ie te ie Ree Perr ateTe cE DEISLEIOLSLSAG, is Tt eePiping System Fundamentals: The Complete Guide to Gaining a Clear Picture of Your Piping System U.S. Edition )Engineered Software, inc. Ray T. Hardee, P.E.Piping System Fundamentals: The Complete Guide to Gaining a Clear Picture of Your Piping System U.S. Edition Copyright © 2008 by Engineered Software, Inc Engineered Software, Inc. can be found on the web at: www.eng-software.com Ordering Information ‘To order additional copies, contact Engineered Software, Inc. or call $00.786.8545 ‘This book can be ordered online at www-fluidfundamentals.com Notice of rights ‘All Rights Reserved. No part ofthis publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any mean lectronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise without prior written permission of the publisher. 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ISBN: 978-0-918601-10-0 PSF-VO71608 Printed and bound in the United States of America aoe AA AAAAAAEEEESSSSSSSOSAVAVANAANHHLHLLELELonenm's Contents 1. Introductioi The Value of a Clear Picture. Minimize Capital Cost. Minimize Energy Consumption. Minimize Maintenance Cost. Elements of a Piping System. Pipelines. Pumps. Controls. Flow Meters Components. 6 6 6 6 6 6 The Total System, 2. Math and the Basics. Definitions. Viscosity. Density. Vapor Pressure Pressure Head. Flow Rate. Pipe. Pipe Standard Specification Pipe Diameter. Nominal Pipe Diameter. Outside Pipe Diameter. Inside Pipe Diameter. 10 Wall Thickness. 10 Nominal Pipe Sizes (NPS) 1 Absolute Roughness. 1 Relative Roughness. ‘1 SSSoe00ea00mIN Basic Calculation: Pressure & Head Calculations, at Bernoulli Equatior Pipeline Head Loss Calculations. 3. Pipelines. 2 OPUS carvers Pipe Material Variables. Pipe. Pipe Material Pipe Sizing & Fluid Velocity 27 Pipe Aging Valves & Fittings.. Fittings. Isolation Vaives. Losses Through Valves. Cost of Losses Through Valves & Fittings Fluid Properties.Contents Density st Viscosty a Pipe Speciicaions 37 4. Pumps... .. How a Centrifugal Pump Works. Impeller Types. Pump Casings, Sealing a Pump. Pump Drives (Fixed vs. Variable) Pump Types. : Basic Pump Configuraions & Arrangements Centrifugal Pumps, Regenerative Turbine Pumps Vertical Turbine. PUVA LE Pump Selection Considerations.. Understanding the Pump Performance Curve. Types of Curves. Head and Flow Rate Pump Efficiency, ‘Net Positive Suction Head. Shutoff Head Minimum Flow. Allowable Operating Region Best Efficiency Point Preferred Operating Region. Maximum Flow Rate, Net Positive Suction Hea Calculating the NPSHa. Location of Pump in the System Pump Suction Piping, Fluid Properties Supply Tank Pressure. Pump Affinity Rules. ‘Changes in Impeller Speed. Changes in impeller Diameter. Pump Power & Cost of Operatior Calculating Pump Operating Cost. Fixed Speed Flow Control Variable Speed Flow Control Operating Pumps Properly. Startup and Shutdown, Minimum Flow Issues Pump Run Out NPSH, Fluid Considerations. 5. Control Valves. Controlled Loops..... ‘Actuated Control Valve. Self Contained Regulator. Throttle Valves.How a Control Valve Operates. Sizing Control Valves Control Valve Description... Characteristic Trim Valve Body Styles. Control Valve Types... Linear Motion Control Valve. Globe Valves.. Pinch Valves. Diaphragm Valves. at Rotary Motion Contro! Valve. at Ball Valves. 82 Butterfly Valves. 83 Eccentric Rotating Plug Valves. 84 Plug Valves 84 Pressure Rating. Selecting Control! Valves. Normal Conditions. Control Valve Cavitation. Differential Pressure Flow Meters. oe 88 Linear Meter. 90 Head Loss Caused by Flow Meters.. 92 The Pressure Profile of a Differential Pressure FIOW Metef......+..0+++00000093 7. Piping System Components. 95 Heat Exchangers. 7 96 Filters & Strainers. Tanks & Vessels.. Operational Consideration. Heat Exchangers, Change in Fluid Temperature Changes to the Process, 100 Fouling of the Heat Exchanger. 100 Obstructions in the Flow Stream 100 Using a Heat Exchanger to Indicate Flow. 100 Changes in Tanks. 101 The Total System. Connecting Pipelines. Head Loss in a Single Pipeline 103 Combining Pipelines in Series 103 Unconstrained Flow. 104: Contents : Flow Through @ Siphon. Combining Pipelines in Branches.. Combining Pipelines in Networks.. Pipelines in Parallel Complex Networks. The System. Pumps & Pipelines. Adjusting Flow through the System. 4 Using a Control Valve aia: Changing Pump impelier Diameter. Changing Pump Speed, Running Multiple Pumps. q ‘Summary of Controlling Flow. Solving Hydraulic Network Syster Compressed Air System. Cooling System. : Changes to System: Changing Tank Level ae Design Case.... Changing Fluid Properties, Changing the Pipelines. 9. Total System Examples. Increasing the System Capacity. : Modeling the System. ; Cleaning the Heat Exchanger: : Conclusion. Reducing Pumping Costs. Evaluating the System... Conclusion.. Minimizing Maintenance Cost. Final Words. References...... : Nomenclature... vi PETETTTRRRTATETKARKERATTeLTAeRReeKeeeeeeceeoAbout the Author Ray T. Hardee, P.E. CEO & Vice President of Engineering Engineered Software, Inc. One of the principal founders of Engineered Software, Ray Hardee is also Co- Owner and Chief Engineer. Starting in 1982, Hardee was chiefly responsible for engineering and sales for Engineered Software. Prior to establishing Engi- neered Software, Hardee had over 13 years in the power generation industry. Hardee graduated with Honors from the United States Merchant Marine Acad- emy in Kings Point, NY. Upon graduation, Hardee became an officer in the U.S, Naval Nuclear Power program and qualified submarines. Alter the Navy, Hardee worked for Ebasco Services and was involved in the Start-up and test group where he would perform the pre-operational tests for both nuclear and fossil power plants. Hardee has contributed dozens of articles. and papers to various magazines and standards publications and has given over a thousand presentations on fluid piping around the worldChapter One IntroductionChapter 1: Introduction A fluid piping system consists of pipelines, pumps, components, tanks, and control valves connected together to deliver fluid to a variety of locations at a specific flow rate and/or pressure. Piping systems meet the needs of a variety of applications including + Industrial and commercial cooling applications + Process piping systems in chemical plants and refineries + HVAC chilled water systems and hydronic heating sy Food and beverage applications Pharmaceutical process systems Ultra pure water systems used in pharmaceutical and integrated chip manufacturing Marine and shipboard applications + Waste collection and treatment systems In short, a fluid piping system is one in which there are pipelines transporting o fuid Most textbooks on fluid dynamics limit the study of piping systems by isolating the various items in the system and evaluating them individually. For example, one learns how to calculate the energy of a fluid anywhere in the system using the Bernoulli equation and how to determine the head loss in a fully charged pipe with a Newtonian fluid, but little effort goes into learning what happens when multiple pipelines are connected. The study of pumps is often limited to how the impeller imparts kinetic energy to the fluid and how the casing converts the energy of the fluid to potential energy, but does not cover Net Positive Suction Head After entering the work force, we continue to look at the piping system as a collection of the various parts. We talk toa valve vendor when we have a problem with a control valve, a pump vendor for pump problems, and ov i»strument vendor when there are control issues. However there is no vendor to call to see how each item in the total piping system affects its operation, As a result, we are typically left to our own devices to gain a clear understanding of how the total pip- ing system operates. This is why it can be difficult to get a fluid piping system to operate properly. In reality, if we have a problem with any element in a system, itis usually caused by the various elements not working well together. The objective of this piping system fundamentals book is to provide piping system practitioners (en- gincers, designers, maintenance supervisors, and plant operators) with the fundamentals of how total piping systems operate. Our approach provides a basic understanding of the various elements found in 4 piping system, and then shows how the elements operate together as a whole. It is not our objective to derive the equations involved in describing system operation. In fact, we will minimize the amount of math that must be used. Most of the engineering equations we will be using are found in Chapter 2 and are presented in such @ way that one can gain an understanding of what is, happening system wide. The Value of a Clear Picture Leaming a topic is easier if there is a tangible reward for the efforts, such as saving money and time. Therefore, we will be presenting three real-life piping system case studies. After we gain a clear under- standing of system operation, we will use the information to optimize these examples 2Piping System Fundamentals Each case study is based on a real life piping system application, but the examples have been simplified Through these case studies, we will see how a clear picture ofa piping system can minimize capital cost, maintenance cost, and operating cost. ‘The problems associated with the three example systems are explained below. After we gain a clear understanding of each item in the system and review its function, we will look at each system in detail to determine the problem and the best way to fx it Minimize Capital Cost The first case study deals with an auxiliary cooling water system at a chemical plant, shown in Figure 1-1. This isa service system that supplies cooling water to heat exchangers, fan coolets, air compressor afer coolers, and a variety of other necessary heat generating equipment needed for plant operation Figure 1-1 Cooling water system used in capital cost evaluation, The plant system was designed to meet the auxiliary cooling water requirements for the various loads Additional capacity for future plant expansion was aso factored into the original design. Each pipeline ‘was sized to achieve the desired flow rate and the pumps were selected to meet the system flow require- ments for both present and future loads. Throttling control valves were sized to balance the flow rate {0 each load, The final step was to balancing the system after it was built by adjusting the throtling valves so that each cooling water load received its specified flow rate. When the system was put into commission, the auxiliary cooling water system provided sufficient cooling water to meet the full plant operation with only two pumps operating Over the life of the plant, new equipment was added as the capacity was increased and the process changed. The cooling requirements for the new equipment were added to the existing auxiliary cool, ng water system loads. Plant service systems are often mistakenly considered infinite resources. As a 3Chapter 1: Introduction result, the new loads were added without much regard to their effect on the existing loads. In addition, the heat exchangers have become fouled or partially plugged, causing some of the equip- ment to overheat, Since the cooling water system must meet the system requirements, plant operators open the balancing valves to increase the flow rate to specific loads. Once again, this is often done without regard to the effects this will have on the other system loads. ‘After many years of operation, one of the two operating auxiliary cooling pumps tripped out due to an overloaded motor. The plant operators immediately started the standby auxiliary cooling water pump to return the system to normal. The problem was investigated, and it was determined that the flow rate through the auxiliary cooling water pumps exceeded the manufacturers recommended operating range. This caused the motor overloads for the pumps, causing the motor driving the pump to trip. After it was determined why the pump shut down, it was restarted and provided additional cooling loads to the sys- tem. With all three cooling water pumps operating, the flow rates through each pump were within the pump manufacturer’s specified operating range. In addition, the motors were no longer overloaded. The plant’s operating procedure requires a stand-by pump for all critical piping systems. Since the aux- iliary cooling water system is critical, a design change was initiated to install a fourth auxiliary cooling water pump as the system standby for summer operations, The utility’s project engineering group was in the process of developing the specifications for adding the fourth auxiliary cooling water pump. During the preliminary analysis, it was discovered that two pumps should still meet the system cooling requirements, even considering the increased loads since the system was built. As a result, a full hydraulic network analysis of the auxiliary cooling water sys- tem was started to provide a better picture of how the total piping system operated prior to making any major changes. Minimize Energy Consumption I the second case study, an energy audit is conducted on a process system at an industrial plant. The’ system is shown in Figure 1-2. We will see how a clear picture is needed to provide a better understand- ing, when looking to reduce the energy consumption in a plant, In this example, the system willbe optimized to eee et @ 5 psi ‘minimize pumping costs. Set @5 psig Control Valve FCV Fully Open si ay toe f Ben tee ‘Supply tank P Set: 0 psig Level: § ft Pe bor geet rore(Sprrce age Figure 1-2 Process-piping system used for energy audit. Pumping systems account for nearly 20 percent of the world’s electrical energy demand and can ac- 4iping System Fundamentals count for 25 to 50 percent of the energy usage in certain industrial operations. Because of thie large Srueunt of energy consumption in piping systems, many companies are look at ways to optimize thee systems as a part of their demand side management initiatives In addition, many electrical utilities have demand side management programs for which they will pay a portion ofthe cost their customers invest in energy improvement. The primary reason for demand sfc CW) cant incentives is that power companies find it cheaper to pay a customer to save a kilowatt (KW) of power than to build the additional generating capacity needed to supply that kW of power. In this case study, we will perform an energy audit on an existing piping system in a process plant and Consider a variety of energy saving options. The case study will not only factor in the energy savings, but also the impact on the maintenance and operations groups. Minimize Maintenance Cost Im the third case study, we will look at a system where a control valve routinely fils, causing additional rauuenanee expense (Figure 1-3) The control valve inthe system has a troublesome maintenance hic ‘ory: it has been rebuilt every 12 to 18 months since the plant was originally commiseioned In this example, the system will be evaluated in ‘order to discover the reason for the continued ‘ontrol valve fal ontrol valve falure Control Valve FCV Fully Open »Xj—§ored Spray header Set @ 5 psig Supply tank P Set: Opsig Poon Feed Pump jor Seton (Sam gees Figure 1-3 Process system used for maintenance cost evaluation. By gaining a clear picture ofthe piping system we will discover why the current control valve continues ‘o fail and what must be done to correct the problem, The common thread in each one of these examples isa clear picture of what is happening in the system. With a clear understanding, you can determine where the problem actually lies and then consider a Ranrty oF eptions to arive atthe best possible solution, We will be using the knowledge gained in thi book to solve these three typical problems common in piping systemsChapter 1: Introduction o- Elements of a Piping System - - - A piping system is made up of a variety of items or elements that are connected together. Each item in a piping system affects the operation of the other items. After gaining an insight on the operation of the individual items, we will explore the interaction among them to see how the total piping system operates. “This book is divided into chapters enabling us to explore each element making up a piping system. We will conclude by looking at an entire system to see how the various parts work together ipelines ‘he pipeline isthe building block of every piping system. Itconnects the various elements inthe piping system and is defined by the pipe or tubing containing the fluid, the valves and fittings isolating and redirecting the fluid, along with the process fluid itself Pumps. Pumps in a piping system are unique devices in that they are the only items adding hydraulic energy to the system, Pumps come in two types, kinetic (dynamic) and positive displacement. Since the major. ity of piping systems employ centrifugal pumps, the most common kinetic type, they will be our focus when looking at pumps. Controls Controls are devices placed in a piping system to regulate the pressure or flow rate. Controls consist of self-contained regulators, control valves with extemal actuators, or even manual valves positioned to control the fluid within the piping system. Flow Meters Flow meters are used to measure the flow rate within a pipeline. A variety of flow meters are available, the most popular being the differential pressure type, including orifices, nozzles, and venturi tubes. We ‘will discuss the various types of meters, as well as their hydraulic effect on the piping system and siz. ing methods, Components A-component is a major item placed in a piping system to provide a pressure drop that varies with the flow rate, Components can include items such as strainers, filters, heat exchangers, air handlers, and static mixers, to name a few. The Total System Apiping system consists of pipelines, pumps, components, controls, and flow meters, and the way each 'S operated. We will concentrate on the interaction among the various elements described. In addition, we will look at system operation and the effect it has on the total system, To gain a clear picture of the system operation, we will look at hand calculation methods, traditional graphical methods, and some of the methods employed by the available piping simulation software. Finally, we will look at the three case studies presented in this introduction and see how the methods outlined can be used to provide a clear picture of each and improve and optimize its operation 6Chapter Two ee Math and the Basics In this chapter, we will review the fundamentals needed to gain an understanding of what is happening in a fluid piping system. A fluid namics class is not a prerequisite for understanding this next section. Most college level fluids classes spend the majority of time deriving equations and include a fair helping of calculus. tn this Piping system fundamentals book, we do not derive a single equation, We will cover the definitions used in the study of fluid flow through Piping systems. In addition, we will review the various equations to Sain an understanding of how each element affects the flow rate and pressure drop ina piping systemChapter 2: Math and the Basics Definitions Viscosity Absolute viscosity (x) is the measurement of a fluid’s resistance to internal deformation or shear. + Molasses is highly viscous. + Water has @ medium viscosity + Gases and steam have a low viscosity The unit of absolute viscosity is the poise, which is equal to dyne seconds per square centimeter. The more traditional unit is the centipoise, where 1 poise = 100 centipoises. The Crane® Technical Paper 410 (TP410) and the majority of fluids textbooks (even with US units) use the centipoise for fluid properties Kinematic viscosity (v) is the ratio of the absolute viscosity to the mass density. The unit for kinematic viscosity is the stoke. The stoke represents the units of square centimeter per second. The relationship between the two viscosity units is: Density Weight Density is the weight of a substance per unit volume (lb/ft) Specific Volume is the reciprocal of the weight density (ft/Ib). Specific Gravity is a relative measure of weight density. For liquids, the specific gravity is the ratio of the fluids weight density at a specified temperature to that of water at 60 °F (62.37 Ib/ ft) To calculate the specific gravity of a fluid with a weight density of 58 Ibift 58__ 93 SO- a7 For gases, the specific gravity is the ratio of the molecular weight of the gas to that of air, Vapor Pressure When a liquid evaporates, molecules escape from the liquid’s surface. The vapor molecules exert a partial pressure in the space above the liquid, known as the vapor pressure. The vapor pressure of a fluid is a function of the fluid and the temperature of the fluid. As the temperature increases, the vapor pressure increases. When the pressure above the fluid is less than the vapor pressure of the fluid, boil- ing