction 14194-200.
Blower, D., and J. Woodrooffe (2012). Survey of the status of
truck safety: Brazil, China, Australia, and the United States,
Univ. of Michigan Transportation Research Inst., Report No.
UMTRI-2012-13.
Caltrans SDC (2013). Seismic Design Criteria, v.1.7, California,
2013.
Hashimoto S., Fujino Y., and M. Abe (2005). Damage Analysis
of Hanshin Expressway Viaducts during 1995 Kobe
Earthquake. II: Damage Mode of Single Reinforced Concrete
Piers. ASCE J. Bridge Engineering, 10: 54-60.
JTGD62-2004 (2004). Code for Design of Highway Reinforced
Concrete and Prestressed Concrete Bridges and Culverts,
P.R. China.
Le Beau K. H. and, S. J. Wadia-Fascetti (2007). Fault Tree
Analysis of Schoharie Creek Bridge Collapse. ASCE
Journal of Performance of Constructed Facilities, 21(4):
320-326.
Liao M., Okazaki T., Ballarini, R., Schultz, A. E., and T. V.
Galambos (2011). Nonlinear Finite-Element Analysis of
Critical Gusset Plates in the I-35W Bridge in Minnesota.
ASCE J. Structural Engineering, 137: 59-68.
Lichtenstein A. G. (1993). The Silver Bridge Collapse
Recounted. ASCE Journal of Performance of Constructed
Facilities, 7: 249-261.
Naito C., Sause R., and B. Thompson (2008). Investigation of
Damaged 12-Year Old Prestressed Concrete Box Beams.
ASCE J. Bridge Eng., 13: 139-148.
Priestley, M. J. N., and R. Park (1987). Strength and ductility of
concrete bridge columns under seismic loads. ACI Struct.
Journal, 84(1): 6176.
Priestley, M. J. N., Seible, F., and G. M. Calvi (1996). Seismic
Design and Retrofit of Bridges, Wiley, Hoboken, NJ.
Salem H. M., and H. M. Helmy (2014). Numerical investigation
of collapse of the Minnesota I-35W Bridge. Engineering
Structures, 59: 635-645.
TB10002.3-2005 (2005). Code for Design of Reinforced and
Prestressed Concrete Structures of Railway Bridges and
Culverts, P.R. China.
TGD60-2004 (2004). General Code for Design of Highway
Bridges and Culverts, P.R. China..
Wardhana K., and F. C. Hadipriono (2003). Analysis of
Recent Bridge Failures in the United States, ASCE Journal
of Performance of Constructed Facilities, 17(3): 144-150.

757

11th International Conference on

Advances in Steel and Concrete Composite Structures
Tsinghua University, Beijing, China, December 3-5, 2015

DEVELOPMENT OF NEW TYPE OF CONCRETE-FILLED STEEL

TUBE (CFST) PIER-TO-COPING CONNECTION
J. Moona, J. J. Kimb & K. S. Youmc
a

New Transportation Research Center, Korea Railroad Research Institute (KRRI), Uiwang-si, South Korea
E-mails: jmoon1979@gmail.com

Department of Civil Engineering, Kyungnam University, Changwon-si, South Korea

E-mail: jungkim@kyungnam.ac.kr
c

GS Engineering and Construction, Seoul, South Korea

E-mail: ksyoum@gsconst.co.kr
ABSTRACT
Keywords:
Concrete-filled steel
tub(CFST); Connection;
Composite construction.

For bridge construction, Concrete-Filled Steel Tube (CFST) is often used as a pier and the CFST
member is connected to the concrete foundation and coping. For such connections, the
connections must transfer full plastic strength of the pier and have enough ductility to prevent
the brittle failure. Also, CFST pier system must have sufficient resistance against earthquake
loading. In this study, new type of CFST pier-to-coping connection, which is suitable for middle
and high seismic region as well as rapid construction, was suggested. The strength and ductility
of the proposed connection were evaluated through a series of experimental study. From the test
results, it can be found that the proposed connection details behave as a fixed connection and
show good ductility as well.

However, height of the coping can be increased when this

connection detail is used, since punching shear failure
may occur due to reduced concrete depth below the CFST
pier and benefit from the soil cannot be expected for the
coping.
Based on above reasons, new type of CFST
pier-to-coping connection is proposed in this study, as
shown in Fig. 1.

1 INTRODUCTION
Concrete-filled steel tube (CFST) member has several
advantages. The concrete infill is confined by steel tube,
and it results in tri-axial state of compression of the
concrete. Further, steel tube is served as formwork during
the curing of the concrete, and it expedite the
construction time. Despite of these advantages, CFST are
not frequently used for bridge pier. This is partially
attributed to lack of connection details for CFST column
or pier to the footing or coping.
For reinforced concrete (RC) pier, reinforcing bars
inside the pier can be easily extended, and these
reinforcing bars are used to connect the pier to the
foundation or cap beam (Coping). However, for the
CFST pier, reinforcing bars are not generally needed,
since the reinforcing bars are replaced by the steel tube.
Therefore, alternative methods to connect the CFST pier
to the foundation or coping are necessary.
Fig. 1 shows the alternative connection methods. For,
CFST pier to footing connection, Lehman & Roeder
(2012) and Moon et al. (2013) proposed the embedded
connection, as shown in Fig. 1. The behavior of this
connection to the footing was successfully verified by a
series of experimental and numerical studies (Lehman &
Roeder, 2012; Moon et al., 203). This connection details
may apply to the CFST pier to coping connection.

Figure 1. CFST pier and its connection details.

758

Moon et al.

2.2 Test setup

The proposed connection consists of reinforcing bars

welded to the steel tube and annular ring. Reinforcing
bars are welded before the concrete pouring into the
CFST. After curing the concrete infill, reinforcing bars
are inserted into precast coping with sheath. Finally, the
connection complete by filling the mortar into the sheath.
In this study, a series of experimental study was
conducted to evaluate the behavior of the proposed
connection details. From the experimental results, it can
be found that the proposed CFST pier-to-coping
connection shows good strength and ductility as well.

Figure 2 shows the test setup used in this study.

Copings were symmetrically connected to top and bottom
of CFST column. The width and height of the coping was
1,200 mm and 450 mm, respectively. The depth of the
coping was 500 mm
The bottom coping was fixed with anchor bolts to the
ground. The top coping was anchored to guide beam, as
shown in Fig. 2. The translation of the top coping was
allowed, while the rotation was prevented. The axial and
lateral loads were applied through a guide beam using
actuators. The roller was installed between the axial
actuator and guide beam to remove the lateral friction.
Test setup was designed to deflect the test specimen as
the deflected shape shown in Fig. 3. Thus, bending
moment diagram of the test specimen is the same with
Fig. 3.

2 EXPERIMENT
2.1 Test specimens and parameters
Three large scale tests were conducted to investigate
the behavior of the proposed connection. First test
specimen is the reference model, and named as EC. EC
specimen has embedded connection. The embedment
depth is deep enough so that the connection failure is
prevented. Thus, EC specimen was design to develop the
full plastic strength of the CFST pier.
Second specimen (PEC13) had the proposed
connection details, where 8 D13 reinforcing bars were
welded along the circumference with equal spacing.
Third specimen (PEC19) also had the proposed
connection details, while 8 D19 reinforcing bars are used
instead of D13 reinforcing bars. The nominal diameter of
the D13 and D19 reinforcing bars are 12.7 mm and 19.1
mm, respectively. Thus, the total areas of reinforcing bar,
Ar, were 1,013.6 mm2 and 2,292 mm2 for PEC13 and
PEC19 specimen, respectively.
The welded length of the reinforcing bar in the steel
tube was equal to 250 mm for both PEC13 and PEC19
specimens. The embedded length of reinforcing bar is
400 mm for both PEC13 and PEC19 specimens, and this
length satisfy the minimum development length specified
in AASHTO LRFD (2009).

Figure 2. Test setup.

Table 1. Dimensions and material properties of test specimens.

D(mm)

t(mm)

D/t

L(mm)

fy(MPa)

fc (MPa)

250

3.2

78

1,800

321.8

29.8

Table 1 shows the dimensions and material properties

for CFST used in this study. The diameter of the steel
tube, D, was 250 mm. The thickness of the steel tube, t,
was 3.2 mm. It results in 78 of D/t. The length of CFST,
L, was 1,800 mm. From the material test, the cylinder
compressive strength of the concrete , fc, and yield stress
of the steel, fy, were 29.8 and 321.8 MPa, respectively.
It is noted that the area of steel tube, As, was 2,481.1
mm2. Thus, the ratios between Ar to As , Ar/As, were 0.41
and 0.92 for PEC13 and PEC19 specimen, respectively.

Figure 3. Deformed shape and bending moment diagram of test

specimen.

From Fig. 3, the base moment, Mb, can be evaluated

as HL/2+P/2 including P- effect, where H and P is

759

Moon et al.

the lateral and axial load, respectively. is the lateral

displacement. In this study, two different moment
measures were used. The first is the base moment, Mb,
and the second is Md ,as shown in Fig. 3. As mentioned
before, 8 reinforcing bars are welded to the steel tube for
PEC13 and PEC 19 specimens with the welded length of
D=250 mm. Thus, the critical section of these specimens
may not be the bottom of the CFST member due to
increased flexural strength of the bottom section by the
reinforcing bars. As a result, Mb and Md were compared
with the theoretical strength of CFST to identify the
failure section of the test specimen for PEC13 and PEC
19.

specimen were 0.96 and 1.09, respectively. Which means

the strength deterioration of PEC 13 is much larger than
the others.

(a)

Figure 4. Loading protocol.

Figure 4 shows the loading protocol used in this

study. Cyclic loading was applied with drift shown in
Fig. 4 up to 6.7% drift level. The loading protocol was
obtained based on the yield moment and corresponding
drift level of the column calculated from finite element
analysis. During the test, constant axial load was applied,
where the magnitude of the axial load was equal to 9% of
squash loading of CFST member, Po.

(b)

3 RESULTS
3.1 Base moment vs. drift ratio
Figures 5(a)-(c) represent the relationship between the
base moment and drift ratio. For EC and PEC19 test
specimens, the maximum flexural strength was observed
around 1.7% drift ratio, and strength deterioration was
negligible up to 6.7% drift ratio.
The maximum Mb of EC and PEC19 specimen were
87.4 kNm and 119.7 kNm, respectively. PEC19 showed
37% higher maximum Mb than EC specimen.
In the case of PEC13 specimen, the maximum Mb was
79.3 kNm, and it is smaller than EC specimen. PEC13
specimen showed larger strength deterioration than other
test specimens. The ratio of Mb at 6.7% drift to Mb at
1.7% drift (Mb,6.7% /Mb,1.7%) was 0.73 for PEC13
specimen, while Mb,6.7% /Mb,1.7% of EC and PEC19

(c)
Figure 5. Relationship between the base moment and drift ratio:
(a) EC specimen; (b) PEC13 specimen; (c) PEC19 specimen.

760

Moon et al.

3.2 Failure modes

failure mode, it can be found that critical section of

PEC19 specimen is the section where the reinforcing bars
end.
The different parameter of PEC13 and PEC19
specimen is a total area of reinforcing bar. As mentioned
before, Ar/As (The ratio of reinforcing bar area to the area
of steel tube area) were 0.41 and 0.92 for PEC13 and
PEC19 specimen, respectively. Thus, it can be seen that
the failure mode of proposed connection is different
depend on Ar/As. When, Ar/As is large enough, the failure
occurs in CFST pier, while connection failure occurs
when Ar/As is low.

The failure modes were observed for each test

specimen, as shown in Figs. 6(a)-(c). The local buckling
of the steel tube and negligible cracking in coping were
observed for EC specimen (Refer Fig. 6(a)). This is a
typical failure mode of CFST pier when the boundary
condition is fully fixed. Thus, it can be concluded that the
connection failure is not occurred and full plastic strength
of the CFST section is developed for EC specimen.
In the case of PEC13 specimen, local buckling of the
steel tube was not observed during the test. Instead of the
local buckling, considerable separation between the
coping and CFST member occurred, as shown in Fig
6(b). Finally, reinforcing bars and grouting were pulled
out.

3.3 Discussions
Figure 7 represent the envelope of each cycle obtained
from test for each specimen. Again, PEC19 specimen
showed the largest flexural strength than others. Also,
strength deterioration was not noted for PEC19 specimen.

(a)

(b)

Figure 7. Comparison of base moment-drift ratio relationship.

Table 2. Comparison of test results with theoretical values
Mp,b (kN.m)

(c)

Mu,test,b
(kN.m)

EC

86.4

86.4

87.4

PEC13

118.1

86.4

79.3

PEC19

155.6

86.4

119.7

Figure 6. Failure modes: (a) EC specimen; (b) PEC13

specimen; (c) PEC19 specimen.

Mu,test,d
(kN.m)

Figure 6(c) shows failure mode of PEC19 specimen.

The failure mode of PEC19 was quite different with
PEC13 specimen, even if two specimens had the same
connection details except the total area of reinforcing
bars. The local buckling of steel tube was observed at the
end of welded reinforcing bars, as shown in Fig. 6(c). It
should be note that the reinforcing bar was welded at the
inside of the steel tube with length of D=250 mm. This is
because the reinforcing bars welded into the steel tube are
served as a longitudinal stiffener for steel tube. Thus, it
prevents the local buckling of the steel tube. From the

Mp,d (kN.m)

Mu,test,b/Mp,b

Mu,test,d/Mp,d

EC

63.1

1.01

0.73

PEC13

57.2

0.67

0.66

PEC19

86.4

0.77

1.00

The maximum flexural strengths of each test

specimen were compared with theoretical values. The
theoretical values were obtained from Plastic Stress
Distribution Method (PSDM) specified in AISC design
code (2010). From PSDM, plastic bending moment, Mp,
for EC specimen was 86.4 kNm, as shown in Table 2.

