THE ORIGIN OF

PETROLEUM
Dr.Ir.Sudjati Rachmat,DEA

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The Origin of the Solar System

Solar Nebula Hypothesis
Condensation and collapse of
interstellar material
Flattening and rotation of cloud
Accretion of planetesimals
Birth of Sun

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The Differentiation of Early Earth

Perhaps the most significant event in Earth history,

the settling of material according to density resulted
in a layered Earth. This concentric arrangement of
material led to the formation of continents, oceans,
and the atmosphere.
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Why is Earth a Dynamic Planet?

The Core
solid inner
liquid outer
density of 10-13 gm/cm

The Mantle
surrounds the core
density of 3.3-5.7gm/cm
three distinct zones

The Crust
oceanic - 3 gm/cm
continental - 2.7 gm/cm
Plate Tectonic Theory explains
the interactions of these zones
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How Does Plate Tectonics

Contribute to the Creation of Oil?
Crust
Mantle
Outer core
Inner core

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Earth - Its Origin and Differentiation

64

How Long Does It Take to

Make Oil?

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Geologic Time Scale - Biostratigraphy

Jurassic period

Triassic period

Permian period
Pennsylvanian period
Mississippian period

245 m.y
146 m.y 208 m.y

290 m.y

363 m.y

1 b.y

65 m.y

510 m.y

57 m.y
570 m.y
35 m.y
23 m.y
5 m.y
0.01 m.y

Holocene epoch

4.6 billion
years ago

ERA
PERIOD
EPOCH
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Devonian
period

323 m.y
409 m.y
439 m.y

Silurian
period
2 b.y
Evolution
of cells with
nucleus
3 b.y First
fossil
cells

4 b.y Oldest rocks

dated on Earth
8

4.6

150

Mesozoic

100

Cretaceous

Jurassic

200

Triassic

250

Permian

300

Pennsylvanian

Recent

0 Pleistocene
10
20

Pliocene
Miocene

30 Oligocene
40

Eocene

Cenozoic Era

Tertiary
50

50
60 Paleocene

Mississippian

350
400
450

Paleozoic

Millions of years ago

Phanerozoic

Quaternary

Cryptozoic
(Precambrian)

Billions of years ago

Epoch

Tertiary
period

Era Period

Millions of years ago

Eon

Quaternary
period

Geologic Time Chart

Devonian
Silurian

Ordovician

500
550
600

Cambrian
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Plate Tectonic Theory

The Formulation of
Plate Tectonic
Theory

Divergent boundaries
Convergent boundaries
Transform boundaries
convection cells
subduction zones

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10

Age of the Ocean Floor

Asia

North
America

Asia

Mid-Ocean
Africa

Ridge
South
America
Australia

Antarctica

Old Crust

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Young Crust

11

Elements of Plate Tectonics

CONVERGENT BOUNDARY
Plate subduction

DIVERGENT BOUNDARY
Mid-ocean ridge

Sea floor spreading

Lithosphere
Oceanic
crust

Volcanism Mountain
building
Continental
crust

Deep-sea trench
Litho

sphe

re

Magma rising

Asthenosphere
Magma forming

Earthquake centers
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12

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16

Origin of Petroleum
Inorganic theories
carbides of iron, calcium etc.. When contacted with water
action of hot water on limestone, CaCO3 and gypsum
Organic theories
Animal theories: due to decomposition of marine animals fishes, oysters, other microscopic organisms.
Vegetal theories : due to decomposition of plants - seaweeds
Land plants such as those in swamps
coal beds
oil
Microscopic plants diatoms : Non-fossil organisms
planktons
oil
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17

Origin of Petroleum
Likely scenario:
scenario oil

ancient animal + plants

paraffinic base - vegetal origin

asphaltic base - animal origin

Flow

o f s ed
iment
s

SEA/FRESH WATER
Water prevents rapid
oxidation of organic
material
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Plants and animals

18

Petroleum and Fossil Energy

primarily derived from the remains of once living organisms
most deposits formed some 500-200 million years ago
the three major fossil fuels are coal, oil and natural gas
currently consumed at a rate faster than produced
very likely that fossil fuels will be depleted - the question is when?
large resources in tar sands and oil shales

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19

Genesis of Fossil Fuels

Comprised of the organic (carbon-based) remnants of ancient life
anaerobic bacteria primarily responsible for breaking broke down
complex organic remains into hydrocarbon molecules - molecules
of carbon and hydrogen
Pressure and heat applied to the sediment within which organic
remains are buried, and degrade (crack) the hydrocarbons into an
array of molecules of various sizes. that are useful as fuel products
Plant remains + bacteria + pressure + temperature + time =
hydrocarbons
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20

Fossil Fuel Types

Coal: carbonized remains of freshwater plants swamps
Kerogen: precursor to oil & gas, oil shale contains kerogen not oil
Oil: saltwater algae (high in H)
Gas: mostly methane (CH4) and ethane (C2H6)

