Truman Doctrine

the United States. Truman made the plea amid the crisis of the Greek Civil War (194649). He argued that if
Greece and Turkey did not receive the aid that they urgently needed, they would inevitably fall to communism
with grave consequences throughout the region. Because
Turkey and Greece were historic rivals, it was necessary
to help both equally even though the threat to Greece was
more immediate. Historian Eric Foner argues the Truman Doctrine set a precedent for American assistance to
anticommunist regimes throughout the world, no matter
how undemocratic, and for the creation of a set of global
military alliances directed against the Soviet Union.[3]
For years, Britain had supported Greece, but was now
near bankruptcy and was forced to radically reduce its involvement. In February 1947, Britain formally requested
for the United States to take over its role in supporting the Greeks and their government.[4] The policy won
the support of Republicans who controlled Congress and
involved sending $400 million in American money but
no military forces to the region. The eect was to end
the communist threat, and in 1952, both Greece and
Turkey joined NATO, a military alliance, to guarantee
their protection.[5]
The Truman Doctrine was informally extended to become the basis of American Cold War policy throughout Europe and around the world.[6] It shifted American
foreign policy toward the Soviet Union from dtente (a
U.S. President Harry S. Truman
relaxation of tension) to a policy of containment of SoThe Truman Doctrine was an American foreign policy viet expansion as advocated by diplomat George Kennan.
created to counter Soviet geopolitical spread during the It was distinguished from rollback by implicitly tolerating
Cold War. It was rst announced to Congress by Presi- the previous Soviet takeovers in Eastern Europe.
dent Harry S. Truman on March 12, 1947[1]:547-9 and further developed on July 12, 1948 when he pledged to contain Soviet threats to Greece and Turkey. American mil- 1 Turkish Straits crisis
itary force was usually not involved, but Congress appropriated free gifts of nancial aid to support the economies Main article: Turkish Straits crisis
and the military of Greece and Turkey. More gener- At the conclusion of World War II, Turkey was pressured
ally, the Truman doctrine implied American support for by the Soviet government to allow Russian shipping to
other nations threatened by Soviet communism. The Tru- ow freely through the Turkish Straits, which connected
man Doctrine became the foundation of American for- the Black Sea to the Mediterranean. As the Turkish goveign policy, and led, in 1949, to the formation of NATO, ernment would not submit to the Soviet Unions requests,
a military alliance that is still in eect. Historians often tensions arose in the region, leading to a show of naval
use Trumans speech to date the start of the Cold War.
force on the side of the Soviets. Since British assistance
Truman told Congress that it must be the policy of the
United States to support free people who are resisting attempted subjugation by armed minorities or by outside
pressures.[2] Truman reasoned that because the totalitarian regimes coerced free peoples, they represented a
threat to international peace and the national security of

to Turkey had ended in 1947, the U.S. dispatched military

aid to ensure that Turkey would retain chief control of the
passage. Turkey received $100 million in economic and
military aid and the U.S sent the aircraft carrier Franklin
D. Roosevelt. The postwar period from 1946 started with
a "multi-party period" and the Democratic Party govern1

30
Black Sea

Istanbul
Sea of
Marmara

40

anakkale

Aegean
Sea

Turkey

The Turkish Straits

ment of Adnan Menderes.[7]

GREEK CRISIS

by the Greek Communist Party (KKE) fought against the

internationally recognized Greek government which was
formed after 1946 elections boycotted by the KKE. The
British realized that the Greek leftists were being directly
funded by Josip Broz Tito in neighboring Yugoslavia;
the Greek communists received little help directly from
the Soviet Union, while Yugoslavia provided support and
sanctuary.[8] By late 1946, Britain informed the United
States that due to its own weakening economy, it could no
longer continue to provide military and economic support
to Greece.[9]
In 194647, the United States and the Soviet Union
moved from being wartime allies to Cold War adversaries. Soviet imperialism in Eastern Europe, its delayed
withdrawal from Iran, and the breakdown of Allied cooperation in Germany provided a backdrop of escalating
tensions for the Truman Doctrine.[6] To Harry S. Truman,
the growing unrest in Greece began to look like a pincer
movement against the oil-rich areas of the Middle East
and the warm-water ports of the Mediterranean.[10]

Greek crisis

Main article: Greek Civil War

In the second stage of the civil war in December 1944

George F. Kennan (1904-2005) proposed the doctrine of

containment in 1946.