occurs. Pressure Pressure measures the value of force per area and is traditionally based on one of two datum- values, absolute pressure, or gage pressure. Absolute pressure is based on a perfect vacuum. Although a perfect vacuum cannot be achieved, it does serve as a convenient reference point for other pressure values, Gage pressure uses the local atmospheric pressure as the datum reference. At sea level, the Standard At- 8 RARSHAHRRRAREREDRRETRRTPRRVRTAPPVVEEGEEAPiping System Fundamentals mospheric Pressure is defined as 14.696 pounds per square inch absolute (psia). The local atmospheric pressure varies with elevation, For example, the local atmospheric pressure in Denver, Colorado, (5200 fr above sea level) is approximately 12. Vacuum i usually expressed in inches of mercury and isa value of pressure below atmospheric pres: sure. Figure 2-1 shows the relationship between absolute pressure, gage pressure, and a vacuum Above Atmospheric Pressure lo 8 3 3 2 3 é t 3 Atmospheric Pressure 14.7 psia ~ | Sea Level Below Atmospheric Pressure tf Figure 2-1 Graphical representation of pressure when referenced to absolute and atmospheric Inne, - ainssaig oujewo1eg + abe ‘einssalq oujewoseg Pressure - Absolute Zero - Perfect Vacuum Head Head quantifies the energy content of a liquid referred to a datum, Head is typically expressed as feet of liquid Flow Rate ‘he Volumetric low rates the total volume throughput pe unit of time. The traditional unit of flow is gallons per minute (gpm). Mass flow rate is the total mass throughput per unit of time. The traditional unit of mass fow is pounds per hour (Ib/hr), Pipe The pipe isthe basic components of any piping system. Pipe is described by the material ofits construc- tion, the schedule or wall thickness, and the nominal size. Hydraulically, pipe and tube can be consid. cred interchangeable, Pipe is generally described by its intemal diameter (ID), and tubing is typically defined by its outside diameter (OD). Pipe Standard Specification The majority of pipe used in piping systems is defined by a pipe standard specification. The standard Specification is created by a standards organization such as ASTM International, ISO, ANSI, ASME, oe 9Chapter 2: Math and the Basics DIN. These standards are developed by a committee consisting of representatives from companies that manufacturer, design, and use the products covered by the standard. The primary hydraulic informa- tion found in a pipe standard is the available pipe sizes, schedules, and the inside diameter for the pipe material Tttt Some pipe, such as lined pipe is proprietary in nature. For example, the Resistoflex® division of the Crane Company manufactures a proprietary plastic lined pipe for use in chemical p tions. This pipe material is only available from Crane Resistoflex; hence, the available sizes are de- termined by the manufacturer. When proprietary pipe is used, the pipe manufacturer must provide the appropriate dimensions to perform pressure drop calculations rocessing applica- Pipe Diameter Pipe diameter is a term that describes the size of the pipe. When referring to pipe, there are three diam- ters that are used: the nominal size, the outside diameter, and the inside diameter, Nominal Pipe Diameter A pipe’s nominal diameter refers to the approximate size of the pipe expressed in traditional units inches in U.S. units and millimeters in metric units. The pipe diameter is typically rounded to the closest ‘whole number in which ever traditional units are being used, with the exception of small diameter pipe in USS. units, which may be expressed as a fraction (eg. 1/8 inch pipe). When converting nominal pipe sizes from U.S. units to metric units, one would truncate the value to a traditional number. For example, a 4-inch nominal pipe diameter in U.S. units is referred to as a 100 mm nominal pipe for metric units, even though the exact conversion of four inches is 101.6 mm. Outside Pipe Diameter The outside diameter refers to the actual pipe diameter when measuring from the outside surface of the pipe. For example, a 4-inch nominal steel pipe has an outside diameter of 4.500 inches, regardless of the Pressure carrying capacity of the pipe. Most piping uses a constant outside pipe diameter, and the inside pipe diameter varies with the wall thickness of the pipe material. This makes it easier to manufacture valves and fittings to connect to the pipelines. This allows a 4-inch globe valve to mate with a 4-inch pipe, regardless of the pipes wall thickness. However, not all pipe of the same nominal size has the same outside pipe diameter. For example, a 4-inch nominal pipe manufactured to the ANSI 36.10 standard has an outside diameter of 4.500 inches, whereas 4-inch nominal sanitary stainless steel tubing used in the food and pharmaceutical industries has an outside pipe diameter of 4,000 inches. Inside Pipe Diameter The inside diameter refers to the actual pipe diameter when measured at the inside surface of the pipe For the majority of pipe materials, the outside pipe diameter is fixed, and the inside diameter is equal to the actual pipe diameter less two times the pipe wall thickness. As a result, the actual inside pipe diam- ter is a function of the wall thickness of the pipe. The inside diameter is used in hydraulic calculations for flow through a pipe. Wall Thickness The pipe schedule or wall thickness describes the thickness of the pipe material. Using the pipe's out- side diameter and wall thickness, one can calculate the inside diameter of the pipe. 40Piping System Fundamentals Nominal Pipe Sizes (NPS) ‘Nominal Pipe Size is a set of standard pipe sizes used for pressure piping in North America. The same pipe dimensions are used in Europe under different names. Sizes are defined with two non-dimensional ‘numbers: a Nominal Pipe Size (NPS) and a schedule (SCH). The values of NPS from I/8 to 12 roughly equate to the inside pipe diameter, but from NPS 14 and larger, the NPS equals the outside diameter (OD), In the United States, the pipe sizes are documented in the API SL and ANSI/ASME B36.10M, and intemationally in ISO 65 The following schedules are defined: 5, 10, 20, 30, 40, 60, 80, 100, 120, 140, and 160. The most com- monly used schedules are 40, 80, and 160. The pipe specification for different materials defines the nominal pipe sizes and schedules used for that standard. For example, the ASTM D-1785 Standard Specification for Poly Vinyl Chloride (PVC) Plastic Pipe covers sizes up to 16-inch and schedules 40, 80, and 120. Another variation on pipe schedule is the use of the suffix “S” to indicate stainless steel pipe. For example, 40$ would indicate a schedule 40 stainless steel pipe Finally, some specifications are based on Iron Pipe Sizes, which define schedules as Standard Wall (STD), Extra Strong (XS), and Double Extra Strong (XXS). Absolute Roughness Absolute roughness is the height of the roughness projections on a pipe surface and is defined by di- mensions of length. The absolute roughness varies with the pipe material Relative Roughness Relative roughness is a ratio of the absolute roughness to the inside diameter of the pipe and is a dimen- sionless value. The relative roughness value is used in many head loss formulas. Basic Calculations In this section, we will cover the basic calculations need: on: for fluid dynamics. We will concentrate + The relationship between fluid pressure and head, and how to convert from one to the other. * The Bemoulli equation, to determine the total energy of the fluid anywhere in the system. * The pipeline head loss calculation, so that we can determine how much energy is lost to friction between the fluid and the pipe wall Density pibitt® Pressure & Head Calculations Pressure is a measurement of force exerted on an area. The typi. | Head cal unit for pressure is pounds per square inch (psi). In fluid dy- namics, we want to know the energy of the fluid, which is best described by the term “hydraulic head,” Hydraulic head is the total energy per unit weight above a datum and is measured as a liquid surface elevation expressed in units of length above a standpipe. Pressure Ijin?Chapter 2: Math and the Basics Converting Pressure to Head Head can be calculated from a known pressure value using the following expression’ P* 144 ? f= hydraulic head in ft Equation 2-1 P= pressure in Ib/in? p= fluid density in Ib/fe 144 = conversion of in’ to ft? T T T I Head Values for Various Fluids at 100 psi 1 L 1 Water 60°F Water 200°F Gasoline 40% NaOH Density 62.4 Density 60.1 Density 46.8 Density 92.0 Head 230.9 Head 239.6 Head 307.6 Head 156.6 Figure 2-2 Here are the values of head for a variety of fluids at 100 psi. Notice in Figure 2-2, as the density of the fluid decreases, the hydraulic head of the fluid increases to maintain the same pressure. For example, water at 60 °F has a head of 230.9 ft. above the datum, whereas water at 200° F has a head of 239.6 ft. Furthermore, this shows that head is an indication of the energy of a fluid. At the same pressure, water at a higher temperature has more energy per weight unit and, therefore, a greater head value than water at a lower temperature. Bernoulli Equation The Bernoulli theorem expresses the total energy of fluid in a pipe. The total energy at any point in the system above a horizontal datum is equal to the sum of the elevation head, pressure head, and velocity 2Piping System Fundamentals head. This total energy or total head can be calculated using the following equation Ps 14g) p 2g Equation 2-2 h=Z+ The Bemoulli equation describes the total energy of the fluid a a point inthe system. Assuming there are no losses due to friction between the fluid and the pipe wall, the total energy must be constant throughout the system. With the fluid in motion, there are friction losses between the flowing fluid and the pipe wall. This en- ergy is lost as turbulence and heat, and cannot be recovered as head. As a result, the Bernoulli equation has a head loss term in Equation 2-3 that accounts for the energy lost. This is referred to as the head loss in the pipeline, The Beroulli equation allows us to determine the pressure and hydraulic grade anywhere inthe system using the following equation: Equation2-3 Elevation and Pressure Component The energy graph in Figure 2-3 shows the relationship between the elevation head Z and the pressure head P with the fluid at rest. When a fluid is at rest, the velocity and head loss components drop out and the relationship between the elevation and pressure can be determined. ‘The energy grade line shows the level ofa fluid inthe stem while the Bud is at rest (the velocity head equals zero). As the elevation of the pipe changes from position 1 to position 2 inthe figure, notice that the pressure value decreases, Energy Grade Li ~ y~— | P 2 | Gus ARES 1 22 2 | Datum Plane | Figure 2-3 Energy graph illustrating the Bernoulli equation.Piping System Fundamentals head. This total energy or total head can be calculated using the following equation: Ped ve Equation2-2, p=Z+—— YE p 2g The Bemoulli equation describes the total energy of the luid at @ point in the system, Assuming there are no losses due to friction between the fluid and the pipe wall, the total energy must be constant throughout the system. With the fluid in motion, there ar friction losses between the flowing fluid and the pipe wall. This en- ergy is lost as turbulence and heat, and cannot be recovered as head. As a result, the Bemoulli equation has a head loss term in Equation 2-3 that accounts for the energy lost. This is referred to as the head loss in the pipeline. ‘The Bernoulli equation allows us to determine the pressure and hydraulic grade anywhere in the system using the following equation: P. Equation 2-3 Z,+ 144th p, Elevation and Pressure Component The energy graph in Figure 2-3 shows the relationship between the elevation head Z and the pressure head P with the fluid at rest. When a fluid is at rest, the velocity and head loss components drop out and the relationship between the elevation and pressure can be determined. ‘The energy grade line shows the level ofa fluid in the system while the fluid is at rest (the velocity head equals zero). As the elevation of the pipe changes from position 1 to position 2 in the figure, notice that the pressure value decreases. Energy Grade Line | Datum Plane Figure 2-3 Energy graph illustrating the Bernoulli equationChapter 2: Math and the Basics When the elevation of the pipe is further increased to a Position above the energy grade line, the pres- sure will become negative Adding the Velocity Component With the fluid in motion, the energy loss caused by the friction betw wall is represented by the head loss com right side of the figure. veen the flowing fluid and the pipe iponent that causes a reduction of the energy grade line on the Datum Plane Figure 2-4 Energy and hydraulic grade lines for a fluid in motion Change in Pipe Diameter Now we will change the diameter of the pipeline and see how this affects the energy grade line and the hydraulic grade line of our system. Notice in F ‘igure 2-5, as the pipe diameter increases at point 2, the hydraulic grade line increases. This is because while the flow rate in pipeline 1 and pipeline 2 are the same, the velocity ofthe fluid in pipe 2 is less than the velocity in Pipe 1. As a result, the velocity component in pipe 2 causes an inerease inthe hydraulic grade With a slower velocity in pipe 2, the head loss caused by friction in the pipe 2 also decreases. This in ‘um causes a reduction in the slope of the energy grade lin 1 for pipe 2. 14 1411,Piping System Fundamentals Energy Grade Line _| Datum Plane Figure 2-5 Effect of a change in pipe diameter on the energy and hydraulic grade lines. Pipeline Head Loss Calculations As we saw in the previous section with the Bernoulli equation, the pressure can be calculated anywhere in the piping system, provided the head loss ean be determined. In this section, we will cover how head loss is calculated. There are two widely recognized methods for calculating 2 head loss in a fully charged round pipe: the Hazen-Williams method and the Darcy-Weisbach method. The Hazen- Williams method was developed from empirical methods using 60° F water running through Figure 4-2 Variation in the energy and hydraulic grade lines as fluid passes through a pump. Impeller Types There are two major types of impellers used in centrifugal pump—the open impeller and the closed impeller. Open impellers are considered a good choice for pumping liquids containing solids or stringy ma- terials. The exposed vanes in this type of impel- ler reduce the opportunity for solids in the liquid from becoming trapped as they pass through the impeller, Figure 4-3 shows a typical open impel- ler. Diffuser Discharge wee Head = Velocity Figure 4-3 Open impeller image, courtesy Crane Pumps & Systems.Chapter 4: Pumps Closed impellers are considered a good choice for pumping relatively clean, non-corrosive liquids, and for high temperature applications. Closed impellers are used on most multi-stage pumps. In addition, a closed impeller is more expensive to manufacture than an open impeller. Figure 4-4 shows a typical closed impeller. Another major difference between open and closed impellers is the way in which they handle the leak- age across the impeller. A pump’s discharge pressure is greater than the pump suction pressure, and since the impeller is inside the pump casing, there must be a way to prevent leakage between the high pressure and low-pressure sides of the impeller. Figure 4-5 shows a cross section of a pump with an open impeller. The leakage joint for the open impel- ler is located between the tops of the impeller vanes and the pump casing. The tight clearance between the impeller and casing minimizes back leakage across the impeller. I 1G Figure 4-4 Drawing of a closed impeller Figure 4-5 Cross-sectional diagram of a centrifugal pump with an open impeller, courtesy Crane Pumps & Systems.Figure 4-6 shows a cross section of a pump with a closed impeller. The leakage joint on a closed impel- ler is across the wear rings, located between the impeller and the pump casing. The close tolerance and add- ed length of the wear ring minimizes the back leakage across the impeller. Closed impellers come in two types—single suction and double suction. In a single suction impel ler, all the fluid enters the impeller from one side. This type of impeller is used on most centrifugal pumps. double suction impeller is used on horizontal split case pumps or as the first stage in some multi-stage pumps. Figure 4-7 shows the double suction impeller, The axial thrust on the double suc- tion pump is balanced because of the equal areas and pressure gradients ‘on the suction and discharge portions of the impeller. The areas of the two suc- tion sides of the pump are equal or near- ly equal, and the discharge sides of the pump are common to both impellers. On a single suction impeller, the suction Siping system Fundamentals Figure 4-6 Cross sectional diagram of a centrifugal pump with a closed impeller, courtesy Crane Pumps & Systems. Figure 4-74 & 4-7B Cut away images showing a double suction impeller, courtesy Crane Pumps & Systems.Chapter 4: Pumps side has much lower pressure than the discharge portion of the impeller, and the back side of the entire impeller is exposed to the higher discharge pressure, resulting in a larger axial thrust on the impeller Pump Casings Another difference among centrifugal pump designs is the method used to slow the fluid leaving the impeller and increase pump head. This is accomplished by either using a single volute, double volute, or diffuser. Figure 4-8 shows a pump with a single volute. The narrow gap between the end of the impeller and the casing is called the cutwater. As one moves around the pump from the cutwater, the gap between the impeller and the pump casing increases, This area is called the volute. The increasing volume of the volute as it wraps around the impeller causes the fluid to decelerate, resulting in a pressure increase. As the fluid passes around the volute, the pressure on the impeller is smallest at the cutwater and increases until reaching the discharge. The changing pressure around the volute causes a radial oad on the imp. ler, which causes additional loading on the pump shaft. The radial loading due to the pressure profile around the volute, and the fact thatthe impeller is supported by a cantilevered pump shaft, causes shaft deflections Impeller _ Figure 4-8 Cross section of a single volute pump showing the pressure profile ofthe radial loads around its impeller:Piping System Fundamentals Apump with a double volute casing has two cutwaters. As a result, the radial loads caused by the pres- sure profile around the volute is more balanced than the single volute. Figure 4-9 shows a cross-section. al drawing of a double volute pump. Pumps with a double volute ate more expensive to manufacture, and as a result, are typically used on larger centrifugal pumps to reduce the radial loads. Impeller Figure 4-9 Cross section of a double volute pump showing a pressure profile of radial loads around its impeller. A centrifugal pump with a diffuser produces the smallest radial loads of all centrifugal pumps. As the + velocity Liquid leaves the impeller, it travels directly into a diffuser that is similar in design to a reverse impeller, The fluid enters the diffuser through small passages, and as the liquid flows through the diffuser, the passages get larger causing the fluid to slow down. The slowing of the liquid increases the pressure energy. Figure 4-10 shows the location of the pump impeller along with the diffuser.Chapter 4: Pumps Casing Impeller Diffuser L a Figure 4-10 Cross-sectional diagram of a centrifugal pump with a diffuser showing the direction of flow ‘As mentioned previously, the pressure gradient around the impeller produces radial loads that are trans- ferred to the shaft. These radial loads cause deflection of the pump shaft, increasing the load on the pump bearings. The pump shaft deflection also causes vibration. The larger the radial forces on the pump shaft, the greater the shaft deflection, the greater the vibration, and the greater the wear and tear cn the pump’s bearings and seals. ‘All centrifugal pump impellers are designed for a specific flow rate that corresponds to the pump’s best efficiency point. The best efficiency point also corresponds to the location in which the radial loads on the impeller are at a minimum. Figure 4-11 shows typical radial loads produced by single volute, double volute, and diffuser casings. As you can see, the minimum radial loads for each design occurs at the pump’s best efficiency point and increases the further the pump's operating point is from the best efficiency point. 