MMAE 419

Impact Testing

Laboratory #4
Murat Vural
Associate Professor
Mechanical Materials
and Aerospace Engineering
Illinois Institute of Technology
10 West 32rd Street
Chicago, Illinois 60616-3793
Telephone 312 567-3181
Facsimile 312 567-7230
E-Mail vural@iit.edu

MMAE 419 Impact Testing - Laboratory #4

Armour College of Engineering and Science

Illinois Institute of Technology
MMAE 419
FALL 2016
Laboratory #4
Introduction to Impact Testing and Measurement of Transition Temperature

1. INTRODUCTION
For steels, the tendency for brittle fracture depends on 1) temperature, 2) strain rate and 3) stress state.
Low temperatures, high strain rates and triaxial tensile stresses can lead to brittle fracture of steels that show
completely ductile behavior in slow-rate tension and/or torsion tests. As a result of the brittle failure of large
structures, such as merchant ships, test methods were developed on small specimens to simulate the
conditions that could result in brittle failure. The most popular of these tests is the Charpy impact test.
In the Charpy impact test, a "V" notched rectangular bar having a square section (10 x 10 mm) is used.
The notch geometry consists of a centrally located, 2 mm deep, 45, V notch having a 0.25 mm notch tip
radius. The specific shape of the V notch is utilized to provide a reproducible triaxial stress state.
The test is conducted by horizontally supporting the sample at each end, on an anvil (Figure 1), and
striking the sample from behind the notch using a heavy swinging pendulum dropped from a specific height
above the sample. The speed of pendulum striking the sample is about 16 ft/sec, however fracture of the
specimen can take place in as short a time as 100 microseconds.

Figure 1 Principles of the Charpy impact test and the dimensions of standard Charpy-V notch specimen.
At the instant the pendulum strikes the specimen it carries a specific amount of energy, depending on the
drop distance and the pendulum weight. If no specimen were in the anvil, the pendulum would rise to
approximately the initial drop height on the opposite side of the drop. A calibrated dial on a given test
machine indicates the energy available for delivery to the test specimen. After the pendulum strikes and

MMAE 419 Impact Testing - Laboratory #4

fractures the test specimen, it rises to a height that indicates the energy lost to the fracture process. The energy
observed in a fracture, usually expressed in foot-pounds or joules, is read directly from the calibrated dial.
The chief engineering use of the Charpy test is in selecting materials that are resistant to brittle fracture by
mean of transition-temperature curves (see Figure 2). The transition-temperature curves are produced by
impact testing the test sample in a range of temperatures that result in low to high impact energy behavior.
The temperature at which the impact energy changes from a low level (brittle behavior) to a high level
(ductile behavior) is known as the ductile brittle transition temperature.

Figure 2 Impact energy and fracture appearance transition-temperature curves obtained from Charpy test.

Figure 3 Changing appearance of impact test fractures in transition zone.

MMAE 419 Impact Testing - Laboratory #4

The design philosophy using transition-temperature curves centers about determining this transition
temperature above which brittle fracture will not occur. In general, lower ductile-to-brittle transition
temperatures are associated with materials of higher toughness.
Another common measurement obtained from the Charpy results from the examination of the fracture
surface. One can readily observe without magnification whether the fracture is ductile (dull appearing fracture
surface) or brittle (highly reflecting fracture surface) or a mixture of both. It should be observed that for
higher temperatures where ductile failure is likely, dull appearing fracture surface predominates. At lower
temperatures (brittle fracture), a major portion of the fracture surface should contain a highly reflective
surface. Around the transition temperature region, both dull and reflective fracture surfaces should be present
in ratios dependent on test temperatures (Figure 3).

2. TEST EQUIPMENT
Means of applying load: Swinging pendulum - Single blow test
Type of loading: Flexure
Machine: TINIUS OLSEN IMPACT TESTER
Maximum capacity: 0 - 260 foot-pound
Maximum striking speed: 16 ft/sec.

