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LastLecture
CommunicationTheory
AmplitudeModulationConcepts
ModulationIndexandPercentageofModulation
SidebandsandtheFrequencyDomain
PulseModulation
AMPower
SingleSidebandModulation
Lecture4
DisadvantagesofDSBandSSB
SignalPowerConsiderations
Dr.MuhammadAamir Khan
ClassificationofRadioEmissions
AssistantProfessor
DepartmentofInformaticsandSystems
SchoolofSystemsandTechnology(SST)
UniversityofManagementandTechnology
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CommunicationTheory Lecture4
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Outlines
Inthemodulationprocess,thebasebandvoice,video,ordigitalsignal
modifiesanother,higherfrequencysignalcalledthecarrier, whichis
usuallyasinewave.
Asinewavecarriercanbemodified bytheintelligencesignalthrough
Amplitudemodulation(AM)
Frequencymodulation(FM)
Phasemodulation (PM)
ModulationProcess(Cont.)
SchoolofSystemsandTechnology
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FrequencyModulation(FM)
A sinewavecarriercanbemodulatedbyvaryingitsamplitude,frequency,
orphaseshift.Thebasicequationforacarrierwaveis
= Vc sin(2fct c)
whereVc =peakamplitude,fc =frequency,andc =phaseangle
Impressinganinformationsignalonacarrierbychangingitsfrequency
producesFM.
Varyingtheamountofphaseshiftthatacarrierexperiencesisknownas
phasemodulation(PM).Varyingthephaseshiftofacarrieralsoproduces
FM.
FMandPMarecollectivelyreferredtoasanglemodulation.
SinceFMisgenerallysuperiorinperformancetoAM,itiswidelyusedin
manyareasofcommunicationelectronics.
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ModulationProcess
FundamentalsofFrequencyModulation
PrinciplesofPhaseModulation
ConvertingPMtoFM
PhaseShiftKeying
ModulationIndexandSidebands
NoiseSuppressionEffectsofFM
FrequencyModulationVersusAmplitudeModulation
AdvantagesofFM
DisadvantagesofFM
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(t) = Vc sin(i(t))
Vc
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BasicPrinciplesofFrequency
Modulation
FrequencyModulation(FM)
Frequencymodulation(FM)isthatformofanglemodulationinwhichthe
instantaneousfrequencyisvariedlinearlywiththemessagesignalasshownby
fi(t) =fc +kfm(t)
Theconstanttermfc representsthefrequencyoftheunmodulated carrier;the
constantkf representsthefrequencysensitivityfactorofthemodulator,expressed
inhertzpervoltontheassumptionthatm(t)isavoltagewaveform.Integrating
aboveequationwithrespecttotimeandmultiplyingtheresultby2 weget:
2fi(t)dt
i(t)
2fcdt
2fct
2kf
2kfm(t)dt
m(t)dt
wherethesecondtermaccountsfortheincreaseordecreaseintheinstantaneous
phasei(t)duetothemessagesignalm(t).Thefrequencymodulatedwaveis
therefore
(t)
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Vcsin 2fct
2kf
InFM,thecarrieramplituderemainsconstantandthecarrierfrequency
ischanged bythemodulatingsignal.Astheamplitudeoftheinformation
signalvaries,thecarrierfrequencyshiftsproportionately.
Asthemodulatingsignalamplitudeincreases,thecarrierfrequency
increases.Iftheamplitudeofthemodulatingsignaldecreases,thecarrier
frequencydecreases.Thereverserelationshipcanalsobeimplemented.
Asthemodulatingsignalamplitudevaries,thecarrierfrequencyvaries
aboveandbelowitsnormalcenter,orresting,frequencywithno
modulation.
Theamountofchangeincarrierfrequencyproducedbythemodulating
signalisknownasthefrequencydeviationfd.Maximumfrequency
deviationoccursatthemaximumamplitude ofthemodulatingsignal.
m(t)dt
FrequencyModulation(Cont.)
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Thefrequencyofthemodulatingsignaldeterminesthefrequency
deviationrate,orhowmanytimespersecondthecarrierfrequency
deviates aboveandbelowitscenterfrequency.Ifthemodulatingsignalis
a500Hzsinewave,thecarrierfrequencyshiftsaboveandbelowthe
centerfrequency500timespersecond.