761

Moon et al.

The plastic moment at the base, Mp,b, and the location

where 250 mm(D) is away from the base, Mp,d, are the
same as 86.4 kNm for EC specimen, since the section is
uniform along the height of CFST member for EC
specimen. On the other hand, for PEC13 and PEC19
specimen, Mp,b and Mp,d were different each other, since
reinforcing bars are welded to the steel tube up to 250
mm from the base. Mp,b for PEC13 and PEC19 specimens
were obtained considering the effect of reinforcing bars,
and these are shown in Table 2.
Comparison results are also shown in Table 2. For EC
specimen, Mp,test,b /Mp,b and Mp,test,d /Mp,d were 1.01 and
0.73, respectively. Mp,test,b and Mp,test,d are the ultimate
flexural strength obtained from the test for the base and
the location where 250 mm(D) is away from the base,
respectively. Since Mp,test,b /Mp,b is equal to 1.01, it can be
concluded that the CFST member developed the full
plastic strength. In the case of PEC19 specimen, Mp,test,b
/Mp,b and Mp,test,d /Mp,d were 0.77 and 1.00, respectively.
Which means that the critical section is the location
where 250 mm(D) is away from the base, and full plastic
moment capacity of this section was developed.
However, both Mp,test,b /Mp,b and Mp,test,d /Mp,d were
below than 1.0 for PEC13 specimen. Thus, it can be seen
that the full plastic moment capacity of the CFST pier
was not developed for PEC13 specimen, and connection
failure governs the failure mode. This conclusion is also
supported by the failure mode analysis in previous
section.
Finally, it can be found that the total area of the
reinforcing bar is a key parameter which governs the
failure mode of proposed connection details. For PEC13
specimen, Ar/As is 0.41 and Ar is not enough to develop
full yielding of steel tube. In this study, the following
design equation was proposed for the design of proposed
connection.
NAbfyb / Asfy 1.
(1)
In Eq. (1), N is the number of reinforcing bars inside
the steel tube; Ab is the area of reinforcing bar; fyb is the
yield stress of the reinforcing bar; and fy is the yield stress
of the steel tube. Equation (1) represents the total tensile
strength of the reinforcing bar must be larger than the
tensile strength of the steel tube for the proposed
connection to insure the failure of CFST member rather
than connection failure. It should be noted that the effect
of welding and mortar is not considered in Eq. (1).
For PEC13 and PEC19 specimen, NAbfyb / Asfy are
0.51 and 1.15, respectively.

Figure 8. comparison of energy dissipation.

The cumulated energy dissipated was calculated for

each test specimen, as shown in Fig. 8. It can be found
that the PEC19 specimen had the largest cumulated
energy dissipated among the test specimen. Thus, it can
be known that the proposed connection details, which
satisfy Eq. (1), have good performance.

4 CONCLUSIONS
In this study, new type of CFST pier-to-coping
connection, which is suitable for rapid construction and
has a good performance, was proposed. The structural
behavior of the proposed connection was evaluated
through a series of experimental study. From the test, it
can be seen that the amount of reinforcing bar, that is
installed inside the steel tube to facilitate the connection
construction, is the key parameter that affect the behavior
of the proposed connection. When the reinforcing bar is
not enough, the pull-out failure of the connection occurs.
Based on the test results, simple design equation for the
proposed connection was proposed as Eq. (1).
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
This research was supported by a grant from R&D
Program of the Korea Railroad Research Institute,
Republic of Korea.
REFERENCES
Moon, J., Lehman, D.E., Roeder, C.W. & Lee, H.-E.
2013. Evaluation of embedded concrete-filled tube
(CFT)
column-to-foundation
connections.
Engineering Structures, 56, pp. 22-25.
Lehman, D.E., Roeder, C.W. 2012. Foundation
connections for circular concrete-filled tubes. Journal
of Constructional Steel Research, 78, pp. 212-225.
AASHTO. 2009. AASHTO LRFD bridge design
specification, 4th Ed., Washington, D.C.
AISC. 2010. Specifications for structural steel buildings,
Chicago, IL, USA.

762

11th International Conference on

Advances in Steel and Concrete Composite Structures
Tsinghua University, Beijing, China, December 3-5, 2015

EARLY-AGE CREEP EFFECTS ON CONCRETE-FILLED STEEL

TUBULAR ARCH BRIDGES
B. Hana, H. Heb, X.F. Li a & F. Wangc
a

School of Civil Engineering, Beijing Jiaotong University, Beijing, China

E-mails: bhan@bjtu.edu.cn, 12121172@bjtu.edu.cn
b

China Railway Major Bridge Reconnaissance & Design Institute Co., Ltd., Hubei , China
E-mail:haozihe@hotmail.com
c

Engineering Management Center, China Railway Corporation, Beijing, China

E-mail:wangfangbjtu@163.com
ABSTRACT
Keywords:
CFST arch bridge;
Early-age creep; BP2 model;
Age-Adjusted Effective
Modulus Method

In construction process of concrete-filled steel tubular (CFST) arch bridges, core concrete will
bear the load with the steel tubular at very early age, so its early-age creep effects are
significant. Based on an early-age creep model, the BP2 model, and Age-Adjusted Effective
Modulus Method, a method translating the early-age creep effect of the core concrete to the
change of elastic modulus of concrete are proposed. The early-age creep of a CFST arch bridge
with a span of 125m was calculated, considering construction procedure. A creep model for
harden concrete, CEB-FIP 90 model, is chosen to conduct a contrast analysis, which is
recommended by the current highway bridge design code. The results showed that compared to
the hardened core concrete, the early-age creep effects of the concrete on deformation and
cross-sectional stress redistribution of the CFST arch bridge are more remarkable, even 4 years
later after the bridge operation, the creep of the CFST arch bridge still has a trend to develop.

on for now. And most of existing creep models are also

mainly aiming at hardened concrete and normally
applicable to the situation that loading age of concrete is
beyond 7 days. At present, the creep coefficient of
early-age concrete is mainly a modification based on the
creep coefficient model of hardened concrete (stergaard
et al.2001, Zhu et al. 2005, Rui et al.2006). BP2 model is
widely used on the forecasting of creep of early-age
concrete (Atrushi 2003, Zhou 2008). Besides,
model-CEB-FIP90, which suits for creep of the hardened
concrete, proposed in the CEB-FIP Model Code (JTG
D62-2004 2004) is compared in this paper.

1 INTRODUCTION
Due to the confinement effect on core concrete which
effectively improves the loading capacity of concrete and
the confinement on steel tube from concrete which
increases the stability of steel tube, the concrete-filled
steel tube (CFST) can be efficiently used as arch ribs for
its high compressive strength and good ductility (Chen
1997). For CFST arch bridge, steel tube is not only taken
as the formwork for core concrete, but also as the load
bearing component of the structure. Once concrete core
has strength, it would bear loads transferring from the
steel tube. Compared to the loading degree, the concrete
early-ages loading time has more significant influence
on the concretes performance during its later stage (Jin
et al. 2003).
Because of the early loading age of core concrete, the
problem of early-age creep became important for CFST
bridges.
Creep will cause the increase of CFST arch ribs
deformation and re-distribution of stress between the
steel tube and concrete (Xin & Xu 2003, Han et al. 2005,
Du 2004, Xie et al. 2001,Gu et al. 2001, Zhang 2007).
Yet there is no research towards CFSTs early-age creep

2 EARLY-AGE CREEP MODEL OF CONCRETE

The precision of predicted creep is decided by chosen
creep coefficient to a large extent, BP2 model (Bazant &
Panula 1980) is proposed by Z.P. Bazant and L. Panula
according to the optimum fitting of a large number of
experimental (Chen 1999). Here is models specific
expression:
n
1 1 ' m
J t, t '
t t t ' Cd t , t ' , t0
(1)
E0

E0

in which, 1/E0 is the instantaneous strain caused by unit

stress; tis the calculating age; t is loading age; t0 is

763

Han et al.

drying age; Cd(t,t,t0) is the drying creep caused by unit

stress. The parameters in the equation can be acquired
from the cylindrical compressive strength.
1
2
0.1 0.5
/ f c
E0
0.05
1 0.3 15( fc )1.2

is the elastic modulus when concrete is initially loaded;

t , t is creep coefficient.
According to the age adjusted effective modulus
method, it can be obtained by using the mean value
theorem for Eq.(2) that:
t c (t )
(t )
t c
1 t , t c
1 t , t t , t (3)
Ec t
Ec t
in which, t , t is aging coefficient.
The key point of based-on-age adjusted effective
modulus method is the selection of age adjustment
coefficient which is decided by the concretes creep
features and stress history. Different value will be gotten
if the different creep coefficient is adopted. The method
(Rao et al. 2011) acquires better precision on both long
term and short term aging coefficient, expressed as

m 0.28 1 / ( fc )2

n 0.115 0.0002( fc )3
Fig.1 shows the comparing result between the
measured creep data (Pirtz 1968) and the forecasting
result by BP2 model. It can be observed that the BP2
model has a good prediction towards the early-age creep
of concrete.

t , t '

1
1

1 exp 0.665 t , t ' 0.107 1 exp 3.131 t , t ' t , t ' (4)

For the CFST arch bridge with truss section, concrete

in different tube segments is not casted at same time,
leading to the deviancy of concrete age in a structure. So
concrete in different string tubes shouldnt be simulated
by one type of element in the finite element model. At
the beginning age ( t ) of loading, we can get
Es t ' As Ec ti ' t ' Aci N t '

c ti ' Ec ti ' t '

s t ' Es t '

in which, s t ' and c ti ' are the stress on steel

tube and core concrete at the loading age; Es is the
elastic modulus of steel tube; Ec ti ' is the elastic
modulus of concrete inside ith string tube at the loading
age; t ' is strain at the loading age; As is the area of
steel tubes section; Aci is the area of inner concretes
section of ith string tube; N t ' is the internal force of
the section at the loading age.
Assuming that sectional internal force remains same
while creep occurs, we got

Fig.1. Comparison of measured data and predictive value

3 METHOD OF CFST ARCH RIBSCREEP

3.1

Basic Assumption

For ribs of CFST bridges, elastic serving condition

was satisfied, so creep would follow the superposition
principle. The confined stress between the steel tube and
the core concrete could be ignored (Chen 1999).
Compatibility of deformation between steel tube and
core concrete was obeyed.

3.2

Es t As Ec ti , ti ' t Aci N t '

c ti Ec ti , ti ' t

s t Es t

On the basis of the superposition principle, given an

initial stress c t at the initial loading age of t , the
variation of subsequent stress should be continuous, and
the total strain of the concrete will be:
c t

1 t , t
t
Ec t
t

1 t ,
E

(6)

in which, ti is the age of concrete from the ith string

tube at the time of t; ti ' is the loading age of concrete
in the ith string tube; s (t ) is the stress of steel tube at
the time of t; (t ) is the sectional strain at the time of t;
c ti is the stress of concrete from the ith string tube at
the time of t; Ec ti , ti ' is the reduced elastic modulus of
concrete in the ith string tube when early-age creep
occurs.
Combining Eqs. (3)-(6), the reduced elastic modulus
Ec ti , ti ' of concrete in different string tubes when
early-age creep occurs can be obtained. The reduced

Deduction of Equivalent Elastic Modulus

(5)

(2)

in which, c t is the initial stress of concrete; Ec t

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Han et al.

elastic modulus of concrete with three different ages can

be expressed as
3

Ec t1 , t1 '

E t ' A

4 Es As

E t ' A

4 Es As

i 1
3

i 1

ci

ci

Ec t1 '

element model was shown as Fig.2. During the

construction process, because of different casting ages of
concrete in batten plates, upper chord and lower chord of
the arch ribs, and continuous change of external force
and ribs rigidity, the models of arch rib should be built
separately. Besides, Birth & Death function in ANSYS
has been adopted for the simulation according to
concrete pouring order.

(7)

in which,
1 1 (t2 , t2 ') (t2 , t2 ')1 (t3 , t3 ') (t3 , t3 ')
2 1 (t3 , t3 ') (t3 , t3 ') 1 (t2 , t2 ') (t1 , t1 ') (t1 , t1 ') (t1, t1 ')

3 1 (t2 , t2 ') (t2 , t2 ') 1 (t3 , t3 ') (t3 , t3 ') (t1 , t1 ') (t1 , t1 ') (t1 , t1 ')

4 1 (t1 , t1 ') (t1 , t1 ') (t1 , t1 ') 1 (t2 , t2 ') (t2 , t2 ')1 (t3 , t3 ') (t3 , t3 ')
1 1 (t1 , t1 ')1 (t2 , t2 ') (t2 , t2 ') 1 (t3 , t3 ') (t3 , t3 ')

2 1 (t2 , t2 ')1 (t1 , t1 ') (t1 , t1 ') 1 (t3 , t3 ') (t3 , t3 ')

3 1 (t3 , t3 ')1 (t1 , t1 ') (t1 , t1 ') 1 (t2 , t2 ') (t2 , t2 ')

4 1 (t1 , t1 ') (t1 , t1 ') 1 (t2 , t2 ') (t2 , t2 ') 1 (t3 , t3 ') (t3 , t3 ')

Ec t2 , t2 ' and Ec t3 , t3 ' can be expressed by

changing the subscripts as the sequence of
1 2 3 1 .
It should be declared that although the calculating
expression seems complex, its physical implications is
clear which shows the influence from calculating time,
different loading age of concretes, elastic modulus and
their sectional area towards creep of CFST components.
If the ages of concretes in Eq.(7) are set to be the same,
the result of reduced elastic modulus is consistent with
the result presented in literature (Li et al. 2011).

