Creatividad para Profesionales

Este artculo consiste en una introduccin a los conceptos modernos e interdisciplinares relacionados con la creatividad y
los procesos creativos. Las cuestiones tratadas tienen especial relevancia para profesionales de todo tipo en tanto que
"solucionadores de problemas". Se describen varios enfoques y herramientas creativas de utilidad. Por ltimo se ofrecen
recomendaciones prcticas para realzar y aplicar el trabajo creativo en la solucin de problemas.
Ren Victor Valqui Vidal Informatics and Mathematical Modelling Technical University of Denmark DK-2800 Lyngby
vvv@imm.dtu.dk <mailto:vvv@imm.dtu.dk> www.imm.dtu.dk/~vvv <http://www2.imm.dtu.dk/~vvv/>1. Por qu los
profesionales deberan aprender cuestiones relativas a la creatividad?
Los pases industrializados han sufrido cambios radicales en diferentes reas durante las ltimas dcadas. Las nuevas
tecnologas de la informacin, la comunicacin y la biologa estn configurando de un modo distinto las bases materiales y
humanas de la Sociedad, ofreciendo nuevas oportunidades de desarrollo a la vez que crean nuevos problemas:
contaminacin, agotamiento de recursos naturales, deterioro de la naturaleza y de los seres humanos, etc. Durante aos,
polticos, directivos empresariales, expertos y miembros de Organizaciones No Gubernamentales (ONGs) han subrayado la
crucial importancia de la creatividad y de la innovacin de cara a aprovechar las nuevas oportunidades y resolver los
muchos y graves problemas que el mundo -tanto el Norte como el Sur- est afrontando hoy en da.
El desarrollo mencionado significa que los profesionales (ingenieros, arquitectos, diseadores de sistemas, consultores,
directivos, etc.), en tanto que solucionadores de problemas, tienen que afrontar nuevas demandas, resumidas en la solucin
creativa de problemas en colaboracin con un grupo de actores, participantes y usuarios. Esto significa que los
profesionales han de ser capaces de redefinir las habilidades necesarias para realizar determinada tarea, as como de
acceder a los recursos necesarios para el aprendizaje (aprender a aprender). La cualificacin principal a este respecto es la
habilidad para facilitar procesos de cambio de una forma creativa, implicando activamente a los participantes y siendo
capaz de relacionar la situacin problemtica con un contexto dinmico generado por diferentes entornos. La esencia
reside en la habilidad para alternar entre modos rutinarios, reflexin y creatividad en interaccin con todos los agentes
vinculados con el problema, en lugar de quedar "encerrado" en uno de esos modos. El enfoque tradicional de la resolucin
de problemas como un proceso altamente racional y programado es simple y ntido, pero resulta insuficiente si el problema
en cuestin es nuevo y constituye parte de un sistema y conjunto de relaciones superiores que tambin est sujeto al
cambio. Por tanto, los mtodos creativos son necesarios para resolver problemas en la prctica.
Adems, aquellos profesionales que trabajan creativamente y facilitan procesos creativos experimentan un contacto
continuo con el placer de la creacin. Su trabajo en ocasiones llega a convertirse en una actividad artstica, lo que
contribuye a gozar de una vida plena y satisfactoria. El pensamiento creativo tambin puede llegar a ser un estilo de vida,
una orientacin de la personalidad, un modo de ver el mundo, una forma de interactuar con los dems, una manera de
trabajar en equipo, una forma de vivir y desarrollarse. Vivir creativamente significa desarrollar tu talento, expresando tus
virtudes, y llegando a ser lo que eres capaz de ser mediante la interaccin con otras personas, el auto-descubrimiento y la
auto-disciplina.
En principio, existen dos maneras de escapar de nuestras ms o menos automatizadas rutinas vitales, intelectuales y
conductistas. La primera es la inmersin en la ensoacin, o en estados mentales similares a ella, donde las reglas del
pensamiento racional estn en suspenso. La otra es tambin una huda -del aburrimiento, del estancamiento, de los apuros
intelectuales y de las frustraciones emocionales- pero en la direccin opuesta, es la revelacin espontnea que muestra un
evento o situacin familiar bajo una nueva perspectiva. El proceso creativo permite al ser humano alcanzar un nivel
superior de evolucin mental. La creatividad es un acto de liberacin: la derrota del hbito mediante la originalidad.
2. Qu es la creatividad?
Todos los individuos son creativos; la creatividad puede ser potenciada o bloqueada de muchas maneras. Nuestro
planteamiento de la creatividad es incremental, opuesto al de aquellos que consideran que la creatividad de una persona
queda determinada a una edad temprana. Sin embargo, la investigacin ha mostrado que la creatividad no se desarrolla
linealmente, y que es posible aplicar actividades, mtodos didcticos, motivacin y procedimientos para incrementarla,
incluso a una edad avanzada. La creatividad es un fenmeno infinito, es posible ser creativo de un sin fin de maneras.
Podemos caracterizar al menos tres tipos de personas creativas. En primer lugar, el solucionador de problemas: la persona
(sujeto) intenta resolver un problema (objeto) de una forma creativa, que es la tipologa correspondiente a los
solucionadores profesionales de problemas. En segundo trmino, el artista (sujeto) que crea una nueva obra de arte
(objeto), habitualmente mediante una estrecha interaccin entre ambos (el alma del artista estar presente en la obra). El
objeto puede ser un producto (cuadro, obra musical, pelcula) o un proceso (danza, teatro, performance). Y, en tercer lugar,
nos encontramos con las personas que adoptan la creatividad como estilo de vida, siendo creativos en el trabajo, en el
hogar y en cualquier parte, tanto en sentido extrovertido como introvertido (inventores, ciertos artistas, diseadores de
moda, etc.).
La creatividad en un individuo tiene tres componentes: experiencia, habilidades de pensamiento creativo y motivacin. La
experiencia es, en pocas palabras, conocimiento en alguna de sus formas: tcnico, procesal e intelectual. El conocimiento
puede adquirirse tanto terica como prcticamente. Aprender a aprender es una importante herramienta para convertirse
en experto en la sociedad moderna. Las habilidades vinculadas con el pensamiento creativo determinan el grado de
flexibilidad e imaginacin con el cual la persona aborda problemas y tareas. Ser creativo requiere valor porque implica
poner en cuestin el status quo. Las personas pueden aprender a ser ms creativas y pueden aprender a utilizar diversas

herramientas creativas para resolver problemas. La motivacin es el ltimo de los componentes citados. Una pasin y un
deseo internos para resolver el problema en cuestin producirn soluciones mucho ms creativas que si se ofrecieran
recompensas externas, tales como el dinero. Este componente, habitualmente denominado motivacin intrnseca, es uno de
los que pueden recibir inmediatamente la influencia del entorno de trabajo. La creatividad individual es ahogada mucho
ms frecuentemente que impulsada. En la mayor parte de los casos, no se trata de que la direccin lleve a cabo una
vendetta contra la creatividad, sino que es coartada poco a poco sin tener la intencin de hacerlo debido a los imperativos
de la optimizacin de los negocios a corto plazo: coordinacin, productividad, eficiencia y control.
Resulta difcil ofrecer una definicin general y simple de creatividad. Limitaremos nuestro estudio de la creatividad a lo
relacionado con las tareas de solucin de problemas. Creatividad es la habilidad para cuestionar asunciones, romper
lmites, reconocer patrones, ver de otro modo, realizar nuevas conexiones, asumir riesgos y tentar la suerte cuando se
aborda un problema. En otras palabras, lo que haces es creativo si es nuevo, diferente y til. Adems, es importante
subrayar que el proceso creativo es heurstico en lugar de algortmico. Una heurstica es una gua de accin o regla
operativa de carcter intuitivo que permite aprender o descubrir, y que resulta del todo diferente a un algoritmo, que es una
regla completa de ndole racional y mecnica creada para resolver un problema. En suma, la creatividad es un proceso
intuitivo de descubrimiento que en ocasiones conduce a un producto, un proceso, una idea o, simplemente, una nueva
experiencia.
3. Barreras a la creatividad
Para ser creativo, debes estar abierto a todas las alternativas. Este nivel de apertura mental no siempre es posible puesto
que todos los humanos elaboramos bloqueos mentales en el proceso de maduracin y socializacin. Algunos de estos
bloqueos tienen orgenes externos, tales como el entorno familiar, el sistema educativo o la burocracia organizativa. Otros
esquemas se generan internamente a travs bloqueos nuestras reacciones a factores externos o mediante factores fsicos.
Una cuestin clave a la hora de mejorar tu creatividad es ser conscientes de nuestros bloqueos y tratarlos de algn modo.
An cuando todas las personas tenemos bloqueos respecto a la creatividad, dichos bloqueos varan en cantidad e intensidad
de una persona a otra. La mayor parte de nosotros no somos conscientes de nuestros bloqueos conceptuales. Estar alertas al
respecto no slo nos permite conocer mejor nuestras fortalezas y debilidades, sino que tambin nos proporciona la
motivacin y el conocimiento necesarios para romper tales bloqueos. Los bloqueos mentales han sido clasificados en
perceptivos, emocionales, culturales, ambientales e intelectuales.
Los bloqueos perceptivos son obstculos que restringen nuestra capacidad para percibir el problema en s mismo, o la
informacin necesaria para abordarle. Como es bien sabido, nuestros ojos pueden inducirnos a error cuando observamos
ciertas figuras. Nuestras percepciones no siempre son precisas.
Los bloqueos emocionales limitan nuestra libertad para investigar y manipular ideas. Afectan a la comunicacin de
nuestras ideas a otras personas. Estos bloqueos tambin se denominan barreras psicolgicas y son los ms significativos y
persistentes entre los obstculos a la innovacin. El temor a la novedad es una caracterstica comn a muchos individuos
en los pases desarrollados.
Los bloqueos culturales se configuran a partir de la exposicin a ciertos patrones culturales. La cultura de las naciones
industrializadas expulsa el sentido del juego, la fantasa y la reflexin sobre uno mismo sustituyndolos por el valor de la
eficiencia, la eficacia y el hacer dinero. Tabs y mitos son los bloqueos predominantes del comportamiento creativo. Por
tanto, hay que ser muy valientes para actuar creativamente en una cultura que no promueve los cambios creativos.
Nuestro entorno fsico y social inmediato produce bloqueos ambientales. Las personas creativas tuvieron, en general, una
infancia en la que fueron libres para desarrollar sus propias potencialidades. Como sabemos, el clima organizativo puede
ser una barrera o un estmulo para las actividades creativas.
Los bloqueos intelectuales son producto del conservadurismo y la falta de disposicin para utilizar enfoques nuevos. Los
mismos enfoques, las mismas herramientas y las mismas personas se enfrentan a los mismos problemas durante aos. Las
personas con bloqueos intelectuales generalmente son muy reacias a los cambios y estn bien predispuestas para criticar
las nuevas propuestas.
4. Habilidades creativas y herramientas de apoyo
Hemos revisado una serie de habilidades que caracterizan a los individuos o grupos creativos. Revisaremos en esta seccin
cuatro de las habilidades crticas, as como varias herramientas para potenciarlas en situaciones especficas de solucin de
problemas. Tales habilidades son fluidez, flexibilidad, originalidad y elaboracin.. En este artculo presentamos algunas
herramientas, precisamente aquellas ms conocidas. El lector puede consultar otras herramientas en las pginas
electrnicas citadas al final del texto.
Fluidez es la produccin de mltiples problemas, ideas, alternativas o soluciones. Se demuestra que cuantas ms ideas
producimos, ms probable resulta encontrar una idea o solucin til. La fluidez es una habilidad particularmente
importante en el proceso creativo de solucin de problemas. Disponer de muy pocas alternativas no es bueno en la solucin
de problemas. Existen mltiples instrumentos para producir ideas, alternativas y soluciones. Varios investigadores han
puesto de relieve que el entrenamiento y la prctica con dichos instrumentos incrementan la fluidez.
Una herramienta creativa, que ha sido utilizada ampliamente y con gran xito para generar ideas, es el brainstorming o
"tormenta de ideas". Fue creada con el nico fin de producir listas de ideas a verificar en la solucin a un problema. La
herramienta pretende la generacin de ideas no convencionales mediante la supresin del procedimiento habitual de