46 PEVEDUVLERLERDUDDLTUVALDAVEDT LTTPiping System Fundamentals ~ - Single Volute Radial Loads — Double Volute -_—" -_~ -_——" ~~ —- _ — Diffuser Best —— Efficiency Point 1 Etiieney Figwe 4-11 Dpical radial loads for single volute, double volute, and diffuser pumps. ‘When selecting a centrifugal pump, care should be taken in order to maximize the pump's operation around its best efficiency point. Sealing a Pump ‘As shown in Figure 41, the motor is connected tothe impeller by way ofa shaft. The shaft goes through the pump casing to drive the impeller. Since the fuidis inside the pump casing, a sealing arrangement must be employed to keep the process fluid from leaking between the pump casing and shaft The pump shaft goes through the pump casing at the stuffing box, with a gland around the shaft, The Sealing arrangement is located in the sting box and is held in place bythe gland. Tis type of arrange- ment is used for both packing glands and mechanical seals, Packing Glands [ie most common method of sealing a pump is a packing gland. Figure 4-12 shows a packing gland in deta. At the bottom of the stuffing box. there isa metal bottoming ring that prevents the packing fom being squeezed into the gap between the pump casing and the rotating shaft. There is packing material above the bottoming ring that consists of multiple rings of pliable braided fibers. The fibers ean be made ofa variety of materials, each having some lubricating property, for ex- ample braided graphite This minimizes the friction between the rotating shaft and the stationary pacl ing gland, The packing gland is compressed inthe stuffing box by the gland, which is bolted into place on the pump casing, The rings of packing deform and fll inthe gap in the stufing box to minimize the 2B¢ around the pump shaft. A packing gland must havea slight leakage, inthe range ofa few drops to keep the packing coolChapter 4: Pumps This packing gland may also contain a lantern ring in the stuffing box. The purpose of the lantern ring is to allow sealing fluid to be injected into the packing gland, keeping it lubricated. When a sealing fluid is supplied, it travels down the stuffing box and out both sides of the packing gland. If the fluid in the pump is clean, cool water, the sealing fluid is often supplied by the pump's discharge piping. ; Packing Gland Packing Ring Flush Fluid J \ pac yt OX RB. EP Wy Stuffing Box Lantern Ring Bushing Figure 4-12 Diagram of a stuffing box with packing glands. External sealing fluid is usually supplied under the following conditions: + The pump’s suction lift exceeds 15 ft The pump’s discharge pressure is under 10 psi ‘The pump’s discharge temperature is greater than 250° Gritty water is being handled. ‘There is a liquid other than water being handled Mechanical Seals Mechanical seals also keep the fluid from leaking out of the pump, but unlike packing glands mechani- cal seals do not require any leakage to keep the sealing surface cool. Mechanical seals are used when dealing with fluids other than water, or when seal leakage is undesirable. If installed properly, mechani- 48Piping System Fundamentals cal seals require less maintenance than packing glands. Figure 4-13 shows a typical mechanical seal that has been installed in a pump. The mechanical seal is designed to be installed in the pumps stuffing box so that the packing glands can be easily replaced by a mechanical seal. Stuffing Box Set Screw Spring T \ Mechanical Carbon Hard Metal Cartridge Face Face Figure 4-13 Cross-sectional diagram showing the various components of a mechanical seal. ‘The mechanical seal consists of two very highly polished sealing surfaces. In this seal, the mating ring isa static surface that is connected to the pump. The O-ring provides a static seal between the mating ring and pump casing, The seal head is the rotating element, connected to the shaft by means of a setscrew. The seal head consists of a set of springs that exert pressure on the primary ring, The dynamic seal face is where the seal head and mating ring meet. Each of the surfaces on the dynamic seal face are highly machined and polished. The resulting surface provides an extremely small gap between the two elements that form the seal, Mechanical seals are available in a wide variety of configurations in order to meet the specific needs of different challenging applications. A mechanical seal specialist should be contacted for challenging sealing applications 49Chapter 4: Pumps Pump Drives (Fixed vs. Variable) ‘The pump driver supplies the energy to the rotating elements of the pump. Pump drivers can be electric motors, steam turbines, internal combustion engines, and hydraulic turbines. The selection of the type of pump driver is based on available energy, cost, and preferences. The selection of the driver type is not covered here, but the vast majority of centrifugal pumps are driven by alternating current motors. The drivers come in either fixed speed or variable speed operation. With a fixed speed drive, the pump rotates at an unchangeable speed. To change the flow rate through the pump, valves are throttled in order to increase or decrease head loss, thereby changing the flow rate. This method requires a minimal investment in equipment, but can be inefficient. With a variable speed drive, the rotational speed of the pump varies based on the amount of flow rate needed for the application. This method requires the investment of a variable speed drive, but is energy efficient. Using variable speed drives in pumping systems is covered later in Chapter 8: The Total Sys- tem. Pump Types In this section, we will discuss a variety of pump types to provide a better understanding of their op- eration and application. We will concentrate on centrifugal, vertical turbine, and regenerative turbine pumps. Basic Pump Configurations & Arrangements ‘The shape, size, speed, and design of the impeller and casing determine the operating characteristi of a pump. The design of the pump impeller and diffusing element is based on the intended use of the pump and the manufacturer's intended markets. Once a pump is selected, the major design elements cannot be changed by the user. The only changes that can be made to the pump are the impeller size and rotational speed, which allow the user to make adjustments to better meet their pumping conditions, Centrifugal pumps come in a variety of configurations based on the location of the bearings, design of the impeller, the number of stages, and application, Figure 4-14 is a chart listing the various configura- tions of centrifugal pumps. The Hydraulic Institute Standard Centrifugal Pumps for Nomenclature and Definitions ANS/HI 1.1-1.2 is an excellent reference describing the various pump configurations avail- able. Additionally, on the Hydraulic Institute Website (http://www.pumps.org) under the About Pumps tab is an excellent source of pump definitions and diagrams showing various pump configurations.Piping System Fundamentals Close Coupled End Suction Single oF Two (Including Submersibles) Stage Incline Overhung In-line ANSI 873.2 Impeller Frame Mounted Separately Centertine Support API-610 Coupled Single or Two Stage Frame Mounted ANSI 873.1 Centrifugal Wet Pit Volute Axial Flow Impeller (propeller) Volute Type (horiz, or vertical) Canned Motor Sealess ——f~ Magnetic Drive Axial (horiz.) Split Case Separately [— Coupled Single Stage Impeller Between Bearings Radial (vert) Split Case Separately Axial (horz,) Spit Case Looted —{_ Multistage Racial (ver,) Split Case Single Stage Pero fo Multistage Side Channel| Kinetic Regenerative Turbine Reversible Centrifugal Special Effect Rotating Casing (pitot) Figure 4-14 Classification of pumps based on constr 'uction and application, courtesy The Hydraulic Institute. Visit www pumps.org for more informationChapter 4: Pumps Centrifugal Pumps Centrifugal pumps are the most common kinetic type that convert mechanical into hydraulic energy through centrifugal activity. They include overhung bearings, impeller between bearings, and regenera- tive turbine type pumps, Overhung Pumps ‘Overhung pump impellers are mounted onto the end of the pump shaff, and the bearings are located at the other end, The impeller is cantilevered on the shaft, or “overhung” from its bearing supports. These pumps are either close or separately coupled Close Coupled Pumps A close coupled pump is one in which the impel- ler is mounted directly onto the driver shaft. Figure 4-15 shows a close-coupled centrifugal pump. With this type of design, the pump and motor share the same shaft, resulting in a pump that is less expen- sive to manufacture, but more difficult to maintain. Figure 4-15 A typical close coupled pump, cour: tesy Crane Pumps & Systems. Separately Coupled Pumps A separately coupled pump is one in which the pump impeller is mounted onto a separate pump shaft supported by its own bearings. The driver is connected to the pump shaft by a coupling. Figure 4-16 shows a separately coupled centrifugal pump with a driver. In this application, the pump and motor are ‘each mounted on a frame, and a coupling connects the motor shaft to the pump shaft. These pumps are typically more expensive than the close-coupled pumps and take up a bigger footprint in the plant, but they are easier to maintain, Figure 4-16 Cross-sectional drawing of a typical frame mounted pump, courtesy Crane Pumps & Systems. TRUVAVVDVUDAVAVVVTADVVTTTAVVDIDVDIVIIICPiping System Fundamentals Seal-less Pumps A seal-less pump does not employ a mechanical seal or packing gland to prevent the pumping liquid from escap- ing into the environment. In seal-less pumps, the casing, rotor, shaft, and drive are en- cased in a pressure boundary, eliminating the possibility of leaking fluid along the pump shaft. Seal-less pumps come in a canned rotor design or a magnetic drive pump. Figure 4-17 shows a seal-less pump employing a canned rotor Figure 4-17 Typical seal-less canned rotor pump, courtesy Sultzer Pumps Ltd. ©2008. Impeller Between Bearings Pumps For this type of centrifugal pump, the shaft and impeller are sup- ported by bearings on each end of the shaft and the impeller is suspended between the bearings. This type of arrangement is typi- cally used in horizontal split case pumps and has litte axial loading. Figure 4-18 shows a horizontal split case pump with the impeller between the bearings. Figure 4-18 Typical horizontal split case pump, courtesy Crane Pumps & Systems.OscuARSE Regenerative Turbine Pumps A regenerative turbine is a kinetic pump that produces a low flow rate and high head. This design uses peripheral or side channel vanes on the rotating impeller to impart energy to the pumped fluid. The liquid travels in a he- lical pattern through the impeller vanes, with the liquid pressure in- creasing through each passage. Figure 4-19 Typical regenerative turbine pump, courtesy The Hydraulic Institute visit www pumps.org, _for more information. Vertical Turbine This type of kinetic pump is defined by the following: + One or more bowls (stages), + Radial flow, mixed flow, or axial flow impeller. + The pumping element is in the fluid being pumped and is usually suspended by a column pipe that carries the liquid from the pump to the discharge. These pumps are available as either line shaft or submerged pumps. With a line shaft pump, the driver is on the surface and is connected to the pump by a line shaft. A submerged pump has the motor connected directly to the pump and the pump and motor are submerged in the fluid being pumped. Pump Selection Considerations Selecting a pump for a particular application depends on the hydraulics of the system, the available space for the pump and driver, manufacturer preference, the properties of the fluid be~ ing pumped, the process conditions, the type of drive need- ed, and the desired total head and flow rate the pump must achieve Pump selection is a multi-step, multidisciplinary process re- quiring a clear understanding of the piping system and how it will be operated. Detailed information on pump selection is not covered by this book. Pump manufacturers and their rep- resentatives can assist customers in selecting the best pump for their application. Figure 4-20 Typical vertical turbine pumps with multiple stages, courtesy The Hydraulic Institute. 54Piping System Fundamentals Understanding the Pump Performance Curve Common to all pump selection and evaluation is the need to know the operating characteristics of the pump over the expected range of flow. This information is presented in the pump performance curves, In the following section, the various types of performance curves, their use, and the information they convey will be discussed. In addition, the various key points on the pump performance curve will be identified and discussed. Once you have an understanding ofthe information on the pump curve, you will be able to determine how the pump will operate in the piping system, Types of Curves There are three types of pump curves supplied by manufacturers: + the selection chart, + the published curve, + and the certified curve. Aselection chart shows the allowable operating range forthe various pump sizes and speeds fora given manufacturer's pump type. The desired head and flow values are entered on the curve, and the pumps ‘that overlap the design point are valid choices. Figure 4-21 is an example of a selection chart for a line of general-purpose end suction pumps. The head and flow on the hydraulic range chart may be graphed with a semi-log or log-log scale to display a wider range of flow and head values on a single chart Figure 4-21 Typical selection chart for a line of centrifugal pumps.Chapter 4: Pumps The selection chart is very useful in developing a short list of pumps for consi deratiot For example, qrrot are looking for a putnp runsing at 1800 rpm that could develop 100 ft of head at 1000 gpm, the aepettion chart shows that the Sx6xl1, 5x6x13.5, 6x8x11, 6x8%x13.5 and possibly the 8x10x13.5 sized pumps have the design point within their range of operation NOTE: Many pump manufacturers describe a specific pump using a series of three numbers, consist ing ofthe nominal size of the pump discharge, nominal size ofthe pump suction and the maximum di- ameter of the pump casing. For example, a Sx6x1I has a 5-inch discharge, 6-inch suction, and can have amma impeller diameter of eleven inches, A few manufactures list the pump suction first, then the pump discharge, followed by the impeller diameter (6x5-11). To avoid confusion, one can always rely on the fact that the pump discharge is always smaller than the suction For example, a 5x6x11 from Tmamufacturer A and a 6x5-1] rom manufacturer B botk have a 6-inch suction and a S-inch discharge. Once a short lst is developed, one can reference the manufacturer's published curve This is an excel: Tene tool for determining the best pump for the application, The manufacturer's Purp Mt shows the typical pump performance for a particular pump. Remember that Pup® Xe specific to individual aoe efacturers, and as a result, their performance varies slightly even when hwo identical pump sizes are ordered. US gpm Figure 4-22 A typical mamfacturer’s published curve for a given Pump SI2° and speed, showing the available range of impeller diameters Figure 422 isan example ofa published curve for@ Sx6xT pump running 1770 spm, A tremendous aan tof information can be derived from the manufacturer's pump curve for this application: + The impeller diameter is between 10 and 10.5 inches.Piping System Fundamentals +The pump is 85% efficient at the design point +The power draw on the motor is slightly less than 30 hp, «The Net Positive Suction Head required is between 9 and 10 ft Note that the data displayed on the manufacturer's pump curve is based on 68° F (20° C) water. If you Tull be pumping afuid other than water, th information on the manufacturer's published curve must be adjusted for the fluid’s density and viscosity Once a pump is specified for the project, the manufacturer builds the pump for the customer. If the cus tomer requires the supplied pump to deliver a specific head and flow rate, then a certified performance aoincy nay be required forthe delivered pump. The certified curve will only provide flow rates at or saved the specified design point. Unlike the published curve, which can be applied for a typical pump type, size, and speed, the certified curve is developed for the specific pump being supplied under the purchase order, This testis performed by the manufacturer in accordance with the pump standard called out in the pump specification. ‘Now that we have an understanding of the various types of curves and when they aft used, we will go ver the pump operating data and landmarks found on a typical manufacturer's published curve. This includes the following + Head vs. flow rate + Pump efficiency + Shut off head + Minimum flow + Allowable operating range + Best Efficiency Point «+. Preferred operating area + Maximum flow Head and Flow Rate ‘The head and flow rate data shows the total head developed by the pump ata given low rl Head is the energy content ofthe liquid referred toa datum and is expressed in energy per wit eight of liquid. “Tc unit for heads feet of liquid being pumped. Flow rate or capacity isthe total volume of throughput per unit time at suction conditions, assuming that there are no entrained gases ‘The pump head curve is developed by plotting the pump total head asa function of flow rate through the pump. The data in the pump head curve is determined using water at 68° F as the test fluid, Other aoe elec that affect the pump curve are the rotational speed and diameter of the pump impeller. The nanufacturer provides a range of head values for the allowable range of operation for each pump, To extend the available range ofa specific pump, the manufacturer makes the PumPs 35 ailable at vari- cus pump speeds and impeller diameters. Since the majority of pumps are mn erg ‘AC motors, the vnanmfacturer provides curves fr the various synchronous motor speeds: 3600, 1800, 1200 rpm for 60 Hz power and 3000, 1500, 1000 rpm for $0 Hz power, In addition, manufacturers provide pump curves for the various impeller diameters thet con be used with the pump. Figure 4-22 shows the pump performance curves for 9,95 10, 10.5, and L1-inch im- pellers. Ifthe desired design point is between a published impeller diameter, the pump manufacturer 87Chapter 4: Pumps should be contacted to see if the pump impeller can be trimmed to go through the desired design point. Some pumps are only available in specific impeller diameters, while other pump’s impellers can be trimmed for a specific head and flow rate. Pump Efficiency Pump efficiency is the ratio of the energy supplied to the liquid by the pump to the energy delivered to the pump shaft, expressed as a percent. The efficiency of a pump varies considerably over the allowable range of flow. In looking at the manufacturer’s published pump curve for the 5x6x11 pump running ‘at 1800 rpm, the pump efficiency ranges from 40% at the minimum flow to 86% at the best efficiency point, and is 80% at the end of the curve. Even though the pump can operate through the published range of flow, itis always best to operate a pump close to its best efficiency point. Not only does this save energy, but it also causes less shaft de- flection, and less wear on the pump’s bearings and seals. One additional point should be made about pump efficiency. There is no typical efficiency for all pumps, Pumps designed for smaller flow rates, higher heads, and faster rotational speeds are typically less efficient than pumps used to pass large quantities of fluid with relatively low head and slower ro- tational speeds. The efficiency of a pump can also be affected by its application. For example, grinder pumps and non- clog pumps used in water collection and treatment systems are designed to pass large objects found in the fluid stream, As a result, these pumps are less efficient than a frame mounted end suction pump designed to pass a clear fluid ‘When comparing pump efficiency, itis always best to compare the efficiency for similar types of pumps for given applications Net Positive Suction Head Another data set that is typically shown on a manufacturer's published curve is the Net Positive Suetion Head required (NPSHr) as a function of the flow rate through the pump. The NPSHr data is displayed ‘on the bottom of the curve in Figure 4-22. Some manufacturers have the NPSHr data displayed as iso- NPSH lines similar to the iso-power lines appearing in Figure 4-22. As illustrated on the NPSHr curve, as the flow rate through the pump increases, the NPSHr value in- ‘creases. This does not mean that the NPSHr value continues to decrease from the zero flow rate to the minimum NPSHr value. In fact, many pumps have sharply increasing NPSHr values below what is published. If a manufacturer does not publish data for a specific area of the pump curve, this indicates that the pump should not be operated in that region of the pump curve.APIS OYStem fundamentals: snuton | Minimum Flow 5 Best ficiency Point s ‘EFFICIENCY Design Pont Protea Region un Out Flow “icwsbe Oseraing Region oo POWER-hp Figure 4-23 4 pump curve fora single impeller with the various landmarks highlighted In the previous section, we discussed the various performance data supplied on the manufacturer's