King George II of Greece (r. 1922-4, 1935-47), whose rule was

opposed by a communist insurgency in the Greek Civil War

(The Dekemvriana), the British helped prevent the seizure

of Athens by the National Liberation Front (EAM), controlled eectively by the Greek Communist Party (KKE).
In the third phase (194649), guerrilla forces controlled

In February 1946, Kennan, an American diplomat in

Moscow, sent his famed "Long Telegram", which predicted the Soviets would only respond to force and that
the best way to handle them would be through a longterm strategy of containment, that is stopping their geographical expansion. After the British warned that they
could no longer help Greece, and following Prime Minister Konstantinos Tsaldaris's visit to Washington in December 1946 to ask for American assistance,[11] the U.S.
State Department formulated a plan. Aid would be given
to both Greece and Turkey, to help cool the long-standing

3
rivalry between them.

containing excess rhetoric. Truman responded that, as

would only be apAmerican policy makers recognized the instability of Vandenberg had suggested, his request
[1]:546
proved
if
he
played
up
the
threat.
the region, fearing that if Greece was lost to communism, Turkey would not last long. Similarly, if Turkey On March 12, 1947, President Truman appeared before a
yielded to Soviet demands, the position of Greece would joint session of Congress. In his eighteen-minute speech,
be endangered.[12] A regional domino eect threat there- he stated:
fore guided the American decision. Greece and Turkey
I believe it must be the policy of the United
were strategic allies important for geographical reasons
States to support free peoples who are resisting
as well, for the fall of Greece would put the Soviets on a
attempted subjugation by armed minorities or
particularly dangerous ank for the Turks, and strengthen
by outside pressures.
the Soviet Unions ability to cut o allied supply lines in
I believe that we must assist free peoples to
the event of war.[13]
work out their own destinies in their own way.
I believe that our help should be primarily
through economic and nancial aid which is es3 Trumans address
sential to economic stability and orderly political processes.[1]:547
The reaction to Trumans speech was broadly positive,
though there were dissenters. Anti-communists in both
parties supported both Trumans proposed aid package
and the doctrine behind it, and Colliers described it as
a popularity jackpot for the president.[1]:548[14]:129 Inuential columnist Walter Lippmann was more skeptical, noting the open-ended nature of Trumans pledge; he
felt so strongly that he almost came to blows while arguing with Acheson over the doctrine.[1]:549[15]:615 Others argued that the Greek monarchy Truman proposed to
defend was itself a repressive government, rather than a
democracy.[15]:615
Despite these objections, the fear of the growing communist threat almost guaranteed the bills passage.[15]:616
In May 1947, two months after Trumans request, a large
majority of Congress approved $400 million in military
and economic aid to Greece and Turkey.[1]:553-4[14]:129
Increased American aid helped defeat the KKE, afDean Acheson (18931971), who helped craft Trumans doc- ter interim defeats for government forces from 1946 to
1948.[15]:616-17 The Truman Doctrine was the rst in a setrine, was named his Secretary of State the following year.
ries of containment moves by the United States, followed
by economic restoration of Western Europe through the
To pass any legislation Truman needed the support of the
Marshall Plan and military containment by the creation
Republicans, who controlled both houses of Congress.
of NATO in 1949.
The chief Republican spokesman Senator Arthur H.
Vandenberg strongly supported Truman and overcame
the doubts of isolationists such as Senator Robert A.
Taft.[14]:127 Truman laid the groundwork for his request 4 Long-term policy and metaphor
by having key congressional leaders meet with himself,
Secretary of State George Marshall, and Undersecretary The Truman Doctrine underpinned American Cold War
of State Dean Acheson. Acheson laid out the domino policy in Europe and around the world. In the words of
theory in the starkest terms, comparing a communist historian James T. Patterson, The Truman Doctrine was
state to a rotten apple that could spread its infection to a highly publicized commitment of a sort the administraan entire barrel. Vandenberg was impressed, and advised tion had not previously undertaken. Its sweeping rhetoric,
Truman to appear before Congress and scare the hell out promising that the United States should aid all 'free peoof the American people.[14]:127-8 On March 7, Acheson ple' being subjugated, set the stage for innumerable later
warned Truman that Greece could fall to the communists ventures that led to globalistic commitments. It was in
within weeks without outside aid.[1]:545
these ways a major step.[14]:129
When a draft for Trumans address was circulated to pol- The doctrine endured, historian Dennis Merill argues, beicymakers, Marshall, Kennan, and others criticized it for cause it addressed a broader cultural insecurity regarding

7 BIBLIOGRAPHY

modern life in a globalized world. It dealt with Washingtons concern over communisms domino eect, it enabled a media-sensitive presentation of the doctrine that
won bipartisan support, and it mobilized American economic power to modernize and stabilize unstable regions
without direct military intervention. It brought nationbuilding activities and modernization programs to the
forefront of foreign policy.[6]

[6] Merrill 2006.