4 CASE STUDY
4.1

Bridge Survey

The object is a rigid frame through tied arch bridge

with a span of 125m whose main arch line is catenary
with an arch axis coefficient of 1.1, ratio of rise to span is
1/5. Shape of the ribs section is in dumbbell and its
height is 3m. The arch ribs were made of steel plate of
14mm thick and filled with expansive concrete. There
were 34 hangers in total and 17 hangers in every arch rib.
Hanger was made of steel wire of high tensile
strength(109 7). 17 floor beams were set in the bridge,
among which the end floor beam was made by
reinforcement concrete and middle floor beam by
pre-stressed reinforcement concrete. For creep prediction
of core concrete of arch rib, there are 27 construction
steps, as showed in Table.1.

4.2

The Finite Element Model

Space beam element-Beam 44 was adopted as CFST

arch rib, longitudinal beam, floor beam and substructure.
Link 10 element was selected for tie bar and hangers
simulation. Combin14 element was selected for
simulating the interaction between piles and soil. The
confinement between arch springing and piers top was
fixed. The confinement between wind brace and arch rib
limits only the horizontal degree of freedom. The finite

765

Table 1. Construction cases and time intervals of creep

analysis
Time
Phase
Construction steps
(days)
1
Steel arch rib installed
0
2
Tie bar tensioned
1
3
Concrete-casting in gusset plate
8
Tie bar tensioned, after concrete in
4
9
gusset plate generating strength
Concrete-casting in upper chord of
5
16
steel tube of arch rib
Tie bar tensioned, after concrete in
6
upper chord of steel tube of arch rib
17
generating strength
Concrete-casting in lower chord of
7
24
steel tube of arch rib
Tie bar tensioned, after concrete in
8
lower chord of steel tube of arch rib
25
generating strength
Installation of first group of hangers
9
32
together with their floor beam
10
Tie bar tensioned
33
Installation of second group of hangers
11
40
together with their floor beam
12
Tie bar tensioned
41
Installation of third group of hangers
13
48
together with their floor beam
14
Tie bar tensioned
49
15
Longitudinal beam installed
63
16
Tie bar tensioned
64
17
Finishing the 1/3 of deck pavement
78
18
Tie bar tensioned
79
19
Finishing the 2/3 of deck pavement
93
20
Tie bar tensioned
94
21
Finishing the rest of deck pavement
108
One month after construction
22
138
completed
23
Half year after construction completed
320
24
One year after construction completed
502
25
Two years after construction completed
867
Three years after construction
26
1232
completed
Four years after construction
27
1597
completed

Han et al.

Note: i means construction phase, j means the

intermediate variable from the circulating process, ti is
the time point of phase i, m is the total amount of
construction steps, ti is interval time between phase i
and its last adjacent phase.

4.3

Analysis of Calculating Results

Considering the influence of early-age creep of core

concrete, displacement at vault section is showed as
Fig.4. The results illustrate that early-age creep of
concrete has significant effects on the vertical
displacement at vault no matter creep coefficient is
adopted from CEB-FIP 90 model or BP2 model. And the
earlier the loading age is, the higher the creep is. Right
after the construction completion, comparing with the
situation without considering creep, results obtained by
CEB-FIP and BP2 have increased by 4.6% and 5.7%
separately. After four years the completion of
construction, compared with the situation without
considering creeps influence, results from CEB-FIP and
BP2 have increased by 11.4% and 17.3% separately and
the subsequent trend of development is still growing
slowly.

Fig.2. Schematic diagram of FEM model

The analyzing process was shown as Fig.3. The core

concrete casted in later period was regarded as one type
of loading applied on the core concrete casted in earlier
period and steel tube; the entire arch rib bears all of the
dead load from horizontal and floor beams, hangers and
deck pavement; at last, by linear superposition of
different effect in the different constructing phases,
effects of early-age creep can be obtained. Fig.3 shows
the flow chart of early-age creep analysis for the arch rib.
Start
i=1,t0=0
Input ti
ti=ti-1+ti
j=1

Fig.4. Comparison of vertical displacement at vault

Activating the elements and joints of phase j

Shown as in Figs.5-8, early-age creep also has

distinct effects on the redistribution of stress of arch ribs
section. Taking the vault at four years after the
completion of construction as an example, without
considering creep, stresses of steel tube, batten plate,
upper chord and lower chord are -64.6MPa, -8.1MPa,
-6.0MPa and -4.7MPa separately. While if CEB-FIP 90
was used to forecasting concrete creep, the stresses
become -79.9MPa, -6.6MPa, -5.2MPa and -4.1MPa
orderly. Also, if BP2 was used, those stresses become
-88.1MPa, -5.8MPa, -4.8MPa and -3.8MPa orderly.

Calculating the effective elastic modulus of

different loading ages at the time of ti
Input the applied load at phase j
Calculating the inner force and displacement of
phase j
j=j+1
ji

Yes

No
Output the superposition result of the first j
phasesinner forces and displacements
i=i+1
Yes
im
No
End

Fig.3. Flow chart of early-age creep analysis for the arch rib

766

Han et al.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The work presented in this paper is supported by
National Natural Science Foundation of China
(51278037).
REFERENCES
Atrushi D.S. 2003. Tensile and compressive creep of early age
concrete: testing and modelling. The Norwegian
University of Science and Technology
Bazant Z.P. & Panula L. 1980. Creep and shrinkage
characterization for analyzing prestressed concrete
structures. Journal of Prestressed Concrete Institute.
25(3): 86-122
Chen B.C. 1997. A summarized account of developments in
Concrete-Filled Steel Tube arch bridge. Bridge
Construction. (2): 8-13, 22.
Chen B.C. 1999. Design and construction of CFST arch bridge,
Beijing: China Communications Press.
Code for Design of Highway Reinforced Concrete and
Prestressed Concrete Bridges and Culverts (JTG
D62-2004) . 2004.
Du J.S. 2004. Creep effects on CFST arch bridges [D], Beijing
Jiaotong University.
Gu J.Z., Liu X.L. & Chen W.F. 2005. Structure analysis with
the effect of creep in CFT arch bridge. Journal of
Shanghai Jiaotong University. 35(10): 1574-1577.
Han B., Du J.S., & Wang Y.F. 2005. Analysis of creep influence
on CFST arch bridges. Journal of Highway and
Transportation Research and Development 22(6): 75-77,
93.
Jin X.Y., Shen Y., Li Z.J. & Wang F.R. 2006. Influence of
preload concrete on its latter performance. Concrete.
165(7): 35-37.
Li S.Y., Li F.Q., Chen B.C., & Shrestha K.M. 2006. Analysis
on creep effect of concrete-filled steel tubular arch
bridges. Journal of the China Railway Society 33(3):
100-107.
Pirtz D. 1968. Creep characteristics of mass concrete for
Dworshak Dam. Structural Engineering Laboratory,
University of California, Berkeley.
Rao R., Liu A.R., & Wang R.H. 2006. Comparative study on
the methods for aging coefficient calculation. Journal of
Guangzhou University. 10(4): 4-8.
Rui Faria., Miguel Azenh., Joaquim A. & Figueiras. 2006.
Modeling of concrete at early ages: application to an
externally restrained slab. Cement and Concrete
Composites 28(6): 572-585
Xie X.L., Qin R. & Xie K.Z. 2001. Analysis of cross-section
stress redistribution in CFST arch bridge under the
standing load. Guangxi Sciences 8(1): 22-25
Xin B. & Xu S.Q. 2003. Creep analysis of long-span concrete
filled steel tubular arch bridge, Railway Standard Design
(4): 31-33
Zhang Z.C. 2007. Creep analysis of long span concrete-filled
steel tubular arch bridges. Engineering Mechanics 24(5):
151-160.
Zhou Y. 2008. Study on structural health monitoring for
subway stations, Beijing Jiaotong University.
Zhu C.D., Chen M., Yang Y., Ou X.X. & Chen F.Y. 2005.
Shrinkage and early-age creep of high-strength concrete.
China Concrete and Cement Products (2): 1-4.
stergaard L., Lange D.A., Altoubat S.A. & Stang H. 2001.
Tensile basic creep of early-age concrete under constant

Fig.5. Comparison of stress of the steel tube

Fig.6. Comparison of concrete stress of the middle chord

Fig.7. Comparison of concrete stress of the upper chord

Fig.8. Comparison of concrete stress of the lower chord

5 CONCLUSIONS
The work presented in this paper analyzed the early
age creep effects of the core concrete on CFST arch
bridges. It can be concluded that concrete creep at early
age is more than that at latter ages. Therefore, early age
creep should be considered in structural analysis of
CFST arch bridges.

767

Han et al.
load. Cement and Concrete Research 31(12): 1895-1899.

768

11th International Conference on

Advances in Steel and Concrete Composite Structures
Tsinghua University, Beijing, China, December 3-5, 2015

STUDY ON THE MECHANICAL BEHAVIOR OF THE

ECCENTRICALLY LOADED PARTIAL CONCRETE-FILLED
STEEL TUBULAR BRIDGE PIER UNDER IN-PLANE CYCLIC
LOADING
Z. F. Wang a, G. Q. Qiu a & B. Gao a
a

Traffic engineering college, Shenyang Jianzhu University, Shenyang, China

E-mails: wzf9522@hotmail.com,qgq327@126.com, bingdianreshui@sina.com
ABSTRACT
Keywords:
Mechanical behavior; Partial
filled-concrete; Steel tubular
piers; In-plane; Eccentric ratios
of vertical loads.

In this paper, the mechanical behavior of the eccentrically loaded partial concrete-filled steel
tubular bridge piers under the in-plane cyclic loading is analyzed. Finite element models of
ABAQUS software are used to simulate the specimens, and verified by the experiment tests. To
analysis the influence of the forced mechanism, three design parameters are changed in the
analysis model: slenderness ratio, radius-thickness ratios and eccentric ratio of vertical load.
According to the simulated results, the bearing capacity of the bridge pier models is mainly
affected by the eccentric load. Moreover, a formula is proposed to describe the
force-displacement relationship of the bridge piers under the non-eccentric and eccentric load.
This formula will provide the theory evidence for the seismic design of the eccentrically loaded
partial filled-concrete steel tubular bridge piers under in-plane cyclic loading.

results (Wang Zhanfei et al. 2013, Wang Zhanfei et al.

2015) and the finite element analysis, a simplified model
on the partial concrete-filled steel piers is established to
analysis the effect of the eccentricity. Moreover, based on
the simulated results, a formula is proposed to describe
the force-displacement relationship between the centrally
loaded and the eccentrically loaded partial concrete-filled
steel bridge piers. The empirical formula in this paper
will become the basis for the seismic performance design
of circular eccentrically loaded concrete-filled steel
bridge pier.

1 GENERAL INTRODUCTION
Modern urban transportation has a rapid development
in the past decades. As the substructure of the bridge,
partial concrete-filled steel bridge pier are more often
used in viaduct and beltway in major cities. The
concrete-filled steel tubular bridge pier structure has the
advantage that high bearing capacity, better ductility and
seismic performance. It also has small area covering,
beautiful appearance, those can bring social and
economic benefits to our country. But in earthquake, the
deformation may occur at the transverse and direction of
the bridge, which will result in the combined effect of
compression, bending, shearing and torsion (Fig. 1), it is
not conducive to the seismic performance of piers.
Recently, a kind of steel bridge pier finite element
model was proposed by Shengbin Gao & Tsutomu Usami
(1998), which has been verified by experiment test.
Besides, through large numbers of finite element
simulation analysis, a series of empirical formula were
proposed by Shengbin Gao (2000) to describe the
mechanical behavior of the centrally and eccentrically
loaded steel bridge piers. However, there is no research
report about the eccentrically loaded partial
concrete-filled steel bridge pier. Accordingly, it is
deserved to study the mechanical behavior of the
eccentrically loaded partial concrete-filled steel tubular
bridge pier. In this paper, based on the existing research

Figure 1. The view of eccentrically loaded bridge pier structure

769

Wang et al.

2 THE SUMMARY OF FINITE ELEMENT

In the analysis, considering both the computation time

and accuracy of the finite element model, the upper part
of the steel tubular bridge pier is simplified as beam
element, the lower part of the circular tubular part was
simulated by the S4R shell element, and the in-filled
concrete is simulated by C3D8R solid element (as shown
in Fig. 2).The connection between the upper part of the
simplified beam element and the lower tubular shell
element is defined by rigid body; the connection between
the rigid body shell and the steel tube is defined by Tie;
the contact between the steel tubular and concrete part of
the surface is defined by Hard contact.