Published curve. The remaining items are landmarks on the pump curve refered to in manufactuner's tocunentations or pump standards, Figure 4.23 shows the location of the various landmarke decent below Shutoff Head The shutoff is the condition of zero flow where no liquid is flowing through the pump, but the pump Xs primed and running. Ii important to mention that this is a landmark used in determining the slope of the pump curve, and the pump should never be operated at shutoff ow without fret consulting the pump supplier Minimum Flow ‘The minimum flow isthe lowest low rate at which the manufacturer allows the pump to be operated ‘The pump should never be allowed to operate below the manufacturer's minimum flaw except during the time in which the pump is started or shut down. 59Chapter 4: Pumps Small pumps may not have minimum flow limits displayed on the pump curve. Prior to running the Pump in an area on the pump curve with no published efficiency or NPSHr data, one should contact the pump manufacturer. For example, withthe pump curve presented in Figure 4-22, it would not be pr. Gent to operate the pump between zero flow shutoff and the 40% efficiency ine without frst contacting the manufacturer. Allowable Operating Region The Allowable Operating Region (AOR) is the range of flow rates recommended by the pump manufac- turer in which the service life of the pump is not seriously reduced by continued operation. The manu. facturer provides this AOR based on the pumped fluid being a non-viscous, non-corrosive pure fluid With no vapor, gas, suspended solids, or abrasives. Whenever a pump is operated with a fluid exhibiting any of the aforementioned conditions, the manufacturer should be contacted about the suitability of the pump for that specific application, In looking at the pump curve in Figure 4-23, the AOR is between the two dark black lines shown on the pump curve, Best Efficiency Point The Best Efficiency Point (BEP) is the flow rate on the pump head curve where the efficiency of the Pump is at its maximum. As shown on Figure 4-23, the BEP is 76% for the 15.75-inch impeller diam. eter, and it occurs at approximately 1025 gpm. At the flow rate corresponding to the BEP, the fluid enters the impeller vanes and casing diffuser area in & shock less manner. The flow through the impeller and diffuser sections is uniform and free of separa tion. Preferred Operating Region The Preferred Operating Region (POR) is the area on the pump curve around the BEP in which the flow remains well controlled. In this area, the service life of the pump will not be significantly affected by hydraulic loads, vibration, or flow separation. For centrifugal pumps, the POR is between 70% and 120% of the BEP flow rate. For pumps of 5 HP or less, the manufacturer may recommend a wider POR. Vertical pumps have a narrower range of pre- ferred operation, falling between 80% and 115% of the BEP flow rate. Maximum Flow Rate The end of the manufacturer's curve is the maximum flow rate for the pump and is commonly referred to as the “run out” of the pump. Net Positive Suction Head The term Net Positive Suction Head (NPSH) is the least understood pump characteristic for those who ‘are new to pumps. Simply stated, the pump's NPSH requirement should be checked to ensure that the liquid inside the pump will not vaporize as it passes through the impeller. As the liquid is pulled into the pump suction by the impeller, itis possible for the pressure atthe eye of the impeller to be below the vapor pressure of the liquid. If this situation occurs, the fuid vaporizes at the low-pressure zone in the pump and forms vapor bubbles. The creation of the vapor bubbles in the liguid reduces the capacity of the pump, but the most detrimental effect is when the liquid and bubble 60Piping System Fundamentals Te Ae fetus to an area of high pressure as the Aud progresses through the eye ofthe impeller When the pressure of the liquid stream increases above the vapor pressure of the fluid, the bubbles implode on the impeller vane causing noise and erosion on the impeller surface. This erosion can become major problem overtime, The formation and collapse of the vapor bubbles inthe pump is referred to as cavitation, When a pump manufacture runs performance tests on a pump, they reduce the suction pressure on the pump impeller until the capacity ofthe pump drops by 3%. The NPSH available at the pump suction is determined to be the NPSH required by the pump. Calculating the NPSHa The Net Positive Suction Head available (NPSH) isa function of the following items in the piping system: * The elevation difference between the liquid level in the supply tank and the eye of the impeller * The pressure on the surface of the liquid in the supply tank * The head loss in the pump’s suction pipelines + The vapor pressure of the fluid being pumped * The density of the fluid being pumped ‘The formula used to calculate the NPSHa at the pump suction is: Equation 4-1 NPSH,=(P.-P,)# ae +(Z,-Z,)-hy P, = absolute pressure on the free surface of the liquid in the tank connected to the pump suction P., = pumping fluid vapor pressure in absolute pressure units atthe operating temperature. P = fluid density Z,.= elevation of the liquid level in the tank Z, = elevation of the centerline of the pump suction. h, = head loss in the suction pipeline due to friction in the pipeline between the tanks and the pump suction. The customary units of NPSH are in feet of fluid absolute. ooking atthe above formula for NPSHa we can calculate the following in Figure 4.24See =) apy susenua f+ CoS Sippy Fan Seon Fw 400 US apm mene Senior won | o'te eas toes 13a ‘Seton Elevation 85 Sus Sumo aa Sed 40008 gon Pseropmg Suchen Eevton: 854 14 7.0256) x 14416228) + (105 -95)- 1.7 NPSHa = (14 7.0256) x 1462.25) + (90-95)-1.7 NPSHa= $1738 NPSHa ©2573 Flooded Su ‘Suction Lift Figure 4-24 NPSHa data showing NPSHa calculation for flooded suction and suetion lift Since having adequate NPSH is such an important pat of effective pump operation, we will investigate in more detail how the various elements of the NPSH calculation affect the value. Often as pumping requirements change overtime, an installed pump will start cavitating. With the following examples, we can see what can be done to increase the NPSHa at a pump Location of Pump in the System ‘he location of the pump inthe system has a major effect on the NPSH calculation, When designing new system, itis much easier to lower a pump or inerease the elevation of a tank before the system is built After the system is built, itis much more dificult to change the elevation of the tank or pump suction, bur the same result can be realized by increasing the operating liquid level in the supply tank. Pump Suction Piping {he head loss component ofthe NPSH calculation is based onthe losses associated with the pump suc- tion pipeline, Often, these losses can become significant, especially when the flow rate through a pro. cess'is increased. Increasing the flow rate through a pipeline (caused by increasing the system capacity) Will sometimes cause a pump to start cavitatng. This occurs for the following two reasons. First, the NPSHa at the pump suction decreases because of the increased head loss resulting from the increased fow rate. Secondly, when the flow rate through the pump increases, the NPSH required by the pump also increases. One way to increase the NPSHa at the pump suction is to reduce the head loss. This can be accom- Plished by increasing the diameter of the suction pipeline or selecting valves with lower losses (for example replacing a globe valve with a gate valve). Both of these changes will reduce the head loss in the suction pipeline but require major changes on an existing system, Fluid Properties The process fluid along with its temperature, can have a major effect on the NPSHa atthe pump sue ‘ion, For example, water at 68° F has a vapor pressure of 0.34 psia, while water at 200° F has a vapor Pressure of 11.54 psia, Increasing the fluid temperature increases the vapor pressure, which greatly VDULURVAUVALATTTALITT ETC CTTPiping System Fundamentals redies the NPSHa at the pump suction, Table 4-1 below shows how the vapor pressures vary based on the fluid and its temperature Ethanol Ethanol 150F Methyl acetate 68F ‘Methyl acetate 5 Table 4-1 The efec of temperature on the vapor pressure ofa fluid he important thing to remember is that any change in vapor Pressure of the process fluid affects the NPSHa. Changing the operating temperature of the fuid or changing the process fluid usually results in a new fluid vapor pressure, Changes to the fluid type or temperature also have an effect on the viscosity of the fluid. As the tempera- thay ofthe fluid decreases, the viscosity has a tendency to increase, thereby inc the pipeline, An increase in viscosity causes the NPSHa at the Pump suction to decrease Increasing the Aud temperature also increases the vapor pressure, which reduces the NPSHa. How: sin the suction pipeline, resulting in an inerease in the NPSHa, Because st these conflicting changes in the fluid properties, it is wise to calculate the NPSHa any time there ie any change in the process fluid or temperature Supply Tank Pressure Changing the pressure on the liquid surface ofthe supply tank wil also increase the NPSHa at the pump cota the Supply tank is pressurized and the NPSHaat the pump suction meena tobe increased, one option would be to increase the pressure atthe suction tank. Prior to ‘making any changes in suction tank Presstfe, one must ensure thatthe suction tank vessel is designed to handle the nen Pressure. Another condition that affects the NPSHa is the local atmospheric pressure. At sea level, the local a pspheric pressure is 14.7 psa, but if the pumping application is located in Denver, Colorado, at 5,200 f. above sea level, the local atmospheric pressure is 13.13 psia. When designing or installing pumps at focations with higher elevations, one should always factor inthe Ine fer atmospheric pressure value in the NPSHa calculation, Pump Affinity Rules As mentioned earlier, the pump curve describes how the Pump will operate. Centrifugal pumps must tl present characteristic curves so the flow rate through the pump is determined by the differen- Lal pressure across the pump, The shape of the pump curve is a ea of the various options used by Pump designers to create a product that can be used fora range of expected operational requirements, There are few pump design options available to the user tha will change the shape of the pump curve {o increase the tility of a pump design, the manufacturer allows the user to change the pump speed and impeller diameter. These two user design options allow the same Pump to run under a wider range oF conditions. We will examine how changes tothe pump impeller diameter and speed affect the pump 63reid head data is obtained to erecta allowable operating region, Therefore, when you are us adjust the head and flow rate of 4 single point o n the pump curve, Changes in impeller Speed When changing a pamp’s rotational speed, the head, ” SSPaCity, and power for a point onthe Pump curve YT according to the pump affinity rules Equation 4-2 Capacity Q/Q=N, Equation 4-3 Head H/H, = (N,N, Equation 4-4 Power P.P,= WNP Q= capacity H=head P =power N = speed © (cust Using Pump Atty Rules Figure 4-25 Pump performance ‘Curve corrected for different "tational speeds using the affinity rete, 64 (teteeceecsPiping System Fundamentals S @ pump performance curve 2 2400 to 1450 rpm, This eral of What happens to a pump care Wen the pump speed is reduced, THe Pump speeds, Changes in Impeller Diameter When changing the impeller diameter of @ pump, the head, capac curve varies in accordance w; Equation #5 Capacity Equation 4-6 Head Equation 4-7 Power 1% and power for points on the Pump ‘th the pump affinity rules QQ =D/p, Q= capacity H=head P= power D =impeller diameter 8 the change in rotational the design of the impeller. When ar impeller is det Surface of the impeller and the impeller sai ition, asthe impeller diameter SS reduced, the width of the impeller vane becomes thicker, resulting in a smaller Percentage of flow passage. These two Conditions have a tendency to af fect the shape of the pump curve ‘AS 8 result, the affinity rules sheuna be used only for small changes mayne diameters. A beter approach ‘0 interpolate between two known impeller diameters on the manufacturer's pump curve. red al #2 Fun the pump, along withthe main. ed directly, and the cost of ‘maintenance varies Considerably, we will concentrate on of Power needed for pump operation ata single flow rate or over be affected by variations infe Se A inps: Calculating Pump Operating Cost The operating cost is the cast of the The spr eautted to run a pump for one yea This cost information an be considered when comparing the advantages of a specific pump or different methods of flow control through the pump The shaft horsepower is calculated Using the following equation: Fauationt8 stp = Qin %y (047,000 * ef) Shp = shaft horsepower Q= flow rate in gallons per minute th = pump total head in ft P= fluid density in tbype Pump efficiency The electric horsepower is calculated as follows Equation 4-9 ehp = hp / (eff, * eff.) chp = motor electrical horsepower eff, = motor efficiency ff, = variable frequency drive efficiency Fixed Speed Flow Control ‘The only way to vary the flow rate ofa Pith Operating at fixed speed is to use a control valve down. Aifam from the pump, In a fixed speed tal peaiOt, the pump produces greater head st lower flow rates Additionally, the system requires levs voter Pump head to transport the liquid. As a result, the exce FiBY must be removed from the system by the control valve in the form of excess turbulence an The energy removed by the control ‘alveis paid for in increased pump operating cost. When calculating the operating cost for fixed speed operation, one must consider the higher head that the pump produces at lower flow ‘ales, along with the reduced pump efficiency. Variable Speed Flow Control When operatin, the pump equal ve the pump only produces the head needed to transport the liquid “Piping system. Since there is no excess ee go MOVE, the pump consumes lege Power and i less expensive to operate, We will be Covering the operation of variable speed ant fixed speed tives in Chapter 8 and Chapter 9, ff terrseccPiping System Fundamentals Operating Pumps Properly Once a pump is installed in a fluid Piping systey Trea Nt be operated properly in order to minimize lined rent UnexPected downtime: Below ny ‘ew items one should be aware ot ensure con- tinued trouble free operation Startup and Shutdown Starting up and shutting down centr ifiage al pumps must be done using the manufacturer's recommenda. tions. When starting a pump, the driver drags Temendous amount ofenergy on tne of the purmp. Ifan electric motor is weed to drive th of the idle pump. This results in.a tremend Tale, but itis safe to assume that no pump 7 ee TUM With the discharge valve shut {or any length of time. A pump with an efficiency of 40% to, " 'Y KW of power supplied to the PUP by the motor, 60% 10 20% of thar nergy is trans- MiP by turbulence and friction. This exe Pi NetBY manifests itself in the form of heat valy temoved by the uid passing through the pump, but ifthe discharge valve is closed and no liquid is passing through ihe Pump, it will overheat, which causes excessive wear, mnimum flow recirculation line be connected directly back into snp iPeline. This disturbs the smooth fou of liquid into the pump suetion and does not te, and when the “ase. AS the pump runs further 19 1's important to know the maximum flow allowed through each Centrifugal pump and to ensure the Pump is not run beyond this point 67ILS NPSH ‘The majority of centrifugal pumps are not designed to cavitate for extended Periods. As a result, the FR itt always have sufficient NPSH for the entire range of flow rates suction Pressures, tank lev- cls, and fluid properties it may face. The difficulties in determining whether there is adequate NPSH for a pump comes from the fluctuation of NPSHa with varying suction conditions and the variation in 4 pump’s NPSHr with changing flow rate, Fluid Considerations ‘The pump performance depends on the properties of the fluid Passing through it. The greater the density ofthe liquid, the more power thats required by the pump. A higher viscosity fluid results in lower flow Tate, head, and efficiency, also increasing the pumps power consurnption In addition, a change in fluid vapor pressure or an increase in fluid viscosity can have a detrimental ef- fect on the NPSHa at the pump suction, Process fluids with grit or small solids ean cause mechanical erosion in the pump, and special consid- ration should be made concerning material selection when pumping slurries, Ifthe fluid is not water at ambient temperature, its advisable to perform a detailed analysis of the pump System requirements and to contact the pump manufacturer to ensure the Pump will operate properly and satisfy the process conditions, TUUTTUVLVALChapter Five Control Valves In this chapter, we will discuss control valves, While isolation valves and control valves may share the same Physical characteristics, an ‘solation valve’ primary purpose is to be either Sully open to allow flow or fully closed to isolate equipment in the piping system. A conol valve is part of a control loop that is used ng maintain a set value ofa monitored process variable.Chapter 5: Control Valves Controlled Loops Figure 5-1 shows a typical control | Controller | FIC - 101 loop consisting of a sensor, transmit- ter, controller, and actuated control valve. The sensor measures a process variable, and the transmitter sends the | Transmitter appropriate signal to a controller, The controler then evaluates the measured Cy Actuated variable and sends the appropriate sig- Control nal to the actuated control valve, in order to adjust the valve position and, ultimately, the process variable. FE-101 FCV - 101 Actuated controls are used in a widpiggure 5-1 The vari@epggponents ofa process control Joop. variety of control applications. De- pending on the process variable being ‘monitored, the control valve can be used to maintain a set flow rate, pressure, temperature, tank level, or pH, just to name a few. Control loops usually fall under the domain of the instrument and control group. In this chapter, we will be covering only the control valve portion of the control loop. We will be limiting our discussion to the hydraulic aspects of the control valve because it can have a major impact on the operation of a piping system. Ina piping system, a control valve will be called upon to regulate flow rate, upstream pressure, down- stream pressure, or differential pressure across the valve. Actuated Control Valve ‘The actuated control valve is what typically comes to mind when one mentions a control valve in a fluid piping system, The control valve consists of three basic components: + The valve body; including the valve stem, disk, and seat (sometimes referred to as the throttling clement), including, the pressure boundary. + The actuator, the device that positions the throttling element inside the valve body. + The accessories: including the positioner, UP transducer, limits switches, air set, position sensors, solenoid valves, and travel stops, along with a manual hand wheel. It is important to remember that an actuated control valve is part of an extemal control loop, consisting of a sensor and a transmitter, Because of the variety of supporting equipment required for the control Joop, using a control valve to maintain a process variable is expensive. However when the process vari- able must be maintained within a tight range, using an external control loop and properly sized control valve is necessary because of the degree of control they provide. Self Contained Regulator A self-contained regulator is a complete control system that combines the process sensor, controller, and control valve all in one. It is estimated that, when properly used, regulators could replace actuated control valves in at least 25% of all control loops. The advantages of self-contained regulators include cost, excellent frequency response, good range-ability, space savings, limited valve leakage, and not requiring electricity or air in order to operate. The process fluid provides the energy required to operate 70 TEUERUUUUERUTTRRADERUDIVVVTE EET IP EI IISPiping System Fundamentals the valve. ‘The disadvantages of self-contained regulators are a fixed Proportional band, no reset action, limited Size, and pressure rating, along with limited choice of material and end connections. Throttle Valves Phen, the throtling elements ofa valve can be manually placed into position to maintain a set value For example, if a desired flow rate is required through » Pipeline one can read the flow rate through, the Pipeline by observing a flow-metering device. Based on the actual flow rate and the desired flow fate through the pipeline, the valve hand wheel can then be tuned tn increase or