[7] Barn Kayaolu, Strategic imperatives, Democratic
rhetoric: The United States and Turkey, 194552. Cold
War History, Aug 2009, Vol. 9(3) pp. 321345
[8] Brentzen, Lars, John O. Iatrides, and Ole Langwitz.
Smith. Studies in the History of the Greek Civil War, 1945
1949. Copenhagen: Museum Tusculanum, 1987. 276.
Google Books. Web. 28 Apr. 2010. online

The Truman Doctrine became a metaphor for emergency

aid to keep a nation from communist inuence. Truman [9] Bullock, Ernest Bevin: Foreign Secretary (1983) ch 8
used disease imagery not only to communicate a sense
[10] Painter 2012, p. 29: Although circumstances diered
of impending disaster in the spread of communism but
greatly in Greece, Turkey, and Iran, U.S. ocials interalso to create a rhetorical vision of containing it by expreted events in all three places as part of a Soviet plan
tending a protective shield around non-communist counto dominate the eastern Mediterranean and the Middle
tries throughout the world. It echoed the "quarantine
East. Mention of oil was deliberately deleted from Presthe aggressor" policy Trumans predecessor, Franklin D.
ident Harry S. Trumans March 12, 1947, address beRoosevelt, had sought to impose to contain German and
fore Congress pledging resistance to communist expansion anywhere in the world; but guarding access to oil was
Japanese expansion in 1937--(quarantine suggested the
an important part of the Truman Doctrine. The Truman
role of public health ocials handling an infectious disDoctrine was named after Harry S. Truman. This docease). The medical metaphor extended beyond the imtrine stated that that the United States would provide pomediate aims of the Truman Doctrine in that the imagery
litical, military and economic assistance to all democratic
combined with re and ood imagery evocative of disasnations under threat from external or internal authoritarter provided the United States with an easy transition to
ian forces.
direct military confrontation in later years with commuOne draft, for example, of Trumans speech spoke of
nist forces in Korea and Vietnam. By ideological dierthe great natural resources of the Middle East at stake
ences in life or death terms, Truman was able to garner
(Kolko & Kolko 1972, p. 341).
[16]
support for this communism-containing policy.

See also
Liberal internationalism
Reverse course
TurkeyUnited States relations
Greece-United States relations

References

[1] McCullough, David (1992). Truman. New York: Simon

& Schuster.
[2] Michael Beschloss (2006). Our Documents: 100 Milestone
Documents From The National Archives. Oxford University Press. pp. 19499. ISBN 978-0-19-530959-1.
[3] Eric Foner, Give Me Liberty! An American History (2nd
ed. 2008) p 892
[4] Alan Bullock, Ernest Bevin: Foreign Secretary pp 3689;
Arnold Oner, Another Such Victory: President Truman
and the Cold War, 19452002 (2002) p 197; Denise M.
Bostdor, Proclaiming the Truman Doctrine (2008) p 51
[5] George McGhee, The U.S.-Turkish-NATO Middle East
Connection: How the Truman Doctrine and Turkeys
NATO Entry Contained the Soviets in the Middle East,
(1990)

[11] Freeland, Richard M. (1970). The Truman Doctrine and

the Origins of McCarthyism. Alfred A. Knopf, Inc. pp. g.
90.
[12] Spalding, Elizabeth Edwards (2006). The First Cold Warrior: Harry Truman, Containment, and the Remaking of
Liberal Internationalism. The University Press of Kentucky. p. 64.
[13] McGhee, George (1990). The US-Turkish-NATO Middle
East Connection: How the Truman Doctrine Contained the
Soviets in the Middle East. St. Harrys Press. pp. g. 21.
[14] Patterson, James T. (1996). Grand Expectations. New
York: Oxford University Press.
[15] Herring, George C. (2008). From Colony to Superpower:
U.S. Foreign Relations Since 1776. New York: Oxford
University Press. ISBN 9780195078220.
[16] Ivie 1999.