AnFMsignalisillustratedinfigurenext.Normallythecarrierisasine
wave,butitisshownasatriangularwaveheretosimplifytheillustration.
Withnomodulatingsignalapplied,thecarrierfrequencyisaconstant
amplitudesinewaveatitsnormalrestingfrequency.
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Example
Themodulatinginformationsignal isalowfrequencysinewave.Asthe
sinewavegoespositive,thefrequencyofthecarrierincreases
proportionately.Thehighestfrequencyoccursatthepeakamplitudeof
themodulatingsignal.Asthemodulatingsignalamplitudedecreases,the
carrierfrequencydecreases.Whenthemodulatingsignalisatzero
amplitude,thecarrierisatitscenter frequencypoint.
Whenthemodulatingsignalgoesnegative,thecarrierfrequency
decreases.Itcontinuestodecreaseuntilthepeakofthenegativehalf
cycleofthemodulatingsinewaveisreached.Thenasthemodulating
signalincreasestowardzero,thecarrierfrequencyagainincreases.This
phenomenonisillustratedinfigure(c),wherethecarriersinewavesseem
tobefirstcompressedandthenstretched bythemodulatingsignal.
Assumeacarrierfrequencyof150MHz. Ifthepeakamplitudeofthe
modulatingsignalcausesamaximumfrequencyshiftof30kHz,thecarrier
frequencywilldeviateupto150.03MHzanddownto149.97MHz.
Thetotalfrequencydeviationis150.03149.97= 0.06MHz=60kHz.
Inpractice,however,thefrequencydeviationisexpressedastheamount
offrequencyshiftofthecarrieraboveorbelowthecenterfrequency.
Thus,thefrequencydeviationforthe150MHzcarrierfrequencyis
representedas630kHz.Thismeansthatthemodulatingsignalvariesthe
carrieraboveandbelowitscenterfrequencyby30kHz.
NOTE: Thefrequencyofthemodulatingsignalhasnoeffectonthe
amountofdeviation,whichisstrictlyafunctionoftheamplitudeofthe
modulatingsignal.
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FrequencyShiftKeying
FrequencyShiftKeying(Cont.)
Frequently,themodulatingsignalisapulsetrainorseriesofrectangular
waves,e.g.,serialbinarydata.Whenthemodulatingsignalhasonlytwo
amplitudes,thecarrierfrequency,insteadofhavinganinfinitenumberof
values,asitwouldhavewithacontinuouslyvarying(analog)signal,has
onlytwovalues.Thisphenomenonisillustratedinthenextfigure.
Forexample,whenthemodulatingsignalisabinary0,thecarrier
frequencyisthecenter frequencyvalue.Whenthemodulatingsignalisa
binary1,thecarrierfrequencyabruptlychangestoahigher frequency
level.Theamountoftheshiftdependsontheamplitudeofthebinary
signal.
Thiskindofmodulation,calledfrequencyshiftkeying(FSK),iswidely
usedinthetransmissionofbinarydatainBluetoothheadsets,wireless
speakers,andmanyformsofindustrialwireless.
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PhaseModulation(PM)
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PhaseModulation(PM)(Cont.)
Phasemodulation(PM)isthatformofanglemodulationinwhichthe
instantaneousanglei(t)isvariedlinearlywiththemessagesignalm(t)as
shownby:
i(t)=2fct + kp m(t)
Theterm2fct representstheangleoftheunmodulated carrierwiththe
constantcsetequaltozeroforconvenienceofpresentation;the
constantkp representsthephasesensitivityfactorofthemodulator,
expressedinradianspervoltontheassumptionthatm(t)isavoltage
waveform.Thephasemodulatedwaveiscorrespondinglydescribedinthe
timedomainby
(t) Vcsin 2fct kpm(t)
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Whentheamountofphaseshiftofaconstantfrequencycarrierisvaried
inaccordancewithamodulatingsignal,theresultingoutputisaphase
modulation(PM) signal[seeabovefigure(d)].
Imagineamodulatorcircuitwhosebasicfunctionistoproduceaphase
shift, i.e.,atimeseparationbetweentwosinewavesofthesame
frequency.