ANALYSIS

2.1 Analytical models

In this paper, the city viaduct inverted-L pier is taken
as the research object, and the analytical model is
established by the finite element analysis software
ABAQUS. The geometrical dimensions and parameters
of the models are listed in Table 1.
Table 1. The geometrical dimensions and parameters of models.
Specimen

Rt

H0

mmmmmm

0.07 0.2

5340 0

2000

39

1708.8

0.07 0.2

5340 0.1

2000

39

1708.8

0.07 0.2

5340 0.15 2000

39

1708.8

0.07 0.2

5340 0.2

2000

39

1708.8

0.08 0.3

9140 0

2256

39

2924.8

0.08 0.3

9140 0.1

2256

39

2924.8

0.08 0.3

9140 0.15 2256

39

2924.8

0.08 0.3

9140 0.2

2256

39

2924.8

0.07 0.4 10650 0

2000

39

3408

10

0.07 0.4 10650 0.1

2000

39

3408

11

0.07 0.4 10650 0.15 2000

39

3408

12

0.07 0.4 10650 0.2

39

3408

Note :

2000

mm

5
0
-5

Figure 3. The loading form of the horizontal load

The restraint of the foundation is defined as

completely fixed condition. About the loading form: the
constantly vertical loading P was firstly applied at the top
of the bridge pier model, which valued 0.15 Py(Py=squash
yield load). Then the increment cyclic horizontal load H
was applied, which was controlled by displacement form
(as show in Fig. 3), the formula of y are as below:

y=345(MPa); E=206(GPa); =0.28, 2SM=1/100

In Table 1, Rt means radius-thickness ratio of cross

section, means column slenderness ratio, h means
column height, e means eccentricity, D means diameter
of pipe section, t means thickness, H0 means concrete
filling height. The formula of Rt and the formula is as
follows.

Rt 3 1 v 2

y D
E 2t

2h 1 y
r E

Step

(1)

Hy

H y h3
3EI

My
1 P

h
Py

(3)
(4)

To simulate the steel used in the finite element

module, Q345, bi-linear kinematic hardening model was
adopted which considering the Basinger effect in the
analysis. C20 is used to simulate the in-filled concrete,
and the Plastic damage constitutive model is used in the
analysis.

(2)

where = Poissons ratio, E = Steel elastic modulus, r

= radius of gyration of cross section, y = yield stress.

2.2 The validation of finite element analysis

Beam element

To verify the validity of the finite element analysis,

the analytical result of partial concrete-filled steel tubular
pier, specimen A27-75-33(Wang Zhanfei et al. 2013) was
compared with the experimental result in this paper. The
materials and structural properties of specimens were
shown in Table 2.
Figure 4 shows the analytical and experimental results
of the hysteretic behavior of the partially concrete-filled
steel tubular piers. Figure 5 demonstrates the final

Shell element

Solid element

Figure 2. The finite element models and loading form

770

Wang et al.

buckling modes of analytical and experimental results. In

Table 2, the maximum horizontal force and the
corresponding ultimate horizontal displacement of the
experiment test are compared with the analysis result.
Based on Figure 4-5 and Table 2, the maximum
horizontal force and bucking modes of the experiment
test is compatible to the analysis result, and the buckling
modes are nearly identical between analytical and
experimental results. The finite element model is valid to
simulate the partial concrete-filled bridge piers.

are selected. The results of the comparison were shown in

Figure 6a, and (Fig 6b, c) were the stress distribution of
the steel tubular pier at 10y. The horizontal axis is
defined as the horizontal displacement /y, and the
vertical axis is defined as the corresponding horizontal
force H/Hy. The dash line represents the analysis result of
non-eccentric specimen, and the solid line represents the
result of the experiment test.
From the observation of Fig. 6a, the maximum
horizontal bearing capacity of the positive and negative
direction of the non-eccentric bridge pier model was
roughly identical. However, the maximum horizontal
load-carrying capacity of the eccentric bridge pier model
in positive direction was lower than that of the
non-eccentric model. But it was opposed in the negative
direction, and the asymmetry was more obvious with the
eccentric ratio increasing, the seismic performance of the
bridge pier was reduced. From (Fig 6b, c), it is observed
that the location of the stress distribution was nearly same
between the two bridge piers, the difference is that the
maximum horizontal stress of the eccentric pier is lower
than the non-eccentric pier, which can be reflected in the
hysteretic curves, and the high stress area is larger than
the non-eccentric.

Table 2. The materials and structural properties.

Specimen

A27-7533

Experiment

Hu'

(mm) (mm)

160

u'

Analysis
Hu

(kN) (mm) (kN) (mm)

101

-98

41.5

104

Anal./Exp.
Hu/Hu'

18.6

0.97

-36.9 -103 -18.0

0.95

y=315(MPa);E=204(GPa);=0.28,h=1397mm;=0.27;

Note:

H/kN

Rt=0.075

H/Hy

100

-50

0
0

-100

50

/mm

-10

Exprimental
Analysis

10

-1

Figure 4. Comparison of analysis and experimental results of

-2

e=0
e=0.2

tubular columns.

(a)

concrete

Rt=0.08, =0.3

steel

Figure 5. Final bucking modes of analytical and experimental

results of tubular column

3 THE RESULTS OF FINITE ELEMENT

ANALYSIS

3.1 The effect of eccentricity on the seismic behavior

(b)

and analysis of the stress distribution of the

partially concrete- filled bridge piers
To investigate the effect of eccentricity on seismic
behavior and analysis the stress distribution of partially
concrete-filled bridge piers, the hysteretic curves were
studied. The design parameters of the non-eccentric and
the eccentric load specimen which were Rt=0.08, =0.3

771

e=0

Wang et al.

h3
H e H c
e c 0
3EI

(8)

In formula (8), e-c stands for the horizontal

displacement difference between the non-eccentric and
eccentric columns, and the He-Hc value can be calculated
by Eq. 7 and 8.

H e H c 3M 0 2h for e c 0
(c)

e=0.2

He Hc M 0 h

Figure 6. The hysteretic curve and stress distribution of the steel

bridge piers.

He Hc 0

3.2 The theoretical analysis of the non-eccentric and

eccentric columns under horizontal loading
e

Hc

Hc

(9b)

e c 0

(9c)

for

He
F

E
0

e c 0 3

E
D

He

for

(9a)

0 3

He

3M 0
2h

M0
h

B
A

a. non-eccentric

a. non-eccentric
b. eccentric
Figure 8. The sketches of skeleton curves relation in the elastic
range.

b. eccentric

The Figure 8 is now used to explain the relations

given in formula (9). The Figure 8a represents the
simplified skeleton curve of non-eccentric pier column,
and Figure 8b represents the skeleton curve of the
eccentric pier column. The first relation in formula 9
illustrates that, in the case of identical displacement, the
difference of the horizontal force between He and Hc is
-3M0/(2h). This result means that a point corresponding to
the point O in Figure 8a is point A on the ordinate of
Figure 8b.
The second formula (8b) indicates that, in the elastic
range, when the horizontal displacement e-c=0/3, the
difference of the horizontal force between He and Hc is
-M0/h. In this case, the origin O in Figure 8a corresponds
to point B in Figure 8b.
With same principle, the formula (9c) means that a
point corresponding to the point O in Figure 8a is point C
in Figure 8b.

Figure 7. The structure sketch and loading mode of

non-eccentric and eccentric column.

Figure. 7 is the simplified loaded illustration of the

non-eccentric and eccentric column. The Hc and He
represent the horizontal load of the non-eccentric and
eccentric column, and the c and e represent the
corresponding transverse displacement respectively in
(Fig. 7a, b). According to the elastic theory, the shear
deformation of the column is neglected. Besides, the
secondary-order effect is not considered, because it is
negligible compared with the elastic deformation. The c
and e can be calculated with the following formulas.

H c h3
3EI
H h3
e 0 e
3EI

(5)
(6)

where the 0 means the initial displacement under the

vertical eccentric load P and can be calculated by Eq. 7.

Peh 2
0
2 EI

(7)

According to formula 5-7, the relationship between c

and e can be described as:

772

|Hc,max-He,max|/(M0/h)

|Hc,max-He,max|/(M0/h)

Wang et al.

1.4
1.2
1
0.8

e-
e-
e-
e-
e-

c= 0
c= 0/3
c= 0/2
c=2 0/3
c= 0

1
y=1.05

0.5

Eccenric side
Opposite side

0.6
0.40

1.5

0 -8 -6 -4 -2 0
-10

8 10 12 14 16 18 20
Specimen Number

Fig. 9 illustrates the statistical results of the maximum

positive and negative strength of the specimens under the
non-eccentric and eccentric load. The horizontal axis
represents the number of the specimens, and the vertical
axis represents the difference of the maximum positive
and negative strength absolute value [Hc,max-He,max]/(M0/h).
Hc,max and He,max represent the maximum load-carrying
capacity of the non-eccentric and eccentric bridge pier
columns, respectively. According to the Figure 9, the
difference between Hc,max and He,max roughly fluctuate at
1.05M0/h, and the discrete is small, so He-Hc can be given
with the following formula

8 10
c/ y

1.5

1
y=1.05

0.5

0 -8 -6 -4 -2 0
-10

Specimen4

8 10
c/ y

Figure 10. The horizontal bearing capacity difference

comparison diagram of different displacement difference.

From Figure 10, it can be obtained that:

1. In the elastic range, which the abscissa is in
-1,1,the parameter distribute dispersedly.
2. In the other range, the parameter distribute more
convergent than that in elastic range
3. In the whole range, in the case of e-c=0/3, the

(10)

To prove that the formula (10) can be applied to at

any horizontal displacement, the typical model 2 and 4 in
conditions of different horizontal displacement difference
is analyzed, the results are shown in Fig. 10. The
horizontal axis is c/ythe vertical axis is [Hc,max-He,max]
/M0/h(for the convenience of the discussion later,
express [Hc,max-He,max]
/ M0/h by the formula 11). Here,
Hc and He represent the horizontal load at displacement c
and e, respectively.

H c,max H e,max M 0 / h

|Hc,max-He,max|/(M0/h)

Figure 9. The differential chart of non-eccentric and eccentric

models maximum horizontal load-carrying capacity.

H e H c 1.05M 0 h

Specimen2

fluctuates in 1.05, and the discrete is small.

According to the comparison between the five cases
above, in the case of e-c=0/3, the horizontal strength
relationship 10 between the non-eccentric and the
eccentric pier columns is valid in both the elastic and
inelastic stages when e-c=0/3.

(11)

In this paper, five type of model with different

displacement are considered: e-c=00/30/2, 20/3
0. The corresponding horizontal load of each case is
obtained through the finite element analysis result of
ABAQUS software.

773

3.3 The validity verification of non-eccentric and

eccentric piers horizontal load-carrying capacity
relationship
Figure 11 is the hysteretic curve of partial models
with the parameter is Rt=0.07, =0.2. The solid line
stands for the finite-element analytical result (marked by
FEM in the figures), and the dash line refers to the
predicted hysteretic curve of the eccentric model (marked
by PRED in the figures), which can be obtained from the
analysis result of the non-eccentric bridge piers by using
the formula (12).
The calculation process (1) The hysteretic curve of the
non-eccentric bridge pier is given, namely, the c and
Hc(c) values are known;(2) For an arbitrary value of e,
the corresponding horizontal force He(e) can be obtained
by the following formula

Wang et al.

H e e H c e 0 3 1.05M 0 h

REFERENCES

(12)

Shengbin Gao, Tsutomu Usami. 1998. Ductility evaluation of

steel bridge piers with pipe sections. Journal of engineering
mechanics 124:260-267.
Shengbin Gao. 2000. Eccentrically loaded steel columns under
cycle in-plane loading. Journal of structural engineering
126:964-2973.
WANG Zhan-fei, SUI Wei-ning. Zhong-hua, Pang Hui, Liao
Jing. 2013. Study on seismic performance of partially
concrete-filled steel circular bridge piers with transverse
diaphragm. Journal of Building Structures (S1):233-239.
WANG Zhan-fei, SUI Wei-ning, LI Guo-chang, WU Quan, GE
Lin. 2015. Mechanical Behavior of Partially Concrete-filled
Steel Circular Bridge Piers Under Cyclic Lateral Load.
China Journal of Highway and Transport 28(1): 62-70.
WANG Zhan-fei, LI Xue-song, SUN Bao-yun, PANG Hun,
SUI Wei-ning . 2013. Experimental study on influence of
concrete-filled height to seismic behavior of partial
concrete-filled circular steel tubular columns. Journal of
Highway and Transportation Research and Development
(Applied Technology) 12:202-205+217.

H/Hy

It can be observed from Figure 11, the hysteric curves

of the predicted show good agreement with the finite
element analytical result both in the elastic and plastic
range. It verifies that the empirical formula mentioned
above is valid.

1
-10

10

-1
-2

PRED
FEA

H/Hy

Specimen6

-10

10

-1
-2

PRED
FEA

Specimen7
Figure 11. The prediction of eccentric piers horizontal
force-displacement hysterical curves.

4 CONCLUSIONS
1.With the increase of the eccentricity, the
load-carrying capacity on the eccentric side of the
partially concrete-filled bridge pier is greatly reduced,
while the capacity on the opposite side is obviously
improved, and it shows obvious asymmetry, the seismic
performance is reduced.
2. A empirical formula about the relationship of H-
hysteric curves between the non-eccentric bridge pier and
the eccentric bridge pier is proposed, and the validity of
the empirical formula is verified. Those will provide
theoretical basis for the seismic design of the
eccentrically loaded piers.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT:
This study is supported by the Project of Education
Department of Liaoning Province (serial number:
LJQ2014060) and Project of Science and Technology
Department of Liaoning (serial number: 2013020149),
these supports are gratefully acknowledged.

774

11th International Conference on

Advances in Steel and Concrete Composite Structures
Tsinghua University, Beijing, China, December 3-5, 2015

CYCLIC BEHAVIOR OF MULTIPLE MODULAR BRIDGE PIERS

IN TERMS OF DIAGONAL LOAD ANALYZED BY OPENSEES
C. H. Jeon, D. W. Kim & C. S. Shim
Department of Civil Engineering, Chung-Ang University, Seoul, Korea
E-mail: chihobeer@cau.ac.kr; clearup7@cau.ac.kr; csshim@cau.ac.kr
ABSTRACT
Keywords:
Modular; CFT; cyclic load
OpenSEES.