7 Bibliography
Beisner, Robert L. Dean Acheson: A Life in the Cold
War (2006)
Bostdor, Denise M. Proclaiming the Truman Doctrine: The Cold War Call to Arms (2008) excerpt and
text search
Bullock, Alan. Ernest Bevin: Foreign Secretary,
19451951 (1983) on British roles

5
Edwards, Lee. Congress and the Origins of the
Cold War: The Truman Doctrine, World Aairs,
Vol. 151, 1989 online edition
Frazier, Robert. Acheson and the Formulation
of the Truman Doctrine Journal of Modern Greek
Studies 1999 17(2): 229251. ISSN 0738-1727
Frazier, Robert. Kennan, 'Universalism,' and the
Truman Doctrine, Journal of Cold War Studies,
Spring 2009, Vol. 11 Issue 2, pp 334
Gaddis, John Lewis. Reconsiderations: Was the
Truman Doctrine a Real Turning Point?" Foreign
Aairs 1974 52(2): 386402. ISSN 0015-7120
Hinds, Lynn Boyd, and Theodore Otto Windt Jr.
The Cold War as Rhetoric: The Beginnings, 1945
1950 (1991) online edition
Iatrides, John O. and Nicholas X. Rizopoulos. The
International Dimension of the Greek Civil War.
World Policy Journal 2000 17(1): 87103. ISSN
0740-2775 Fulltext: in Ebsco
Ivie, Robert L. (1999). Fire, Flood, and Red Fever:
Motivating Metaphors of Global Emergency in the
Truman Doctrine Speech. Presidential Studies
Quarterly. 29 (3): 570591. doi:10.1111/j.02682141.2003.00050.x.
Jerey, Judith S. Ambiguous Commitments and Uncertain Policies: The Truman Doctrine in Greece,
19471952 (2000). 257 pp.
Jones, Howard. A New Kind of War": Americas
Global Strategy and the Truman Doctrine in Greece
(1989). 327 pp

Merrill, Dennis (2006).

The Truman Doctrine: Containing Communism and Modernity.
Presidential Studies Quarterly. 36 (1): 2737.
doi:10.1111/j.1741-5705.2006.00284.x.
Meiertns, Heiko: The Doctrines of US Security Policy An Evaluation under International Law (2010),
ISBN 978-0-521-76648-7.
Oner, Arnold A. "'Another Such Victory': President Truman, American Foreign Policy, and the
Cold War. Diplomatic History 1999 23(2): 127
155.ISSN 0145-2096
Pach Jr., Chester J. Arming the Free World: The
Origins of the United States Military Assistance Program, 19451950, (1991) online edition
Painter, David S. (2012). Oil and the American
Century (PDF). The Journal of American History.
99 (1): 2439. doi:10.1093/jahist/jas073.
Pieper, Moritz A. (2012). Containment and the
Cold War: Reexaming the Doctrine of Containment
as a Grand Strategy Driving US Cold War Interventions. StudentPulse.com. Retrieved 22 August
2012.
Spalding, Elizabeth Edwards. The First Cold Warrior: Harry Truman, Containment, And the Remaking of Liberal Internationalism (2006)

8 External links
Truman Comments on Greek Politicking, 1947
Shapell Manuscript Foundation

Kayaolu, Barn. Strategic imperatives, Democratic rhetoric: The United States and Turkey,
194552., Cold War History, Aug 2009, Vol. 9(3).
pp. 321345

Truman Library website with papers related to the

Truman Doctrine

Kolko, Joyce; Kolko, Gabriel (1972). The Limits of

Power: The World and United States Foreign Policy,
19451954. New York, NY: Harper & Row. ISBN
978-0-06-012447-2.

Full text and audio of the speech

Leer, Melvyn P. Strategy, Diplomacy, and the

Cold War: the United States, Turkey, and NATO,
19451952 Journal of American History 1985
71(4): 807825. ISSN 0021-8723 in JSTOR
Lykogiannis, Athanasios. Britain and the Greek Economic Crisis, 19441947: From Liberation to the
Truman Doctrine. U. of Missouri Press, 2002. 287
pp. online edition
McGhee, George. The U.S.-Turkish-NATO Middle East Connection: How the Truman Doctrine and
Turkeys NATO Entry Contained the Soviets in the
Middle East. (1990). 224 pp.

Full text of the speech

Cartoon on display at the LoC

9 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

9.1

Text

Truman Doctrine Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truman_Doctrine?oldid=732815857 Contributors: Kpjas, Mav, William Avery,

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