decrease the flow rate through the valve tothe desired value. In this situation, 2 Person is assuming the part of the transmiter, controller, and positioner. Manually operated throttle valves are often used in systems where the process variables do not signifi- qinly change. The tolerances and speed of a manual control are linitaa Asa result, manually operated throttle valves are used on systems that do not require a tight range of control Often, one will see multiple types of controls used in the same system. Common to all of the aforemen- Aoned control types isthe valve and how it operates within the toe piping system, We will be covering this in the remainder of this chapter How a Control Valve Operates Zo reduce the flow rate in a pipeline, additional head loss friction, for example must be added. As covered in Chapter 3, the head loss in a pipeline can be increased by either making the pipe material rougher, the inside pipe diameter smaller, or the pipeline longer. Since these options are not viable to Provide any operational control tothe system, there is better Way to adjust the friction in a pipeline spats OF 8 control valve. (Note: The valve shown is a single seated globe valve, but the same prin- Cipals apply to all types of control valves.) To understand how ¢ Control valve operates, we will discuss how the energy grade and hydraulic grade varies as the fluid travels through the valve The energy grade line shows the total amount. of energy available in the fluid as described by the Ber Roulli equation, Any reduction inthe energy grade line indigates « loss of energy to the system caused by fiction. Inthe hydraulic grade lin, the velocity head Component of the fluid is factored out of the ‘otal pressure from the energy grade. The hydraulic grade line indecates the height of a column of fluid that could be supported.Chapter 5: Control Valves Energy) Grade Hydraulic Grade | | | Controt Valve Reducer Drop | [Pressure Drop Py yj S | / I | pete | | Vena Contracta | i 4 | TCC rrr. Figure 5-2 Cross section of a control valve with corresponding energy and hydraulic grade lines for flow through the valve. At the upstream location, (position 1) fluid is lowing in the pipeline, and the total energy is indicated by the energy grade line, The small drop in the energy grade line, from the upstteam location ta the inlet of the reducer (position 2), is caused by the frictional loss in the pipeline As previously mentioned, the hydraulic grade line is calculated by subtracting the velocity head from the energy grade line. Since the ‘locity is constant in the inlet pipeline, the energy grade line and hydraulic trade lines ae parallel, As the fluid enters the inlet reducer ofthe control valve, the flow area decreases, resulting in an increase jn the uid velocity. Increasing the fuid velocity causes additional turbulence and increases the head Hoss in the reducer, over the straight section of pipe. This is represented in Figure 5-2 by a decrease in the energy grade line through the reducer (position 2 to positon 3). Since the fluid velocity increases in the reducer (due to the change in eross sectional are), the velocity component of the energy line tnereases, causing a reduction in the hydraulic grade line through the reducer Ashe fluid enters the control valve (postion 3), it quickly changes direction by 90°, In addition tothe change in direction, there is often a reduction of the cross-sectional flow area between the valve inletPiping System Fundamentals andthe How Passage through the valve seat (positon 4). Finally, there is another 90° change of dire. Lomas the fluid moves through the valve seat to the valve outlet (position 3). The changes of direerg And the increase in uid velocity cause increased turbulence in the valve, resulting ina head loss aenen the valve body. ‘The interaction between the valve seat and valve plug creates additional turbulence and provides the contol valve with the ability to vary the differential pressure across the valve, The valve seat hed within the valve body. The valve plug is connected tothe valve stem, which can be moved into and set of the flow stream. As the plug moves into the flow stream, tis reduces the area of fluid flows through the valve seat. This reduction in cross-sectional area causes an increase inthe fluid velocity at the valve seat, resulting in additional turbulence. Notice that the energy grade line decreases as the fluid passes through the control valve (position 3 to onion ©) in the energy grade and hydraulic grade profile, The hydraulic grade line also drops from the ‘alse inlet tothe valve seat (position 3 to postion 4). After passing through the valve seat, the hydraulic grade line increases to the valve outlet (position 5). ige, the cross-sectional area increases, causing eduction of the fluid velocity, The reduction in fluid velocity decreases the velocity component of the pressure, resulting in an even larger increase in the hydraulic grade AS the fluid exits the valve (position S) and passes through the reducer (position 6), there is an increase in the cross-sectional area for flow, which decreases the fluid velocity through the outlet reduce: the ‘Giuction in fluid velocity causes the conversion ofthe velocity head to hydraulic grade, In addition, there isa reduetion of the energy grade line through the outlet reducer. This is caused by the turbulence in the reducer. 4s shown, the uid's energy grade line drops as it passes through the contol valve and reducers This ‘top is caused by the turbulence that occurs in the valve body. The hydraulic grade line deomance a faster rate than the energy line onthe valve inlet, but as the fluid slows as it exits the control val e, the velocity head is converted back to pressure head, resulting in a pressure increase Sizing Control Valves ‘The method for sizing control valves is outlined in the Instrumentation, System, and Automation Soci- <0 (SA) standard ISA-S75.01 Flow Equations for Sizing Control Valves. This standard can {he selection of control valves and can be used to determine how they operate in a piping In this section, we will deal strictly with incompressible fluid flow of a ‘non-vaporizing liquid. The flow rate through @ control valve ata specific position is a function of the differential Pressure across the valve. The equation to determine the fiow rate through a control valve is shown below Equation 5-1 Q=10 Fc, jase volumetric flow rate gpm Q F,, = piping geometry factor C, = valve flow coefficient (provided by the valve manufacturer)(fapter 9: Control Valves >, », G, = liquid specific gravity upstream conditions upstream absolute static pressure fownstream absolute static pressure The piping geometry factor (F,) accounts forthe fitting attached to the valve inlet or outlet that affect the flow coefficient of the valve attached to the fittings. The F, is the ratio of the flow coefficient with the reducers attached to the valve inlet and outlet to the flow coefficient of the valve installed in a straight pipe of the same diameter. This is calculated using Equation 5-2. Equation $-2 Fea eopar tl K, d_ = inside pipe diameter in inches ‘locity head coefficients of valve inlet and outlet reducers The calculation of the K, velocity head coefficient for the reducers connected to the valve inlet and outlet is calculated as: ey K,=1g1-& a Equation 5: 4, = valve diameter in inches 4d, = pipe diameter in inches UF the valve inlet and outlet diameters and connecting pipeline diameters ae the same, K, equals zero and F, becomes 1 In looking at the relationships of each variable in equations 5-1 through 5-3 individually, we can deter- ‘mine how a control valve will operate, The following results are shown with equation 5-1 * When the control valve inlet pressure p, increases, the flow rate through the valve will increase. * When the control valve outlet pressure p, increases, the flow rate through the valve will decrease. * When the differential pressure (p, ~ p,) across the control valve increases, the flow rate will increase. * I the C, value of the control valve increases (ie. the valve opens), the flow rate through the control valve increases. * Ifthe fuid’s specific gravity increases, the flow rate through the control valve decreases Equations 5-2 and 5-3 show that as the difference between the pipe diameter and valve diameter in creases, F, decreases. In other words, when a smaller control valve is placed in a larger pipeline, the effective C, value for the control valve decreases. Please note that control valves are never connected to pipes with smaller diameters than the valve. Control Valve Description three at-Piping System Fundamentals + Characteristic Trim + Valve Body Style + Pressure Rating Each of these is d Characteristic Trim The characteristic trim describes how the flow 90 through the valve is affected by the valve’s po- 80 sition. This often referred to as the “inherent 0 flow characteristic.” The characteristic trim is the relationship between the flow coefficient 60 C, and the valve travel. There are three com 50 monly used flow characteristics (linear, equal 40 Percentage, and quick opening), but some P manufacturers have created customized char- acteristic trims. Figure 5-3 shows how the C, 20 value changes as a function of valve position 10 for each of the three primary trim types, Percent of Maximum Flow E% o © 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 For a linear characteristic, a change in the C, Percent of Rated Travel value is directly proportional to the change in favel. Looking at pees 3, one CN SE Ficure 5.3 Characteristic curves for linear, equal how the percentage of flow rate increases in a percentage, and quick opening vahcrving linear manner as the valve continues to open, Valves with linear characteristics are often used for liquid level control For the equal percentage characteristic, the flow rate increases exponentially as the valve position in- weer’. Notice thatthe percentage of flow increases slowly a the valve comes affine open seat. As the Valve approaches the fully open position, the flow rate increases quickly. Equal percentage characteris- tics are often used on pressure control applications Sttaristies are used primarily for on/off applications or when a large low tate muey be achieved quickly, as with pressure reducing applications. ‘The characteristic curve is based upon the following conditions * The pressure drop remains constant with changes in low rate * There willbe no lashing, cavitation, oF sone flow during the range of valve travel * The valve is not installed between reducers ‘he choice ofthe valve characteristic trim deals more withthe contol of the system. This is typically determined by the instrumentation and controls group, Valve Body Styles Control valve body styles fll into two categories: linear motion and rotary motion. There are varieties of valve types in each category. In this section, we will go over the construction of the different types and how they are used in a fluid piping system, 5Chapter 5: Control Valves Fach control valve body style has specific ranges of service and operating advantages, as shown in the following Table 5-1 Table Linear Rotary sis Bains [paehy vane ue ee 210 tower ink ee Vacant xe xo ow 2s an Stops Se a ee Spang cap comes worse — farses [eownso ningemtcomelvimy t+ [anata | SE met ioe mo ; copie Hi ims z y y Pepa campeltenge [7 eae y ; = z ; yi a y z g i f H E Sa el ’ ; ; ree 7 Velen z ; , gusts i Hi Ti oe nara a sina frsoreso01 [rm seine rm ovens ’ ; ; cecacl yi y z Ss f H Tao eee = cnt soe trim servicing in place removal”? removal eee ay mae aoe Opsingcos ea ’ ’ ’ ace tind x x flashing v v v cos ° x x ta ein itowssea Bence | Sate cig ma : ¢ : Fata z M : ee a | “1 Specifications and features for linear motion, rotary ball, and rotary butterfly valves TEUUUUULUUUUVTRRDRTARAEDIDDIEES TET ET TTTPiping System Fundamentals VALVE PLUG STEM |< eacKine Fane nero YOKE LOCKNUT PACKING PACKING BOX BONNET GASKET SPIRAL WOUND GASKET VALVE PLUG CAGE ‘SEAT RING GASKET {Figure 5-4 Internal components ofa ypical linear control valve, courtesy Fisher Controls International LC. Control Valve Types Linear Motion Control Serene — Valve ‘Spring chamber — Ina linear motion control valve, the | "eH fiow rate is controlled by the lin- ear motion of a valve plug attached to a stem. The valve plug is moved ( Ae into and out of the valve seat, re- | Seroacuse: sulting in a change of the flow path | S*"sses%—— area through the seat. When the | Tainscw area decreases, the velocity of the fluid flowing through the valve seat increases. This increase in veloc- ity causes greater turbulence in the fe —— valve, resulting in a larger pressure drop (i.e. head loss). Conotar sgn Figure 5-4 shows the various internal components, and Figure 5-5 shows the external components found in a ‘typical linear motion valve. Figure 5-5 External components of a typical linear control To better explain each component, vaive courtesy Fisher Controls International LLC.Chapter 5: Control Valves wwe shall start at the bottom ofthe valve and work our way upward, The firs item is the valve body, Consisting ofa valve inlet, outlet, and body or bonnet joint. Notice in the cross-sectional diagram that there isa 90° change in direction ofthe fluid immediately after it enters the valve body. The fluid then proceeds through the valve seat and changes direction 90° again before leaving the valve, The valve Me Te niga Sereved into position inthe valve body, allowing the seat to be replaced when neces sary: In addition, the valve seat and valve plug can be replaced as a set. These come in different sizes, allowing for a wider range of operation forthe same valve body, Tie valve bonnet is connected tothe valve body. The bonnet contains the guides for the valve plug and tare Suppor the valve plug as itis inserted into the fuid stream. The valve gland consists of packing {hat is inserted into the recess between the valve bonnet and the valve stem, The packing is held into place by a bolted gland. The valve yoke connects the actuator to the valve bonnet. The pneumatic actuator, shown in Figure 5-5, consists of the yoke, spring, spring chamber, and diaphragm motor, Often, there ie vy el indica. ‘or showing the position of the vaive in relation to the valve’s full travel. The valve positioner is con- nected to the valve yoke. canarae ihe valve stem to move. The input air tothe positioner comes in at a fixed value, and ma ac Control signal regulates the motive air pressure going to the actuator. The actuator hes pressure cham- ber complete with a diaphragm that provides the motive force to move the valve stent spring acts against the diaphragm, providing the motive force that opens or closes the has an input from the valve indicator to determine the position of the val The location of the diaphragm and opposing spring is determined by valve failure ‘upon the loss of the ontrl signal For example, inthe valve shovin in Figure 5-5, a loss of air pressure to the Positioner would allow the spring to force the valve closed Now that we have identified the basic parts ofa linear acting contol valve, we shall cover the various types of valve bodies that are available Globe Valves Globe valves are a class of linear action valve with valve bodies that tend to be in a compact “spherical” shape, giv- ing them the name globe valves. In this section, we will discuss the various types of linear motion valves with the globe-style body. Single Port Globe Valves Figure 5-6 shows a typical single ported globe valve. The valve consists of a valve body, bonnet, stem, and plug, As Previously mentioned, the seat can be removed for repair. In addition, a reduced ported plug can be inserted into the valve in order to change its control characteristics As the fluid flows through the valve, the turbulence be- (een the valve seat and plug can cause lateral forces on Figure 5-6 Single port globe valve, cour ‘he plug, resulting ina bend ofthe shaft as well as vibra-_ tesy Fisher Controls International LLPiping System Fundamentals tion. guide is used in the bonnet in order to steady the plug under varying flow rates and minimize its lateral movement, Finally, there is considerable unbalanced force on the plug because ofthe difference in area between the bottom and top of the plug and the differential pressure across the valve Tra exerts additional force 'pon the valve stem and may require a thicker stem and a larger actuator Single ported globe valves are also manufactured ina 90° angle and inline style, The 90° angle valve is useful when the pipeline with the control valve needs to make a change of direction, eliminating the need for an addition elbow. The inline valve pattern has the valve stern plug, and seat on an oblique angle, minimizing the number of directional changes of the fluid. Dual Port Globe Valves Figure 5-7 shows a cross - ft section of a dual port | Sarés¥éna——— globe valve. On the dia. | S*———— gram, there are two seats, | Pa%srs——— and the plug has two seat. ing areas. The flow enters | ®%-———— the valve through the inlet | Sybeern— Port, diverges through | sss — each of the valve seats, travels around the plug, and then converges before leaving the valve. The advantage of the dual port valve is its ability to balance the hydrostatic and hydrodynamic forces. The pressure differential acts both upward and downward upon the upper and lower plug areas, can- celing out the hydrostatic and hydrodynamic forces upon the plug. The only unbalanced Figure 5.7 Dual port globe valve, courtesy Fisher Controls force on the dual ported plug is Jnternational LLC. that caused by the difference in area of the valve stem passing through the valve gland to 1 must be overcome by the valve actuator. Since this unl than the single port valve, the actuator can be smaller. the atmosphere, Any difference in pressure balanced force is smaller on the dual port valve Cage-Trim Valves The cage trim design eliminates many of the problems associated wit th the single port and dual port Slabe valves. Cage trim valves have the following advantages over sin ile and dual port valves * Greater capacity for a given body size Less prone to vibration fiom the fluid passing through the valve0 OSPSEN 9° COWTOE Valves: * Reduce cavitation and the damage caused by cavitation + Less noise + Greater serviceability As shown on the cross sectional diagram in Fig- ure 5-8, the plug in a cage trim vale is guided in the cage as the plug opens and closes, This increases the lateral stability, reducing vibra. tions in the valve. By drilling balancing holes in the plug, the process pressure acts equally upon both sides of the plug minimizing problems with unbalanced pressures. A seal is fitted into the balancing holes to allow for a tight shutoff The shape of the ports through the cage can be Varied to provide the desired characteristic trim, In addition, special cages are designed to reduce noise and cavitation in the valve. To get a wide Tange of operation from a single valve body, the manufacturer can change the number and size ofthe holes in the cage. By having a variety of cages for the same valve, the user can quickly change the capacity of a valve by changing out its cage. Multi Port Globe Valve Multi port globe valves allow diverting or mixing of fluids. These valves always have to seats. The plug can be a double-ended single plug or two separate plugs. The valve body has three ports. For diverting applica: tions, one port serves as the inlet and the other two as the outlets, These valves are often used in HVAC chilled water applications, When the multi port valve is used for mixing two uids, two of the ports serve as inlets, and the mixture exits the remaining port, Pinch Valves The pinch valve shown in Figure 5-9 consists of a valve body that holds @ flexible sleeve, which is the only component exposed to the Process fluid. Since the sleeve is comprised of resilient elastomers, there is less wear in the valve when compared to those with ceramic or metal alloy trims. The valve and sleeve are the same diameter as the connecting pipelines, 80 Figure Valve Company, Figure 5-8 Cage-1rim dual port globe valve, courtesy Fisher Controls International LLC. 5-9 A typical pinch valve, courtesy the RedPiping System Fundamentals 0 there is typically no pressure drop actoss the fully opened valve, he valve operates when the sleeve is compressed, reducing the cro T Compression of the sleeve can occur in one of tne ays. The simplest method is to have a mechani. cal bar that presses against the sleeve in one or twe locations. The mechanical bar pinches the flexible Sleeve and restricts the flow. The second method isto House the flexible sleeve in a pressure containes An extemal pressure source is connected to the pressun, container and the space between the pressure within tg and sleeve is pressurized, The pressure on the outside Of the sleeve causes a constriction ‘within the valve, reducing the area and restricting the flog Spring Close Spring Open Double Acting EC Actuator EC Actuator EC Actuator Figure 5-10 typical diaphragm valve, courtesy Crane Saunders Pushes against the diaphragm, nazrowing the distance betw ‘cen the diaphragm and the weir in the valve body. The higher fluid velocity in the narrowed B4P increases the turbulence, increasing differential Pressure (i.e. head loss) Rotary Motion Control Valve In a rotary motion control valve the flow rate is pnuoled by turing a moving control element (ball, isk, oF plug) into the flow stream. When the vale is fully open, the controlling element presents the Emllest resistance to low. As the controlling element rotated in the flowing stream, the cross-see. onal area of the flow passage decreases Figure 5-11 shows a typical butterfly contol valve Notice the exterior of the valve has an actuator, ait nl Positioner similar tothe linear motion valve. On the inside of the valve, the flow passage is Straight eliminating the need forthe uid to change direction. atChapter 5: Control Valves One advantage of the rotary valve designs is that the hy- draulic balance of the valve minimizes the fluid force on the trim. Additionally, these valves have a tenden- cy to be less expensive than the linear motion control valves. These valves also have an unobstructed flow passage and a large capac- ity factor. Since there are fewer obstructions in the flow path, the rotary valve design works well with slurries, paper stock, and solids in suspension. There is one disadvantage that may limit their use in high-pressure drop applica- tions or when flashing or cavitation may occur, due toa high-pressure recovery Under these conditions, the fluid velocity through the valve can cause noise and excess wear. Ball Valves The flow through a ball valve is controlled by the position of the hole through the ball. This type of valve isused to control flow, pres- sure in gas distribution sys- tems, and pressure reduc- tion in gas storage systems Ball valves are supplied in full port and reduced port designs, Figure 5-12 shows atypical ball valve. The full port design ball valves are primarily used in CONTOURED DISK BUTTERFLY VALVE Figure 5-11 The exterior of a typical butterfly rotary motion control, valve courtesy Fisher Controls International LLC. iapnage: A pressure Setng ‘chamber Va boty Voo:bat Insoara arg rousing Packing box Positioner Figure 5-12 Typical ball valve, courtesy Fisher Controls International LLC, cil and gas distribution systems. Tis is because a cleaning pig can be sent through the pipeline and pass through fully open ball valves without requiring the valve to be disassembled. One disadvantage ofthe full port ball valve is its poor control characteristics. Since the flow path is straight through a ball valve and there is little resistance to flow in the open position, it does not have great control unless itis near 82 5Piping System Fundamentals its fully closed position. Therefore, accurate Bo all ne dS necessary for good control of a ball valve One disadvantage of operating the valve near its fully closed position isthe higher fuid velocity, which can result in excess noise and wear Ina reduced port ball valve, the diameter is smaller than the adjacent pipelines. 