Modular Bridge piers using concrete filled steel tubes (CFT) were suggested to accomplish
accelerated bridge construction. Experiments were performed using quasi-static loadings to
investigate structural behavior. However, an earthquake creates various ground movement with
different directions to the modular bridge pier. In this paper, analytical studies were conducted
to evaluate the cyclic behavior of the modular piers depending upon load directivity after
verification of the analysis model. Moment-curvature behavior was simulated with almost same
behavior as pure bending single CFT test, and load-deflection behavior was simulated with
similar trend as previous experiment from the verification work. The stress difference of 4-CFT
columns at plastic hinge when 45 load was applied was twice higher than that of the case of
longitudinal load.

and resistance of modular bridge pier due to low cycle

fatigue failure. In order to enhance the system, different
type of bracing details were suggested, and element test
result of the details were shown
In this study, analytical study on modular bridge piers
using OpenSEES was conducted to investigate the
behavior when diagonal load was applied. This is
necessary because an earthquake creates various ground
movement with different directions. To increase accuracy
of the analysis, two verification works had been done.
Firstly, single CFT analysis model was verified using pure
bending test from the experimental study of Elchalakani &
Zhao (2008) [2]. Secondly, modular CFT bridge pier
model using the CFT model was verified with result of
previous experiment.

1 GENERAL INTRODUCTION
The modular concrete-filled steel tubes (CFT) bridge
pier is a new type of bridge structure combining benefits
of modular technique and CFT. Figure 1 shows the
characteristic details of the modular bridge substructure.
Standardized modules are pre-fabricated and assembled in
construction site resulting in optimized material usage and
fast project delivery. This offers not only better quality of
the product and sustainability but also fast track
construction. CFT has been widely applied to construction
industry due to high structural performance; local buckling
is prevented due to in-filled concrete, and confining effect
makes resistance higher.

2 EXPERIMENTAL PROGRAM
In the previous research, the test was conducted to find
out the behavior of modular CFT bridge pier in lateral
cyclic load. Figure 2 shows delivery and assembly
procedures and test specimen consisting of column
modules, pier cap module, footing module. Each columns
were connected by BRBs(Buckling Restrained Braces) in
strong axis and by steel plate in weak axis. Bolt connection
was used between columns and braces. The embedded
length of columns into the footing was 770 mm which was
1.5 times of width of the footing.

Figure 1. Schematic view of modular CFT bridge pier.

The experimental study was conducted to investigate

the behavior of modular CFT bridge piers. [1] In the
experiment, certain connection details reduces stiffness

775

Jeon et al.

top of columns in strong axis. The footing had the

dimension of 4,800 mm x 4,200 mm x 1,200 mm and
designed to avoid the columns be pulled out.

5.500
1.500

2.500

1.500

1.000
7.950

4.850
1.200

7.950

1.200 550 2@1.600=3.200

1.100

350

1.900

550

CL

400

4.000

1.150

400

2.500

1.150

4.800

(a) Front view

3.000
500

2.000

500

1.000 1.000 1.000

CL

1.000
7.950

4.850
1.200

7.950

1.200 550 2@1.600=3.200

1.100

350

1.900

550

(a) Fabrication procedure

600

3.000

600

1.100

2.000

1.100

4.200

(b) Test setup

Figure 2. Fabrication and test setup of modular CFT bridge pier.

(b) Right view

Figure 3. Detail of modular bridge pier.

Figure 3 shows detail of modular CFT bridge pier. The

four CFT columns which have the dimension of 508 x 16
x 5,800 were set with the distance of 2,500 mm and 2,000
mm in strong and weak axes, respectively. The dimension
of pier cap was 5,000 mm x 3,000 mm x 1,900 mm. In the
pier cap, 2-I407x428x20x35 beams were embedded on the

The design compressive strength of in-filled concrete

is 40 MPa. The steel has 315 MPa of yield strength and
490 MPa of tensile strength.

776

Jeon et al.

The actuator which had capacity of 3,000 kN was

applied 5,800 mm above the top surface of footing where
was the center of the pier cap. The LVDT was set at the
same level to measure lateral displacement. Figure 4 shows
loading program. From 1 to 12 cycles, the drift ratio is
increased to 1.8mm/min. speed, corresponding to 0.03% to
0.16% drift ratio, respectively. From 13 to 26cycles, the
drift ratio is increased to 3.6mm/min. speed, corresponding
to 0.21% to 0.52% drift ratio, respectively. From 27 to
30cycles, the drift ratio is increased to 7.2mm/min. speed,
corresponding to 0.62% to 0.72% drift ratio, respectively.
Lastly, From 31 to 36cycles, cyclic load is applied to
57.6mm/min. speed. The cyclic load was repeated 2 times
at each drift ratio increments.

0
C

Loading
pulleys

P
Support
wheels

AB

(a) Schematic figure of test setup

0
C

Loading
point

Figure 4. Loading program.

3 VERIFICATION OF ANALYSIS

a
AB

(b) Analytical model

Figure 5. Schematic figure of test setup and analytical model.

3.1 Single CFT model

In order to verify analysis model in OpenSEES, the test
result of CFT pure bending from the experimental study of
Elchalakani & Zhao (2008) was compared. The considered
specimen in this verification was F19I1 because that had
class 1 CFT section which was same as CFT column in
modular bridge pier. The dimension of the specimen was
60.37 x 2.95. Figure 5(a) shows schematic figure of test
setup. In the test, the nominal end-to-end and mid-span
pure bending lengths of the specimens were L0 = 1,500 mm
and Lc = 800 mm, respectively. The distance between two
loading pulleys in one support wheel, a, was 350 mm. The
right hand support wheel was able to move from side to
side to prevent axial stress in CFT specimen. Figure 5(b)
shows analytical model in OpenSEES. For the analytical
efficiency, the model setup was changed to simple beam.
However, bending moment diagram was same with test
setup.
The loading program was subjected to variable
amplitude Incrementally Increasing Cyclic Loading (IICL)
up to fracture where the rotation amplitude increases
uniformly (y, 2y, 3y, ). y is yield rotation is
determined from Eq. (5) and Appendix B in Elchalakani &
Zhao (2008) [2].

Material properties was used in OpenSEES was same

as the research; The yield stress of steel tube is y = 432
MPa. The elastic modulus of steel tube is Es = 199,100
MPa. The unconfined compressive strength of concrete
cylinder was y = 23.08 MPa. The elastic modulus of
concrete was 24,900 MPa. The empirical equation for
concrete elastic modulus was from AASHTO LRFD 4th
edition. [3]
Material model used in OpenSEES analaysis was
predefined model. Concrete material model named
concrete04 in OpenSEES was used. This model follows
stress-strain curve suggested by Popovics(1973) and
stiffness reduction according to loading and unloading
suggested by Karsan-Jirsa(1969). Confinement effect of
concrete was not considered in material model. Steel
material model named steel02 in OpenSEES was used.
This model follows stress-strain curve suggested by
Giuffre-Menegotto-Pinto and bauschinger effect was
considered in this model. Hardening effect was also
considered with 1% of the elastic modulus of steel.
In the concrete model, confining effect due to steel
tube was not considered in this study. For the CFT
columns, which have axial load and lateral load, the
confining effect is needed to be considered, and many
researchers has studied on this. [4,5] However, this effect
is negligible when CFT column is subjected to pure
bending, and if the diameter-to-thickness ratio of CFT is
low, the behavior is same as steel tube itself without infilled concrete.[6]

777

Jeon et al.

Figure 6 shows comparison of results between the test

and the analysis. The analysis result simulated strength,
initial stiffness, and reduction of stiffness, which were well
corresponded with test result. Moreover, it was found that
CFT could be simulated without a material model
considering confinement effect in fiber element analysis.

2000
1500
1000

Load (kN)

500
0

-60

-40

-20

20

40

60

-500
-1000
-1500

Modular bridge
experiment

-2000

Displacement(mm)

Figure 7. Comparison between modular bridge experiment and

analysis result.

4 EFFECT OF DIRECTIVITY OF LOAD

In the case of earthquake, it is hard to predict the
direction of seismic load. This directivity can be very
harmful to modular bridge pier due to arrangement of
multiple columns. The verified analysis model was used to
assess the behavior according to directivity of load. Every
analysis variables including material model and geometry
model are same as before except load application. The load
was 45 rotated and applied to the geometric center of the
model at 5800mm height. Figure 8 shows loaddisplacement curve of two load cases; longitudinal load
and diagonal load(45).

Figure 6. Comparison between pure bending test and analysis

result.

3.2 Modular CFT bridge pier

In design practice, bridge piers are designed to support
about 10% of its compressive capacity. However, the
experiment specimen in this paper was designed to have
1.8% of compressive capacity of 4 CFT columns. Thus, the
confining effect of analysis model was negligible, and the
verified CFT model which has no confinement effect was
used as CFT column model in this verification work.
Every elements were rigid connection, and connection
details of test specimen were not considered in the model.
Material properties which was used in OpenSEES was
same as the research; The yield stress of steel tube is y =
315 MPa. The elastic modulus of steel tube is Es = 200,000
MPa. The unconfined compressive strength of concrete
cylinder was y = 40 MPa. The elastic modulus of
concrete was 30,000 MPa.
Figure 7 shows comparison of the test and analysis
result. The initial stiffness was acceptably described with
2% difference. There was 10~15% difference at peak
points of each cycles because connection detail and
concrete foundation made complicate global behavior. In
terms of other behavior, analysis model described real
behavior similarly; Process of stress development, location
of plastic hinge (the lowest part of column). Hence, this
analysis model could be used to further research.

2500
2000
1500

Load (kN)

1000
500
0
-150

-100

-50

-500

50

100

150

-1000
-1500
-2000

Longitudinal load
Diagonal load

-2500

Displacement(mm)

Figure 8. Comparison between longitudinal load and

diagonal(45) load.

The considered direction of displacement of diagonal

load for the curve was also 45 rotated to longitudinal axis.
The two curves have almost same behavior. This means
directivity of load does not affect stiffness and strength of
circular 4-CFT column. However, many other design
variables were not investigated in this study yet such as
distance between columns, the number of columns,
bracing details, connection details and buckling.
Figure 9 shows stress development of 4 columns at
plastic hinge until A CFT column reaches yield stress
first. In the figure 9(a), A and D columns have same
778

Jeon et al.

stress development and also B and C columns have

same stress development. The biggest stress difference
between two pairs was about 50 MPa. In the figure 9(b), 4
columns have different stress development and A
column has highest stress among the 4 columns. The
biggest stress difference between column A and C was
about 100MPa. The differences were higher when load
was negative, and diagonal load case had higher stress than
longitudinal load. This means modular bridge pier may
have failure earlier when diagonal load is applied due to
loss of one CFT column. Furthermore, it can be failed
much earlier if buckling occurs.

X-braces

(a) Horizontal X-braces

Figure 10. Analytical model of modular CFT bridge pier with

horizontal and vertical X-braces.

400

Figure 11 shows comparison of load-displacement

curves between models with or without X-braces. In
horizontal X-braces case, the difference was less than 1%
in aspect of stiffness and strength of structure. This means
horizontal X-braces has low sensitivity on behavior of
modular CFT bridge pier. In case of vertical X-braces,
stiffness increased about 2%, and strength increased about
4.5%. The sensitivity of vertical one is slightly higher than
horizontal one. It is expected that resistance of modular
bridge pier on diagonal load will be much higher if the
vertical X-braces are placed at all levels.

Stress (MPa)

300
200

LOAD
A

100

-1500

-1000

-500

500

-100

1000

1500

Longitudinal Load(A column)

Longitudinal Load(B column)
Longitudinal Load(C column)
Longitudinal Load(D column)

-200
-300

Load (kN)

(a) Longitudinal load

2500

400

(b) Vertical X-braces

2000

1500

300

1000

-1500

LOAD

Load (kN)

Stress (MPa)

200
100

500
0
-150

-100

-50

0
-1000

-500

0
-100
-200
-300

500

1000

-500

50

100

150

-1000

1500

Diagonal load without

X-braces
Diagonal load with
horizontal X-braces

-1500
Diagonal Load(A column)

-2000

Diagonal Load(B column)

Diagonal Load(C column)
Diagonal Load(D column)

-2500

Displacement(mm)

Load (kN)

(a) Load-displacement curves of model without X-braces and

with horizontal X-braces

(b) Diagonal load (45)

Figure 9. Load-stress curves of 4-CFT columns at plastic hinge
according to load directivity.

3000
2000

In order to enhance the behavior of modular CFT

bridge pier, x-braces were considered in horizontal and
vertical. The model including x-braces were just modeled
up to first BRB level from bottom due to convergence
problem in analysis, and that is shown as figure 10. The Xbraces were steel tubes and designed to avoid buckling
with dimension of 216.3 x 7t. Material property was same
with modular CFT bridge pier.