criticarlas o rechazarlas someramente. En una sesin de brainstorming no se admite ninguna crtica, y se promueve
enfticamente la libre generacin de un gran nmero de ideas y de combinaciones de las mismas. El brainstorming parte
de la premisa asociativa segn la cual cuanto ms grande es el nmero de asociaciones, menos estereotipadas y ms
creativas son las ideas ofrecidas para resolver el problema.
Sin embargo, ninguna caracterstica del brainstorming se orienta hacia la modificacin de las asunciones o premisas que
restringen la generacin de nuevas ideas. Es una tcnica excelente para reforzar la fluidez, la fantasa y las habilidades
comunicativas. Resulta positivo contar con un "facilitador" que prepare y dinamice la sesin de brainstorming,
dirigindola y ofreciendo la ayuda que sea necesaria, para finalmente evaluar el proceso en su integridad. Esta tcnica
brinda la oportunidad de utilizar ms de un cerebro en el grupo para alcanzar un efecto sinrgico. Genera muchas ideas, y
algunas de ellas sern realmente tiles, innovadoras y factibles. Al pedir a los individuos participantes su s ideas, se
refuerza su sentimiento de importancia y se crea un clima idneo para que emerjan ideas realmente creativas e
imaginativas. El brainstorming ha sido empleado para resolver multitud de problemas, entre ellos aspectos relativos no
slo a la produccin y a la comercializacin, sino tambin al desarrollo de estrategias, la planificacin, las polticas, la
organizacin, el liderazgo, la creacin de equipos, la motivacin, el control y la comunicacin. Sin embargo, esta
herramienta no es apropiada para abordar problemas amplios y complejos que exigen una experiencia y un "saber hacer"
muy aquilatados. Algunas de las ideas generadas pueden ser de baja calidad o generalizaciones obvias. El brainstorming
no es una buena alternativa en situaciones que requieren un procedimiento de prueba y error en lugar de un juicio
personal.
La flexibilidad es la habilidad para procesar ideas u objetos de muy diversas formas a partir de un estmulo nico. Es la
habilidad para eliminar las viejas formas de pensar y para explorar lneas diferentes. Es adaptativa cuando se orienta hacia
la solucin de un problema, reto o dilema especfico. La flexibilidad es particularmente relevante cuando los mtodos
lgicos fracasan a la hora de ofrecer resultados satisfactorios. Contemplar la pintura moderna exige flexibilidad, puesto
que tales obras requieren observarlas desde diversas perspectivas para ver diferentes objetos, imgenes y smbolos. Ver
personas u objetos en las nubes exige la flexibilidad de ver configuraciones especficas en las formaciones de nubes. El
pensamiento flexible proporciona un cambio en las ideas, induce seguir nuevos caminos para el pensamiento que pueden
llevarle incluso a la contradiccin, facilita puntos de vista, planes y enfoques diferentes, as como variadas perspectivas de
una situacin.
La familia de herramientas para la creatividad conocidas como "listas verbales de comprobacin" ha sido elaborada para
reforzar la flexibilidad en el proceso creativo. Normalmente, consiste en una lista de comprobacin de asuntos referidos a
un producto, servicio o proceso existente, o cualquier otra cuestin que pueda arrojar nuevos puntos de vista y, por tanto,
inducir la innovacin. La idea subyacente es que un producto o servicio existente puede ser mejorado si uno le aplica una
batera de preguntas y se esfuerza por ver adnde le lleva esa pesquisa. Las cuestiones fundamentales adoptan la forma de
infinitivos tales como "modificar o combinar?" Estos tiempos verbales apuntan hacia posibles formas de mejorar un
producto o servicio existente introduciendo modificaciones. Despus al infinitivo se le aaden sustantivos que dan lugar a
preguntas tales como las siguientes: "combinar ideas?", "combinar demandas?", "combinar propsitos?", "combinar
unidades?", etc.
Otra importante herramienta para promover la flexibilidad es el uso de preguntas provocadoras. Tales preguntas amplan y
profundizan la situacin llevndola hacia una direccin de pensamiento que de otro modo no hubiera surgido. Animan a
las personas a pensar sobre ideas o conceptos que no se haban planteado previamente. Algunas preguntas provocativas
podran ser las siguientes: "Qu ocurrira si el agua supiera a whisky?" "y si los gatos se utilizaran para rascar?", "las
mujeres podran volar?", "un ordenador personal es como un barco?", "una flor como un gato?" "una puesta de sol es
como un lago?", "un coche es como un tenedor?", "qu ocurrira si nunca llegara el domingo?" "es contrario a la ley ser
perfeccionista?", "la gente no es creativa?", "imagina que ocurrira si fuera contrario a la ley tener hijos", "los coches
podran volar?", "los hombres podran tener hijos?".
Originalidad significa apartarse de lo obvio, de los lugares comunes, o bien romper la rutina mediante el pensamiento. Las
ideas originales son estadsticamente infrecuentes. La originalidad es el vigor creativo, que consiste en dar un salto desde
lo obvio. Las ideas originales normalmente son descritas como nicas, sorprendentes, salvajes, inusuales,
anticonvencionales, nuevas, misteriosas o revolucionarias. Se necesita coraje para ser creativo, porque, tan pronto como
propongas una nueva idea, te conviertes en una "minora compuesta por una sola persona". Pertenecer a una minora no
resulta cmodo. Adems, el pensador original debe ser capaz de afrontar el ridculo y el escepticismo, que recibirn sus
ideas y su misma persona. Fomentar la creatividad requiere ser respetuosos con las ideas o alternativa inusuales o
extraas.
La "Estimulacin de Imgenes" es una tcnica muy conocida que se emplea para generar ideas ms all de las que podran
ser obtenidas utilizando el brainstorming. Los miembros del grupo observarn un conjunto de imgenes seleccionadas al
efecto y relacionarn la informacin recogida de la imagen con el problema a resolver, que tambin podra abordarse
mediante el brainstorming. La "Excursin fotogrfica" utiliza los mismos principios de la estimulacin mediante
imgenes, pero, en lugar de emplear imgenes seleccionadas para la estimulacin, se pide a los participantes que den un
paseo por las cercanas del edificio en el que se desarrolla el ejercicio con una cmara fotogrfica (Polaroid o digital) y que
tomen fotografas de posibles soluciones o de ideas visuales referidas al problema; cuando el grupo se rene de nuevo, las
ideas son compartidas. Otra tcnica vinculada es la "Estimulacin mediante Objetos", en la cual se utilizan, en lugar de

fotografas, diversos objetos (por ejemplo, un martillo, un lapicero, un juego de mesa, etc.). A veces pueden emplearse
palabras en vez de fotografas u objetos para asociarlas al problema que debe resolverse.
Existen diferentes programas de ordenador que pueden emplearse para generar alternativas de modo que aadan
creatividad al proceso de solucin de problemas. Ofrecern multitud de palabras o de frases con variados pares "ideaasociaciones" que se relacionan con varios miles de preguntas. Las palabras, frases o preguntas, seleccionadas
aleatoriamente, provocarn ideas y asociaciones que han de vincularse con el problema en cuestin.
La originalidad tambin puede fomentarse mediante analogas y metforas. Una analoga es una comparacin de dos cosas
que son esencialmente diferentes, pero que a travs de la analoga muestran alguna similitud. Una metfora es una figura
retrica en la cual dos universos de pensamiento diferentes son relacionados mediante algn punto de similitud. En el ms
amplio sentido del trmino, todas las metforas son simples analogas, pero no todas las analogas son metforas. La
naturaleza es una buena fuente de analogas. La poesa es una buena fuente de metforas. Smiles son un tipo especial de
metforas en el cual aparecen las palabras "como" y "tan", por ejemplo, el viento corta como un cuchillo, su mano era tan
rpida como la lengua de una rana, tena una vista de cndor y excava tan rpido como un topo. Los smiles pueden
emplearse para sugerir comparaciones que faciliten soluciones.
La elaboracin consiste en estructurar y encontrar sendas en un proceso convergente realizado tras un proceso divergente.
La "Cartografa Mental" es una herramienta visual y verbal empleada habitualmente para estructurar situaciones
complejas de una forma radial y expansiva durante el proceso de solucin creativa de problemas. Un mapa mental es por
definicin un patrn creativo para relacionar ideas, pensamientos, procesos, objetos, etc. Resulta complicado identificar el
origen y al creador de esta tcnica. Es bastante probable que esta tcnica est inspirada en la investigacin sobre la
interaccin entre los hemisferios izquierdo y derecho del cerebro. Los principios utilizados para construir mapas mentales
son pocos y fciles de comprender. La mejor manera de aprender es mediante la prctica. Tras un breve lapso de tiempo se
puede hacer automticamente. Si resulta difcil para los adultos es debido a que piensan linealmente y toman notas de una
forma lineal (utilizando el hemisferio izquierdo del cerebro). Para elaborar un mapa mental se deben reflejar ideas en el
centro de la hoja de papel y moverse de forma radial y paralela, para utilizar tanto la parte creativa como la lgica del
cerebro. Con alguna prctica, la persona puede desarrollar su propio estilo, su propia paleta de colores, sus propios
smbolos, sus propios iconos, etc.
Un mapa mental incluye habitualmente los siguientes elementos:
El sujeto o el problema que debe ser estudiado o analizado se situar en el centro del papel.
Palabras clave (sustantivos o verbos) que sern empleadas para representar ideas, utilizando slo -si es posible- una sola
palabra por lnea.
Las palabras clave se conectan con el centro mediante una rama principal y diversas ramas secundarias.
Para enfatizar ideas o estimular al cerebro para identificar nuevas relaciones se utilizan colores y smbolos diversos.
Hay que permitir que las ideas y los pensamientos fluyan libremente, evitando una evaluacin cuidadosa durante el periodo
de elaboracin del mapa.
5. El enfoque de la Solucin Creativa de Problemas (SCP)
Las situaciones caracterizadas por problemas complejos e intrincados requieren una combinacin de enfoques racionales y
creativos. El enfoque SCP proporciona un marco para afrontar problemas intrincados.
Los cinco pasos del enfoque SCP son los siguientes:
Localizacin de los hechos: hay que observar cuidadosa y objetivamente, como una cmara fotogrfica, la informacin
sobre la situacin problemtica. Es preciso explorar e identificar los hechos principales de la situacin. Accin: Quin?,
Qu?, Dnde?, Cundo?, Por qu?, Cmo (es y no es)?
Localizacin del problema: clarificar el reto o la situacin problemtica considerando distintas formas de percibir y
reflejarla en las siguientes opciones. Accin: De qu maneras podramos...?, Cmo podemos hacer...?
Localizacin de ideas: buscar ideas, alternativas, opciones, senderos, caminos y enfoque ms diversos, utilizar diversos
mtodos y tcnicas (pensamiento divergente).
Localizacin de soluciones: examinar las ideas de formas nuevas y diferentes, utilizando otros puntos de vista y criterios;
ser consciente de las consecuencias, implicaciones y reacciones hacia una idea o solucin tentativa. Seleccionar o
combinar ideas para crear un plan de accin (pensamiento convergente). Accin: Efectos sobre quin?, Efectos sobre
qu?, Cmo mejorar?
Localizacin de aceptaciones: desarrollar un plan de accin, teniendo en cuenta a todas las audiencias que deben aceptarlo.
Buscar modos de hacer que la idea o solucin sea ms practicable, aceptable, reforzada, efectiva y beneficiosa. Accin:
Qu objeciones presentarn los diferentes grupos hacia esta idea o plan? Cmo puede ser llevado a la prctica este plan?
Quin lo har?
La experiencia ha mostrado que en un proceso SCP resulta recomendable comenzar cada paso con el pensamiento
divergente para producir tantas ideas o soluciones como sea posible y despus cambiar el planteamiento hacia el
pensamiento convergente para seleccionar aquellas ideas ms prometedoras. No resulta extrao que en un grupo algunos
de sus miembros diverjan fcilmente, esto es, que construyan una lista de alternativas, mientras que otros convergen con
gran rapidez intentando seleccionar la mejor solucin de la lista; el resto de los integrantes del grupo sern miembros
pasivos que no son conscientes de lo que se espera de ellos. De aqu la necesidad de un facilitador, que ser la persona que
disea un proceso claro y visible para alinear al grupo. El facilitador constituye el soporte del proceso, elaborar un plan