Assumethataphaseshiftercanbebuiltthatwillcausetheamountof
phaseshifttovarywiththeamplitudeofthemodulatingsignal.The
greatertheamplitudeofthemodulatingsignal,thegreaterthephase
shift.
Assumefurtherthatpositive alternationsofthemodulatingsignal
producealaggingphaseshiftandnegative signalsproducealeading
phaseshift.
Ifaconstantamplitude,constantfrequencycarriersinewaveisappliedto
thephaseshifterwhosephaseshiftisvariedbytheintelligencesignal,the
outputofthephaseshifterisaPMwave.
Asthemodulatingsignalgoespositive,theamountofphaselag,andthus
thedelayofthecarrieroutput,increaseswiththeamplitudeofthe
modulatingsignal.Theresultattheoutputisthesameasiftheconstant
frequencycarriersignalhadbeenstretchedout,orhaditsfrequency
lowered.
Whenthemodulatingsignalgoesnegative,thephaseshiftbecomes
leading.Thiscausesthecarriersinewavetobeeffectivelyspeededup,or
compressed.Theresultisthesameasifthecarrierfrequencyhadbeen
increased.
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PrinciplesofPhaseModulation(Cont.)
PhaseModulation
Notethatitisthedynamic natureofthemodulatingsignalthatcausesthe
frequencyvariationattheoutputofthephaseshifter:FMisproduced
onlyaslongasthephaseshiftisvarying.
Tounderstandthisbetter,lookatthemodulatingsignalshowninprevious
figure(a),whichisatriangularwavewhosepositiveandnegativepeaks
havebeenclippedoffatafixedamplitude.Duringtimet0,thesignalis
zero,sothecarrierisatitscenterfrequency.
Applyingthismodulatingsignaltoafrequencymodulatorproducesthe
FMsignalshowninpreviousfigure(b).Duringthetimethewaveformis
rising(t1),thefrequencyincreases.Duringthetimethepositiveamplitude
isconstant(t2),theFMoutputfrequencyisconstant.Duringthetimethe
amplitudedecreasesandgoesnegative(t3),thefrequencydecreases.
Duringtheconstantamplitudenegativealternation(t4),thefrequency
remainsconstant,atalowerfrequency.Duringt5,thefrequency
increases.
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PhaseModulation
PhaseModulation
Now,refertothePMsignalinpreviousfigure(c).Duringincreasesor
decreasesinamplitude(t1,t3,andt5),avaryingfrequencyisproduced.
However,duringtheconstantamplitudepositiveandnegativepeaks,no
frequencychangetakesplace.
Theoutputofthephasemodulatorissimplythecarrierfrequencythat
hasbeenshiftedinphase.Thisclearlyillustratesthatwhenamodulating
signalisappliedtoaphasemodulator,theoutputfrequencychangesonly
duringthetimethattheamplitudeofthemodulatingsignalisvarying.
Themaximumfrequencydeviationproducedbyaphasemodulatoroccurs
duringthetimewhenthemodulatingsignalischangingatitsmostrapid
rate.Forasinewavemodulatingsignal,therateofchangeofthe
modulatingsignalisgreatestwhenthemodulatingwavechangesfrom
plustominusorfromminustoplus.
Asfigure(c)shows,themaximumrateofchangeofmodulatingvoltage
occursexactlyatthezerocrossingpoints.Incontrast,notethatinanFM
wavethemaximumdeviationoccursatthepeakpositiveandnegative
amplitudeofthemodulatingvoltage.Thus,althoughaphasemodulator
doesindeedproduceFM,maximumdeviationoccursatdifferentpoints
ofthemodulatingsignal.
InPM,theamountofcarrierdeviationisproportionaltotherateof
changeofthemodulatingsignal,i.e.,thecalculusderivative.Withasine
wavemodulatingsignal,thePMcarrierappearstobefrequency
modulatedbythecosineofthemodulatingsignal.
Rememberthatthecosineoccurs90 earlier(leads)thanthesine.Since
thefrequencydeviationinPMisproportionaltotherateofchangeinthe
modulatingsignal,thefrequencydeviationisproportionaltothe
modulatingsignalfrequencyaswellasitsamplitude.Thiseffectis
compensatedforpriortomodulation.
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RelationshipBetweentheModulating
SignalandCarrierDeviation
RelationshipBetweentheModulating
SignalandCarrierDeviation(Cont.)