1 y thane Feducers on the valve's inlet and outlet. The reducers increase the velocity of the fluid as it enterg the valve and also increase the friction loss while in the fully open position. As a result, a duced port ball valve will con- trol better than a full port ball valve when operated further from its fully closed position Characterized Ball Valves Ball valves are characterized by either a specially profited YON hole through the ball or by add. he \ ing additional elements to the wren Key CHM FOLOMER round bore. For example, one manufacturer's design has a V- Cut into the surface of the ball sree sect Figure 5-13 An example ofa characterized ball valve, courtesy Fishey inthe opening of the ball valve Co”trols International LLC that allows for a wider range of control and prevents clogging These features make the valve suitable for paper stock, fibrous materials, and slurries, These valves are used in systems in Which the process requires « large control range with low. Pressure drops, Another way of producing a characterized ball valve is to drill a number of small holes (instead of a single large hole) through the ball. This increases the pressure drop across the valve, which increases the control range and reduces the noise level eaing) ——\PTFEV-Ring _Spineg / Bearng. «Pctng Sat - Butterfly Valves Ca Butterfly valves ae suitable for Figure 5-14 4 ypical butterfly valve, courtesy Fisher Controls S wide range of temperatures Invernationg] LLC. 83,Chapter 5: Control Valves and Pressures. They have a simple design when FT aed {© ball or globe valve which makes them lead enanutacture, Butterfly valves work well ac control or isolation valves. Figure 'ypical butterfly vaive 5-14 shows a As with the ball valve, the butterfly-controlling element can be characterized by changing its shape of drilling small orifices on the edge of the disk Eccentric Rotating Plug Valves ‘Ac shown in Figure 5-15, an eccentric rotating plug valve Combines the unobstructed passage ofa ball ralve witha metal-to-metal seating surface in order to provide a bubble tight shut-oft that typical of a Beane Figure 5-154 ppical buttery valve with eccentric rotating plug, courtesy Fisher Controls International LIC. SS THROUGH siNCH Size Single seated globe valve. The plugs can also be Characterized to further extend the range of the valve, Plug Valves A blug valve is similar in construction toa bal v alve, but instead of the controlling element being a spherical ball, the plug is cylindrical with @ rectangular hole through it Pressure Rating 84 - - - EEREPiping System Fundamentals Selecting Control Valves This section describes how control valves operate in ld piping systems. When you are experiencing cavitaion witha control valve or are concerned thatthe fd in the valve i laminar ite highly recom. mended that you contact a control valve representative for additional assistance Normal Conditions In order to size or evaluate a control v; information is necessary: lve using the method outlined in the standard, the following + Valve infet and outlet conditions Pressure Temperature Piping geometry + Liquid properties Composition Density Vapor pressure Viscosity ‘Thermodynamic critical pressure * Control Valve Properties Size Valve travel Flow path geometry A control valve must meet the requirements of the control loop and the piping system. The design conditions are the primary sizing criteria used to select a control valve and tre 'ypically the most de- ‘manding conditions the valve willbe expected to handle. The design conditions uote size the control valve representa worst-case operating scenario, For example, one may specify the maximum pressure Possible at the inlet and the minimum pressure possible atthe outlet, eveq though these two pressures fiona ean tte same time. One may think that ifa valve is selected using these exter: condi that the apes able to operate under any condition, However, the only thing this method wil ensure is that the valve will NOT be sized properly for the system. ‘When specifying a control valve, one must make sure to consider how the v alve will operate under the design conditions, as well as the minimum and maximum flow conditions Additionally, if the valveChapter 5: Control Valves Control Valve Cavitation hydraulic grade line at the valve seat decreasey sre {0 the increased velocity of the fluid as it passes through the smaller space between the valve plug and seat IF the Aud pressure atthe valve seat drops below the vapor pressure of the liquid (Figure 5-16) then Vapor bubbles will form in the liquid. The vapor bubble: displace some of the liquid in the valve and pra teduction in How rate through the control valve i | r Downstream If Pressure Fluid Vapor . . | Pressure ” Velocity! ° Cavitation} Pigure 5-16 Energy and hydraulic grade lines across a cavitating control vatve, | VUUUUUUT IT aaaaaaeccecnseaag | After the mixture of liquid and vapor bubbles Pisses through the valve sea, it lows, causing the pres- bubble re’se: Once the downstream pressure increases above the liquids vapor pressure, the vapor bubbles collapse. The collapse of the vapor bubbles jacteases the turbulence in the valve and produces and wale poise: As the vapor bubbles collapse on the metal Surfaces of the valve, it can cause pitting and valve failure over time,ecause their effect on important. When the N§ evaluated, the “Pipeline can greatly increase ening in the total system Operation ability 10 determine one’s understanding ‘th it that includes the initial Cost, the ongoing maintenance COSt, and, in many cases, the Cost to Overcome the head loss occur "NB across the flow meter In this chapter, we x variety of common flow meter pes. This will include Principles, the Suited, and the; °Pthe flow meters’ operational each type of (flow meter is best e system, “plications for which ' hydraulic effect on thChapter 6: Flow Meters Flow Meters A flow meter is a device that is placed in a Place atem that measures the rate of flow in a full ited sed Pipeline, Flow meters can also be placed a ‘Sn open channel, but that implementation ig Outside the scope of this text A flow meter consists of a primary element and preety clement that work together to provide an indication ofthe flow rate. The primary element is Placed inside, or ona pipeline, and generates g signal that is proportional to the flow rate through the Pipeline. The secondary element takes the output signal from the primary element and provides an indication of the flow rate. The discussion ofthe instrumen- is presented below. Differential Pressure Flow Meters Differential pressure flow meters are most Commonly used because of their simple operation and wide acceptance over time, Concentrie Orifices Pressure flow meter is the concentric orifice. It ig estimated that “mercial and industrial metering applications employ orifice flow meters consists of a flat ph fice is placed in the fi across the meter is measi n North America, the two primary standards are the American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME-MFC-3M) and the American Petroleum Institute 2530, The standards also Provide formulas to help calculate the size ofthe primary elemene while stil achieving an accuracy of 40.8 19 0.¢ percent, without the need to calibrate the meter 88 = o- tsFlow Meters A flow meter is a device that is placed in a Piping system that measures the rate of flow in a full- eons zed pipeline. Flow meters can also be placed into an open channel, Outside the scope of this text A flow meter consists of a primary element and Secondary element that work together to provide an trulcation ofthe flow rate. The primary element is placed inside, oron a pipeline, and generates a signal that is proportional to the flow rate through the Pipeline The secondary element takes the output signal fom the primary element and provides an indicaton of the flow rate. The discussion of the instrumen- ‘ation and electronic aspects ofthe flow meter are ouside the scope of this text. Categories of Flow Meters Sire, In order to determine the velocity of the fluid in the Pipeline, one must take the square root of the differential pressure. This type of meter is algo commonly called a differential flow meter because the Primary element provides a differential pressure OF this type is a turbine meter which utilizes a small impeller in the flow stream, The revolutions per ie ate Ya0) linearly with the low rate in the pipeline An overview, ofsome ofthe available meter types is presented below. Differential Pressure Flow Meters Differential pressure flow meters are most Commonly used because of their simple operation and wide acceptance over time Concentric Orifices The most commonly used differential pressure flow ‘meter is the concentric orifice, I is estimated that over 80% of the commercial and industrial metering applications employ orifice flow meters,EOL ECCS: Flow Meters Categories of Flow Meters Flow meters fall into two general categories: square oot and linear. include orifices, flow nozzles, and venturi tubes, The output signal of t Sure. In order to determine the velocity of the fluid in the Pipeline, on differential pressure. This type of meter is also commonly called a differential Primary element provides a differential pressure. Alinear flow meter is one in which the signal from the primary element is linear in nature, One example of this type is a turbine meter which utilizes a small impeller in the flow stream, The revolutions per is presen linearly withthe low rate in the pipeline. An overview of some of the available meter types is presented below. Differential Pressure Flow Meters acceptance over time. Concentric Orifices The most commonly used diffe over 80% of the commercial an: rovide form A given flow rate fora specified differential pressureFlow Meters A flow meter is a device that is placed in a piping system that measures the rate of flow in a full- pressurized pipeline, Flow meters can also be placed into an open channel, but that implementation is outside the scope of this text. A flow meter consists of a primary element and secondary element that work together to provide an indication ofthe flow rat, The primary element is placed inside, or on a pipeline, and generates a signal {hati proportional tothe flow rate through the pipeline. The secondary element takes the output signal from the primary element and provides an indication ofthe flow rate. The discussion of the inetrursen. tation and electronic aspects of the flow meter are outside the scope of this text. Categories of Flow Meters Flow meters fll into two general categories: square root and linear. Examples of square-root meters include orifices, fow nozzles, and venturi tubes. The output signal of these meter isa differential pres. Sure, In order to determine the velocity ofthe fluid in the pipeline, one must take the square root ofthe differential pressure. This type of meter is also commonly called a differential flow meter because the Primary element provides a differential pressure A linear flow mete is one in which the signal from the primary element is linear in nature, One example of this type is a turbine meter which utilizes a small impeller in the flow stream. The revolutions per ‘minute vary linearly withthe flow ste inthe pipeline. An overview of some ofthe available meter types is presented below: Differential Pressure Flow Meters Differential pressure low meters are most commonly used because of thir simple operation and wide acceptance over time. Concentric Orifices The most commonly used differential pressure flow meter is the concentri orifice, Its estimated that over 80% of the commercial and industrial metering applications employ orifice flow meters, A concentric orifice consists of a flat plate of metal with a hole machined in the center, as shown in Figure 6-1. The orifice is placed inthe flow stream between two flanges, and the differential prossure across the meter is measured. The value of the differential pressure across the orifice provides an indica. tion ofthe flow rate through the meter. tab is provided on the orifice to assist in positioning the orifice between the flanges. The meter identification and diameter ofthe primary element is often stamped on the tab to help determine whether the proper primary element is installed. Due to the wide application of orifice meters ina variety of industries, standards have been developed to provide installation and construction guidelines, along with methods to estimate the overall accuracy of the meter. The standards also provide formulas used to size the primary element in order to achiewe a given flow rate for a specified differential pressure. In Non America, the two primary standards are the American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME-MFC-3M) and the American Petroleum Institute 2530. The standards also provide formulas to help calculate the size ofthe primary element while still achieving an accuracy of 40.8 to 0.5 percent, without the need to calibrate the meter.Flow Meters A flow meter is a device that is placed in a piping system that measures the rate of flow in a full- pressurized pipeline. Flow meters can also be placed into an open channel, but ther implementation is Outside the scope of this text. A flow meter consists of a primary element and secondary element that work together to provide an indication of the flow rate. The primary element is placed inside. or on pipeline, and generates a signal {hati proportional to the flow rate through the pipeline. The secondary elesnene takes the output signal from the primary element and provides an indication ofthe flow rate. The discussion of the instrumen- ‘ation and electronic aspects of the low meter are outside the scope of this text Categories of Flow Meters Fray meters fall nto two general categories: square root and linea. Examples of square-root meters include orifices, low nozzles, and venturi tubes. The output signal ofthese metere isa differential pres- A linear flow meters one in which the signal from the primary element is linear in nature, One example of this type i a turbine meter which utilizes a small impeller inthe flow seers The revolutions per Fe presenaty Heatly with the flow rate in the pipeline. An overview of some ofthe available meter types is presented below. Differential Pressure Flow Meters Differential pressure flow meters are most commonly used because of their simple operation and wide acceptance over time. Concentric Orifices ‘The most commonly used differential pressure low meter is the concentric orifice. It is estimated that over 80% of the commercial and industrial metering applications employ orifice rove meters. A concentric orifice consists of a flat plate of metal with a hole machined in the center, as shown in Figure 6-1. The orifice is placed in the flow stream between two flanges, and the differential pressure {Gross the meter is measured. The value ofthe differential pressure across the orifice Provides an indica- between the flanges. The meter identification and diameter of the primary element is often stamped on the tab to help determine whether the proper primary element is installed Due to the wide application of orifice meters in a variety of industries, standards have been developed tc Provide installation and construction guidelines, along with methods to estimate the overall accuracy ofthe meter. The standards also provide formulas used to size the primary element in order to achieve 4 given flow rate for a specified differential pressure In North America, the two primary standards are the American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME-MFC-3M) and the American Petroleum Institute 2530, The standagds aoe provide formulas to help calculate the size of the primary element while still achieving an accuracy of 40.8 to 40.5 percent, without the need to calibrate the meter./IOW Meters A Flow meter is a device that is placed in a Pacey stem that measures the rate of flow in a full- autside aa Pibeline. Flow meters can also be placed into on open channel, but that implementation is Outside the scope of this text, ‘ork together to provide an or on a pipeline, and generates.a signal ‘ondary element takes the output signal rate. The discussion of the instrumen- lutions per F the available m is presented below Differential Pressure Flow Meters Differential pressure flow meters are most Commonly used because oftheir simple operation and wide acceptance over time Concentric Orifices ‘The most commonly used differential Pressure flow meter is the concentric orifice. It is estimated that over 80% of the commercial and industrial ‘metering applications employ orifice flow meters A concentric orifice consists of a flat plate of metal With @ hole machined in the center, as shown in Figure 6-1. The orifice is placed in the low sttenn, between two flanges, and the differential preseure thon ete meter is measured. The value of the differential Pressure across the orifice provides an indica. patofthe low rate through the meter. A tab is provided on the orifice to assist in positioning the orifice between the flanges. The meter identification tot diameter of the primary element is often, stamped on the tab to help determine whether the proper Primary element is installed. ave been developed imate the overall accuracy element in order to achieve In North America, th (ASME-MFC-3M) and the American Petr roleur help calculate the size ofthe primary element Without the need to calibrate the meter.EPI 9+ EtOw Meters Flow Meters A flow meter is a device that is placed in a piping system that measures the rate of flow in a full- aioe da Pipeline. Flow meters can also be placed into an open channel, but tha implementation is Outside the scope of this text A flow meter consists ofa primary element and secondary element that work together to provide an ‘indication of the flow rate. The primary element is placed inside. or on a pipeline, and generates a signal that is proportional to the flow rate through the pipeline. The secondary element takes the output signal From the primary element and provides an indication ofthe ow rate, The discussion of the instrumen- ‘ation and electronic aspects ofthe flow meter are outside the scope of this text Categories of Flow Meters Flow meters fall into two general categories: square root and linear Examples of square-root meters include orifices, flow nozzles, and venturi tubes. The output signal ofthese meters isa differential pres- Fe presen) tinearly with the low rate in the pipeline, An overview of some ofthe availatin meter types is presented below. Differential Pressure Flow Meters Differential pressure flow meters are most acceptance over time mmonly used because of their simple operation and wide Concentric Orifices The most commonly used differential pressure flow meter is the concentric otifice. It is estimated that over 80% of the commercial and industrial metering applications employ orifice flow meters F concentric orifice consists ofa flat plate of metal with @ hole machined in the center, as shown in Figure 6-1. The orifice is placed in the flow stream between two flanges, and the differential pressure dcross the meter is measured. The value of the differential pressure across the onc provides an indica- font the ow rate through the meter. tab is provided onthe orifice to asset positioning the orifice between the flanges. The meter identification and diameter of the primary element is often stamped on the tab to help determine whether the proper primary element is insalles Due to the wide application of orifice meters ina variety of industries, standards have been developed te Provide installation and construction guidelines, along with methods to estimate the overall accuracy ofthe meter. The standards also provide formulas used to size the primary element in order to achieve 4 given flow rate for a specified differential pressure (ASME-MFC-3M) and the American Petroleum Institute 2530, The stendards also provide formulas to help calculate the size of the primary element while still achieving an accuracy of 40.8 to 40.5 percent, without the need to calibrate the meter. 