con una serie de pasos a seguir, organizar la puesta en comn, y gestionar el proceso global de solucin del problema
asegurando que un plan de accin ser elaborado e implantado. Muchas profesiones de raz prctica demandan personas
con habilidades adecuadas para facilitar la solucin de problemas en grupo.
6. Estilos de creatividad
Las personas muestran diferentes grados de creatividad a lo largo de su vida. Normalmente, nos ajustamos a un patrn o
estilo de pensamiento creativo. Del mismo modo que es importante entender nuestros bloqueos con respecto a la
creatividad, es relevante comprender nuestro propio estilo de creatividad. Cada uno de nosotros tiene una personalidad
diferente, y, aunque todos tenemos capacidad para ser creativos, las diferencias y preferencias personales hacen que
abordemos y resolvamos un problema creativo de manera distinta. Esta es una cuestin crucial cuando estamos trabajando
con grupos, porque cada persona puede hacer una contribucin dado su perfil nico. Los grupos creativos resultan muy
efectivos cuando combinan diferentes estilos de creatividad de modo que estimulen nuestro pensamiento en diversas
direcciones y que nos obliguen a replantearnos nuestros enfoques habituales.
El estilo creativo de una persona parte del modo en el cual utiliza la informacin para estimular su creatividad. Cada estilo
creativo prefiere un mtodo distinto para generar y evaluar ideas. La investigacin ha mostrado que las preferencias sobre
el estilo pueden ser clasificadas en cuatro categoras:
El estilo transformador suele preguntarse: cmo podemos mejorar lo que se hizo antes? Estas personas estn ms
cmodas cuando trabajan con hechos y han de tomar decisiones. Buscan soluciones empleando mtodos que han dado
resultado anteriormente. Son precisas, fiables, eficientes y disciplinadas.
El estilo visionario suele preguntarse: cmo podemos imaginar de forma realista la solucin ideal a largo plazo? Estas
personas confan en su intuicin y disfrutan tomando decisiones. Buscan soluciones enfocadas hacia la maximizacin del
potencial. Son persistentes, determinadas, orientadas hacia el trabajo intenso, y son visionarias.
El estilo experimental suele preguntarse: Qu ideas podemos combinar y probar? Estas personas enfatizan la acumulacin
de informacin y la localizacin de hechos. Buscan soluciones aplicando procesos preestablecidos mediante el
procedimiento de prueba y error. Son curiosas, prcticas, y valiosas integrantes de equipos.
El estilo explorador suele preguntarse: Qu metforas podemos utilizar para poner en cuestin nuestras premisas? A estas
personas les gusta utilizar sus percepciones como gua. Recogen grandes cantidades de informacin esperando que les
ayude a enfocar los problemas desde diferentes ngulos. Son aventureros, les disgusta la rutina, y les gustan los retos.
7. Usos de la creatividad
Hemos visto que las herramientas creativas y el proceso SCP pueden emplearse conjuntamente con la solucin de
problemas en grupo de modo general, y, ms especficamente, en relacin con el diseo de un proyecto. Revisaremos a
continuacin otras aplicaciones.
Los Estudios de prospectiva constituyen un rea estrechamente relacionada con el desarrollo estratgico y anlisis de
escenarios. Consiste en el examen de alternativas futuras y de sus posibles resultados antes de ser llevadas a la prctica.
Analizar el futuro incita a las personas a pensar ms creativamente sobre las posibilidades futuras y sobre el impacto de las
acciones presentes sobre el futuro. Los estudios de prospectiva tienen cuatro caractersticas esenciales:
Son una oportunidad para pensar creativamente y para expresarse creativamente.
Agrupan actividades y estudios interdisciplinarios.
Incluyen un gran volumen de trabajos prcticos realizados en equipo.
Abordan asuntos futuros de amplio inters y aplicacin.
Combinan herramientas creativas utilizadas con enfoques tanto duros como blandos.
La inventiva, el diseo y la innovacin constituyen otra interesante rea. Engloba estudios interdisciplinarios y la
exploracin de la ciencia y de la ingeniera con un propsito determinado. Los aprendices necesitan oportunidades para
ver aplicaciones concretas de los principios cientficos, que obtienen estudiando y experimentando el proceso inventor. Las
invenciones constituyen una parte tan significativa de nuestras vidas que resulta difcil imaginar cualquier materia
enseada en la escuela que no tenga relacin directa con los grandes temas de la inventiva, los inventos, la innovacin y
los inventores. El proceso inventivo tiene un elevado grado de creatividad, dependiendo del estilo de creatividad del
participante. Obtener la idea inicial es generar el chispazo inicial de un motor, desencadena una serie de reacciones y una
secuencia de eventos. Una vez que la idea ha sido comunicada, llega el momento de realizar un ejercicio de brainstorming
sobre ella. Despus se desarrolla un prototipo. Posteriormente se lleva a cabo una cuidadosa evaluacin de los costes, la
factibilidad, su posible aceptacin en el mercado, el tiempo, otros recursos necesarios, etc., de modo que pueda decidirse si
debe continuarse o no con la idea. En caso afirmativo, debe redactarse un plan de accin.
La solucin de conflictos es otra rea donde las herramientas de creatividad y el modelo SCP podran ser utilizados. El
conflicto es considerado como un problema comn que los participantes han de solventar. Las herramientas y mtodos
sern utilizados como apoyo para superar las dificultades que aparecern. Obviamente, todos los participantes han de tener
como meta el contribuir constructivamente al desarrollo de alternativas para solucionar el conflicto. Este proceso requiere
el apoyo de un facilitador experto.
8. Creatividad cotidiana

La creatividad cotidiana es una actividad que puede realizarse en el trabajo, en los centros educativos, en el hogar, etc. El
propsito consiste en centrarse en aquellos problemas pequeos o grandes que provocan irritacin y que consumen tiempo
y recursos durante el da, todos los das. Normalmente, nadie es responsable directo de los mismos. Es recomendable
realizar un seminario creativo de un da de duracin para afrontar todos estos problemas.
Existen diferentes actitudes, tcnicas sencillas y modos de vida que permiten mantener despiertas, y desarrollar nuestras
potencialidades creativas. La creatividad cotidiana en diversas situaciones es una actitud y un modo de vida muy
importantes que con toda seguridad tambin realzarn su creatividad en el trabajo. Revisemos algunas recomendaciones
que pueden ser tiles para personas individuales y para grupos.
Romper con las rutinas. Intentar romper algunas de ellas, hacer cosas que no habas hecho antes. Por la maana, en el
trabajo, en la tarde, podras comenzar con pequeas cosas. Ve a la biblioteca y estudia libros sobre materias de las que no
hayas odo hablar previamente. Lee sobre la vida de personas extraordinariamente creativas: Leonardo, Einstein, Picasso,
etc. Haz experimentos, por ejemplo, mientras cocinas. Si no cocinas, comienza a hacerlo puesto que cocinar puede
convertirse en una actividad altamente creativa. Las personas prximas a ti seguramente opinarn sobre la calidad de tus
platos creativos.
Crear circunstancias inspiradoras. Cualquier cosa puede potencialmente ser utilizada como fuente de inspiracin, en tanto
en cuanto seamos lo bastante abiertos como para ver conexiones o relaciones con nuestra propia situacin. Palabras,
cuadros, libros, pelculas, personas, etc., pueden estimular la habilidad de nuestro cerebro para producir analogas. La
msica, las obras de arte y las performances son habitualmente poderosas fuentes de inspiracin. Algunas personas
encuentran la inspiracin dando un paseo por el bosque o por la playa para encontrar alguna analoga que facilite la
solucin de un problema. Algunos ejemplos son el "Velcro" o las patatas fritas. La inspiracin es un factor crtico para
crear metforas. Estudiando poesa puedes ver cmo la inspiracin es una va para crear metforas.
Tener simultneamente una mente abierta y cerrada. Una mentalidad abierta significa ser capaz de considerar nuevas
ideas, de divergir, de expandir, de volar, y de tener visin de conjunto. Una mentalidad cerrada significa ser capaz de
considerar una idea aislada, de converger, de enfocar, de excavar y ver los detalles. Una persona creativa es capaz de volar,
de obtener una visin general y excavar para descubrir las races. Es una criatura mtica, mitad cndor y mitad topo, con
un cerebro grande y equilibrado que salta del vuelo a la excavacin.
Busca informacin y conocimiento. Hoy en da Internet te da acceso a una enorme cantidad de informacin y conocimiento
que puede ser relevante para tu problema o para el asunto que estas tratando, pero debes ser crtico con la calidad de la
informacin obtenida y con la fuente de la misma. Esto es importante porque no debes comenzar desde cero o redescubrir
la rueda antes de disear un nuevo vehculo. Debes ser creativo en la bsqueda de informacin y conocimiento, empleando
las palabras clave adecuadas, y facilitando que la serendipia (o hallazgo) tenga un papel central. La serendipia es la
facultad de descubrir cosas valiosas o adecuadas por azar, lo que requiere estar bien preparado para ver la idea o pista
iluminadora.
Y, por ltimo, utiliza tu fantasa y visualiza una situacin y, despus, intenta simular cmo tal situacin se desarrolla. Las
personas creativas suelen ser pensadores visuales. Reljate, pon alguna msica relajante y suea despierto sobre una
situacin o un problema. Deja de trabajar si no eres capaz de encontrar una clave para una situacin o para un problema,
haz otra cosa o vete a dormir. Puedes incubar en tus sueos una iluminacin que surgir cuando despiertes. Estate al tanto
del trabajo de artistas, inventores, diseadores, compositores y otras personas creativas y aprende algo sobre los trucos y
tcnicas que utilizan cuando generan ideas.
9. Conclusiones
Hemos mostrado la importancia y la relevancia de los enfoques creativos para la mayor parte de las situaciones de solucin
de problemas. La creatividad es un campo multidisciplinario con mltiples aplicaciones prcticas a la ciencia, la
ingeniera, las ciencias humanas y sociales, los negocios, la direccin empresarial, los problemas cotidianos, etc. Tambin
hemos visto cmo la creatividad puede ser reforzada mediante la prctica. El pensamiento creativo debera complementar
el pensamiento racional en la solucin de problemas en la vida real. El arte de solucionar problemas consiste en la
habilidad de afrontar tales problemas mediante estas formas complementarias de pensamiento. Las monografas y los
artculos sobre creatividad han crecido exponencialmente durante los ltimos aos; la referencia bibliogrfica recogida a
continuacin contiene una muy completa revisin de dicha literatura.
Bibliografa
Vidal, R.V.V. (2004) Creativity and Problem Solving, Economic Analysis Working Papers, Volume 3, number 14, pp.24.
Puede obtenerse en:
eawp.economistascoruna.org/archives/Vol3n14/index.asp
<http://eawp.economistascoruna.org/archives/Vol3n14/index.asp>
Diversas herramientas creativas pueden encontrarse en las siguientes pginas electrnicas:
members.ozemail.com.au/~caveman/creativity/index_htm/
<http://members.ozemail.com.au/~caveman/creativity/index_htm/>
www.thinksmart.com/ <http://www.thinksmart.com/>
www.creax.com/creaxnet/creax_net.php/ <http://www.creax.com/creaxnet/creax_net.php/>
www.creative-portal.com <http://www.creative-portal.com>
Creativity and problem Solving