InFM,thefrequencydeviationisdirectlyproportionaltotheamplitudeof
themodulatingsignal.Themaximumdeviationoccursatthepeakpositive
andnegativeamplitudesofthemodulatingsignal.InPM,thefrequency
deviationisalsodirectlyproportionaltotheamplitudeofthemodulating
signal.Themaximumamountofleadingorlaggingphaseshiftoccursatthe
peakamplitudesofthemodulatingsignal.Thiseffect,forbothFMandPM,
isillustratedinfigure(a).
Nowlookatfigure(b),whichshowsthatthefrequencydeviationofanFM
signalisconstantforanyvalueofmodulatingfrequency.Onlythe
amplitudeofthemodulatingsignaldeterminestheamountofdeviation.
ButlookathowthedeviationvariesinaPMsignalwithdifferent
modulatingsignalfrequencies.Thehigherthemodulatingsignal
frequency,theshorteritsperiodandthefasterthevoltagechanges.
Highermodulatingvoltagesresultingreaterphaseshift,andthis,inturn,
producesgreaterfrequencydeviation.
However,highermodulatingfrequenciesproduceafasterrateofchange
ofthemodulatingvoltageandthusgreaterfrequencydeviation.InPM,
then,thecarrierfrequencydeviationisproportionaltoboth the
modulatingfrequency(slope ofmodulatingvoltage)andtheamplitude.In
FM,frequencydeviationisproportionalonly totheamplitudeofthe
modulatingsignal,regardlessofitsfrequency.
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FrequencyCorrectingNetwork
(Predistorter or1/fFilter)
ConvertingPMtoFM
TomakePMcompatiblewithFM,thedeviationproducedbyfrequencyvariations
inthemodulatingsignalmustbecompensatedfor.Thiscanbedonebypassingthe
intelligencesignalthroughalowpassRCnetwork,asillustratedinfigurebelow.
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Thislowpassfilter,calledafrequencycorrectingnetwork,predistorter,or
1/ffilter,causesthehighermodulatingfrequenciestobeattenuated.
Althoughthehighermodulatingfrequenciesproduceagreaterrateof
changeandthusagreaterfrequencydeviation,thisisoffsetbythelower
amplitudeofthemodulatingsignal,whichproduceslessphaseshiftand
thuslessfrequencydeviation.
Thepredistorter compensatesfortheexcessfrequencydeviationcaused
byhighermodulatingfrequencies.Theresultisanoutputthatisthesame
asanFMsignal.
TheFMproducedbyaphasemodulatoriscalledindirectFM.
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PhaseShiftKeying
PhaseShiftKeying(Cont.)
PMisalsousedwithbinarysignals,asthefollowingfigureshows.When
thebinarymodulatingsignalis0V,orbinary0,thePMsignalissimplythe
carrierfrequency.Whenabinary1voltageleveloccurs,themodulator,
whichisaphaseshifter,simplychangesthephaseofthecarrier,notits
frequency.Infigurebelowthephaseshiftis180.Eachtimethesignal
changesfrom0to1or1to0,thereisa180 phaseshift.ThePMsignalis
stillthecarrierfrequency,butthephasehasbeenchangedwithrespectto
theoriginalcarrierwithabinary0input.
Theprocessofphasemodulatingacarrierwithbinarydataiscalled
phaseshiftkeying(PSK)orbinaryphaseshiftkeying(BPSK).ThePSK
signalshowninfigureaboveusesa180 phaseshiftfromareference,but
otherphaseshiftvaluescanbeused,forexample,45,90,135,or225.
Theimportantthingtorememberisthatnofrequencyvariationoccurs.
ThePSKsignalhasaconstantfrequency,butthephaseofthesignalfrom
somereferencechangesasthebinarymodulatingsignaloccurs.
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(Cont.)
Anymodulationprocessproducessidebands.Whenaconstantfrequency
sinewavemodulatesacarrier,twosidefrequenciesareproduced.The
sidefrequenciesarethesumanddifferenceofthecarrierandthe
modulatingfrequency.InFMandPM,asinAM,sumanddifference
sidebandfrequenciesareproduced.Inaddition,alargenumberofpairsof
upperandlowersidebandsaregenerated.Asaresult,thespectrumofan
FMoraPMsignalisusuallywiderthanthatofanequivalentAMsignal.It
isalsopossibletogenerateaspecialnarrowbandFMsignalwhose
bandwidthisonlyslightlywiderthanthatofanAMsignal.