Load (kN)

1000
0
-150

-100

-50

50

100

150

-1000
-2000
-3000

Diagonal load without

X-braces
Diagonal load with
vertical X-braces

Displacement(mm)

(b) Load-displacement curves of model without X-braces and

with vertical X-braces

779

Jeon et al.
Figure 11. Comparison of load-displacement curves between
models with or without X-braces.

test result. The moment-curvature behavior was

simulated with almost same behavior as the test
result.
2) The verified CFT model was used for analytical
model of multiple modular bridge piers. From the
comparison to test result, initial stiffness has 2%
difference, and the peak strength of each cycles have
10~15% differences.
3) Diagonal cyclic load with 45 was applied to model
of multiple modular bridge piers. The stiffness and
strength was almost same but stress distribution
among 4 CFT columns was different. Diagonal load
made twice higher stress difference at plastic hinge
than longitudinal load. This means modular bridge
pier may have failure earlier when diagonal load is
applied due to loss of one CFT column. Furthermore,
it can be failed much earlier if buckling occurs.
4) X-braces were considered in horizontal and vertical
direction to enhance the behavior of modular CFT
bridge pier. The model with horizontal X-braces
scarcely affects the behavior. Difference was less
than 1% in aspect of stiffness, strength, and stress
development. On the other hands, the model with
vertical X-braces increased about 4.5% in strength
and about 2% in stiffness. Stress development was
likewise decreased about 4.5%. However, stress
difference between highest stress and lowest stress
was not reduced by X-braces.

Figure 12 shows comparison of stress development at

plastic hinge of CFT columns between models with or
without X-braces. The considered columns are A and C
columns that have highest and lowest stress development,
respectively. The comparison between no X-braces and
horizontal X-braces is shown in figure 12(a). Likewise,
horizontal X-braces scarcely affect the stress development.
The difference was also less than 1%. Figure 12(b) shows
the comparison between no X-braces and vertical Xbraces. The stress development was reduced about 4.5%
that reduction was similar to figure 11. When X-braces
were considered, it was expected that stress difference
between A column (highest stress) and C column
(lowest stress) would be decreased. However, this
difference was not reduced, and the applied load was just
additionally distributed to X-braces.
400
300

Lo a d

Stress (MPa)

200

-2000

100
0
-1500

-1000

-500

500

-100

1000

1500

2000

No X-braces(A column)
Horizontal X-braces(A column)

-200

No X-braces(C column)
-300

Horizontal X-braces(C column)

-400

Load (kN)

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

(a) Comparison between no X-braces model and horizontal X-

This research was supported by a grant (10CTIPB01Modular Bridge Research & Business Development
Consortium) from Smart Civil Infrastructure Research
Program funded by Ministry of Land, Infrastructure and
Transport (MOLIT) of Korea government and Korea
Agency for Infrastructure Technology Advancement
(KAIA).

braces model
400
300

Lo a d

Stress (MPa)

200

-2000

100
0
-1500

-1000

-500

500

-100
-200

1000

1500

REFERENCES

2000

No X-braces(A column)

Shim, C. et al. 2014. Cyclic Tests of Modular CFT Bridge

Piers. Proceedings of 10th U.S National Conference on
Earthquake Engineering Frontiers of Earthquake
Engineering, Anchorage, Alaska, 2014. 07. 21-25, pp.
1-10.
Elchalakani, Mohamed & Zhao, Xiao-Ling. 2008.
Concrete-filled cold-formed circular steel tubes
subjected to variable amplitude cyclic pure bending.
Engineering Structures Vol.30. Issue 2, pp. 287-299.
AASHTO. 2007. LRFD Bridge Design Specifications. 4th
ed. American Association of State Highway and
Transportation Officials. Washington. DC.
Perea, T. & Leon, R. 2011. Behavior of Composite CFT
Beam-Comlumns Base on Nonlinear Fiber Elemnt
Analysis. Composite Construction in Steel and
Concrete VI. pp. 237-251.
KANG, H. et al. 2013. Numerical Analyses on Seismic
Behaviour of Concrete-filled Steel Tube Composite
Columns Based on OpenSEES Program. Journal of

Vertical X-braces(A column)

No X-braces(C column)

-300

Vertical X-braces(C column)

-400

Load (kN)

(b) Comparison between no X-braces model and vertical Xbraces model

Figure 12. Comparison of stress development at plastic hinge
between models with or without X-braces.

5 DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS

In this paper, analytical research was conducted on
CFT column and multiple modular bridge piers, and the
used analyzing program was OpenSEES. Conclusions
from this study are as follow
1) Single CFT model was verified using pure bending
780

Jeon et al.

Engineering Science and Technology Review. pp.

143-148.
Hu, H. T. et al. 2010. Finite element analysis of CFT
columns subjected to pure bending moment. Steel and
Composite Structures. Vol. 10. pp. 415-428.

781

11th International Conference on

Advances in Steel and Concrete Composite Structures
Tsinghua University, Beijing, China, December 3-5, 2015

EXPERIMENT STUDY OF MECHANICAL BEHAVIOR FOR AN

ARCH BRIDGE COMPOSITE DECK AND APPLICATION
P. Z. LUa, J. B. ZHOUb, Y.Z. ZHUANGa & H. SHAOa
a

Zhejiang University of Technology, Hangzhou, China

E-mail: pengzhenlu@163.com
b

Zhoushan city traffic engineering quality supervision bureau, Zhoushan ,China

ABSTRACT

Keywords:
Bridge;Steel-concrete
Composite; Perfobond rib shear
connector; Fatigue; Ultimate
bearing capacity; Experiment.

An experimental study was carried out on the steel-concrete composite bridge deck under
positive bending moment for a new long-span continuous beam-arch combination Bridge
(China) in order to find out its mechanical characteristics, such as static behaviors, fatigue
performances and ultimate bearing capacity. Measurements were done by using a limited
number of sensors appropriate located on the structure. The experimental results were compared
with those obtained from a finite element analysis. The numerical model, defined by means of
the experimental mechanical behavior analysis, was also used for the structural analysis under
service loads as part of structural testing.

dynamic properties of the decks, and they investigated

dynamic properties of the Exodermic deck bridges with
alternative perfobond shear connectors experimentally.
Millanes, Francisco et.al(Millanes et al. 2014)
investigated the design of composite Steel-Concrete Deck
for a Long Railway Bridge. Gara, Fabrizio et.al(Gara,
Fabrizio et al. 2013) investigated and presented a study
on the effectiveness of various casting techniques used to
control slab tensile stresses during the construction of
continuous steel-concrete composite bridge decks. Leitao,
Fernando N. et al(Leitao, Fernando N et al. 2013) carried
out fatigue analysis and life prediction of composite
highway bridge decks under traffic loading.
At present, orthotropic bridge deck has been tested
and analyzed much at home and abroad, most of which
solve the composite bridge deck stiffness and ultimate
bearing capacity according to classic elastic slab buckling
theory, but research about composite bridge deck is
scanty(ZHANG Qinghua et al. 2007). Due to the fact that
the discreteness of fatigue and ultimate bearing capacity
test results is large, massive structural tests are still
needed for studying fatigue and ultimate bearing
capacity, especially studies on composite bridge deck
fatigue and ultimate bearing capacity are scanty at home
and abroad, the corresponding design method of which
has not yet formed. Therefore, it has signific engineering
background and practical significance to conduct research
on model tests about composite bridge deck fatigue and
ultimate bearing capacity.

1 INTRODUCTION
Steel-concrete composite bridge deck, which
combines the advantages of steel and concrete, has been
widely used in bridge engineering, but composite bridge
deck is still a new form of composite structure. At
present, a more reliable computing pattern of composite
bridge deck is used in bridge pavement. The existing
composite bridge deck, in the service course of which, is
usually in the initial stage of static loading, far from
fatigue and ultimate bearing capacity. Attention and
systematic research have not yet been given to the effects
of composite bridge decks under fatigue and ultimate
load. With the wide use of composite bridge deck and
more destructive accidents occurred which was caused by
fatigue and lack of ultimate bearing capacity, coupled
with the serious problem of vehicle overload, it has been
a focus of concern that the fatigue and ultimate bearing
capacity and the security reserves under design load. In
order to assess the fatigue and ultimate bearing
performance of steel-concrete composite bridge decks
under the highway loads, it plays a theoretical and
practical guiding role to conduct the study of fatigue and
ultimate bearing capacity of composite bridge deck for
reducing losses through early prediction(RYU
HK&CHANG SP 2005, KRIGE GJ&MAHACHI J 1995,
REN Jian 2006, DA SILVA JGS et al. 2003). Allahyari,
Hamed et.al(Allahyari Hamed et.al 2014) investigated the
static behavior of the Exodermic decks under a static load
applied at the center of the decks, in order to evaluate the

782

Lu et al.

2 BACKGROUND OF PROJECT

The main reason is that the model test is a complex

system composed of grid beam and steel-concrete
composite deck, in view of this fact, the value of effective
width b has no corresponding specification yet.
In order to select the specimen, especially the
effective width of which, to reflect mechanical property
of the original structure as closely as possible, based on
comparative analysis on the calculation of the effective
width, one moderate effective width was selected as the
effective width of the test, literatures that related to
composite beam concrete flange plate effective width
calculation are as follow: first, according to the
calculating width of concrete flange plate, the sum of slab
bracket top width and the minimum value of following
three was fetched: a third of the span(L), clear distance
between two secondary beam plate brackets and 12 times
the flange thickness.
B model simulated the positive region of actual
structure after comprehensive comparison in accordance
with four above results, namely the region between two
secondary beams, B model component dimensions were
as follow: component length a=6m, component width
b=2.4m, two long sides of slabs were simply supported as
the model boundary conditions. In the model test, rotation
angle was simulated by rotatable supports and
longitudinal mobile was simulated bytetrafluoroethylene
plate as supporting conditions, the model test areas are
shown in Figure 1. In detail drawing of Figure 2, the
profile is parallel to bridge axis. Perfobond strips which
are widely used in Japan were used as shear connectors in
test model, and the holes are filled with perforated rebar,
the thickness of plate is 128mm, the height of shear
connector is 100 mm, the concrete is C40 steel fiber
reinforced concrete.

Half-through steel truss arch-continuous beam

cooperative system, which is one kind of main and vice
arch ribs space combination system, is used in the main
bridge of Dongping bridge in Foshan Guangdong, the
main span of which is 300 m steel truss arch, the side
span is continuous beam, the joint section is located in
steel truss arch and continuous beam juncture. The main
bridge
span
length
combination
is
(43.5+95.5+300+95.5+43.5) m, the whole bridge length
is 1322.2 m. Profiled steel sheet and concrete slab are
anchored by PBL shear connectors, pipeline lateral brace
is set every two suspender spacing along the main, vice
and side arch ribs, totally 14 of which has been set the
whole bridge. The whole actual bridge and arrangement
of bridge deck grid beam are shown in Figure 1.

4 EXPERIMENTAL TESTS
Steel slabs and concrete surfaces were attached with
strain gages, those on the surface of perfobond plates
were attached before pouring the concrete, the rest of
which were attached after the model steel construction
had finished. UCAM universal data acquisition
instrument was used to collect data. In order to reflect the
working condition on steel and concrete interface, 6 mm
steel bar was pre-embedded to reflect the working
condition through steel bar strain. Plate displacement has
spatiality; displacement meters were embedded in certain
range along span and vertical span, 35 of which were
embedded in the whole model.

Figure 1. Perspective view of Bridge

3 DESIGN AND MANUFACTURE OF TEST

MODEL
According to the purpose and site existing condition
of the test, a specimen was made to simulate the actual
structure negative moment region, which included a
secondary beam and the top concrete slabs, the test model
size ratio of which was 1:1. Plate length a and plate
width b were mainly determined among all model
geometries; other construction sizes were consistent with
the actual bridge structure.
The test model component dimensions were as
follow: component length a=6m, component width
b=2.4m, the value of b was calculated and compared
according to formulas in different specifications for
composite beam concrete flange plate effective width.

783

Lu et al.

5.2 Fatigue load stage

2 million cycles of fatigue load, the amplitude value
of which was 3.33~63.52kN (corresponding to 200kN
vehicle), was loaded in model fatigue text. Results of
fatigue show that the section deflection distribution curve
under different cycles of fatigue load is symmetrical, the
curves coincide with each other over 10000, 1 million
and 2 million times, and the fact indicates that the integral
rigidity is good and the attenuation is small. Under
different fatigue load, maximum stress response of the
steel plate on the ground, maximum stress response of the
reinforce-concrete plate on the ground, maximum stress
response of PBL shear connecter, and maximum stress
response of the reinforce are obtained , respectively.

5.3 Failure load stage

Figure 3 show the section deflection distribution
curve under different loads in failure stage. As you can
see in the figures, the deflection along x-direction is
symmetrical, which is consistent with the distribution rule
of one-way slab. The maximum deflection under 1950kN
load is 21.14mm, which is 1/109 of component
width(2300mm). The relative curves of maximum
deflections and loads are shown in Figure 4.

Figure 2. Experiment regional schemes

5 OBSERVED PHENOMENA AND RESULT

ANALYSIS

5.1 Service load stage

In order to analyze conveniently, longitudinal
direction of bridge, namely the transverse direction of
slab, was set as x-direction; transverse direction of
bridge, namely longitudinal direction of slab was set as
z-direction; vertical direction was set as y-direction.
Under service load, the maximum deflection of model
under P=230kN loading was 1.10mm, the measuring
point was 25#, located near a loading point of composite
slab. Distribution curve experimental value of axle wire
deflection along x-direction and distribution curve
experimental value of deflection along z-direction under
230kN load are obtained. According to experimental
results, the symmetry of experimental values along
z-direction is not very good, this is due to the fact that the
stiffness of composite slab along z-direction or the
loading location is asymmetrical, the experimental values
of maximum deflections under different loads was
represented.
Model stress analysis results are as follows: PBL
maximum tensile stress along x-direction was 80.56MPa,
which occurred at the junction of PBL and bottom slab,
PBL was inelastic stage; the stress of top concrete surface
along z-direction was small, the maximum value of which
was -4.7MPa, the maximum stress along x-direction was
-7.3MPa; the maximum stress of steel slab along
z-direction was 23MPa, which along x-direction was
37MPa, was in flexible working stage.