Ren Victor Valqui Vidal

Technical University of Denmark
Referencia: Ren Victor Valqui Vidal (2004, Sep. 21: Creativity and Problem Solving.) EAWP3(14). Retrieved from:
http://eawp.economistascoruna.org/archives/vol3n14
Resumen Este artculo presenta algunos conceptos modernos e interdisciplinares sobre la creatividad y los procesos
creativos, de especial relevancia para los que trabajan en Investigacin Operativa. Haremos un breve repaso de las
principales publicaciones realizadas en el rea de Investigacin en Creatividad Operativa. Asimismo, analizaremos
algunas herramientas creativas y el enfoque de Resolucin Creativa de Problemas. Finalmente, delimitaremos posibles
aplicaciones derivadas de estos conceptos y herramientas y proporcionaremos algunas referencias importantes para
profundizar en el estudio de los temas relacionados con la creatividad y las herramientas creativas. Abstract This paper
presents some modern and interdisciplinary concepts about creativity and creative processes of special relevance for
Operational Research workers. Central publications in the area Creativity-Operational Research are shortly reviewed.
Some creative tools and the Creative Problem Solving approach are also discussed. Finally, some applications of these
concepts and tools are outlined. Some central references are presented for further study of themes related to creativity or
creative tools.
1.- Introduction
During the last decades the industrialised countries have experienced radical changes in many areas. New information,
communication and biological technologies are reshaping the material, human and social basis of Society, giving new
opportunities for development and at the same time creating new problems: pollution, depletion of resources, deterioration
of the material world, deterioration of human beings, etc. For several years politicians, business people, experts, and
NGO's have been emphasising the crucial need of creativity and innovation to be able to utilise the new opportunities and
to solve the many serious problems that the World is facing today, both in North and South.
This development means that problem solvers are facing new demands: creative problem solving in collaboration with a
group of actors, participants or users. This means that the problem solvers need to have the capability to be able to redefine
the necessary skills for a given task, and to access the resources for learning very fast these new skills (learn to learn). The
main qualification in this respect is the ability to facilitate change processes, involving participants actively and be able to
regard the problematic situation in relation to a dynamic context of different environments. The essence is the ability to
alternate between modes of routine, reflection and creativity in interaction with the stakeholders, rather than been "locked"
into one of these modes. The traditional understanding of problem solving as a highly rational and programmed process is
simple and straightforward, but it is insufficient if the problem is new and part of a bigger relationship and system that is
changing too. Therefore, the need of creativity methods for problem solving that will generate synergetic effects in cooperation with the users.
In addition, people working creatively and facilitating creative processes experience a constant contact with the pleasure of
creation; their work sometimes becomes artistic activities. This will contribute to having a good and enjoyable life.
Creative thinking can also become a life style, a personality trait, a way of regarding at the World, a way of interacting
with others, a way of working in groups, a way of living and growing. Living creatively means developing your talents,
tapping your unused potentials and becoming what you are capable of becoming through interaction with other people,
self-discovery and self-discipline.
The field of creativity is fundamental to the assessment of man's condition. The dominant trend is to take a view of man,
which reduced him to a conditioned automaton. Koestler (1976) asserts: " I believe that view depressingly true - but only
up to a point." And he continues: "There are two ways of escaping our more or less automatized routines of thinking and
behaving. The first is the plunge into dreaming or dream-like states, where the rules of rational thinking are suspended.
The other way is also an escape - from boredom, stagnation, intellectual predicaments and emotional frustrations - but an
escape in the opposite direction; it is signalled by the spontaneous flash of insight which shows a familiar situation or
event in a new light." The creative process enables man to achieve a higher level of mental evolution. Creativity is an act
of liberation: the defeat of habit by originality, concludes Koestler.
The main purpose of this paper is to present some modern and interdisciplinary concepts about creativity and creative
processes related to problem solving of special relevance for Operational Research (OR). In Sec. 2, the main OR
publications related to the theme of this paper will be shortly reviewed. What is creativity? Is the subject discussed in Sec.
3. Here is shown the multi-disciplinarity of this concept depending on the focus: The person, the product, the process or
the environment. This question is further discussed in Sec. 4 where an outline of the research work on creativity is
presented. Sec. 5 and 6 presents the best-known creative tools and methods while Sec. 7 shows the principles of the socalled Creative Problem Solving Process. The last two sections present some applications of creativity in OR and the final
remarks, respectively.
2.- Creativity in OR
It is commonly accepted that real life problem solving supported by OR is both a science and an art. There are many
publications and research work about the science (the rationality) of problem solving: decision analysis, modelling,
optimisation, simulation, algorithms, heuristics, statistical analysis, validation, and so on. On the other hand, relatively

little has been written about the art (the creativity) of problem solving, this topic has been largely ignored in spite of the
fact that creativity is a powerful element of the OR problem solving process. There are so few references that an extensive
review is easily done.
One of the first papers is about creative thinking in modelling by Morris (1967). He argues that model building is very
much an art, and as such, requires a significant amount of creativity. He has provided one of the few discussions of this
aspect of modelling and emphasises the modelling process as being intuitive, and as such it can be supported by creative
techniques. Morris suggests specific steps to help individuals acquire modelling skills.
In 1978 appeared the following book: The Art of Problem Solving (Ackoff, 1978). This is probable the first book about Soft
OR. Ackoff has shown decisions-makers the way to more creative, artful problem solving. This book is a practical guide
that step-by-step shows you how to develop an understanding of the art of creative thinking and the design of creative
solutions to planning problems. Later, Ackoff and Vergara (1981) published a remarkable paper, an invited review of the
research on creativity of relevance for problem solving and planning. This paper presents several approaches for
enhancing creativity. In this context, creativity is restricted to "the ability of a subject in a choice situation to modify selfimposed constraints so as to enable him to select courses of action or produce outcomes that he would not otherwise select
or produce, and are more efficient for or valuable to him than any he would otherwise have chosen." Ackoff (1993)
recommends the use of idealised design or redesign of a system and its environment in creating corporate visions for an
organisation. Such a design is one that the stakeholders in the system would have now if they could have any system they
wanted.
Evans (1989, 1991a) has done a very important work in connecting Creativity and OR. The first publication is a double
paper that is a first version of the second one, the only book on Creativity and OR. The purposes of these publications are:
To review the diversity of literature, to examine the use of creative problem solving techniques to enhance OR
methodology, and to offer insights and suggestions for integrating creativity into the practice and education of OR. In the
period of 1991-1993 a series of papers related to Evans' research were published in Interfaces, see for instance Evans
(1991b, 1992, 1993a, 1993b). The work of Evans has been restricted to hard OR and mathematical modelling.
Saaty (1998) advocates the need for a systemic integration of the diverse approaches used in (hard) OR within a single
framework for all areas, including dependencies and feedback among influences to maintain the full integrity of the
problems we solve using creativity and intelligence to move the process of creating a theory beyond the traditional process
of problem solving.
Keys (2000) argues that the place of creativity, design and style in OR has never been doubted but there has not been a
unified approach to understanding the varied and significant roles they play. In this paper a means of examining creativity,
design and style is presented that seeks to show the key role that they play in explaining how practice in OR goes beyond
the application of technique and involves analyses in a rich mix of processes and activities. Thus, hard OR leads to an
emphasis upon the creativity involved in understanding situations and designing tools, usually quantitatively or IT based,
to support decision makers, such a focus is called "technical creativity". On the other hand, soft OR leads to an emphasis
upon the creativity involved in managing the relationships between consultants and clients and the design of such
processes (the facilitation of problem solving processes), such a focus is called "social creativity". A further discussion of
this hard/soft paradigm related to creativity and OR problem solving can be found in Tsoukas and Papulias (1996).
Now-a-days it is not sufficient to talk about OR in general, we have to specify whether we are dealing with hard, soft or
critical OR, see Mingers (1992) for a meta-theoretical discussion of these different modes of practicing OR. Usually, hard
OR is focusing on mathematical modelling and model solving, soft OR is concerned with participation and negotiation
using soft methods and critical OR is preoccupied by the problems of alienation and empowerment while using hard
and/or soft OR. Obviously, the creativity concepts and tools to be discussed in the next sections are of central relevance to
the different modes of OR, it is in this sense that we can talk about technical creativity, social creativity and critical
creativity.
3.- What is Creativity?
E. Paul Torrance (Millar, 1997) has been a pioneer in creativity research and education for more than 50 years. Torrance
sees creativity as a process and has developed a battery of tests of creative thinking abilities. He believes that all
individuals are creative and that their creativity can be enhanced or blocked in many ways. He considers creativity
developmentally, opposite to those who believe that a persons creativity was established at an early age (two or three years
old), however his research has shown that creativity does not develop linearly and that it is possible to use activities,
teaching methods, motivation and procedures to produce growth, even in ageing. Torrance asserts that creativity is an
infinite phenomenon; you can be creative in an endless manner.
You find creativity in many apparently different areas: humour (haha), science (aha) and art (ah). Koestler (1976) presents
the theory that all creative activities - the conscious and unconscious processes underlying artistic originality, scientific
discovery, and comic inspiration have a basic pattern in common, he calls it "bisociative thinking" - a concept he coined to
distinguish the various routines of associative thinking from the creative jump which connects previously unconnected
frames of references and makes us experience reality on several planes at once. Koestler introduced the concept of a
"matrix" to refer to any skill or ability, to any pattern of activity governed by a set of rules - its "code". All ordered
behaviour, from embryonic development to verbal thinking is controlled by the rules of the game, which lend it coherence

and stability, but leave it sufficient degrees of freedom for flexible "strategies" adapted to environmental conditions. The
term code is deliberate ambiguous, and reflects a characteristic property of the nervous system: to control all bodily
activities by means of coded signals. The concept of matrices with fixed codes and adaptable strategies, is proposed as a
unifying formula, appears to be equally applicable to perceptual, cognitive, and motor skills and to the psychological
structures variously denominated frames of reference, associative contexts, universal discourse, mental sets, schemata, etc.
Koestler has shown the validity of this formula from morphogenesis to symbolic thought. Matrices vary from fully
automatized skills to those with a high degree of plasticity; but even the latter are controlled by rules of the game which
function below the level of awareness. These silent codes can be considered as condensations of learning into habit or
associative thought. Habits are the indispensable core of stability and ordered behaviour; they have also a tendency to
become mechanised and to reduce man to the status of a conditioned automaton. Bisociative thought is the challenge of
habit by creativity.
The creative person
We can characterise at least three types of creative persons. First, the problem solving one where the person (subject) is
trying to solve a problem (object) in a creative way, this is the case of OR workers, engineers, scientists, advisers, etc. that
is problem solvers in general. Secondly, the artistic person (subject) who creates a new piece of art (object), usually it will
be a close interaction between the subject and object, the "soul of the artist" will be in the object, this object can be a
product (painting, music, film) or a process (dance, theatre, performance). And thirdly, the persons that adopt creativity as
a life-style being creative at work, at home and everywhere, both in an extrovert and introvert way, this the case of some
inventors, artists, mode designers, etc. In practice very often these different ideal types will be interchanged or combined,
that is sometimes the work of an engineer becomes art or the artist is just doing rational problem solving.
Amabile (1998) has documented that creativity in each individual has three components: expertise, creative-thinking skills
and motivation. Expertise is in few words knowledge in its many forms: technical, procedural and intellectual. Knowledge
can be acquired both theoretically and practically. Learn to learn is an important tool for becoming an expert in modern
Society. Creative-thinking skills determine how flexibly and imaginatively people approach problems and tasks. It
demands courage to be creative because you will be changing status quo. Individuals can learn to be more creative and can
learn to use creative tools in problem solving. Motivation is the last component. An inner passion and desire to solve the
problem at hand will lead to solutions far more creative than external rewards, such as money. This component, usually
called intrinsic motivation, is the one that can most immediately be influenced by the work environment. Amabile's
research has identified six general categories that support creativity: Challenge, freedom, resources, work-group features,
supervisory encouragement, and organisational support.
Teresa Amabile (1983) after many years of research focusing on creativity on organisations has also concluded that
individual creativity gets killed much more often that it gets supported. Mostly, it is not because management has a
vendetta against creativity, it is undermined unintentionally because of the optimisation of short business imperatives: coordination, productivity, efficiency and control. Her research has shown that it is possible to develop organisations where
both profit and creativity flourishes, but you need a conscious strategy. Torrance research has also shown that children's
creativity gets killed in the primary schools and it is possible to design schools and education systems where both rational
and creative work flourishes. Amabile has drawn attention to the crucial importance of intrinsic motivation in creative
endeavour. Business has traditionally rewarded people extrinsically with pay and promotion but creative actions often arise
out of a long-standing commitment to and interest in a particular area. She appreciates this is only one part of the
equation, and that expertise in the domain concerned, and sufficient mental flexibility to questions assumptions and play
ideas, are also important. In addition, she points out the critical importance of challenge, for instance, matching people to
tasks they are interested in and have expertise in, permitting people freedom as to how they achieve innovation, setting a
sufficiently diverse team the task of innovation, along with sufficient resources, encouragement and support.
It is difficult to give a simple and general definition of creativity. It is easier if we restrain to study creativity in relation to
problem solving tasks. Herrmann (1996) gives a short definition that encapsulates many other definitions presented in the
literature: "What is creativity? Among other things, it is ability to challenge assumptions, recognize patterns, see in new
ways, make connections, take risks, and seize upon chance." Let us elaborate a little more on this definition: Challenge
assumptions means questioning the basis of the problem formulation; recognise patterns because usually chaos and
complexity are caused by simple patterns which, when recognised, lead us to the solution to the problem; see in new ways
means looking for patterns from different perspectives: a rational or logical, an organisational or procedural, an
interpersonal or emotional, and an experimental or holistic; make connections, or biasociate, because many creative ideas
are the result of synergy occurring between two thoughts or perceptions; take risks because there always exists the
probability that your ideas will lead to failure due to many factors out of your control; and seize upon a chance means to
take a calculated risk in order to take advantage of an opening that will allows to move forward toward a creative solution.
Barriers to Creativity
To be creative you have to be open to all alternatives. This open mindedness is not always possible to meet because all
humans build up blocks or mental locks in the maturation and socialisation process. Some of those locks can have external
causes, such as family environment, the educational system, and organisational bureaucracy. Other blocks were internally
generated by our reactions to external factors or by physical factors. A key to improve your creativity is to get aware of