3. MATERIAL AND TEST CONDITIONS

Materials: 1045 and 1018 carbon steel Charpy "V" notched specimens (for sample dimensions see Figure 4)
Test conditions: Temperature range (-100 degree C to 150 degree C)
Above 100C - oven
100C - boiling water
0C - water and ice cubes
Below 0C - mixture of grain alcohol (ethanol) and liquid nitrogen, or dry ice (i.e., solid form of CO2)

4. PROCEDURE
Determination of a transition temperature curve for a "low-strength", structural steel requires that Charpy
impact tests be carried out over a range of temperatures, from high to low, where the fracture energy goes
from high values (i.e., the "upper shelf") to low values (i.e., the "lower shelf"). The temperature range over
which this transition occurs varies with the particular steel to be evaluated. For example, cold worked pearlitic
steels often have transition temperatures above room temperature while annealed structural steels have
transition temperatures well below room temperature.
Therefore, the first impact test is usually carried out at room temperature. If the value is relatively low
(e.g., less than 10 ft-lbs), additional tests are carried out at temperatures above room temperature. As each test
is performed, a better idea of the transition temperature is obtained and additional temperatures selected that
will more closely identify the exact transition temperature range. Therefore, a running plot of temperature
versus impact energy is kept on graph paper as the test proceeds in order to judge the next temperature for
impact testing. Usually, two specimens are used at each temperature; however, in view of the limited number

MMAE 419 Impact Testing - Laboratory #4

of specimens available, it is recommended that two specimens be used only in the transition range. These data
of fracture energy are used in the primary construction of the transition temperature plot.
Temperatures from room temperature up to boiling water temperature (100C or 212F) are done using
hot water as the heat transfer medium. The water is heated on a hot plate and its temperature determined using
a thermocouple indicator (Omega Instruments Digital Readout using a type K thermocouple). Temperatures
below room temperature can be done with ice water (down to 0C or 32F), dry ice and alcohol (down to 112F), or alcohol cooled with liquid nitrogen (down to the freezing point of alcohol). All temperatures are
measured with the Omega Digital Readout and the type K thermocouple. Students should use caution with all
these liquids. Boiling water can cause scalding, while liquid nitrogen or dry ice can cause freeze burns. A
metal beaker, rather than glass, should be used for all temperature baths to avoid the possibility of breakage
and injury to students.
The specimen is immersed in the solution using special tongs. A thermocouple touched to the specimen is
used to determine when the specimen is at test temperature. Usually 3 to 5 minutes in a solution at
temperature is sufficient to cool/heat the specimen to the test temperature. Once at the test temperature, the
specimen is quickly (e.g., less than 5 seconds) placed squarely into the anvil of the impact machine and
broken. Students should use extreme caution when breaking specimens. All students should keep clear of the
test machine and only one student should operate the release lever. Eye protection must be worn because of
the danger of the broken parts of the specimen being thrown into the face of onlookers. It is best to keep all
students back of the striker.
Once the specimens have been tested, estimate the percent cleavage at each temperature (see Figure 3).
These values will be used in the report section in order to construct a transition-temperature curve based on
fracture appearance.

5. REPORT
1. Plot Charpy impact energy vs. test temperature (energy transition-temperature-curve, Fig. 2).
2. Determine ductile-to-brittle transition temperature on the basis of energy. Use the average value of
energy (from upper shelf to lower shelf) to determine the "transition temperature" (T3 in Fig. 2).
3. Describe, in terms of percent cleavage, the fracture surface appearances of impacted samples at each
temperature.
4. Construct a fracture appearance versus temperature plot (using percent cleavage versus temperature,
(Fig. 2). Determine the "transition temperature" from fracture appearance based on 50% cleavage. This is
the FATT or "fracture appearance transition temperature" (T2 in Fig. 2).
5. Give a case in parts or structure design where such a transition-temperature curve may be useful.