88EE AIEEE Flow Meters A flow meter is a device that is placed in a piping system that measures the rate of flow in a full- Pressurized pipeline, Flow meters can also be placed into an open channel, but thas implementation is outside the scope of this text. A flow meter consists ofa primary element and secondary element that work together to provide an indication of the flow rate. The primary element is placed inside. or on a Pipeline, and generates a signal Categories of Flow Meters Flow meters fall into two general categories: square root and linear Examples of square-root meters is presented below. Differential Pressure Flow Meters Differential pressure low meters are most commonly used because of theie simple operation and wide acceptance over time, Concentric Orifices The most commonly used differential pressure flow meter is the concentric orifice. It is estimated that over 80% of the commercial and industrial metering applications employ orifice flow meters, j concentric orifice consists of a flat plate of metal with a hole machined in the center, as shown in Figure 6-1. The orifice is placed in the flow stream between two flanges, and the differential pressure Asross the meter is measured, The value ofthe differential pressure across the orifice provides an indica- between the flanges. The meter identification and diameter of the primary element is often stamped on the tab to help determine whether the proper primary element is installea Duc to the wide application of orifice meters ina variety of industries, standards have been developed ic Provide installation and construction guidelines, along with methods to estimate the overall accuracy of the meter, The standards also provide formulas used to size the Primary element in order to achieve 4 given flow rate for a specified differential pressure In North America, the two primary standards are the American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME-MEC.3M) and the American Petroleum Institute 2530, The stendards also provide formulas to help calculate the size of the primary element while sil achieving an accuracy of 0.8 to 0.5 percent, without the need to calibrate the meter. 388Piping System Fundamentals Orifice Identiner Flange Bolt Circle Inside Pipe Diameter Figure 6-1 A typical concentric orifice primary element The two most critical elements in working with orifice flow meters are the location of the pressure taps and the diameter ofthe primary element. The pressure {aps are located upstream and downstream from the primary clement. The location of the pressure ‘aps is critical for arriving at an accurate value for the flow rate. The most common tap arrangements in use ate the comer, flange, and 1D ~ 1/2. In the comer and flange arrangements, the pressure ‘aps are located in the flange holding the primary Flow eo Figure 6:2 A spical venturi flow meter with location of pressure taps. Proprietary designs of venturi type flow advan n, developed by instrument manufacturers and are widely used in the water and wastewater industry, These designs a e stmallet pipelines and shorter runs of pipe Target Meters The target flow meter consists of a disk the target) connected to a bar, and the entre assembly is in serted into the flow stream. The target produces Crag in the flow stream, and as the flow rate increases 10 the pipeline, the drag onthe target increases, The force acting upon the target is sent tothe secondary clement, which provides a reading of the fan Tate, Target meters are used for dirty flows or where the Reynolds number ofthe fuid is low. The Accuracy of a target meter ranges from 1 to 22 percent. Linear Meters One ofthe primary disadvantages of differential Pressure flow meters is their hi car meters typically have a 90 igh-pressure drop, Lin. ery low-pressure drop or no pressure drop a all Since all of these meters TWite*ere PEERURQTaayPiping System Fundamentals are of proprietary design, we will limit our discussion to general terms. Turbine Flow Meters A turbine flow meter has a rotor in the flow stream and electronic speed of the rotor. With this type of meter, the fi over a given duration of time (e.g. revolutions an accuracy of £0.25 percent. ickups that determine the rotational ‘Ow rate varies linearly with the revolutions ofthe rotor Per'minute). Liquid turbine flow meters typically have Vortex Flow Meters ses the bar to vibrate, and the ‘condary element of the meter mine a flow rate. The accuracy Frequency of the vibrating bar rises with an increasing ow rare The se Sha reas te Frequency ofthe vibrating bar and is therefore able to des of a vortex flow meter is normally 40.5 to +1 percent ‘The bar design ofthe primary element allows the meter to be Used with both clean and dirty liquids, as well as in gas applications, Magnetic Flow Meters The primary element of a magnetic flow meter is not Placed into the flow stream of the process fluid Asa result there is no pressure drop associated with this ‘ope of flow meter. The process fluid passing through the meter must have magnetic conductivity to be ‘measured. The primary element of the meter ofthe vole ute as the fuid passes through the mete. The meter ther ‘measures the magnetic field of the voltage and directly determines the flow rate through the meter. The accuracy of a magnetic flow meter is £0.5 to #1 percent Ultrasonic Flow Meters As with the magnetic low meter, the primary element of an ultrasonic flow meter Proucss stream. Ultrasonic flow meters come in two types: time of flight and Doy ‘se high frequency sound waves to determine the average fluid velocity across is not placed into the ppler effect. Both types the pipeline. The time of fight ow meter measures the time i Fipe wall. The length of time varies depending on whether the Sound wave is traveling with or against the flow of the fluid. Time of fight meters ae used in elean liquid applications where the ultrasonic Sound waves will not be affected by particles within the usd The accuracy of a time of flight ultrasonic flow meter ranges from £1 to £4 percent ‘kes fora sound wave to reach the other side of the {na Doppler effect flow meter, the sound wave is reflec. moving within the fluid stream, The difference between t quehey can be used to calculate the flow rate in the pipe the liquid has small particles or impurities within the fun, flow meter ranges from +1 to 44 percent. ‘ed back into the detector by particulate matter the transmitted frequency and the reflected fre. ine, The Doppler Effect meter works best when id. The accuracy of a Doppler Effect ultrasonicChapter 6: Flow Meters Variable Area Flow Meters Variable area flow meters consist of a tapered clear tube mounted vertically with a float inside. As the fluid flows up through the tapered clear tube the float moves up and down. The differential pressure across the meter is constant regardless of the flow rate. The tube is graduated and the fiow rate can be determined by the position of the float within the tube. A variable area flow meter can be used for liquids, gases, and even vapors. The accuracy of a variable area flow meter ranges between 40.5 and +1.0 percent, Head Loss Caused by Flow Meters With the exception of the ultrasonic and magnetic flow meters, every flow meter causes head loss in the pipeline where itis installed. The head loss caused by a flow meter has an effect on the hydraulics of the fluid piping system. As a rule, linear flow meters have much smaller head losses than differential pressure flow meters. Since the majority of the linear flow meters are of a proprietary design, the head loss values must be supplied by the meter manufacturer. Differential pressure flow meters are sized based upon the published standard and each primary element is machined for the given application. The following steps are typical when performing a sizing calculation for a concentric orifice type flow meter: Determine the inside diameter of the pipeline where the meter is located, Determine the properties and conditions of the fluid to be measured. Determine the range of the flow meter. Determine the differential pressure across the meter. Determine the tap arrangements to be used for the meter. Select a proper formula based on the standard and pressure tap arrangement in use. Size the primary element of the meter based on the design flow rate and differential pressure range For example, if the expected range of flow rate in the pipeline is between 200 and 500 gpm and never to exceed 550 gpm, the design flow meter may have a range up to 600 gpm. Therefore, the meter will be accurate through the expected range of flow. The differential pressure across the flow meter is selected to correspond with the range of the differ- ential pressure indicator of the secondary element, For example, if the differential pressure indicator a company uses provides a full range output signal with a 10-psi differential pressure, the meter will be sized for 600 gpm and a 10-psi pressure drop. Companies standardize the ranges of input values for the differential pressure instruments used on their flow meters. As a result, this is typically the same value for all meter applications within a company. The pressure tap arrangements most commonly used are the flange tap, comer tap, and 1D - 1/2D taps. Companies standardize the tap arrangement used for these flow meters as well The proper standard is selected for meter sizing. The diameter of the primary element is determined 92 ELERLALERELEEREDREADATIIIIPC OCP EPSP EELPiping System Fundamentals based upon the pipe and fluid properties, as well as the design flow rate and differential pressure The Pressure Profile of a Differential Pressure Flow Meter Differential pressure flow meters are sized according to the differential pressure across the meter, which is measured by the secondary element, Since the process fluid accelerates through the flow meter, there is some energy lost due to turbulence, resulting in a non-recoverable pressure drop across the meter Figure 6-3 shows the energy grade line and the hydraulic grade line of the fluid flowing through a con- centric orifice. The pipeline loss from position 1 to approximately one pipe diameter upstream from the crifice is caused by friction loss in the pipeline. Approximately one pipe diameter upstream from the orifice, the influence of the approach impact pressure on the orifice plate starts to affect the pressure profile. In this region, the velocity increases, resulting in a reduction in the hydraulic grade line. The reduction in the energy grade line is caused by the additional turbulence in this section of the meter, because the fluid changes direction as it passes through the orifice. Head Loss Hydraulic ‘Across Meter Energy Graph Velocity Vina Contracta Figure 6-3 Variation of the fluid velocity, energy grade line, and hydraulic grade line across a flow meter Notice that the fluid velocity continues to increase as the fluid passes through the orifice plate. This is 93Chapter 6: Flow Meters In Bgure 6-3, the locations of the various pressure taps are displ across the meter is the greatest for the 1D — 1 rangement. The location of the taps does noth: ved. Notice the differential pressure 2D tap arrangement and the least for the comer tap ar. ‘ave a significant effect on the total accuracy of the meter,Chapter Seven ladle P ping System Components In this chapter, we will be discussing the hydraulic effects of the remaining types of equipment found in a piping system. Since there are a wide variety of industries that employ fluid piping systems and an even larger number of processes within those industries, it would be impossible to cover all the components that can be used in 4 Piping system. We will be limiting our discussion to the hydraulic aspects of these components which will allow us to divide them into ‘vo groups: those that have a pressure drop associated with a flow rate and those that provide a source of fluid Typical examples of pressure drop components include heat exchangers, filters, and strainers. Examples of fluid source components include tanks and vessels. We will now cover the hydraulic aspects of these components and discuss the operational considerations that can affect the piping system.Chapter 7: Piping Components Heat Exchangers © OF to re-boil liquid through the bear- equipment. The lubricating oil then proceeds through a heat exchanger to return the ol to tg Fequited temperature for continued operation, Figure 7-1 shows a typical heat exchanger The heat transfer side of the heat exchanger supplies fluid that Connections _ adds or remove heat in the pro- | _CANections _ Cess stream, Heat transfer fluid is | Tubesheet often water or steam that is used ‘0 cool or heat, respectively. Spe- Cialized heat transfer fluids can also be used when the range of process temperatures or heat transfer rate coefficient is outside ofa suitable range for water. A process stream can also be used : : 10 heat or cool another process oY Baffles stream, The feed water heaters in 4 steam power plant are an exam- Mounting ple of this. The exhaust steam fiom a turbine is cooled by feed water passing through one side of the heat exchanger. The heat from the condensing steam is rejected Figure 7-1 A ypical heat exchanger showing the process fluid and {0 the feed water that passes heat transfer fluid paths. Image courtesy SEC Shell & Tube Heat through the other side of the heat Exchangers. exchanger. This process. reuses the energy from the condensing steam by heating up the feed water. In the chemical Processes, the re- Jeeted heat from one process is commonly used to heat another process stream, Tube \Bundle 96Piping System Fundamentals Filters & Strainers Filters and strainers are also pressure drop components. These devi Process stream. The fluid is forced through some type of porous b: traps the particles (Figure 7. with the naked eye. A filter removes impurities that are not visible ct strainer will be used interchangeably, ‘ces remove solid particulate from a Like heat exchangers, filters have a second order relationshi and the resulting head loss. As the solid particulate accumulates in the filter, the flow path becomes fonstrcted, and the differential pressure across the filter increases. Once a sufficient number of solids y the manufacturer is reached, and the filter must be removed from service to be cleaned. This ‘must be done to prevent ex- cessive differential pressure Toschi . across the filter element, fine which could cause it to rup. _ eat ture, All filters and strainers should be fitted with dif. ferential pressure gages because, as a strainer be- bin : comes loaded with material, the differential pressure in. creases. A filter should be cleaned before reaching the maximum differential pres- Sure that is specified by the manufacturer, To ensure Figure 7-2a & 7-2b Examples of strainers and filter, images courtesy the EATON Corporation, LLC. ACR Bet a Feanne | ase eee ances =a sougaapa/ Ls cpaChapter 7: Piping Components ‘hata strainer is continually operating, duplex strainers and automatic stainers can be used, A duplex strainer is composed of two strainers. One strainer cleans the process fluid, while the other is slean, isolated, and in stand-by eady for immediate use. When the difftrensa pressure across the oper- ating strainer reaches its maximum differential pressure, Automatic self-cleaning strainers are designed to eliminate the need manual able as mechanically cleaned or of the backwash type In a mechanically cleaned strainer, the Quid enters the filter from below and then passes through a lean fluid passes through the screen and out the strainer outlet material that settles to the bottom the bottom of the strainer. backwash, Tanks & Vessels Aitnk or vessel supplies or stores process uid for either along ora short period of time. Vessels and tanks serve the same purpose, but a vessel is typically not kept at atmospheric pressure. In this publica fon we will use the terms interchangeably because tanks and vessels have tke same hydraulic effects on piping systems. Tanks are often placed in a piping system to provide a continuous supply of fluid to the process. For example, a tank may be filled by an external source (e.g. railroad tek cat, barge, or pipeline), and once the storage tank is full, the external source is disconnected fhom the system, Tanks and vessels are also used to provide a stora cxample, if pump is supplying fluid for a process, and an isolation valve closes, rather than dumping the process fluid into a floor drain until the supply pump shuts down, the fluid can be redirected back into the supply tank, minimizing the effects of the system transient in cooling systems, surge tanks accommodate the expansion and contraction Of the fluid as the system temperature changes. The surge tank can accept the additional liquid se the hua expands due to heat- ine and retum the uid tothe system as it contracts. Ifa piping system does nar have a surge tank, the system may over pressurize as the temperature increases and the ud expands, Conversely, ifthe Eempersture decreases and the fuid contracts, the pressure may drop to low forthe system to operate correctly and the pumps could cavitatePiping System Fundamentals When a piping system is design the tanks are sized to meet the expected storage requirements of the piping system. If the tank is undersized, operational tasks have to be completed more of- ten (ie. more frequent filling of the tank, more frequent pump starts, and more product wast- ed). The cost of an oversized tank is greater than that of a properly sized tank since larger tanks use more material, weigh more, and have larger founda- tions, Pressure Set: 0 psig Entrances and exits to tanks are | (ee one often referred to as penetrations. | Elevation. 