your locks and do something about them. While everyone has blocks to creativity, blocks vary in quantity and intensity
from person to person. Most of us are not aware of our conceptual blocks. Awareness not only permits us to know our
strengths and weakness better but also gives the needed motivation and knowledge to break down these blocks. Adams
(1986) identifies the mental locks as perceptual, emotional, cultural, environmental, and intellectual.
Perceptual locks are obstacles that restraint us from clearly perceiving either the problem itself or the information needed
to register the problem. It is well known that our eyes can deceive us in observing some figures. Our perceptions are not
always accurate.
Emotional locks restrict our freedom to investigate and manipulate ideas. They prevent communicating our ideas to others.
These locks are also called psychological barriers and are the most significant and prevalent blocks that impede
innovation. Fear of something new is a common characteristic of many individuals in the developed world.
Cultural locks are adapted by exposure to a given set of cultural patterns. The culture of the industrialised countries trains
mental playfulness, fantasy and reflectiveness out of people by placing stress on the value of efficiency, effectivity and
moneymaking. Taboos and myths are predominant blocks to creative behaviour. Therefore, it needs courage to be creative
in a culture that does not support creative changes.
Our near social and physical environment imposes environmental locks. Creative persons have usually had a childhood
where they were free to develop their own potentialities. We have seen that Amabile has documented that organisational
climate can be a barrier or a stimulus to creative activities.
Intellectual locks are caused by conservatism and lack of willingness to use new approaches. The same approaches, the
same tools and the same persons are tackling the same problems for years. Persons with intellectual locks are usually very
negative to changes and are fast to criticise new proposals.
The Systems View of Creativity
Creativity is usually seen as a mental process but creativity is also a cultural and social activity. Csikszentmihaly (2001)
asserts that any definition of creativity will have to recognise the fact that the audience is as important to its constitution as
the individual who is producing novelty. This environment has two main aspects:
- The domain, a cultural or symbolic aspect, and
- The field, a social aspect.
For creativity to occur, a set of rules and practices must be transmitted from the domain to the individual. The individual
(or a group) must then produce a novelty in the content of the domain. The field for inclusion in the domain then must
select the novelty.
Creativity occurs when a person (or a group) makes a change in a domain, a change that will be transmitted through time.
But most novel ideas will be forgotten if some group does not accept them entitled to make decisions as to what should or
should not be included in the domain. These gatekeepers are the field. Field is the social organisation of the domain, those
who decide what belongs to a domain and what does not. Therefore the occurrence of creativity is not just a function of
how many gifted individuals there are, but also of how accessible the various symbolic systems are and how responsive the
social system is to novel ideas. Csikszentmihalyi has outline a systems theory of creativity, relating creative effort by
individuals to the state of the domain they are working in and the characteristics of those who assess the worth of the
creative endeavour in the field concerned. This offers a penetrating analysis of how creative endeavour emerges within a
social field. Drawing on years of research in the field, he hypothesises about the interplay between knowledge about the
domain, gatekeepers in the field and creative individuals. In addition, many of the points made by him in relation to other
domains apply equally well to creativity and innovation in organisational settings. Csikszentmihalyi has drawn attention to
the social context out of which creativity and innovation emerge. For example he has demonstrated the beneficial role of
working at a place and time in which other individuals are engaged in related creative activities.
4.- Creativity Research
Creativity research can be dated back to the description of the incubation process by the French mathematician Henri
Poincar (1854-1912) while discovering the so-called fuchsian functions, based on these experiences the psychologist
Wallas (1926) formulated a four step creative problem solving process: preparation, incubation, illumination, and
verification. Incubation involves the flashes of insight while in the process of puzzling over a problem or dilemma,
mulling it over, fitting the pieces together, trying to figure it out, this the part of the creative process that calls for little or
no conscious effort. The flashes of insight come while you are going to sleep, travelling, dreaming, taking a shower,
reading a newspaper, relaxing or playing (Eureka experience). Research on creativity started after the Second World War.
In the 1950s American psychologists started to investigate the mental origins of creativity and develop creativity tests, the
works of Torrance and Guilford started at this time. In Europe, Koestler research work was carried out during the 1950s
and his monumental book "The Art of Creation" was published first in 1966. Stenberg (1999) has edited a book presenting
an overview of 50 years of research in the creativity field.

Now-a-days creativity research work can be classified in the following five domains: the product, the environment, the
personality, the process, and learning and cognition.
The product
Focusing on the tangible that is new, useful, original, surprising, etc., this includes works of art, scientific discoveries,
inventions, consumer goods, solutions of problems, adaptations, modifications, etc. Bionics is the name given to borrowing
ideas for novel products or processes from nature. The list of improvements inspired by an observation of nature is very
long. The inventor of the ballpoint pen was allegedly walking through a park on a frosty morning and watched some
youngsters rolling a ball down a slope covered with dew. The brilliant idea was to make the connection between what he
saw and the apparently un-connected problem he had on trying to improve the liquid-ink-based fountain pen.
The environment
Focusing on the organisational culture or climate that encourages or kills creativity. There will be things that happen either
formally or informally and either of these may in turn help or hinder; there may also be things that the organisation does
not do that affect the quality of problem solving. Environmental factors conductive to creative thinking include: The
freedom to do things differently, an environment that encourages risk taking and self-initiated projects, and provides help
and time for developing ideas and individual efforts; an optimal amount of work pressure, a nonpunitive environment, a
low level of supervision, resources and realistic work goals; shared responsibilities, timely feedback, confidence in and
respect for co-workers, and shared decision-making (participation); interaction with others outside the work group; and
open expression of ideas, particularly of-the-wall ideas. All these factors will increase individual motivation and the
happiness of enjoying your work, essential elements for creative and innovative work. Many organisations do not foster
these conditions. Cultural change, education, and training are necessary within a global strategy to develop an action plan
to make an organisation more creative. Managers at all levels, especially engineers and scientists, educators, and graduate
students have much to gain from understanding how to foster a creative climate. Barriers to creativity include habits and
routines, judgmental thinking, oppression and hierarchy, and various perceptual, emotional and cultural blocks seen in the
last section.
The personality
Focusing on the characteristics of the individual who creates. Factors such as temperament, personal attitudes, and habits
influence creativity. Creative thinking is largely a function of divergent thinking - the discovery and identification of many
alternatives. Psychologists have performed considerable research on the characteristics of creative individuals that promote
divergent thinking. These included: knowledge, imagination, evaluative skills, awareness and problem sensitivity,
capability to redefining problems, memory, ideational fluency, flexibility, originality, penetration, self-discipline and
persistence, adaptability, intellectual playfulness, humour, nonconformity, tolerance for ambiguity, risk taking, selfconfidence, and scepticism. Recent research has shown that creativity is more than just divergent thinking. The two
complementary patterns of convergent and divergent thinking must run alongside one another. Gardner (1983) has
identified seven kinds of intelligences or pathways to learning: linguistic (writers and speakers), logical-mathematical
(scientists), musical (composers), spatial (visual artists), bodily kinaesthetic (dancers, athlete), interpersonal (educators),
and intrapersonal (therapists). It could be possible to think of creativity in the same way.
However, creativity scholars and practitioners have not made any move in this direction, but they have recognised that
there are many ways of being creative. The intelligence testing (IQ) movement originated in attempts to predict academic
competence. Using familiar situations with prior knowledge and reasoning (intelligence) may be sufficient to solve some
problems or dilemmas. However, there are instances in everyday life in which new and different problems and dilemmas
emerge, which require some cognitive bridging or creativity. It has been published results showing there is not a
meaningful correlation between intelligence (essentially IQ) and creative problem solving. Maslow (1987) distinguishes
between "special talent creativeness" and "self-actualising creativeness" and he found that creativity is a universal
characteristic of self-actualising people. Self-actualisation may be described as the full use and exploitation of talents,
capacities, potentialities and the like.
Such people seem to be fulfilling themselves and doing the best that they are capable of doing. He identified the following
characteristics of self-actualising creativeness: perception or fresh appreciation and wonder of the basic good of life;
expression or ability to express ideas and impulses spontaneously and without fear of ridicule from others; childlike or
innocence of perception and expressiveness, natural, spontaneous, simple, true, pure and uncritical; affinity for the
unknown; resolution of dichotomies or the ability to synthesise, unify, integrate; and peak experiences or fearless,
wonderful, ecstatic experiences which change the person and his/her perception of life. Their codes of ethics tend to be
relatively autonomous and individual rather than conventional. They regard upon the world with wide, uncritical,
undemanding, innocent eyes, simply noting and observing what is the case, without either arguing the matter or
demanding that it be otherwise. Self-actualising creativeness is "emitted", like radioactivity, and it hits all of life,
regardless of the problems. Maslow mischievously wrote: "Science could be defined as a technique whereby noncreative

people can create".