MMAE 419 Impact Testing - Laboratory #4

IMPACT TESTS - Background

DYNAMIC LOADING
Although many structures are at some time subjected to dynamic loads, many machines and machine
parts are commonly subject to such loads. To estimate the safe performance of structures and machines or
their parts under dynamic loading involves not only analysis to determine the general response of the structure
or machine but also consideration of the properties of the component materials under such loading. The
behavior of materials under dynamic loading may sometimes differ markedly from their behavior under static
or slowly applied loads.
An important type of dynamic loading is that in which the load is applied suddenly, as from the impact of
a moving mass. The behavior of materials under rapidly fluctuating loads involves another phenomenon,
known as fatigue.
As the velocity of a striking body is changed, there must occur a transfer of energy; work is done on the
parts receiving the blow. The mechanics of impact consider not only the question of stresses induced but also
a consideration of energy transfer and of energy absorption and dissipation. The energy of a blow may be
absorbed in a number of ways: through elastic deformation of the members or parts of a system, through
plastic deformations in the parts, and through effects of inertia of moving parts. The effect of an impact load
in producing stress depends upon the extent to which the energy is expended in causing deformation. In
dealing with problems involving impact loading, the predominant way in which the load is to be resisted
obviously determines the type of information that is needed.
In the design of many types of structures and machines that must take impact loading, the aim is to
provide for the absorption of as much energy as possible through elastic action and then rely upon some kind
of damping to dissipate it. In such structures, the resilience (elastic energy capacity) of the material is a
significant property, and resilience data derived from static loading may be adequate. Satisfactory
performance of certain types of machine parts, such as parts of drilling equipment, parts of automotive
engines and transmissions, and parts of railroad equipment, track and buffer devices, depends upon the
toughness of the parts under shock loads. Qualitative data for these applications could be obtained by finding
the energy required to cause rupture of the test piece under impact load.

BEHAVIOR OF MATERIALS UNDER IMPACT LOADING

The property of a material relating to the work required to cause rupture has been designated as
"toughness. Toughness depends fundamentally upon strength and ductility, and would appear to be
independent of the type of loading. It is a fact, however, that the rate at which the energy is absorbed may
markedly affect the behavior of a material, and thus different measures of toughness may be obtained from
impact loading than from static loading.
All materials do not respond in the same way to variations in speed of load application; some materials
display what is termed velocity sensitivity to a much more marked extent than others. Among striking
examples of materials that display radically different behavior under slow and high speed loading are ordinary
glass, which is punctured with a fairly clean hole by a high speed bullet, but shatters under slowly applied
point loading, and sealing wax, a stick of which breaks as if it were brittle under a sharp blow but slowly sags
plastically under its own weight if supported as a beam. With a given material, the toughness does not vary
greatly over a considerable range in striking velocity, but above some critical speed (different for different
materials), the energy required to rupture a material decreases rapidly with increases in speed.

MMAE 419 Impact Testing - Laboratory #4

In addition to the velocity effect, the form of a piece may have a marked effect upon its capacity to resist
impact loads. At ordinary temperatures, a plain bar of ductile metal will not fracture under an impact load in
flexure. In order to cause rupture under a single blow, test specimens of a ductile material are notched. The
use of a notch causes high localized stress concentrations, restricts the drawing-out action (artificially tends to
reduce ductility), causes most of the energy of rupture to be absorbed in a localized region of the test piece,
and tends to induce brittle type of fracture. The tendency of a ductile material to act like a brittle material
when broken in the form of a notched specimen is sometimes referred to as "notch sensitivity. Materials that
have practically identical properties in static tension tests, or even in impact tension tests when unnotched,
sometimes show marked differences in notch sensitivity.