Figure 3. Deflection distribution curve along the axis direction

of bridge

Figure 4. Curve of maximum deflection along with the change

of load

Model failure stage strain analysis results showed

that, with load increasing, PBL strain appeared many

784

Lu et al.
24(1):122-126.
REN Jian. 2006. Experimental Study on Fatigue of Composite
Steel-concrete Structure. Chengdou: Southwest Jiaotong
University.
RYU HK&CHANG SP. 2005. Ultimate Strength of Continuous
Composite Box-girder Bridges with Precast Decks. Journal
of Constructional Steel Research, 61(3):329-343.
ZHANG Qinghua, LI Qiao&TANG Liang. 2007. Fracture
Mechanism and Ultimate Carrying Capacity of Shear
Connectors Applied for Steel-concrete Joint Segment of
Bridge Pylon. China Journal of Highway and Transport,
20(1):85-90.

abrupt changes, the maximum strain of which was 29278

10-6; distribution curve of concrete top surface strain
along x-direction seemed better, strain value increased a
lot, which increased much more in later stage of damage
cycle II, the fact indicated that the component transferred
from yield stage to failure stage, the concrete top surface
strain was in accord with the changing rule of beam,
where appeared tensile strain had small strain value, the
maximum compressive strain was -98510-6; Except
steel slab mid-span strain under sizable load appeared
sharp increase, the majority had a small strain, the steel
slab strain value along z-direction was small, somewhere
even appeared compressive strain. After 2 cycles of load,
the model destroyed under 2200kN, the failure mode of
which was concrete compression failure, there were
sizable cracks along x-direction near the loading point.
CONCLUSIONS
In this paper, experimental validation on behavior of
steel-concrete composite bridge deck in positive bending
moment was studied under service load, fatigue load and
ultimate load. Known from experimental validation on
behavior of steel-concrete composite bridge deck in
positive bending moment, after service load stage, fatigue
load stage and ultimate load stage, the model entire
structure showed good bonding performance, usability
and carrying capacity, as well as high safety reserves.
Stress level of steel structure was not very high, and it
was in flexible working stage. In failure stage, the model
concrete slab was crushed, PBL yielded before
destruction and model failure load was 2200kN.
REFERENCES
Allahyari, Hamed; Dehestani, Mehdi; Beygi, Morteza H. A.;
Neya, Bahram Navayi&Rahmani, Ebrahim. 2014.
Mechanical behavior of steel-concrete composite decks with
perfobond shear connectors. Steel And Composite Structures,
17(3):339-358.
DA SILVA JGS, DA S VELLASCO PCG&DE ANDRADE
SAL.et al. 2003. An Evaluation of the Dynamical
Performance of Composite slabs. Computers and Structures,
81(18):1905-1913.
Gara, Fabrizio; Leoni, Graziano&Dezi, Luigino. 2013. Slab
Cracking Control in Continuous Steel-Concrete Bridge
Decks. Journal of bridge engineering,18(12): 1319-1327.
Hognestad,E.,Hanson,N.W.&McHenry, 1955. D.Concrete stress
distribution in ultimate strength design. ACI J. 52, No. 4
(1955) 455480.
KRIGE GJ&MAHACHI J. 1995. Dynamic Behaviour of
Composite Floors [J]. Journal of Constructional Steel
Research, 34(2): 249-269.
Leitao, Fernando N.; da Silva, Jose Guilherme S.&de Andrade,
Sebastiao A. L. 2013. Fatigue analysis and life prediction of
composite highway bridge decks under traffic loading. Latin
American Journal Of Solids And Structures,10(3): 505-522.
Millanes, Francisco; Bordo Bujalance, Enrique; Mansilla
Dominguez, Juan Luis&Martin Suarez, Jesus. 2014.
Archidona Viaduct: Composite Steel-Concrete Deck for a
Long Railway Bridge. Structural Engineering International,

785

11th International Conference on

Advances in Steel and Concrete Composite Structures
Tsinghua University, Beijing, China, December 3-5, 2015

SEISMIC BEHAVIOR OF STEEL REINFORCED

PERFORMANCE CONCRETE COMPOSITE FRAME

HIGH

X. Y. Shang a,b, S. S. Zhengb , M. L.c & G.A. Dengb

a

Department of Civil Engineering , Northeast Dianli University, Jilin, China

E-mails: shangxujin2@163.com, zhengshansuo@126.com
Department of Civil Engineering, Xian University of Architecture and Technology, Xian, China
E-mail: minli0108@outlook.com

Department of information system, City University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, China
ABSTRACT
Keywords:
Steel concrete composite
frame; high performance
concrete; Experiment study;
Seismic behavior

This paper reports on an experiment of seismic behavior of steel reinforced high performance
concrete composite frame. A 1/4-scale two-span three-storey composite frame was fabricated
and tested under the axial compressive forces and lateral cyclic load. The purpose of the
experiment was to investigate the seismic performance of the SRHPC composite frame. It can
be indicated that the specimen exhibited good energy dissipation ability and deformation
capacity with full hysteretic curves, thus indicating that high-performance concrete can be used
in seismic-resistant structures. Based on the test results, the stiffness and strength degradations
are analyzed, and the deformation characteristic of the specimen is discussed in detail.

1 INTRODUCTION

2 TEST PROGRAM

In recent years, many high-rise buildings have been

built in China. High performance concrete, as an advanced
material, has been used widely in high-rise buildings. Use
of high performance concrete in concrete-steel composite
structure can be an innovative combination of excellent
materials and progressive structure.(Varma, et. al. 2002)
(Nie, et. al. 2002) (Begum, et. al. 2002) High performance
concrete has several advantages, such as high strength,
good durability, outstanding working performance.
However, Brittleness is becoming obvious with the
constant improvement of the strength, therefore steel
reinforced high performance concrete structure (especially
super-high strength) is often difficult to meet the
requirement of seismic performance. (Lokuge, et. al. 2004)
(Kamel, et. al. 2015)
Steel reinforced high performance concrete composite
structure can fully develop ability of each material. The
steel can supply the effective restrain for the central
concrete meanwhile the steel also has excellent bearing
capacity, which can reduce the axial compression ratio of
SRHPC structure and improve the bearing capacity and
deformability of the over-all structure. Consequently,
SRHPC structure possesses remarkable seismic behavior.

2.1 Test program

According to similarity rate, the specimen was
designed 1/4 scale model of the prototype structure. Twospan three-story SRHPC composite frame was fabricated
to simulated ground floor, standard floor and top floor,
respectively. The details of the frame and components are
shown in Fig.1.
The cubic (150 mm 150 mm) compressive strengths
of concrete for beam and column were 90Mpa. Mix
proportion(Stone, water, water reducing agent, silica fume,
fly ash) is 450:493:1207:150:12:60:90. Elasticity modulus
is 40.7GPa. Q235B I10 and I14 were used for steels
embedded within the frame beam and column sections
respectively. Longitudinal reinforcement beam and
column adopted HRP335 grade steel 12mm in diameter,
transverse stirrup chose HRP235 grade steel 6mm in
diameter. To make sure SRHPC composite frame
specimen designed strong column and weak beam,
longitudinal reinforcements were anchored well in node
area. Ensure the composite frame keep enough vertical
bearing capacity and energy dissipation in the inelastic
stage. Finally the mechanism of the beam hinge was
realized to avoid structure overall collapsed. The steel in
the column pass through the node. Horizontal stiffening
ribs were welded in the corresponding section steel beam

786

Shang et al.

to keep the node rigid enough. Mechanical properties of

the steel are given in Table 1.

Figure 1. Details of SRHPC composite frame

Table 1 Mechanical parameters of steel
I10 Q235

I14 Q235

6HP

12HR
B335

Flange

Web

Flange

Web

B235

Fy

321.0

315.5

319.7

312.4

297.5

384.0

Fu

509.9

494.2

491.5

502.5

438.0

557.0

1540

1503

1543

1507

1447

1863

Fy-yield strength, Fu-ultimate strength, E-elasticity modulus

2.2 Test specimen loading program

The general features of the test setup are illustrated in
Fig.2. The vertical load was applied at the top of columns
by three MTS jacking. Then cyclic quasi-static horizontal
load was applied at the beam-end of the third story by steel
rod system with horizontal actuator. The loading program
was a mixed force-displacement controlled loading
procedure. The force controlled loading was applied
initially until load reached 270kN, which was taken as the
yield load of the tested frame. Then the displacementcontrolled loading was applied cyclically up to a story drift
of 1/21. The displacement-controlled loading history is
shown in Fig. 3. Three cycles were repeated at each
displacement. The load program will end until load down
to 80% -90% of peak load, and not less than the yield load.

1-specimen; 2- foundation beam; 3-Reaction steel frame

4-Reaction steel beam;5-pressure steel beam; 6-lateral strut; 7reaction wall; 8-Jack; 9- Sliding roller; 10- horizontal actuator;
11-Tie rod; 12- horizontal strut
Figure 2. Test setup SRHPC composite frame

787

Shang et al.

increase of displacement/load, bearing capacity of the

specimens declined gradually. The concrete in the local
region of beam-end crisped. Then cracks of more than
2mm width of appeared. Overall it shows that the plastic
hinges at the beam-end can be taken full advantage under
the earthquake. The details of cracks beams can be shown
in the Fig.3(a).
Cracks grown in the bottom of column in the first
storey after steel bars at the beam-end yielded, which
expanded dramatically when the steel flange at the beam
end yielded. Every column-foot presented masses of
cracks to join up with the range of steel yielded increasing,
finally u-shaped distribution pattern is observed. The main
crack appeared in the range of 2 times height section of the
column. After composite structure reaching bearing
capacity limit state, local concrete cover crisp, even stirrup
convex outside. As shown in Fig.3(b). In the whole process,
the column-feet crack in the second floor and the third
column of are fewer, nor through crack formation.
Few cracks can be observed in the core area of frame
joints when beam and column presented cracks. Micro
cracks expanded along 45 direction, intersection
distribution, grown in the core area of frame joints in the
second and third storey when composite frame structure
almost reached bearing capacity limit state. The concrete
cover of joints in the second storey showed the local
peeling phenomenon, but the concrete restrained by the
stirrup kept shape integrity, node capacity did not
significantly reduce, as shown in Fig.3(c). Above all,
SRHPC composite frame specimen under the vertical
constant axial pressure and horizontal low cyclic load
experienced crack, yield, maximum bearing capacity and
failure stage. The details of cracks distribution is shown in
Fig.4.

Figure 3. Loading scheme of specimen

3 RESULTS AND ANALYSIS

3.1 Test phenomena
In the process of loading, micro cracks firstly occurred
at the beam-end of each side of the middle column in the
second and third story. Then new cracks appeared with the
increase of horizontal load and original cracks developed
gradually to be wider. Closure ability of cracks shaped by
reverse cyclic loading was very strong in the original
cracks expanding. Cracks of SRHPC composite beam
components were mainly distributed in the range of 2 times
height of beam section at the beam-end, and only a small
amount of tiny cracks can be observed in other parts. The
main cracks of the beam-end (1.2 times height of beam
section) shaped gradually along with the load increasing.
Then concrete crushed phenomenon progressively turned
up in the free zone. The SRHPC composite frame reached
at the bearing capacity limit state. With the continuous

(a) Beam

(b) Column
Figure 3. Crack distribution of SRHPC component

788

(c) Joint

Shang et al.

Table 2 measured characteristic strengths and displacements

Loading direction

Crack point

Yield point

Peak point

Failure point

P0 (kN)

0 (mm)

py (kN)

y (mm)

Pm (kN)

m (mm)

Pu (kN)

u (mm)

()

92.93

5.18

246.95

17.30

360.80

55.80

305.01

117.13

()

-85.90

-4.77

-255.30

-17.10

-362.34

-55.19

-306.90

-113.80

Average

89.07

4.98

250.98

17.20

361.57

55.50

305.95

113.97

P /kN

curves are plotted in Fig.6. The maximum lateral

resistance of composite structure frame was 360.8 kN at
the positive displacement of 55.8 mm and 362.3 kN at the
negative displacement of 55.2 mm, respectively. The
initial stiffness of the hysteresis curve is big and the shape
of the hysteresis loop back is the full spindle without pinch
phenomenon. It is indicated that SRHPC structure has
excellent seismic capacity that is specifically high bearing
capacity and deformation. Also there is a gentle decline
stage in the skeleton curve.
400
300
200
100

Figure 4. Details of cracks distribution SRHPC frame

3.2 Characteristic strengths and displacements

-150

-100

-50

0
-100

The yield and ultimate points are determined from the

envelop curve as shown in Fig.5. u and y are the
ultimate and yield displacements, respectively. The
measured characteristic strengths and displacements are
listed in Table 2. It can be found that ultimate
displacement angle at the top of SRHPC composite frame
is about 1/26, which indicated SRHPC composite frame
possesses excellent plastic deformation capacity on
condition that ensures capacity no obvious when SRHPC
composite structure reaches peak point. Meanwhile, lateral
stiffness has apparent impact on the top displacement
before reaching yield load, this impact will be weaken with
the plastic state nearing.