The process
Focusing in the way that creative solutions and products were developed. Wallas four stages process has given inspiration
to the development of methods to be used by individuals or groups in the creative solving process, later we will see some of
these methods. Some definitions of creativity are closely related to the process of sensing problems or gaps of information,
forming ideas or hypothesis, testing and modifying these assumptions and communicating the results. In this respect
creativity is the ability to see a situation in many ways divergent thinking) and continue to question until satisfaction is
reached (convergent thinking). The creative process can involve tiny creative leaps or giant breakthroughs. Both require
that an individual or a group go beyond where they have gone before, embracing the unknown, the mysterious, the change,
and the puzzling without fear.
The creative process may be considered as a new way of seeing, a different point of view, an original idea or a new
relationship between ideas. It is the way or manner in which a problem is solved. It is the process of bringing something
new into being. It is the process of combining previously unrelated ideas or perceiving a new relationship from previously
unrelated ideas. Whether solving problems alone or in a group, you really must have a guided process i.e. a plan or a map
of the steps to be followed. This is especially so in a group due to the need to align the capabilities of the members in a
positive way. This map is usually called the creative problem solving process and under this denotation there exist a huge
number of methods, tools and techniques to support the creative process. Some of them will be presented later. It is also a
good idea to facilitate the group creative process, the facilitator will support the process, will elaborate a plan of the steps
to be followed and will manage the whole process to secure that an action plan will be elaborated and implemented, see
further Vidal (2002)
Learning and Cognition
Focusing in the abilities of creative learning, thinking and cognition in relation to problem solving. All this activities are
related to the physiology of thinking and therefore to the function of the human brain. Creative learning is a natural,
healthy human process that occurs when people become curious or exited about understanding or knowing more. Anytime
we are faced with a problem or dilemma with no learned solution, some creativity is required. Creativity, by its very
nature, requires both sensitivity and independence. In our culture, sensitivity is a feminine virtue while independence is a
masculine virtue. Landrum (1994) outlines some specific differences between male and female approaches to learning.
The female approach can be characterised as based on: negotiations, feelings, understanding, personal relationships,
intuition, and win-win outcomes. The male approach is based on: aggressiveness, competition, ego gratifying, impersonal
relationships, and win-lose outcomes. All people learn trough their senses: touching, smelling, tasting, feeling, hearing
and seen. According to Matte and Henderson (1995) more than half of the population in the USA are visual learners (they
want to read it). The rest of the population are with fifty percent probability either auditory (they want to hear it) or
kinaesthetic (they want to experience it). The understanding of different forms of cognition and creativity is related to the
structure and function of the brain, a research area known as neuro-psychology that has been in a huge expansion during
the last years and that has contributed a lot to the understanding of individual creativity.
5.- Which tools?
We have seen a variety of abilities that characterises creative individuals or groups. Four of the key abilities will be
discussed in this section as well as tools to enhance them in concrete problem solving situations. They are: Fluency,
flexibility, originality and elaboration. In this section we will only present four tools, those being the most popular other
tools will be presented in the next section. Higgins (1994) presents many other tools and techniques.
Fluency
Fluency is the production of multiple problems, ideas, alternatives or solutions. It has been shown that the more ideas we
produce, the more likely we are to find a useful idea or solution. Fluency is a very important ability especially in the
creative problem solving process. To have too few alternatives is not a good thing in problem solving specially if you have
to be innovative. There are many tools for producing ideas, alternatives and solutions. Several researchers have shown that
training and practice with these tools cause a better fluency.
One creative tool, which has been widely used with big success for generating many ideas, is Brainstorming. Osborn
(1953) invented it for the sole purpose of producing checklists of ideas that can be used in developing a solution to a
problem. The tool is directed to generating unconventional ideas by suppressing the common tendency to criticise or reject
them summarily. Osborn tried to separate idea-evaluation from idea generation because he believed that if evaluation
comes early, it reduces the quantity and quality of the ideas produced. Therefore in a Brainstorming session no criticism is
permitted, and freewheeling generation of a large number of ideas and their combination and development are encouraged.

Brainstorming is founded on the associative premise that the greater the number of associations, the less stereotyped and
more creative the ideas of how to solve a problem will be.
However, nothing in Brainstorming is directed at changing the assumptions or paradigms that restrict the generation of
new ideas. This is an excellent technique for strengthening fluency, fantasy, and communication skills. It is a good idea to
have a facilitator to prepare and warm-up the Brainstorming session, to lead and support the session, and to evaluate the
whole process. This tool gives the possibility for the group to use more than one brain achieving a synergetic effect.
Generate a multitude of ideas and some of them will be truly useful, innovative and workable. Asking individuals for
inputs gives them an increase sense of importance and produces an atmosphere for truly creative and imaginative ideas to
surface and be acknowledged. Brainstorming has been used for a wide diversity of problems, including not only marketing
and product issues but also strategy development, planning, policy, organisation, leadership, staffing, motivation, control,
and communication. However, this tool is not appropriated for broad and complex problems demanding high-qualified
expertise and know-how. Some of the ideas produced may be of low quality or obvious generalities. Brainstorming is not a
good idea for situations that require trail and error as opposed to judgement.
Flexibility
Flexibility is the ability to process ideas or objects in many different ways given the same stimulus. It is the ability to delete
old ways of thinking and begin in different directions. It is adaptive when aimed at a solution to a specific problem,
challenge or dilemma. Flexibility is especially important when logical methods fail to give satisfactory results. Looking at
modern paintings requires flexibility, they demand looking from different perspectives in order to see different objects,
images and symbols. Seeing persons or objects in the clouds requires the flexibility of seeing concrete shapes in cloud
formations. Flexible thinking provides for changes in ideas, detours in thinking to include contradictions, differing
viewpoints, alternative plans, differing approaches and various perspectives of a situation.
A family of creative tools, known as verbal checklists, has been developed to enhance flexibility in the creative process.
Usually this is a checklist of questions about an existing product, service, process, or other item to yield new points of view
and thereby lead to innovation. Osborn has also develop a very extensive verbal checklist while he was a partner of a major
US advertising firm. The idea behind the verbal checklist is that an existing product or service can be improved if one
applies a series of questions to it and pursues the answers to see where they may lead. The main questions take the form of
verbs such as Modify? Or Combine? These verbs indicate possible ways to improve an existing product or service by
making changes in it. Then you will add definitional words to the verb, for instance combine ideas, combine appeals,
combine purposes, combine units, etc.
Elberle (1971) developed a short verbal checklist known as the SCAMPER technique to assist people in improving their
flexible thinking. When using such checklist, you will usually follow the following steps:
- Identify the product or service to be modified
- Apply each of the verbs on the checklist to suggest changes in the product or service
- Make sure you use many definitional words for the listed verbs, and
- Review your changes to determine which one meets your solution criteria.
Another important tool for encouraging flexibility is the use of provocative questions. These questions will open up a
situation to a broader and deeper direction of thinking which otherwise might not be produced or considered. They
demand to think about ideas or concepts they have not thought about previously. Some provocative questions can be: What
would happen if: water tasted like whisky? Cats could bark? Women could fly? How is: A PC like a ship? A flower like a
cat? A sunset like a lake? A car like a fork? What might happen if: It never was Sunday? It was against the law to be
perfectionist? People were not creative? Image what might happen if: By law it was forbidding to have children? Cars
could fly? Men could have children?
Originality
Originality means getting away from the obvious and commonplace or breaking away from routine bound thinking.
Original ideas are statistically infrequent. Originality is a creative strength, which is a mental jump from the obvious.
Original ideas are usually described as unique, surprising, wild, unusual, unconventional, novel, weird, remarkable or
revolutionary. You need courage to be creative, because as soon as you propose a new idea, you are a minority of one.
Belonging to a minority is unpleasant. In addition the original thinker must be able to withstand the ridicule and
scepticism, which will be directed toward his/her ideas and himself/herself. To enhance creativity we have to be respectful
of unusual or crazy ideas or alternatives.

Picture Stimulation is a very popular technique used to provide ideas beyond those that might be obtained using
brainstorming. The members of the group will look at a set of selected pictures and relate the information gained from the
picture to the problem, otherwise the rules of brainstorming should be followed. Photo excursion uses the same principles
of picture stimulation but instead of using prepared pictures for stimulation, participants are required to leave the building
walk around the area with a (Polaroid or digital) camera, and take pictures of possible solutions or visual ideas for the
problem; when the group reconvenes, ideas are shared. Another related technique is the Object Stimulation tool where
instead of pictures a variety of different objects (e.g. a hammer, a pencil, a board game, etc.) will be used. Sometimes you
can use words instead of pictures or objects, an associate them to your problem.
There exist a number of computer programs that can be used to generate alternatives and otherwise add creativity to the
problem solving process. They will include a huge amount of words, phrases together with many idea-associations that are
linked to several thousand questions. The words, phrases or questions, randomly selected, will provoke ideas and
associations that have to be relate to the problem in question.
Originality can also be enhanced by analogies and metaphors. An analogy is a comparison of two things that are
essentially dissimilar but are shown through the analogy to have some similarity. A metaphor is a figure of speech in
which two different universes of thought are linked by some point of similarity. In the broadest sense of the term, all
metaphors are simple analogies, but not all analogies are metaphors. Nature is a good source to provide analogies. Poetry
is a good source of metaphors. Similes are specific types of metaphors that use the words "like" and "as" - for instance, the
wind cut like a knife; his hand was as quick as a frog's tongue, he sees like a condor and digs as fast as a mole. Similes can
be used to suggest comparisons that offer solutions.
Elaboration
Mind Mapping is a visual and verbal tool usually used to structure complex situations in a radial and expanding way
during the creative problem solving process. A mind map is by definition a creative pattern of relate ideas, thoughts,
process, objects, etc. It is difficult to identify the origin and the creator of this technique. It is sure that this tool has been
inspired by the brain research of Sperry and his colleague Gazzaniga on the interplay between the left and the right
hemisphere of the brain. It can also be dated back to the Bulgarian doctor and psychiatrist Lozanov that experimented with
the brain and accelerated learning. It has been among others Buzan (1983) who has made Mind Mapping a well-known
technique with many applications.
The principles to construct mind maps are few and easy to understand. The best way to learn it is by practice. After short
time you will do it automatically. If it is difficult for adults is because they think linear and take notes in a linear way
(using the left hemisphere of the brain). To make mind maps you have to draw ideas from the centre of the paper and move
in a radial and parallel way, to do that you have to use both your creative and your logical brain. With some experience you
develop your own style, your own pallet of colours, your own symbols, your own icons, etc.
A Mind Map contains usually the following elements:
- The subject or the problem that has to be studied or analysed will be placed in the centre of the paper
- It is used keywords (names or verbs) to represent ideas, as far as possible only a word is used in a line
- The keywords are connected to the centrum through a main branch and sub-branches
- Colours and symbols are used to emphasise ideas or to stimulate the brain to identify new relations and
- Let ideas and thoughts flow free; avoid too much evaluation during the period of elaboration of the map.
When I construct a mind map, I will start from left to right building main branches in a circular way. Then, I will continue
drawing sub-branches moving in a circular way until the whole sheet of paper is fill up with ideas. That is, I have been
moving following an expanding spiral pattern. Then, I will move in the reserve way following a contracting spiral pattern
supplementing the map with new ideas and connections. These spiral movements provoke the interplay between the
creative and the logical brain to be able to combine holistic thinking with particular details of the subject or the problem in
question.
6.- The Creativity Continuum
Creativity tools can be classified in many different manners. McFadzean (1998) has develop a framework for classifying
creativity tools using three categories:
- Paradigm preserving, where neither new elements nor relationships between the elements of the problem are introduced
- Paradigm stretching, where either new elements are introduced or new relationships between the elements of the problem
are conceived