SCOPE AND APPLICABILITY OF IMPACT TESTS

An impact test is a dynamic test in which a selected specimen, machined or surface-ground and usually
notched, is struck and broken by a single blow in a specially designed testing machine, and the energy
absorbed in breaking the specimen is recorded. The energy values determined on these small test specimens
cannot be converted into energy figures that would serve for engineering design calculations. The notch
behavior indicated in an individual test applies only to the specimen size, notch geometry, and testing
conditions involved, and cannot be applied to other sizes of specimens and conditions. However, rules of a
thumb have been developed that permit data on these specimens to be used to predict performance of
structures of much larger size.
An ideal impact test would be one in which all the energy of a blow is transmitted to the test specimen.
Actually this ideal is never realized; some energy is always lost through friction, through deformation of the
supports and of the striking mass, and through vibration of various parts of the machine.
In making an impact test, the load may be applied in flexure, tension, compression, or torsion. Flexural
loading is the most common; tensile loading is less common; compressive and torsional loading are used only
in special instances. The impact blow may be delivered through the use of a dropping weight, a swinging
pendulum, or a rotating flywheel. Some tests are made so as to rupture the test piece by a single blow; others
employ repeated blows. In Table 1, various impact tests are grouped in accordance with these classifications.
Perhaps the most commonly used impact tests for metals and plastics are the Charpy and the Izod tests,
both of which employ the pendulum principle. Ordinarily, these tests are made on small notched specimens
broken in flexure. In the Charpy test, the specimen is supported as a simple beam, and in the Izod test it is
supported as a cantilever beam. In such tests a large part of the energy absorbed is taken up in a region
immediately adjacent to the notch, and a brittle type of fracture is often induced. It should be noted that these
tests do not, and are not intended to, simulate shock loading in service; they simply give the resistance of a
particular notched metal specimen to fracture under a particular type of blow.

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GENERAL FEATURES OF SINGLE-BLOW PENDULUM MACHINES

The effect of a blow depends, in general, upon the mass of the structure receiving the blow as well as
upon the energy and mass of the striking body. Items that require standardization are the foundation, anvil,
specimen supports, specimen, striking mass and velocity.
The principal features of a single-blow pendulum impact machine are (1) a moving mass whose kinetic
energy is great enough to cause rupture of the test specimen placed in its path, (2) an anvil and a support on
which the specimen is placed to receive the blow, and (3) a means for measuring the residual energy of the
moving mass after the specimen has been broken.
The kinetic energy is determined from, and controlled by, the mass of the pendulum and the height of free
fall, measured with respect to the center of mass. The pendulum should be supported so that it falls in the
vertical plane without possibility of lateral play or lateral restraint, and the bearings should be such that
friction is small. The pendulum should be sturdy enough so that excessive vibrations do not cause serious
variations in the results. The release mechanism should not influence the free-fall movement of the pendulum
by causing any binding, accelerating, or vibrating effects.
The anvil should be heavy enough in relation to the energy of the blow so that an undue amount of energy
is not lost by deformation or vibration. The device for supporting the specimen should be such that the
specimen is held accurately in position prior to the instant of impact.
The striking edge of the pendulum should coincide with a vertical line through the center of the rotation
when the pendulum is hanging unrestrained. The line of action of the reactive force between the specimen and
the pendulum should pass through the center of percussion at the instant of impact. It is considered desirable
that the center of percussion be as close as possible to the striking edge.
To indicate the swing of the pendulum of the Charpy and Izod type machines after the specimen has been
broken, an arm attached to the pendulum moves a "friction pointer over an arc graduated in degrees or in
foot-pounds. The friction pointer, the axis of rotation of which coincides with that of the pendulum, is simply
an arm that can rotate on a pin bearing of such tightness that the pointer is prevented from changing position
under its own weight.

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THE CHARPY MACHINE

The Charpy machine uses a pendulum which consists of a relatively light but rigid rod or I-section, on the
end of which is a heavy tup (Figure 1). The pendulum is suspended from a short shaft that rotates in ball
bearings and swings midway between two upright stands, near the base of which are the specimen supports,
or anvils. The striking edge, or tup, is slightly rounded, as shown in Figure 1, and should be aligned so as to
make contact with the specimen over its full depth at the instant of impact. Dimensions of some of the
standard specimens used in the Charpy test are shown in Figure 4.

Figure 4 Charpy metal specimens (ASTM E 23).

