LECTURE 1 Cell Organisation and Variety

A single ~200mm cell, the human egg ,with sperm, which are also single
cells.
From the union of an egg and sperm will arise the trillions of cells of a
human body.

Modern cell biology is a rich, integrated science that brings together 3

classical disciplines of:

BIOCHEMISTRY

CYTOLOGY

GENETICS

Understand, at a molecular level, the workings of a cell of life.

All Life is Cellular

Development of the Cell Theory:

Only after the invention of microscopes (1590s) could humans see

cells

1665: Robert Hooke used a primitive microscope to describe small

pores in sections of cork that he called cells (Latin cellulae, little
rooms)

1674-1700: Van Leeuwenhoeke refined microscopes (magnification

x300)

unicellular (protozoa) organisms in droplets of pond water

bacteria and subcellular components e.g. nucleus.

1838 Schleiden and Schwann propose the Cell Theory

The Cell Theory credited both to Schleiden and Schwann with

contributions from Virchow
1. All living organisms are composed of one or more cells
2. Cells are the smallest units of living organisms
3. All cells arise only from pre-existing cells (Virchow, 1855)

All cells in multicellular organisms come from a single cell

A Cell is:

The fundamental unit of life

A membrane-enclosed replicating unit the anatomical building block

of all life

Invisible to the unaided eye (in general)

Capable of

living alone (simplest life forms of solitary cells) or

Part of a multicellular organism

Either

PROKARYOTIC (no nucleus)

EUKARYOTIC (true nucleus)

Enclosed by a selectively permeable membrane

Dictated to by the genes it contains

Despite these and numerous other differences, all cells share certain
structural features and carry out many complicated processes in
basically the same way.

Units of Size
10-3

m milli

m micro

n nano

10-9

p pico

10-12

f femto

10-15

a atto

10-18

10-6

Therefore:

1 micron (mm) = 1x 10-6 m

1 nanometre (nm) = 1x 10-9 m

A typical cell : diameter ~ 20 mm

- surrounding membrane (plasma membrane) only 10 nm thick.

The size range of cells
Microscopes are needed to
view most cells:
Light microscopes
-for mm-sized structures
e.g. most cells, nuclei
-study live cells
Electron microscopes
-for nm-sized structures
e.g. membranes, ribosomes

Transmission (TEM)

Scanning (SEM)

Specimen preparation kills

Cell ultrastructure

the cell

Eukaryotic cells are generally bigger than prokaryotic cells

Smallest cells

bacteria called mycoplasmas (diameter ~0.1-1mm)

Enough DNA, enzymes and other cellular components to

sustain itself and reproduce

Most bacteria (prokaryotes): 1-10mm

Eukaryotic cells are ~ 10-100mm

Why are cells so small?

All cells are bounded by a plasma membrane- a selectively

permeable membrane

Plasma membrane allows sufficient passage of O 2, nutrients and

wastes for the whole cell.

These substances permeate the cell more quickly if the cell has a
large surface area: volume ratio

Surface area : volume ratio decreases as the size of a

particular shape increases

High surface area : volume ratio to facilitate molecular transport

Small size allows a relatively high concentration of interacting

molecules to be maintained in the cell

This is important because the cell has a limited synthetic capacity

A cell could be any size if it were able to make sufficient proteins to

keep them concentrated enough to react with one another

Classification of Cells

Historically all organisms were classified either as animals or plants

Later the concept of Kingdoms was introduced:

Animalia, Planta, Fungi, Protista, Monera

Most recently (using molecular comparisons) the Kingdoms of life

can be assigned to 3 higher levels of classification called DOMAINS

Three DOMAINS of life:

Bacteria (or Eubacteria): Prokaryotes; most diverse and

widespread prokaryotes.

2. Archaea : Prokaryotes; most members live in Earths extreme

environments

3.