- Paradigm breaking, where both new elements and new relationships between the elements are introduced.
Paradigm preserving tools
We have seen that brainstorming does not create many ideas that challenge or break away from the prevailing paradigm.
This is so because this tool only uses free association, no forcing the persons to use their fantasies to produce new ideas or
to think in an expanding way. Let us seen other technique within this family.
Forced Field Analysis is a usually used in situations related to changes. Each participant has to write two scenarios. The
first one is the description of the situation if a disaster was to occur. The second scenario would be a presentation of the
ideal situation. The non-ideal and the ideal scenarios will be placed on a continuum with a centre line drawn between
them. The participants will be asked to list the (negative) forces that will make the situation non-ideal and those (positive)
forces that will make the situation ideal. Thereafter, the group has to generate ideas to reduce the negative forces and
enhance the positive forces.
The (5W+H) tool is simple and very useful. The five W's and the H are acronyms for Who? What? Where? When? Why?
And How? It is a good tool for gathering information systematically about a mess or a problematic situation. I use this
technique when I have to write a paper, an article or a report.
Word diamond is a technique developed in order to generate ideas from the problem statement. Four words or phrases will
be chosen from the problem statement. These will be placed in a diamond shape so that each word or phrase is located in a
corner. The participants combine two of them and tell the facilitator the associated ideas due to the combinations. The
facilitator writes on a flip chart all the ideas. This process is repeated until all the combinations are examined.
These and many other tools for creative thinking do not necessarily encourage the individuals and the group to regard the
problem from different perspectives. That is the participants will tend to preserve their paradigms. These tools are valuable
because they are somehow "safe", people usually feels comfortable in their use. Free association and hitchhiking is used to
spark off other ideas and then produce new solutions. Paradigm preserving techniques are very popular because they are
easy to use from the participant's and facilitator's viewpoint. In addition, these tools create usually fun and a good
atmosphere and therefore they can be use as warm-up techniques before going to other more advanced tools. The use of
these tools does not demand experienced groups and facilitators.
Paradigm stretching tools
These techniques will encourage the participants to regard the situation from a new perspective. They may use new
relationships between new elements to develop a new element to create a new solution. This is usually called unrelated
stimulus. Let us see some of these tools.
We have seen that the checklists described above are well known approaches within this family. They use unrelated stimuli
to spark off new ideas. They demand more imagination and expression than paradigm preserving techniques.
Metaphor is also a tool belonging to this family. The facilitator first constructs metaphor categories, for instance: journey,
nature, people, food, music, countries, and so on. Afterwards minor categories are stipulated, for example for journey: in
space, on land, under sea, etc. The participants are asked to describe the problem using the metaphor category. The
facilitator needs to stipulate whether the description should be at the present situation or the ideal situation. Using the
descriptions developed by each person, the participants can generate new ideas. These new ideas can be related back to the
problem situation.
Another technique is Role storming. This tool involves the group generating ideas from someone else perspective. You
could be Leonardo, Edison, Picasso, Robin Hood, Donald Duck, Bush or some Super Heroes. Each participant is asked to
describe a character and together with the others, generates ideas related to the problem using the character's profile or his
tools and implements. The ideas will be discussed and developed by the group.
Heuristic Ideation Technique can be used to create new concepts, ideas, products or solutions. The group will first make
two lists of objects or concepts. An object from list 1 is then chosen together with one object from list 2. The participants
are then asked to force a relationship between the two. For instant forcing together a telephone with a PC can give origin
to the Internet. The participants continue until all ideas have been exhausted. The ideas are then discussed and developed
into innovative solutions.
Reversal is a tool that can help the group to look at the problem from a different platform. Reversing the problem
statement can often provide a new perspective and therefore new ideas. The participants will be asked by the facilitator to

reverse in someway the problem statement. They can change the subject, the verb or the object of the sentence. For
instance: How to increase production? Can be reversed to: How to decrease production. Using the reversed statement we
can use another tool, for example brainstorming, to generate ideas. Continue until enough ideas have been generated.
Discuss and develop the ideas into innovative solutions.
A similar tool to the last one is the so-called Assumption Reversals technique. Here the assumptions regarding the problem
situation are stipulated. Reverse each of the assumptions and generate new ideas in a similar way as in the case of
Reversal.
All these tools enhance creativity by looking at the problem from a variety of perspectives and by breaking old mind
patterns and forming new connections and perceptions. De Bono (1992) call this process lateral thinking or moving
sideways in order to try different concepts and perceptions.
Paradigm breaking tools
These techniques will encourage the participants to completely break down the paradigm. In other words the participants
can regard the problem or situation from a variety of different and probably contrasting perspectives. Incorporating both
new elements and new relationships to the problematic situation will create innovative solutions. Let us see some of these
tools.
We have already discussed Picture Stimulation as a technique that enhance the production of original ideas. This is a very
popular technique that provokes visual thinking, a very important ability of creative individuals.
Wishful Thinking is another technique in this family of tools. The facilitator emphasises that everything is possible and
that the participants have to use their fantasy. Each participant is asked to develop some fantasy statements about the
future using formulations as: In the future, it would be nice if ... If, I was the leader in this situation I will do... The
participants then examine each fantasy statement and suggest ideas and actions on how these fantasy statements could be
achieved. Thereafter the new ideas are linked back to the actual problem. This can be achieved by using formulations such
as: Even if it is difficult to reach, we can ... It will be possible, if ...
Another well-known technique is Rich Pictures. The facilitator asks each participant to draw two pictures. The pictures
might be a metaphor of the situation. The first drawing should be a picture of how the participants would like to see the
situation in the future. The second picture should be a drawing of how the participants see the present situation. Each
participant explains first the picture of the present situation; the (5W+H) technique could be used to structure his
explanation. Next, the participant describes the future in the same way. All the participants may then generate ideas of
how to move from the present to the future.
Imagining is a tool that can generate many creative ideas but it will not work with very conservative groups. This tool is
ideal for groups with visionary participants and for groups where the participants feel rather confident to each other and
like to have fun. These kinds of groups are like a dream for a facilitator. The facilitator chooses a word and one participant
starts to make a story around this word. After a minute somebody else should take over the story and continue. Any body
now can jump in when they please. The participants should be encouraged by the facilitator to be wild, exotic and
colourful as possible. The richer is the description the better. Changeovers can be steered by the facilitator to introduce a
factor of surprise. The images can be written down by the facilitator and then used as unrelated stimuli to create ideas
relating to the problematic situation. This technique is usually called Wildest Ideas if instead of a word uses a wild idea to
start with.
As we have mentioned above these paradigm breaking tools should be used only with experienced groups or groups that
feel rather comfortable with the facilitator. These tools are demanding from the participants the ability to use fantasy,
intuition, and feelings and to play. Due to the above mentioned mental locks many people will be afraid and anguish to
participate in such sessions. Some can react very negative and consider the workshop unserious.
The continuum
Creativity tools can be located in a creativity continuum ranging from paradigm preserving tendencies to paradigm
breaking tendencies as suggested by McFadsean. Paradigm preserving tools are considered to be "safe", that is they do not
provoke anguish to the participants; they do not demand imagination and expressivities from the participants; they use free
association to produce ideas and they do not demand experienced groups. On the other extreme, we have paradigm
breaking tools that can be viewed as "unsafe"; they demand imagination; they use fantasy and unrelated stimuli to generate
original ideas and experienced groups should only use them. In the centre of this continuum are the paradigm stretching

tools.
ODell (2001) presents a similar way to locate creativity tools in a continuum but using a different scale, at one extreme we
will have the more structured tools as for instance checklists and in the other extreme are the less structured tools as
picture stimulation.
Creativity tools can also be classified according to the four styles of creativity suggested by Miller (1993): Modifying,
visioning, experimenting, and exploring. Technical people, like engineers, prefer to use more structured or analytically
oriented tools whereas behaviourally oriented participants tend to prefer less structured or intuitive tools. Research has
shown that pragmatic-minded persons usually overlook paradigm breaking tools; they prefer logical or rational modes of
analysis while artists are more willing to use their intuition and fantasy. Although, logical and rational type of approaches
can be useful for well-structured problems, it will not work as well with most ill structured problems. Different tools are
therefore useful for different types of problems. Paradigm stretching or paradigm breaking techniques may be more useful
for ill-structured problems whereas paradigm preserving tools can be used to solve more structured problems or well
known situations. If a problem is open-ended and ill structured, it is probably a good idea to generate a fantasy or a
metaphor in order to explore a desired scenario for the situation. Dealing with ill-structured problems very often it is a
good idea to start with a paradigm preserving tool to warm-up and then switch to paradigm stretching or paradigm
breaking techniques.
Selecting one or more creativity tools to facilitate a group in a creative problem solving process is a difficult decisionmaking problem where the facilitator has to reflect about three (usually incompatible) forces:
- The organisational culture behind the group and what they represent
- The task or problem and its complexity, and
- Your style as facilitator and your own goals for the process.
Let us reflect a little about the task of a facilitator. He or she has to support the problem solving process. It is very
important that he or she pre-plans the session or workshop to design an appropriate agenda. The facilitator should have
knowledge an experience with many different tools and approaches to problem solving, among them creativity techniques.
Since the problem solving session is a very dynamic process the facilitator must be receptive to the group if the
participants are feeling uncomfortable during the process. The facilitator must also be aware of the cohesiveness of the
group and the participants' experience of using creativity tools. Complex problem situations demand very often more time
than just a session of four to six hours, a workshop over a weekend seems more appropriate, then the whole problem
solving process has to be structured in stages and at each stage creativity tools can be used. The concept of design and
management (facilitation) of a Vision Conference has been developed by Vidal (2002).
7.- The Creative Problem Solving process
Experience has shown that it is recommendable in a creative process to start with a divergent thinking to produce as many
ideas or solutions as possible and thereafter to switch to a convergent thinking to select the few most promising ideas. This
is usually illustrated in the form of a diamond.
Some of the rules for divergent thinking are:
- Imaging, reframe and see issues from different perspectives
- Defer judgement, criticism or negativity kills the divergent process, be open to new experiences
- Quantity breeds quality, to have good ideas you need lots of ideas
- Hitchhiking is permitted, it this way a synergetic effect can be achieved
- Combine and modify ideas, in this way you can create many ideas
- Think in pictures, to create future scenarios you can even essay to simulate potential solutions
- Stretch for ideas, imaging ideas beyond normal limits, and
- Do not be afraid to break paradigms, avoid destructive criticism, and add value to the challenged concept.
Some of the rules of convergent thinking are:
- Be systematic, find structure and patterns in the set of produced ideas
- Develop ways to evaluate ideas, assess qualitative and quantitative measures of ideas
- Do not be afraid of using intuition, this is the way how most important decisions are taken
- Avoid quickly ruling out an area of consideration, take your time or better sleep on it
- Avoid idea-killer views, try the impossible, do not be afraid to clash a wall it is not sure that the wall will always hold
- Satisfy, do not expend to much time in looking for the optimal solution of an ill-structured multi-criteria problem

- Use heuristics, use common sense and experience based rules, and
- Do not avoid but assess risk, does not mean being blind to risks, for serious consequences be sure to have a contingency
plan.
As we will see below creative problem solving processes always contain phases of divergent and convergent thinking.
Divergent thinking produces as many solutions as possible within the available time. The participants will vary in the way
they prefer to produce ideas; some will do it by association others by unrelated stimulus. Convergent thinking on the other
hand requires from the participants to use skills in reality testing, judgement and evaluation to choose the one or two best
options from a number of possibilities. It is not unusual that in a group some members will very easily diverge, that is
build a list of alternatives, while others will converge very fast by trying to select the best solution from the list and the rest
will be passive not knowing what is required of them. Therefore the need of a facilitator, he or she designs a clear and
visible process to align the group. Usually the facilitator does not select the participants of the group; very fast he has to
identify the profiles of the participants.
The CPS (Creative Problem Solving) Process
All of us have experience since primary school up to university that the problem solving techniques we have learn and
practice involved cases that:
- Have been solved many times
- Have a obvious standard form
- Have a clearly formulated goal
- Have all the information needed
- Have standard rules to follow
- Have one right answer and
- Have as a main motivation an external approval - a grade, reward, approval, and exam.
Traditional problem solving methods (as hard OR) are suitable for well-structured problems but are not very useful to the
unknown, uncertain, and dynamic problems of real life. Creative problem solving is what millions of people use to survive
every day of their life, yet we get no practice on these skills in our structured, deterministic, safe, and supervised learning
environments. Creative problem solving deals with situations where one or more of the characteristics outline about is
negated.
Already Osborn (1953) described several basic steps to support groups and individuals be more successful in creative
problem solving. Some of these steps were described by Wallas in his study of the creative process. Later, based on these
proposals, several researchers have formalised and extended these ideas into a systematic approach to creative problem
solving known as the CPS model or process. 4-steps, 5-steps and 6-steps models have been proposed. Here we present the
most general version. It is called the 6-diamond model, where the upper part of each diamond represents the divergent
sub-processes and the lower part corresponds to the convergent sub-processes. The 6 steps are:
1.- Mess finding: Identify areas of concern. Generate ideas of possible problematic situation from a holistic viewpoint.
Identify the three most critical and general problems. Select one for further work.
2.- Fact finding: Observe carefully, like a video camera, while collecting information and data about the problem situation.
Both objective facts and subjective experiences should be collected, explored and identified.
3.- Problem finding: Fly over the challenge or the problem by considering different ways of regarding it. Think about those
possibilities.
4.- Idea Finding: Search for a variety of ideas, options, alternatives, paths, approaches, manners, methods and tools. Select
potential solutions or ideas.
5.- Solution finding: Dig about the ideas in new and different ways, from other viewpoints and criteria. Assess the
consequences, implications, and reactions to the selected ideas. Select ideas and solutions to develop an action plan.
6.- Acceptance finding: Develop ideas about how to implement the action plan. Search for ways of making the ideas or
solutions more attractive, acceptable, stronger, more effective, and/or more beneficial. Develop a working plan for
implementation.
Considerable research into the CPS process shows that a willingness to consider alternatives, to take some risks, to venture
into insecure land, and to tolerate some uncertainty and ambiguity are important; see further Parnes (1997) and Courger