ThefollowingfigureshowsthefrequencyspectrumofatypicalFMsignal
producedbymodulatingacarrierwithasinglefrequencysinewave.
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(Cont.)
(Cont.)
Astheamplitudeofthemodulatingsignalvaries,thefrequencydeviation
changes.Thenumberofsidebandsproduced,andtheiramplitudeand
spacing,dependsonthefrequencydeviationandmodulatingfrequency.
KeepinmindthatanFMsignalhasaconstantamplitude.SinceanFM
signalisasummationofthesidebandfrequencies,thesideband
amplitudesmustvarywithfrequencydeviationandmodulatingfrequency
iftheirsumistoproduceaconstantamplitudebutvariablefrequencyFM
signal.
Theoretically,theFMprocessproducesaninfinite numberofupperand
lowersidebandsand,therefore,atheoreticallyinfinitelylargebandwidth.
However,inpractice,onlythosesidebandswiththelargestamplitudes
aresignificantincarryingtheinformation.
Typicallyanysidebandwhoseamplitudeislessthan1percentofthe
unmodulated carrierisconsideredinsignificant.ThusFMisreadilypassed
bycircuitsorcommunicationmediawithfinitebandwidth.Despitethis,
thebandwidthofanFMsignalisusuallymuchwiderthanthatofanAM
signalwiththesamemodulatingsignal.
Notethatthesidebandsarespacedfromthecarrierfc andfromone
anotherbyafrequencyequaltothemodulatingfrequencyfm.Ifthe
modulatingfrequencyis1kHz,thefirstpairofsidebandsisaboveand
belowthecarrierby1000Hz.Thesecondpairofsidebandsisaboveand
belowthecarrierby2x1000Hz=2000Hz,or2kHz,andsoon.
Notealsothattheamplitudes ofthesidebandsvary.Ifeachsidebandis
assumedtobeasinewave,withafrequencyandanamplitudeas
indicatedinfigureabove,andallthesinewavesareadded,thentheFM
signalproducingthemwillbecreated.
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ModulationIndex
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Example
Theratioofthefrequencydeviationtothemodulatingfrequencyisknownasthe
modulationindexmf:
mf =fd /fm
wherefd isthefrequencydeviationandfm isthemodulatingfrequency.Sometimes
thelowercaseGreekletterdelta()isusedinsteadoffd torepresentdeviation;
thenmf = /fm.
Forexample,ifthemaximumfrequencydeviationofthecarrieris12kHzandthe
maximummodulatingfrequencyis2.5kHz,themodulatingindexismf=12/2.5=
4.8.
InmostcommunicationsystemsusingFM,maximumlimitsareputonboththe
frequencydeviationandthemodulatingfrequency.Forexample,instandardFM
broadcasting,themaximumpermittedfrequencydeviationis75kHzandthe
maximumpermittedmodulatingfrequencyis15kHz.Thisproducesamodulation
indexofmf =75/15=5.
Whenthemaximumallowablefrequencydeviationandthemaximummodulating
frequencyareusedincomputingthemodulationindex,mf isknownasthe
deviationratio.
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BesselFunctions
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BesselFunctions(Cont.)
Giventhemodulationindex,thenumberandamplitudesofthesignificant
sidebandscanbedeterminedbysolvingthebasicequationofanFM
signal.TheFMequationis:
FM =Vc sin[2fc t+mf sin(2fmt)]
whereFM istheinstantaneousvalueoftheFMsignalandmf isthe
modulationindex.
Thetermwhosecoefficientismf isthephaseangleofthecarrier.Note
thatthisequationexpressesthephaseangleintermsofthesinewave
modulatingsignal.Thisequationissolvedwithacomplexmathematical
processknownasBesselfunctions.
Theresultisasfollows:
TheFMwaveisexpressedasacompositeofsinewavesofdifferent
frequenciesandamplitudesthat,whenadded,giveanFMtimedomain
signal.