The specimen, which is loaded as a simple beam, is placed horizontally between the two anvils, as shown
in Figure 1, so that the knife strikes opposite the notch at the mid-span. The pendulum is raised to its topmost
position and held by a catch adjusted to give a constant height of fall for all tests. It is then released and
allowed to fall and rupture the specimen. In its upward swing the pendulum carries the friction pointer over a
semicircular scale graduated in degrees or foot-pounds. The energy required to rupture the specimen is a
function of the angle of rise. The machine should be so constructed that the space between the anvils does not
decrease in width in the direction of motion of the pendulum. In a standard machine the width should
increase, as shown in Figure 1a, prevent drag between the specimen and the anvils.

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THE IZOD MACHINE

The Izod machine uses a pendulum which consists of a hammer mounted at the end of a relatively light
member, the upper end of which is mounted on ball bearings in uprights that are bolted down to a rigid base.
The pendulum strikes against the specimen, which is clamped as a vertical cantilever beam (Figure 5a). The
mounting of the specimen and the relative position of the striking edge are shown in Figure 5b. Dimensions of
some of the standard specimens used in the Izod test are shown in Figure 6. The angle of rise of the pendulum
after rupture of the specimen or the energy to rupture the specimen is indicated on a graduated scale by a
friction pointer. Some experimenters prefer the Charpy to the Izod machine, since in the former the test piece
is not stressed in the region of the notch by the grip of a vise.

(a) Izod machine

(b) Specimen arrangement

Figure 5 Principles of the Izod impact test.

Figure 6 Izod metal specimen.

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CALCULATION OF ENERGY RELATIONS

The impact strength or energy absorbed in breaking the specimen is equal to the difference between the
energy in the pendulum before and after impact. The difference in energy is a function of the decrease in
rotational velocity and can be computed from the weight and the height of fall of the pendulum before impact
and the height of rise afterward. For accurate results (within the limitations of the test) a correction may be
necessary for loss due to air drag, for the energy absorbed by friction in the machine bearing and by the
indicator arm, and for the energy used in moving the broken test piece.
Without regard to losses, the energy used in rupturing a specimen may be computed as follows (see
Figure 7):
Initial potential energy = mgh
Potential energy after rupture = mgh'
Energy to rupture the specimen = mg(h- h')
where
m = mass of pendulum
h = height of fall of center of gravity of pendulum
h' = height of rise of center of gravity of pendulum
The graduations on the semicircular scale are calibrated using the above energy relations.

Figure 7 Energy relations for pendulum machine.

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EFFECT OF IMPORTANT VARIABLES

The results of impact tests of metals made with various machines differ, owing to (1) variation in amounts
of energy transformed at impact into vibrations of pans of the machines, (2) variations in striking velocity of
the hammers, and (3) size and form of the specimen. Provided the same form of notch is used, the results from
various ordinary designs of Charpy and Izod machines are fairly comparable, although the Charpy results tend
to be somewhat higher than the Izod results. Over the range in velocity developed in most Charpy and Izod
machines, the velocity does not appear appreciably to affect the results. The sharpness of the root of the notch
may have an appreciable influence upon the energy of rupture of the test piece. The energy of rupture
decreases as the sharpness of the notch increases owing to the increase in stress concentration.
In contrast to the relatively small effect of temperature on the static strength and ductility of metals, at
least within the atmospheric range, temperature has a very marked effect on the impact resistance of notched
bars. Figure 8 illustrates in very generalized form the nature of the variation of the energy to produce rupture
in the impact test over a considerable range in temperature. For a particular metal and type of test, below
some critical temperature the failures are brittle, with low energy absorption. Above some critical
temperature, the failures are ductile, with energy absorption that may be many times that in the brittle-fracture
range. Between these temperatures is what has been termed the transition-temperature range," where the
character of the fracture may be mixed. This transition-temperature range may be very short for some metals
or may extend over some appreciable range for others. A significant feat to be noted is that in or near this
critical-temperature range, a variation in testing temperature of only a few degrees may cause very
appreciable differences in impact resistance.

Figure 8 General nature of ductile-to-brittle fracture transition curve obtained from impact tests.

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