(1995). Let us now focus in the different type of creative sub-processes that are needed at each step of the 6-diamond
model:
1.- Mess finding. Here we will have the following creative sub-processes: Fluency, flexibility, originality, deferred
judgement, and evaluation
2.- Fact finding. Here it will be emphasised: Analysis and evaluation.
3.- Problem finding. Here the main sub-process is synthesis.
4.- Idea finding. Here we will have the following sub-process: Fluency, flexibility, analysis, originality, and deferred
judgement.
5.- Solution finding. Here the main sub-processes are: Synthesis, elaboration and evaluation.
6.- Acceptance finding. The following sub-processes are present: Synthesis, evaluation, originality, and flexibility.
As we can see at all these stages creativity tools can be used, but depending in the problem or the situation under study,
other both "hard" and "soft" methods can also be applied specially in the convergent phase of each step in the CPS process.
Depending of the size and complexity of the problem the whole CPS process might take long time. During this process the
group at some stages will need a facilitator, an expert, or a supervisor to support the different types of decisions to be
taken. These are some of the roles I will play as the adviser or mentor of a group of students at the university working on
theses or projects. On the other hand, a very important aspect in this respect is learning. The use of creativity tools and the
CPS process can be learned by every person that has a "proactive" stance to life, because of their simplicity many of these
tools can be used in everyday life. Children at school and elderly people can creatively empower their life by been
proactive instead of reactive. Moreover, being creative in a group is usually fun; creative teams at work usually laugh a lot,
see further Goff (1998).
In practice, as a problem solver and /or as a facilitator, you need a very important skill: intuition. Intuition is usually
defined as the sixth sense, the power of knowing, or knowledge obtained without recourse to inference or reasoning. It is
important to emphasise that intuition is not something contrary to reason but something outside the province of reason.
Intuition will help you to deal with what we have called mental locks to creativity, your own locks and how to deal with
them and the ability to second guess the locks of others and help them to cope with them. Our task as facilitators is to
make the familiar strange and the strange familiar.
Depending on the actual problematic situation some more specialised approaches could be used combined with creative
tools, as for instance: Synectics (Gordon, 1961), Future Workshops (Jungk and Mller, 1987), TKJ (Kobayashi, 1971),
SWOT (Srensen and Vidal, 1999), The Search Conference (Emery and Purser, 1996), The Vision Conference (Vidal,
2002), Idealized Design (Ackoff, 1978) and TRIZ (Kaplan, 1992)
8.- Creativity in Practice
There are several attitudes, simple techniques and ways of life that will awake, support and develop your creative
potentialities. Everyday creativity at different situations is a very important attitude and way of life that surely will enhance
your creativity also at your work. Let us see some few recommendations that work for individuals and group of persons.
Break away from routines, the modern person is fill up of routines, some are close to be automatons or robots. Try to break
some of them, do things that you have not done before. In the morning, at work, at the evenings, you should start with
small things. Go to the library and study books about subjects you have not known even existed before. Read about the life
of highly creative people: Leonardo, Einstein, Picasso, etc. Experiment for instance while cooking. If you do not cook,
begin just now because cooking can become a highly creative activity. Your relatives will surely assess the quality of your
innovative dishes.
Create inspiring circumstances. Potentially everything can be used as a source of inspiration, as far as we are open to
seeing connections or relations to our own situation. Words, pictures, books, films, persons, etc. can stimulate the ability of
our brain to produce analogies. Music, pieces of art and performances are usually central sources for inspiration. Some
people have been inspired by walking in a forest or at the beach to find an analogy to solve a problem. Some examples are
Velcro, potato chips, etc. Inspiration is a key factor while creating metaphors. Studying poetry you can see how inspiration
is a way to create metaphors. Or play, play and play as a child.
Be both open and close-minded. Open minded means to be willing to consider new ideas, to diverge, to expand, to fly, and
to see wholeness. Close minded means to be willing to consider a single idea, to converge, to focus, to dig, and to see
details. For me a creative person is able both to fly, to have overview and to dig, to discover the roots. It is a mythical
creature half a condor and half a mole, with a well balanced big brain that switches from flying to digging.
Search for information and knowledge. Now-a-days using Internet you have access to an enormous amount of information
and knowledge that can be of relevance to your problem or the subject you are dealing with, but you have to be critical
about the quality of the obtained information and who is providing it. This is important because you do not need to start
from zero or rediscover the wheel before designing a new vehicle. You have to be creative while searching for information
and knowledge, finding the right key words, and here serendipity plays a central role. Serendipity is the faculty of
discovering pleasing or valuable things by chance; this means that you have to be ready, well prepared to be able to see the
illuminating idea or clue.
Last, use your fantasy and visualise a situation then try to simulate how such situation develops. Creative people are
usually visual thinkers. Relax, play some relaxing music and daydream about a situation or a problem. Stop working if you

are not able to find a clue to a situation or a problem, do something else or go to sleep. You might incubate in your dreams
and often illumination will arise when you wake up. Get acquainted with artists, inventors, designers, composers and other
creative and learn some of their tricks and techniques they use when they run out of ideas.
Styles of Creativity
Creativity research has shown that individuals exhibit various degrees of creativity throughout their lifetime. Usually, we
have settled into a pattern or style of creative thinking. Just as it is valuable to understand your locks to creativity, it is
important to understand your own style of creativity. Each of us has different personalities, although we all have the ability
to be creative, personal differences and preferences cause us to approach creative problem solving in different ways. This is
very central especially while working in groups, because each person has a contribution to make due to his or her unique
profile. Creative groups are very effective if different styles of creativity are combined, to stimulate our thinking in
different directions and to cause us to re-think our usual approaches.
Miller (1989) has developed a questionnaire that helps persons to identify their style of creativity that is their preference to
promote creativity and change. It is founded in three assumptions:
- Each person has the ability to think creatively, the mean issue is: How is he creative?
- Each person has equal potential for creativity, but persons have different approaches to making change when they work,
and
- There is not a single style, but a combination of styles, yet still each person has a favourite style.
A person's creativity style is founded in how he uses information to stimulate his creativity. Each creativity style prefers a
different method for generating and evaluating ideas. Miller's research shows that preferences for style can be classified in
four categories:
1.- The modifying style likes to ask: What can we adapt to improve upon what has worked before? These people are more
comfortable working with facts and making decisions. They seek solutions using methods that have worked before. They
are precise, reliable, efficient and disciplined.
2.- The visioning style likes to ask: What can we realistically image as the ideal solution over the long term? These people
trust in their intuition and like to make decisions. They seek solutions that focus on maximising potential. They are
persistent, determined, hard working and visionary.
3.- The experimenting style likes to ask: What ideas can we combine and test? These people emphasise fact-finding and
information gathering. They seek solutions by applying pre-established processes and experimental trial and error. They
are curious, practical, and good team players.
4.- The exploring style likes to ask: What metaphors can we use to challenge our assumptions? These people like using
their insights to guide them. They collect lots of information hoping that it will help to approach problems from different
angles. They are adventurous, dislike routine, and like to be challenged.
Herrmann (1996) using another classification has developed a test to determine your creative style as: analyser, strategiser,
organiser, or personaliser.
Uses of Creativity
We have seen that creative tools and the CPS process can be used in connection with group problem solving, in general,
and more specifically in relation with the design of a project. Here we will see other types of applications.
Future studies, is an area closely related to strategic development and scenario analysis. It is the examination of future
alternatives and possible results before they are put into action. Studying the future encourages individuals to thing more
creatively about future possibilities and the impact of present actions on the future. Future studies have four essential
characteristics:
- Opportunities to think creatively and to be creatively expressive
- Interdisciplinary studies and activities
- Lots of practice in teams
- Future oriented topics of wide interest and concern.
- Combination of creative tools with both hard and soft approaches.
Inventing and innovation is another interesting area. It involves interdisciplinary studies and the exploration of science
and engineering with a purpose. Learners need opportunities to see concrete applications of scientific principles, which
they get by studying and experiencing the inventing process. Inventions are such a significant part of our lives that it is
difficult to imagine any subjects taught in to day's schools which do not have direct relation to the broad topics of
inventing, inventions, innovation and inventors. The inventing process is a very creative one, depending of the
participant's style of creativity. Getting the initial idea is like an engine getting a spark to start, it sets off a series of

reactions and sequence of events. Once an idea is communicated it is then time to brainstorm about it. Then develop a
prototype. A careful evaluation is then made of costs, feasibility, marketability, time, other resources, etc. in other to decide
whether or not to continue with the idea. If yes, then an action plan will be make. From here a working prototype is
developed. Be patient, James Dyson invented the bagless vacuum cleaner in 1979 it took over 15 years to develop his idea.
Inventing and innovation is closely related to the problem of product development that many manufacturing firms are
confronting with. This is an area where creativity tools and the CPS process are widely used to survive in a dynamic and
global competitive world. The role of creativity in this area can be read in the fascinating book The Art of Innovation
(Kelly, 2001).
In OR, heuristics is often used to deal with real-life complex optimisation problems (Silver et al, 1980). The design of a
heuristic approach demands a lot of inventiveness, but very seldom there has been a direct use of creativity concepts and
tools. This a field that deserves more research specially because metaphors and analogies are very often utilised to develop
heuristic approaches, for instance: simulated annealing, genetic algorithms, evolutionary methods, etc.
Conflict solving is an area where creativity tools and the CPS model could be used. Conflict is considered as a join
problem that the participants have to solve. Tools and methods will be used to support the difficulties that might arise.
Obviously all the participants have to have as a goal to contribute constructively to the development of alternatives and
solution of the conflict. This process needs the support of an experienced facilitator.
Every-day-creativity is an activity that can be carried out at work, at educational centres, at home, etc. The purpose is to
focus in those small or big problems that are irritating and takes time and resources during the day, everyday. Usually,
nobody is responsibly for them. It is recommendable to carry out a creative workshop of one-day duration to take care of
all these problems. Community Work is also a well-established field in OR (Ritchie et al, 1994). In the poor world, many
families are extremely creative solving many crucial problems in their daily struggle to survive.
9.- Final Remarks
Operational researchers in their professional life both as facilitators of problem solving processes and as (hard or soft)
model builders, need creativity concepts and tools to create satisfying ways of dealing with problematic situations.
Creativity is a young multi-disciplinary discipline that will play a central role at all levels of Society in this millennium.
There is a growing demand that educators all around Society enhance creativity in their teaching activities. Creativity is a
way to cope with complexity. According to Heinlein (1973), a human being should be able to: Change a diaper, plan an
invasion, butcher a hog, con a ship, design a building, write a sonnet, balance an account, build a wall, set a bone, comfort
the dying, take orders, give orders, cooperate, act alone, solve equations, analyse a new problem, pitch manure, program a
computer, cook a tasty meal, teach children, fight efficiently, and die gallantly. And he concludes: "Specialization is for
insects". You need creativity to avoid the fate of specialization.
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