Domain Eukarya

All the eukaryotes (organisms with eukaryotic cells!) are grouped into
at least 4 kingdoms in the Domain Eukarya:

Kingdom Protista : generally single-celled eukaryotes and simple

multicellular relatives

Kingdom Planta : multicellular eukaryotes that carry out

photosynthesis (autotrophic)

Kingdom Fungi

Kingdom Animalia : multicellular eukaryotes that are heterotrophic

Eukarya : Eukaryotes (Eucaryotes)

Living organisms may consist of single cells or may be

multicellular

A coenocyte: multinucleate

mass of cytoplasm formed

when nuclei divide without

cytoplasmic division e.g. some fungi

Unicellular organisms which divide by binary fission have infinite life

spans

Multicellular organisms can differentiate tissues and organs and have

finite life spans

Remember all cell types (BOTH prokaryotes and eukaryotes) have

an outer cell membrane, the plasma membrane:

barrier prevents dilution of the cells contents

forming a closed system for chemical reactions between

concentrated reactants molecules.

selectively permeable: allows passage of certain molecules

(O2, glucose, waste products) yet prevents entry of harmful
external substances

Membrane proteins Cell Communication

Eukaryotic cells contain organelles

What is an organelle?

Part of a cell that has a particular structural or functional role

E.g. chloroplast, mitochondrion (power-house)

Organelles are bounded by a lipid bilayer (membrane) and are

analogous to the organs in the body of a multicellular organism

Organelles are found in eukaryotic cells but not in prokaryotic

cells

Membranes within cells enclose organelles having different functions

e.g. Nucleus is enclosed by a nuclear membrane

ORGANELLES

Nucleus

Mitochondria

Cellular respiration for production of energy (ATP)

Golgi, Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum, Lysosome, vesicles

Genetic information (DNA) stored as chromosomes, which are

capable of replication. DNA transcribed to RNA.

Membrane enclosed vesicles involved in synthesis, storage,

transport and degradation of macromolecules. Transport may
involve export (exocytosis), import (endocytosis) or
redistribution.

Nucleus Usually the most prominent organelle; Genetic

information (DNA) storage (Chromosomes). Composed of:

Chromatin: material consisting of DNA (genetic information)

and proteins; visible as individual chromosomes in a dividing
cell. Replication of DNA, Transcription of genes into RNA.

Nucleolus: Nonmembranous organelle involved in the

production of ribosomes.

Nuclear membrane: Double membrane enclosing nucleus;

perforated by pores.

Mitochondria- Organelle (bounded by a double membrane) where

cellular respiration occurs and most ATP (energy) is generated.

Chloroplast- Bounded by a double membrane. Converts light energy

into chemical energy (e.g. glucose) by photosynthesis. Not in animal
cells.

Endomembrane System: Golgi apparatus, Rough and Smooth

Endoplasmic Reticulum, Lysosome and Vesicles.

Membrane enclosed vesicles involved in synthesis, storage,

transport and degradation of macromolecules (lipids, proteins,
polysaccharides). Transport may involve export (EXOCYTOSIS),
import (ENDOCYTOSIS) or redistribution.

Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)-rough ER (ribosome-studded) and

smooth ER.

Smooth ER: synthesis of lipids (e.g. phospholipids, steroids),

metabolism of carbohydrates, detoxification of poisons and
drugs.

Rough ER: Synthesis of secretory proteins, membranes.

Non membrane bounded particles

Ribosomes are NON membrane-enclosed particles involved in

the production of proteins; free in the cytoplasm or bound to rough ER
or nuclear envelope.

Snap-shot type pictures seen in text-books (& often microscopes) are

misleading why?

Intracellular architecture of the cell is DYNAMIC and

CONSTANTLY CHANGING in response to the needs of the cell.

Average text-book cell does not exist!

Cells display an enormous range in morphology

(shape, size, intracellular structure) allowing them to carry out diverse

specialized functions
Is a Virus a Cell?

Small organism (0.025-0.25mm)

Consists of nucleic acid (DNA or RNA) surrounded by a coat (protein

or protein + lipid)

Sub-cellular obligate parasites capable of infecting bacterial or

plant or animal cells

Incapable of free-living metabolism and self-replication,

therefore NOT considered as cells

Capable of hijacking metabolic machinery in the host cell

Virus like particles also exist

Prion = protein only

Viroid = RNA only