50

100

150
/mm

-200
-300
-400

Figure 6. P- Hysteresis Loop of SRHPC composite frame

3.4 Stiffness
Overall stiffness is defined as the ratio of horizontal
load and beam-end displacement in the third storey. It
decreases with the cyclic loading because of cumulative
damage. Fig.7(a) shows the degeneration law of overall
stiffness of SRHPC composite frame specimen. It can be
discovered that initial stiffness of specimen subjected by
positive and negative loading is basically identical and the
relevant stiffness degeneration is almost similar.
A plenty of cracks produced by reverse cyclic load result
in overall stiffness degradation for the specimen tend to be
fast and then slow due to the function of plastic fringe with
plastic deformation gradual growth. Overall stiffness of
the specimen decreased with the increase of displacement
cycle numbers, and the larger residual deformation can be
seen in the late period. The extent of stiffness reduction is
greater with the increase of displacement and stiffness
degradation of reverse loading and positive load are
similar, which shows cracks occurred in the high
performance concrete show outstanding on-off ability
Inter-storey stiffness is defined as the ratio of
horizontal load and beam-end displacement in each storey.
Fig.7(b) shows the degeneration law of Inter-storey

Figure 5. Determination of the yield and ultimate points

3.3 Hysteresis curve

The base shear-top horizontal displacement hysteresis

789

Shang et al.

K kN/mm

stiffness of SRHPC composite frame specimen. It can be

found that the Inter-storey stiffness distribution along
vertical distribution is uniform. Degeneration law of Interstorey stiffness is similar with degeneration law of overall
stiffness. There is no obvious defect in the stiffness of
SRHPC composite frame.
25
20
15
10

Figure 8. Computation Sketch for Energy Dissipation of

Hysteresis Loop

0
-80

-40

40

80

120
/mm

E /kN.m

-120

0.4

(a) Overall stiffness

K kN/mm

0.6

120

0.2

third floor
second floor

80

first floor

100

200

40

300
P /kN

(a) Before SRHPC composite frame yields

0
-80

-40

40

80

120
/mm

E /kN.m

-120

(b) Inter-storey stiffness

120

80

Figure 7. Degeneration Law of stiffness of SRHPC composite

frame

40

3.5 Energy dissipation capacity

0

Energy dissipation capacity is one of the most

important indices to evaluate the seismic behavior of
structures. Energy dissipation in elastic-plastic
deformation stage can be analyzed through the hysteresis
curve drawn by SRHPC composite frame under low cyclic
loading. Average area of hysteresis loop formed by three
reverse cycles can be used to evaluate energy dissipation
capacity, as Fig.8 shown. Fig.9 demonstrates energy
dissipation capacity of SRHPC composite frame, in which
Fig.9(a) illustrates energy dissipation capacity with load
increasing before composite frame yields and Fig.9(b)
shows energy dissipation capacity with deformation
increasing before composite frame yields. It can be
indicated that energy consumption is very small, almost
zero when structure initially loaded and energy dissipation
in the cracking state is less than 0.4% of the failure state
load. Energy dissipation at the yield load point is about 4%
of the energy dissipation capacity at the failure load point
and Energy dissipation at the peak load point is about 36%
of the energy dissipation capacity at the failure load point.
It illustrates that the framework of energy dissipation of
SRHPC composite structure is still large degree for growth
with the structural deformation increasing.

40

80

120
/mm

(b) After SRHPC composite frame yields

Figure 9. Energy dissipation of SRHPC composite frame

Energy dissipation ratio is an important index to

present the energy dissipation capacity. Energy dissipation
ratio is defined as Eq(1) .
A=A1+A2
(1)
Where A is work by horizontal force, A1 is energy
absorbed by the structure in one loading-unloading
cycle(the area surrounded by curves ABC), A2 is energy
released by the structure in the unloading process(the area
surrounded by curves BEC)
Energy dissipation ratio of SRHPC frame specimen is
calculated by Eq(1) as Table 3 shown. Energy dissipation
ratio is proportional to energy dissipation capacity. Energy
dissipation ratio of reinforced concrete is 0.1-0.2. Energy
dissipation ratio of concrete filled steel tubular frame is
0.26-0.36. As for SRHPC composite frame is approximate
0.3 from the Table 3. It can be indicated that energy
dissipation capacity of SRHPC composite frame is almost
equivalent to concrete filled steel tubular frame, much
790

Shang et al.
and mineral additions. Construction and Building Materials
98:194-203.

better than reinforced concrete frame. It shows that

SRHSHPC frame structure has excellent seismic energy
dissipation capacity.
Table 3 Energy dissipation ratio of SRHPC frame specimen
Loading

Yield point

direction
Forward

Peak

Failure point

point
0.296

0.746

0.890

0.319

0.760

0.893

direction
Reverse
direction

4 CONCLUSIONS AND SUGGESTIONS

A new detailed steel reinforced high performance
concrete composite frame was conceived, and the
specimen was tested under the axial compressive forces
and lateral cyclic load. The proposed SRHPC composite
frame exhibited good seismic behavior in the tests could
provide a favorable choice for the high-rise buildings. The
main conclusions drawn in this research can be
summarized as follows.
Beam-hinge failure mechanism can be achieved by
the reasonable design of SRHPC composite frame
structure under low cyclic loading. The damage order of
SRPHC composite components damage is reasonable,
which can meet seismic requirements "strong shear and
weak bending, strong column and weak beam, strong node
and weal component" seismic requirements.
Structural strength and stiffness degradation is not
obvious when horizontal load reaches the yield load, even
peak load. Curve down velocity is flat and the shape of the
hysteresis loop presents full spindle.
SRHPC composite frame energy dissipation capacity
is almost equivalent to concrete filled steel tubular frame,
significantly higher than reinforced concrete frame energy
dissipation. It shows that SRHSHPC frame structure has
excellent seismic energy dissipation capacity.
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Amit H. Varma, James M. Ricles, Richard Sause & Le-Wu Lu.
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Mounsif Drissi. 2015. Experimental evaluation of workability
and compressive strength of concrete with several local sand

791

11th International Conference on

Advances in Steel and Concrete Composite Structures
Tsinghua University, Beijing, China, December 3-5, 2015

Author index

Albero, V. 161, 282

Alinia, M.M. 690
Baharom, S.B. 111, 121
Bai, G.L. 671, 677
Bai, Y.T. 671, 677
Ban, H.Y. 54
Bao, L.S. 769
Baskar, K. 315
Bavan, M. 111, 121
Bihina, G. 282
Canuto, C. 462
Cao, S. 190
Cashell, K.A. 38
Chan, S.L. 145, 183
Chan, T.M. 175
Chen, B.C. 745
Chen, C. 500, 507
Chen, J. 372, 518
Chen, K. 620
Chen, Y.Y. 16
Chen, Z.H. 524
Chiew, S.P. 500, 507, 512
Choi, J.M. 428
Choi, S. 129
Choi, S.H. 95
Choi, S.M. 95
Chuan, G.H. 16
Chung, K.F. 378, 531
Chung, K.S. 428
Dai, G.X. 424
Dai, X. 446
Dai, X.H. 137, 175
Deng, G.Z. 786
Ding, R. 658
D'Mello, C.A. 22
Du, Y. 71, 219
Du, Z.L. 183
Espins, A.

161, 282

Fan, J.S. 106, 440, 490, 658

Fang, C. 531
Florides, M.M. 38
Fu, Q.N. 100
Gan, D. 260
Gao, B. 769
Gao, S. 698
Gao, Y. 412
Gardner, L. 8, 167

Ghannam, M. 153
Goode, C.D. 1
Guo, F. 342
Guo, L.H. 698
Han, B. 763
Han, C. 664
Han, L.H. 153, 197, 205, 239,
274, 322, 356, 364, 454, 470,
713
Hao, H.E. 763
Heidarpour, A. 454
Ho, C.M. 641
Hospitaler, A. 282
Hou, C. 364
Hou, C.C. 356
Hu, Y. 424
Hua, Y.X. 364
Huang, Z.Y. 544, 577
Huo, B.Y. 22
Huo, J.S. 63
Ihaddoudne, A.N.T.

593

Jaspart, J.P. 593

Jayachandran, A. 268
Jeon, C.H. 775
Ji, X.D. 585
Jia, X.F. 585
Jiang, A.Y. 372
Jiang, W.S. 664
Jiao, B. 753
Jin, W.L. 372, 518
Kang, D.A. 95
Katwal, U. 30
Khoo, F. 342
Kim, D.K. 95
Kim, D.W. 775
Kim, J.J. 758
Kim, S.E. 572
Kucukler, M. 8
Kyung, J.H. 95
Lai, Z.C. 329, 565
Lam, A.C.C. 531
Lam, D. 137, 175, 274, 446, 462
Lau, H.H. 309
Lawson, R.M. 478
Le, D.D. 485
Lee, S. 129
Leekitwattana, M. 59
Lehman, D.E. 720

792

Li, D. 389
Li, D.S. 470
Li, G.C. 233, 496
Li, H.W. 417, 627
Li, M. 786
Li, Q.N. 664
Li, W. 16
Li, W. 322, 356
Li, W. 440
Li, W.B. 713
Li, X.F. 763
Li, Y. 738
Li, Y.J. 252
Li, Y.L. 335, 342
Li, Y.X. 658
Liao, F.Y. 197, 252
Liew, J.Y.R. 71, 86, 219, 544,
577
Liu, C.Y. 728
Liu, D.Z. 648
Liu, F.Q. 213
Liu, J.P. 260
Liu, J.Q. 713
Liu, S.W. 145
Liu, W. 106
Liu, Y.P. 145, 183
Liu, Y.Q. 47, 412, 435, 734
Liu, Y.Z. 63
Lotfollahi, M. 690
Lu, P.Z. 782
Ma, C.B. 47
Macorini, L. 8
Malushte, S.R. 565
Mashiri, F. 462
McCann, F. 167
Mirza, O. 462
Moon, J. 758
Nakahara, H. 634
Nellinger, S. 478
Nguyen, P.C. 572
Nguyen, Q.H. 485
Nguyen, X.H. 485
Nie, J.G. 490, 658
Nie, R.F. 335
Obiala, R. 478
Odenbreit, C. 478
Osman, S.A. 121
Pagoulatou, M. 137
Pan, W.H. 440

Pan, Y.C. 213

Park, Y. 129
Patton, M.L. 299
Peng, J.L. 641
Peng, W.B. 753
Pham, A.T. 682
Plumier, A. 603, 612
Pons, D. 161
Portols, J.M. 161
Praveena, M. 268

Tao, Z. 30, 153, 197, 291, 470

Teng, J.G. 335
Ting, T.C.H. 309
Tsuji, H. 398

Qian, J.R. 585

Qiu, G.Q. 769
Qiu, W. 167
Quan, C.Y. 404

Wang, A.J. 538

Wang, B.B. 274
Wang, C.S. 641
Wang, F. 404
Wang, F. 763
Wang, H.T. 63
Wang, J.F. 652
Wang, J.X. 417, 627
Wang, J.X. 652
Wang, Q. 769
Wang, Q.L. 364
Wang, R. 274
Wang, R. 404
Wang, W. 404
Wang, W.D. 30, 417, 627
Wang, X.D. 524
Wang, X.Z. 412
Wang, Y.Y. 728
Wang, Z.B. 470
Wang, Z.F. 769
Won, Y. 129

Raman, R.K.S. 335, 342

Rasmussen, K. 197
Renaud, C. 282
Roeder, C. 78, 720
Romero, M.L. 161, 282
Saddi, S. 335
Seraji, M. 111, 121
Shang, X.Y. 786
Shao, H. 782
Sheehan, T. 137, 175, 205, 274,
446
Shen, L.E. 424
Shen, M.H. 378
Shi, M. 738
Shim, C.S. 775
Singh, K.D. 299
Song, D.R. 246
Song, J. 129
Song, Q.Y. 454
Song, R.N. 350
Song, T.Y. 30, 153, 239, 291
Stephens, M. 720
Sulthana, M. 268
Sun, Q.L. 106
Taciroglu, E. 690
Tan, E.L. 54
Tan, K.H. 100, 558, 620, 682
Tan, Q.H. 239
Tang, L. 412
Tao, M.X. 106, 658

Uy, B.

54, 389

Varma, A.H. 329, 565

Velmurugan, M. 315
Vipin, S.P. 512

Xiong, G. 424
Xiong, M.X. 71, 219
Xu, F. 518
Xu, H.J. 734
Xu, L.Y. 490
Xu, M. 698
Xu, W. 322
Xu, X.Q. 47
Xue, D.Y. 350
Xue, J.Y. 745
Yam, C.H. 378
Yam, M.C.H. 531
Yamaguchi, E. 398
Yan, J.B. 86, 544

793

Yan, Q.L. 745

Yang, B. 100, 424, 558, 620
Yang, H. 213
Yang, J. 446
Yang, P. 496
Yang, Y. 78
Yang, Y.F. 246
Yang, Z.J. 233
Yao, Z.L. 677
Ye, Y. 205
Yin, H. 634
Yoo, J.H. 428
Youm, K.S. 758
Yu, X. 291
Yu, X.M. 745
Yu, Y.J. 524
Yu, Y.L. 78
Yun, X. 8
Zha, X.X. 1
Zhan, Y.L. 350
Zhang, C. 738
Zhang, H.X. 496
Zhang, R.R. 233
Zhang, W.F. 225, 705
Zhang, W.J. 252
Zhang, Y.Y. 335
Zhao, H.J. 664
Zhao, M.S. 500, 507
Zhao, R.D. 350
Zhao, X.L. 335, 342, 454, 713
Zhao, X.Z. 190
Zheng, S.J. 412, 435
Zheng, S.S. 786
Zhou, B. 233
Zhou, J. 404
Zhou, J.B. 782
Zhou, K. 239
Zhou, X.H. 260
Zhou, X.W. 78
Zhou, Y. 738
Zhu, X.Q. 597
Zhu, Z.X. 63
Zhuang, Y.Z. 753, 782
Zou, Z.Y. 350
Zuo, F. 512