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21

thermal cracking

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22

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23

The Carbon Cycle

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24

Marine organic matter is a major precursor for petroleum

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25

Organic-rich sediments can form wherever life is abundant

algal bloom

nutrients

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26

Petroleum System
A Petroleum System requires timely
convergence of certain geologic factors and
geologic events.
These Include:
Seal
Reservoir rock
Migration
Mature source rock

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27

Generation, Migration, and

Trapping of Hydrocarbons
Seal

Fault
(impermeable)

Oil/water
contact (OWC)
Migration route
Seal

Hydrocarbon
accumulation
in the
reservoir rock

Seal

Reservoir
rock

Top of maturity
Source rock
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2828

Petroleum System Elements

Anticlinal rTap

Top Seal Rock

(Impermeable)

Reservoir Roc

(Porous/Permeable)

Potential
Migration Route

Source Rock

(Organic Rich

24803

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29

Migration of Petroleum
Source rock mostly shales
Final accumulation of oil sandstones,
limestones, fractured shales
Trapped hydrocarbons

Limestone/sandstone secondary

Regional flow
of water

primary

shale
10s 100s km
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30

Primary Migration
Why does the hydrocarbon migrate from the source rock
(shale) to the more porous rocks (sandstone) above?
CAPILLARITY
water
Fs
Force at the
interface
between water
and solid due to
surface tension

oil

Note shape of
interface, concave
upwards

Note shape of
interface, concave
downwards

water
Fs 1 / r

Fs

oil

Shales have smaller pore throats than sands.

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31
Water flows readily into
shales and oil out of shales

Primary Migration
Effect of pressure, heat

Volume of liquid expelled

=
Shrinkage - compressibility
of fluid

Folding and chemical action generate heat

fluids expand and move into more porous beds above

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32

Secondary migration
Fluid movement due to capillary forces, pressure,
temperature effects. Migration until cap-rock or seal
encountered.
primary

Regional water flows

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33

Traps
Anticlines

Faults

Stratigraphic

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Salt domes

34

Traps
Combination
Anticlinal/fault
traps

Overlap on beds flanking

the basement rock
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35

Sedimentary Deposition
Shore
Offshore

SEA LEVEL RECEDING

Flow

o f s ed
iment
s Shoreface

Near shore/Shallow Marine

Offshore/Deep Marine

Coarse grain sediments

Coarse grain with

clay

Fine grain sediments

Fine grains with

clay

SEA LEVEL ADVANCING

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36

Cross Section Of A Petroleum System

(Foreland Basin Example)
Geographic Extent of Petroleum System
Extent of Play
Extent of Prospect/Field
O
Stratigraphic
Extent of
Petroleum
System

Pod of Active
Source Rock

Essential
Elements
of
Petroleum
System

Overburden Rock
Seal Rock
Reservoir Rock
Source Rock
Underburden Rock

Sedimentary
Basin Fill

Petroleum Reservoir (O)

Basement Rock
Fold-and-Thrust Belt
(arrows indicate relative fault motion)
(modified from Magoon and Dow, 1994)

Top Oil Window

Top Gas Window
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37

Clastic Depositional Systems

Co a
stal

Plai
n

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38
Modified from Seni and Hentz, 1997

Fan Deposition

Example

Alluvial sedimentation
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39

Barrier Shoreline
Washover fan

Long

Ebb
Tide
Delta

D
shore

Flood
Tide
Delta

Lagoon

rift

Wind
Back-barrier
marsh
Sea

Shelf Silts

Ba
rrie
Shoreface
r Is
la n
Sands
dF

ac
ie

(modified from Blatt, 1982; after Taverner-Smith,

40 1982)

Athabasca Delta, Canada

FLUVIAL-DOMINATED DELTA

Distributary

Photo by L. Klatzel-Mudry

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41

Carbonate Depositional
Environments and Systems

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42

Carbonate Reef System

30 km

Back Reef
(Lagoon)

Open Water

SL

Lime Grainstone

150
m

Reef
Forereef

Miliolids

100

Shelf
Dense lime mudstone

50

Orbitolina
Chalky
lime mudstone

Boundstone

Globigerina
mudstone

0
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(modified from Wilson, 1975; after Harris et al, 1968)

43

Geological and Petrophysical Data

Used to Define Flow Units
Core Lithofacies

Core Pore
Plugs Types

Petrophysical
Data

Gamma Ray Flow

Log
Units

Capillary
vs k Pressure

5
4
3

1
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44

Schematic Reservoir Layering Profile

in a Carbonate Reservoir
Baffles/barriers
SA -97A

Flow unit

SA -251
3150

3200

SA -356 SA -71 SA -344

3150

3100

SA -371

3100

SA -348
3250

SA -346

SA -37

3150

3100
3200
3200

3150
3200

3300

3150

3250

3200

3150

3250
3250
3300

3250

3200

3250

3250

3200
3300
3350

3300

3250

3300
3250

3350

3350

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45

From Bastian and others

Stratigraphic Hydrocarbon Traps

Unconformity

Pinch out

Seal

Oil/Gas

Unconformity

Oil/Gas
Water

Channel Pinch Out

Oil/Gas

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46
(modified from Bjorlykke, 1989)