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Thefirsttermisthecarrierwithanamplitude givenbyaJn coefficient,in

thiscaseJ0.Thenexttermrepresentsapairofupperandlowerside
frequencies equaltothesumanddifferenceofthecarrierandmodulating
signalfrequency.Theamplitude ofthesesidefrequenciesisJ1.
Thenexttermisanotherpairofsidefrequenciesequaltothecarrier2
timesthemodulatingsignalfrequency.Theothertermsrepresent
additionalsidefrequenciesspacedfromoneanotherbyanamountequal
tothemodulatingsignalfrequency.
TheamplitudesofthesidebandsaredeterminedbytheJn coefficients,
whichare,inturn,determinedbythevalueofthemodulationindex.
Theseamplitudecoefficientsarecomputedbyusingtheexpression
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Inpractice,youdonothavetoknoworcalculatethesecoefficients,since
tables givingthemarewidelyavailable.TheBesselcoefficientsforarange
ofmodulationindexesaregiveninfigurebelow.Theleftmostcolumn
givesthemodulationindexmf.Theremainingcolumnsindicatethe
relativeamplitudesofthecarrierandthevariouspairsofsidebands.
Anysidebandwitharelativecarrieramplitudeoflessthan1percent
(0.01)hasbeeneliminated.Notethatsomeofthecarrierandsideband
amplitudeshavenegativesigns.Thismeansthatthesignalrepresentedby
thatamplitudeissimplyshiftedinphase180 (phaseinversion).
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Theabovefigureshowsthecurvesthataregeneratedbyplottingthedata
intableabove.Thecarrierandsidebandamplitudesandpolarities are
plottedonthevertical axis;themodulationindexisplottedonthe
horizontalaxis.
Asthefiguresillustrate,thecarrieramplitudeJ0 varieswiththe
modulationindex.InFM,thecarrieramplitudeandtheamplitudesofthe
sidebandschangeasthemodulatingsignalfrequencyanddeviation
change.InAM,thecarrieramplituderemainsconstant.
Notethatatseveralpointsintable,atmodulationindexesofabout2.4,
5.5,and8.7,thecarrieramplitudeJ0 actuallydropstozero.Atthose
points,allthesignalpoweriscompletelydistributedthroughoutthe
sidebands.Andascanbeseeninfigureabove,thesidebandsalsogoto
zeroatcertainvaluesofthemodulationindex.
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Example
NarrowbandFM(NBFM)
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ThenextfigureshowsseveralexamplesofanFMsignalspectrumwithdifferent
modulationindexes.Comparetheexamplestotheentriesinfigurebefore.
Theunmodulated carrierinfigure(a)hasarelativeamplitudeof1.0.Withno
modulation,allthepowerisinthecarrier.Withmodulation,thecarrieramplitude
decreaseswhiletheamplitudesofthevarioussidebandsincrease.
Infigure(d),themodulationindexis0.25.ThisisaspecialcaseofFMinwhichthe
modulationprocessproducesonlyasinglepairofsignificantsidebandslikethose
producedbyAM.Withamodulationindexof0.25,theFMsignaloccupiesno
morespectrumspacethananAMsignal.ThistypeofFMiscallednarrowband
FM,orNBFM.
TheformaldefinitionofNBFMisanyFMsysteminwhichthemodulationindexis
lessthan/2=1.57,ormf </2.However,fortrueNBFMwithonlyasinglepairof
sidebands,mf mustbemuchlessthan/2.Valuesofmf inthe0.2to0.25range
willgivetrueNBFM.
CommonFMmobileradiosuseamaximumdeviationof5kHz,withamaximum
voicefrequencyof3kHz,givingamodulationindexofmf =5kHz/3kHz=1.667.
AlthoughthesesystemsdonotfallwithintheformaldefinitionofNBFM,theyare
nonethelessregardedasnarrowbandtransmissions.
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NarrowbandFM(NBFM)(Cont.)
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Example
StatetheamplitudesofthecarrierandthefirstfoursidebandsofanFM
signalwithamodulationindexof4.
J0 =20.4
J1 = 20.07
J2 = 0.36
J3 = 0.43
J4 = 0.28
TheprimarypurposeofNBFMistoconservespectrumspace,andNBFM
iswidelyusedinradiocommunication.Note,however,thatNBFM
conservesspectrumspaceattheexpense ofthesignaltonoiseratio.