Sedimentary Basin and

Stress Fields
Basin Geometries

Fault Types

Rift Related Basin

(Extensional Stress)
Normal fault

Sedimentary Fill

Foreland Basin
(Compressive Stress)
Thrust fault
Pull-apart Basin
(Lateral Stress)
Wrench fault
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47

Structural Features

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48

Folded Structures

Syncline

Anticline

64

49

Fold Terminology
N
b

m
Li

m
Li

m
Li

Anticline
Syncline
Modified from xxx)
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Youngest
rock
Oldest rock
50

Overturned Folds
Anticlinal Axis

xis
A
l
na
i
l
c
Syn

64

Photograph by XXX

51

Faulting (normal faults)

Example

Kabab Canyon, Utah

Photograph by XXX
64

52

Strike Slip Fault

(Left Lateral)

Dip Angle

St

rik
e

Fault
Plane
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53

Methods of Structural Evaluation

Structural Map

Structural
Cross Section
A

A
1000
SL
-1000
-2000
-3000

A
OIL

00
-10

00
-20

00
-30

+
+
+ +
+
+ + +

OIL/Water
Contact

A
2000

Depth (ft)
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Wa I L
ter
54

Structural Hydrocarbon Traps - Fault

Oil or Gas

A
Sand

Shale
Sand
A

Fault
Water

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55

Structural Hydrocarbon Traps

Gas

Closure

Oil/Gas
Contact
Oil / Water
Contact

Oil

Fold (Anticlinal) Trap

Salt

Salt
Diapir

Seal
Oil

Dome

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(modified from Bjorlykke, 1989)

56

Cross-Cutting Relationships
K
J
I
H
G
Angular Unconformity

C
E
D
e

Ign

ill
S
s
ou

Igneous
Dike

F
B
A

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57

Types of Unconformities
Disconformity
An unconformity in which the beds above and below are
parallel

Angular Unconformity
An unconformity in which the older bed intersect the
younger beds at an angle

Nonconformity
An unconformity in which younger sedimentary rocks
overlie older metamorphic or intrusive igneous rocks
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58

Faults
Normal Fault

Reverse Fault
Strike direction

Strike direction

H.W.

F.W.

rown

Key bed

Upth

rown

F.W.

nth
Dow

ult
Fa
ar p
Sc
n
ow
thr
wn
Do

n
ow
thr
Up

Fault scarp

Dip
angle

H.W.

Dip angle
Fault plane

Fault plane
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59

Classification of reservoir rocks

Sedimentary rocks:
Source rock:
old sedimentary
+ igneous

Compaction/
Cementation:

Broken down
sediments
Wind + water
+ organisms +
chemical action
Deltas, shore
face, valley fills

Sandstones

Sandstones: compacted quartz sands fragments of rock crystals

Limestones: Skeletons of lime-secreting organisms, corals etc..
Diatomaceous shales: Diatoms and other microscopic plants
Gypsum/Anhydrides/Limestones: Chemical dissolution of rocks,
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followed by evaporation and crystallization

60

Classification of rocks
Igneous rocks- Volcanic origin- Some producing gas
fields. Gas found in vesicles formed in basalt due to gas
flows through molten lava. Igneous rocks generally
indicative of proximity to oil/gas reservoir.
Metamorphic rocks Both igneous and sedimentary rocks
that undergo further change due to heat.pressure and
chemicals:
Quartz
Quartzite
Quartz schist
clay
shale
slate
schist
Generally unfavorable for oil and gas accumulations

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61

Sedimentary Rocks
Conglomerates:
Conglomerates Loose aggregate of rounded pebbles
gravels
when cemented conglomerates.
Porosity due to differential cementation
Oil fields in Pennsylvania, Texas, Oklahoma
Sand, Sandstones:
Sandstones Finer sediments yet noticeable, angular
Sands cemented by calcite sandstones
silica quartzite
Porosity due to voids and inter-grain spaces also differential
cementation
Pools in California, Alberta, Gulf Coast, Texas

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62

Sedimentary Rocks
Clays, shales: Fine grained particles aluminous materials,
trapped water
Deep ocean sediments : Compaction yields shales
Porosity in cracks and fissures
Some pools in Santa Maria Basin, California, Gas in Kentucky
Limestone: Principally CaCO3, hard and crystalline rock,
Marl, chalk, dolomites other forms
Porosity due to weathering and solution vugs
Many pools in mid-continent, Alberta, Middle east, Saudi Arabia
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63

Sedimentary Rocks
Cherts: Chemically pure silica cryptocrystalline
crystals visible only under magnification
Occurrence as small nodules or large masses parallel to
bedding plane
Porosity due to fractures
Major pool Offshore California, Monterey cherts

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