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FMSignalBandwidth
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CarsonsRule
Asstatedpreviously,thehigherthemodulationindexinFM,thegreaterthe
numberofsignificantsidebandsandthewiderthebandwidthofthesignal.
Whenspectrumconservationisnecessary,thebandwidthofanFMsignalcanbe
deliberatelyrestrictedbyputtinganupperlimitonthemodulationindex.
ThetotalbandwidthofanFMsignalcanbedeterminedbyknowingthe
modulationindexandusingtablegivenabove.Forexample,assumethatthe
highestmodulatingfrequencyofasignalis3kHzandthemaximumdeviationis6
kHz.Thisgivesamodulationindexofmf =6kHz/3kHz=2.Referringtoprevious
table,youcanseethatthisproducesfoursignificantpairsofsidebands.The
bandwidthcanthenbedeterminedwiththesimpleformula:
BW=2fmN
whereNisthenumberofsignificantsidebandsinthesignal.Accordingtothis
formula,thebandwidthofourFMsignalis
BW=2(3kHz)(4)=24kHz
Ingeneralterms,anFMsignalwithamodulationindexof2andahighest
modulatingfrequencyof3kHzwilloccupya24kHzbandwidth.
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AnotherwaytodeterminethebandwidthofanFMsignalistouse
Carsonsrule.Thisrulerecognizesonlythepowerinthemostsignificant
sidebandswithamplitudesgreaterthan2percentofthecarrier(0.02or
higherinFigureabove).Thisruleis
BW=2[fd(max) +fm(max) ]
AccordingtoCarsonsrule,thebandwidthoftheFMsignalintheprevious
examplewouldbe
BW=2(6kHz+3kHz)=2(9kHz)=18kHz
Carsonsrulewillalwaysgiveabandwidthlower thanthatcalculatedwith
theformulaBW=2fmN.However,ithasbeenprovedthatifacircuitor
systemhasthebandwidthcalculatedbyCarsonsrule,thesidebandswill
indeedbepassedwellenoughtoensurefullintelligibilityofthesignal.
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FMSignalBandwidth(Cont.)
Example
Sofar,alltheexamplesofFMhaveassumedasinglefrequencysinewave
modulatingsignal.However,asyouknow,mostmodulatingsignalsarenot
puresinewaves,butcomplexwavesmadeupofmanydifferent
frequencies.
Whenthemodulatingsignalisapulseorbinarywavetrain,thecarrieris
modulatedbytheequivalentsignal,whichisamixofafundamentalsine
waveandalltherelevantharmonics,asdeterminedbyFouriertheory.For
example,ifthemodulatingsignalisasquarewave,thefundamentalsine
waveandalltheoddharmonicsmodulatethecarrier.Eachharmonic
producesmultiplepairsofsidebandsdependingonthemodulationindex.
Asyoucanimagine,FMbyasquareorrectangularwavegeneratesmany
sidebandsandproducesasignalwithanenormous bandwidth.
Thecircuitsorsystemsthatwillcarry,process,orpasssuchasignalmust
havetheappropriatebandwidthsoasnottodistortthesignal.Inmost
equipmentthattransmitsdigitalorbinarydatabyFSK,thebinarysignalis
filteredtoremovehigherlevelharmonicspriortomodulation.This
reducesthebandwidthrequiredfortransmission.
WhatisthemaximumbandwidthofanFMsignalwithadeviationof30
kHzandamaximummodulatingsignalof5kHzasdeterminedby(a)
previoustableand(b)Carsonsrule?
a.
mf =fd /fm
=30kHz/5kHz
=6
Theprevioustableshowsninesignificantsidebandsspaced5kHzapartfor
mf =6.
BW=2fmN=2(5kHz)9=90kHz
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b.
BW=2[fd(max) +fm(max)]
=2(30kHz+5kHz)
=2(35kHz)
BW=70kHz
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Questions?
Inthenextlecture(s)wewilldiscussmoreaboutFMandPM.
Any questions?
SSTUMTLahore
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SSTUMTLahore
52

CT Lec 04 6S

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CT Lec 04 6S

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10/20/2016

Thefirsttermisthecarrierwithanamplitude givenbyaJn coefficient,in

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