100 f Tanks typically have multiple penetrations as shown in Figure 7-3. A penetration can be used for fluid to fil the tank or leave it in order to supply a pump. Penetrations may also be used to vent the tank, allow recirculation back into the tank, or provide for system tran- sients. These penetrations can be lo- cated at different elevations on the tank. Remember that when the tank is filled with aliquid, the pres- sure at each penetration will vary because of the differences in the fluid level above each penetration Figure 7-3 A tank with multiple penetrations at multiple elevation heights Operational Consideration Next, we will be discussing the operational considerations of heat exchangers and tanks, This section will describe the changes that ean occur as each component operates within a total piping system, Heat Exchangers The pressure drop across a heat exchanger has the greatest hydraulic impact on system operation. Of: ten, the differential pressure across heat exchangers far exceeds the pressure drop in pipelines. When a heat exchanger is specified, the properties of the process fluid and heat transfer sides should be specified 4s well. This information is used by the manufacturer to ensure the heat exchange can meet the system requirements, One of the documents that should be provided by the heat exchanger manufacturer is a curve showing the head loss across the heat exchanger flow paths as a function of flow rate. This in- formation is vital to gaining a clear understanding of how the heat exchanger will operate within the Piping system Change in Fluid Temperature Since the heat exchanger adds or removes heat from the system, the temperature of the fluid changes as it lows through the heat exchanger. A heat exchanger is specified at the fluids’ design temperatures, but when a system is starting up, shutting down, or in a transient state, the temperatures are not at their design values,Chapter 7: Piping Components Changes in fluid temperature often affect the viscosity of the fluid, Ifthe viscosity changes significantly, the pressure drop across the heat exchanger will vary as well. As a result, when looking at the pressure crop across a heat exchanger during system start up, shut down, or any other temperature transient, one Should consider how the changes in temperature could affect the hydraulics of the hang exchanger and the remainder of the system. Changes to the Process Often, changes are made to the process that cause the temperature of the Process flow or the process fluid itself to change, When making these types of changes, whether the thermal ie and piping side of the heat exchanger will operate correctly within the system must be evaluated For example, ifthe process fluid is changed to one that is more viscous, will this affect the head loss across the heat exchanger? If a greater pressure drop is experienced. rate the thermal side of the heat ex- changer? Will th increased flow rate through the heat exchanger affect the flow rate the other loads on the heat transfer side of the system? Fouling of the Heat Exchanger the tube sheet. This not only affects the heat transfer capability, but also the head loss experienced across the heer exchanger. This ‘ype of fouling has a tendency to reduce the cross-sectional area of the flow passages, often resulting in 4 significant increase in the head loss across the heat exchanger. Biological growth can also accumulate in the tubes within the heat exchanger. This can come in the form of freshwater, salt water, and even oil based biological growth, This often occurs when the heat exchanger is too large or when the system is not properly balanced and the Row istasctve to flush the growth out of the tubes. Finally, tubes within a heat exchanger can corrode, resulting in an increased Toughness on the tube ma- tefial, When this occurs, the head loss across the heat exchanger wil increase, but as ah pipelines, the effect of increased roughness is much less significant than the effect of reducing pipe diameter. Obstructions in the Flow Stream Obstructions can also occur inthe flow stream in a heat exchanger. Inthe Great Lakes region of North America, the zebra mussels are a common problem. The mussels grow within the tubes ofa heat ex- changer and obstruct the flow. Obstructions can also be eaused by poor housekeeping during system construction or maintenance. After a system is built or modified, a system flush should be performed to ensure th any object that In addition, any time a piping system be performed to ensure that no foreign objects are left in the system, Using a Heat Exchanger to Indicate Flow Often, a heat exchanger includes a graph showing its head loss or pressure drop as a function of flow 100 riitte!Piping System Fundamentals rate. These are often calculated values, but they tend to be accurate, In addition, most piping connected {oa heat exchanger or the heat exchanger itself has vent lines to allow air to be purged from the system prior to operation. As a result, a heat exchanger can serve as a fairly accurate flow meter if one is not available. The differential pressure across the heat exchanger can be determined from the vent lines, and the manufacturer's graph can be used to determine the resulting flow rate Changes in Tanks The majority of hydraulic effects dealing with tank operation occur with changes in level. As the level in the tank rises and falls, the pressure atthe tank nozzles increase and decrease accordingly. This seems very straightforward, but can cause many problems within operating systems. Most pump suctions are fed by a tank or vessel. When the liquid level in the vessel decreeses, the pres- sure at the pump suction decreases as well. This reduced pump suction pressure decreases the available Net Positive Suction Head. Ifthe NPSH available atthe pump suction is less than the NPSH required by the pump, cavitation will occur within the pump. The vapor bubbles within the flow stream that are caused by cavitation reduce the capacity of the pump. This reduction in flow can affect the hydraulics of the total piping system. The NPSH required by a pump increases asthe flow rate through the pump increases, so if pump is running at a high flow rate with a low tank level, the pump has a higher probability for cavitation than when the pump is running at a lower flow rate with a higher tank lev Tthe temperature of the fluid within the tank varies during operation, that could also affect the NPSH available. Increasing the temperature of the fluid increases its vapor pressure, which has an effect on the NPSHa,Chapter Eight The Total System Now that we have looked at the individual items typically found in a piping system, it is time to see how they operate together as a total piping system. We will start with a single pipeline and work our way to an involved piping system that includes all the components we have previously discussed. In the last section, we will see how operational changes affect the total system.Piping System Fundamentals Connecting Pipelines We will look first at a single pipeline, then connect mul- tiple pipelines into a series of pipelines, and continue with a branched pipeline with the flow rate fixed in all branches. Head Loss in a Single Pipeline Using the Darey equation, one can easily calculate the pipe head loss in a single FLOW RATE - apm ipeline for a specific flow ole ae forming the hea 1d Figure 8-1 The pipeline resistance curve is generated by calculating loss calculation for a range tHe head loss ina pipeline for a variety of flow rates and graphing the results. 116d Too 34038360 of expected flow rates, one gan develop a curve showing the pipeline head loss for any flow rate within a defined range, Using the Bemoulli equation, one can calculate the pressure at the outlet of the pipeline for any flow rate, To uickly find the head loss for the pipeline at any low rate, one can read the head loss from the graph, Figure 8-1 below shows the system curve fora single pipeline at a range of flow rates Combining Pipelines in Series Pipelines are said to be in series when they are connected end to end. The flow rate through pipelines in series is equal. Therefore, the flow entering the first pipeline is equal tothe flow exiting the last pipeline in series. Figure 8-2 shows multiple pipelines connected in series. In this system, the flow rate at the outlet is set to 280 gpm, resulting in an equivalent flow rate through each pipeline. Ifyou know the flow ‘ate through the system, you can calculate the head loss for each pipeline. Using the Bernoulli equation, the pressure at each junction in the pipeline can be determined as well. Constrained Flow Rate Series piping systern with three pipelines placed end toend Inlet Tank Outlet P Set: Opsig Set @ 280 US gpm Level 30 f Elevation: 0 Elevation: 01 oy 2 ovation: of Bievaton: of a Pipe Pie @4in Otin Bin L toon bso L200 Ko Ko Ko Figure 8-2 In this system each pipeline, is connected end to end to form a series system.Chapter 8: The Total System In figure 8-3, the head loss for each pipeline is superimposed onto the same graph, and the total head loss for the entire piping system is determined by adding the head losses for a range of flow rates, The result is a head loss curve for a system of pipelines in series. One can graphically determine the head loss for any flow rate by reading the head loss of the system curve. Series Pipeline Losses Flow rate gpm Figure 8-3 The total losses for a series of pipelines is the summation of the losses for the individual pipelines. Unconstrained Flow An unconstrained flow element consists of a flow path either a single pipeline or series of pipelines with a flow rate that is determined by a pressure difference between the end points. Figure 8-4 shows an example of an unconstrained flow path. This system is similar to the series system described above, but instead of setting the flow rate through the system at the outlet, the outlet consists of a pressure source. In this example, the flow rate through the system must be such that the head loss in the pipelines equals the difference in hydraulic grade between the inlet and outlet tanks. ‘The inlet and outlet tank levels in this system are 30 ft. and 15 ft. respectively. The difference in tank levels corresponds to a hydraulic grade of 15 ff. of fluid and causes the flow to go from the inlet to the outlet tank, We will assume the inlet and outlet tanks are unlimited sources of fluid, so the tank levels will not change over time. The flow rate in this series of pipelines will be such that the total head loss for the three pipelines must equal the hydraulic grade of 15 ft. of fluidPiping System Fundamentals Unconstrained Flow f= Inlet Tank Level: 30 ft Determine the flow with a 15 foot Outlet Tank difference in level between the Level: 15 ft Inlet Tank and the Outlet Tank J4 J2 t L Elevation: Of Elevation: 0 a Pee? ig Pipes @:4in O:4in @:4in L100 ft L:soft Ko KO Figure 8-4 An example of unconstrained flow through a series of pipelines. This is calculated by de- termining the flow rate while the head loss in the pipelines equals the difference in the hydraulic grade between the inlet and outlet tanks. The following equation can be used to calculate the flow rate through the system, > Ly L, L, tes “SO hE O + EO h, The head loss in a pipeline can be determined directly only if the flow rate is known, Otherwise, there is no direct solution. We do know that the flow rate through the pipelines will continue to increase until the head loss in the series of pipelines is equal to the difference in tank levels. In other words, the bal- anced flow rate through the series of pipelines connecting the tanks must be sufficient to provide the 15 ft difference in hydraulic grade between the tanks. Now that we know what the head loss should be in the pipelines, we just need the flow rate Inengineering, if we do not have a formula to directly solve a problem, we do the next best thing: guess. In this case, we will take a guess at a flow rate and use that estimate to determine the head loss in the Pipelines. We will then compare the resulting head loss of the estimated flow rate to the actual diff ence in hydraulic grade. This is referred to as an iterative solution, and it works like this: 1, Guess ata starting flow rate (in this example, we will assume 200 gpm) 2. Calculate the head loss for the as imed flow rate (7.96 ft of head loss), Compare the elevation difference with the calculated head loss for the assumed flow rate (15 ft. - 7.96 ft). 4 Ifthe value in step 3is greater than zero, then increase the assumed flow rate and repeat steps 2and 3. 5. If the value in step 3 is less than zero then decrease the assume flow rate and repeat steps 2 and 3. 6. Ifthe value in step 3 is zero, then you have completed the solution, Table 8-1 on the following page, shows how this process works,Chapter 8: The Total System Calculated head loss [Difference in head lows +50 +50 "20 Solution, Table 8-1 A table showing how the initial guesses are improved for an unconstrained pipeline. As shown in table 8-1, when converging to a solution, a smaller adjustment factor is selected until the calculated head loss for the assumed flow rate is sufficiently close to the difference in elevation between the two tanks. This iterative method may require multiple calculations, but the process can be made easier with the use of an electronic spreadsheet or computer program. You can also use use the resistance curve for the series of pipelines and choose the flow rate that cor- responds to a head loss of 15 ft. (ie. the difference in level between the tanks). In looking at the system resistance curve in Figure 8-2, one can see that the balanced flow rate through the series of pipelines is approximately 280 gpm, equal to our calculated value. In both examples, head loss calculations are performed for a variety of flow rates. The iteration method must be carried out whenever the pipeline flow rate is needed for a new set of tank levels, However, when using the resistance curve, the head loss calculations need only be performed once, and the fiow’ rate can be quickly read from the graph for changes to the tank levels. Unconstrained Flow Determine the flow with a 15 foot Outlet Tank difference in level between the Level: 15 ft nlt Tank Inlet Tank Inlet Tank and the Outlet Tank P:6.481 psig P: 12.96 psig HG: 16 ft HG: 30 ft a J2 a P: 11.11 psig 10.18 psig HG: 25.71 ft HG: 23.57 ft Elevation: 0 ft Elevation: 0 f @:4in @:4in L100 ft Lrsomt Ko Ko Flow: 279.4 US gpm Flow: 278.4 US gpm Flow: 279.4 US gpm HL: 4.286 ft HL: 2.143, HL: 8.571 ft Figure 8-5 The calculated results of an unconstrained flow in a series ofpipelines based on a computer- ized hydraulic analysis program Figure 8-5 shows the calculated flow rate based on a commercially available hydraulic analysis pro- gram. Notice that the 15 ft difference in elevation between the two tanks results in a calculated flow rate of 279.4 gpm through the series of pipelines. The computer program uses the same iterative method outlined in Table 8-1 to calculate the flow rate, but is clearly able to arrive at a more accurate solution in far less time.Piping System Fundamentals Flow Through a Siphon [n the next example, we will be investigating a system in which the elevation of the outlet pipeline 's greater than that ofthe starting tank level, as shown in Figure 8-6. As outlined above, the flow rate through an unconstrained series of pipelines is determined by the difference in elevations between the two tank levels. The elevation of the intermediate junctions does not have any effect on the flow rate through the series of pipelines. The pressure at the various junctions between the pipelines ean be determined using the Bernoulli equation, If we lower the elevations of the pipe junctions (i.e keeping the ipe lengths constan), then the pressure atthe junctions will increase, but the fow rate through the pipelines will remain 279.4 gpm. Conversely, if we increase the elevation of the junctions in relation to the tank elevations, the pressure at the junctions will decrease, but the flow rate through the pipelines will remain the same, Figure 8-6 shows the calculated flow rate and pressures in our series of pipelines when the elevations at junctions Ji and J2 are increased to 20 ft. and 40 ft, respectively. The liquid level in the inlet tank is 30 ft, and the head loss in Pipe 1 with 279.4 gpm is 4.286 ft. The resulting hydraulic grade atJ1 is 25.71 ft. Since the elevation of J1 is 20 ft, the height of fluid above the Junction is 5.71 ft. For water at 60°F, this fluid height corresponds with a pressure of 2.469 psi In Pipe 2, ata flow rate of 279.4 gpm, the head loss is 2.143 ft, resulting in a hydraulic grade at point 12 of 23.57 fi. Since the elevation of J2is 40 ft, and the hydraulic grade of 12 is 23.37, there is -16-42 ft of water, which equals a pressure of -7.098 psig at 60° F. As covered in Chapter 2, with a local at ‘mospherie pressure of 14.7 psia, the absolute pressure at J2 is 7.6 psia. As long as the pressure at 32 Frmains above the vapor pressure ofthe fluid passing through the pipeline, whichis 0.2563 psia at 60° F, the flow rate will remain at 279.4 gpm, from the inlet to outlet tank 7.098 psig Inlet Tank Hs 23h Pet Opsig eran P12.98 psig aa Pipe + Pipe 2 Pipe 3 ein Ban ertin C00 8 eon C200 8 Flow: 278. US gpm Flow: 279.4 US gpm Fiow: 279.4 US gom Head Loss: 4.286% Weadioss 2149 Head Loss 6.577 8 a1 P: 2469 psig He: 25 758 = E208 Outer Tanke P'SetOpsig Level 158 P6481 psig Evon Figure 8-6 This system demonstrates how the pressure varies in a siphon when the elevation of a junc- tion varies Table 8-2 demonstrates how the pressure at 12 varies as the junction elevation changes. Notice that as the elevation of the Junction 2 increases, the pressure at the junction decreases. However, regardless of ‘the elevation of Junction 2, the low rate remains constant. The flow rate is based on the difference in 107Chapter 8: The Total System elevation of the Inlet and Outlet tanks; the flow rate is such that the resulting head loss in the Pipelines equals the difference in elevation. As a result, the flow rate through the system is constant, regardless of the elevation of Junction 2 (within limits). Junction 2 Pressure psig [System flow rate gpm 279.4 279.4 279.4 279.4 0 gpm Pressure at J2 is less than va- por pressure of fluid Table 8-2 The effects of changing the elevation of junction J2 Notice that in Table 8-2, when the elevation of Junction 2 is raised to 60 ft, the pressure atthe junction decreases to -15.74 psia. If the system were located at sea level, the local atmospheric pressure would be 14.7 psia. As a result, the pressure at junction 2 is fess than absolute zero, which is impossible. The pressure at Junction 2 will decrease until it equals the vapor pressure of the fluid. When this occurs, the fluid at Junction 2 will vaporize, and a pocket of vapor will form at Junction 2, halting the flow. This is called “breaking the siphon.” In review, the fluid in the pipelines flows uphill over the hump because the Inlet tank is at a greater clevation than that ofthe Outlet tank. When the hydraulic grade at a junction is less than the elevation, the pressure atthe junction is negative. Flow will continue until the pressure anywhere in the pipeline becomes less than the vapor pressure of the fluid flowing in the pipeline. Finally, the pipelines must be full to get the siphon started, and will continue to run until the lowest pressure in the system falls below the vapor pressure of the fluid Combining Pipelines in Branches A branched system is a variation of the series piping system. In a branched system, the flow goes from one pipeline into a junction, where itis split into any number of branched pipelines. Figure 8-7 shoe an example of a branched piping system. In this system, Pipe {01} enters a junction and Pipe {02}, Pipe {03} and Pipe {04} leave the junction. As shown in Figure 8-7, there isa tank that provides the inlet pressure to the system, and the flow rates are set atthe outlet of the branched pipes. The flow rate in cach branched pipeline is equal to the set demand value at the outlets, The flow rate though Pipe {01} is the sum of these flow rates. The pressures can be determined anywhere in the system by simply calculating the head loss, based on the flow rate in each pipeline, and adding them together as series pipelines, In this example, the outlet pressures are calculated as follows: * Outlet 1 = 50—dp Pipe {01} ~ dp Pipe {02} = 50 ~ 14.72 ~23,26 = 12.02 psig * Outlet 2= 50~ dp Pipe {01} ~ dp Pipe {03} = 50~ 14.72 - 11.35 = 23.93 psig Outlet 3 = 50 —dp Pipe {01} — dp Pipe {04} = 50-14.72-1 = 20.15 psigPiping System Fundamentals All elevations are 100 ft uti Flow 200 US gpm Sipe (02 Pu2c2 peg Cxon Flow: 200 US gpm Pressure Source * a t50 @tsA 7 HGa0n tok Lan Looe | Flow 48 7.US gpm Flom: 4474 US gpm Flew. 2474 US gpm HUI HU za7eR HUoaren tet Tank Pet. Opsig Love 60 HG. 608 | suretion | Junction 2 Hereaen He6e 094 Poot) Poo 2 [oan isa tr20 aon Frew. 364.2 US gom Few: 2608 US gpm Flow: 2808 US gpm Few: 3442S gpm HUBS368 nUs2ra HU'40548 Hu'acsen Pie) Fipe 09) Pipe 10) Bin 25: Gis Leo Lamon Lar Flow 3B73US gem Flow:38.73S gm Flow: 38.79 US gpm HUZSI6R Muza HU 2037 Figure 8-10 An example ofa piping network with multiple parallel path and unconstrained flow between ‘wo pressure sources mtChapter 8: The Total System Notice tha the network shown in Figure 8-10 is balanced because the flow rate into and out of each Punction sequal. This includes the low demand junction as outlined belo * 4474 gpm is coming into the junction via Pipe-(06) * 20 gpm is leaving the junction through the Flow demand * 24:74 gpm is leaving the junction via Pipe-(07} ihe head loss through each parallel path using the balanced flow is identical to the difference in the tank levels Now that we have discussed the various types of piping configurations, piping system components to see how the v Starting out with a small system and then increase the complexity to provide a better understanding of the total system. In these examples, we will be using Centrifugal pumps since they are the most com= monly used pumps in piping systems Pumps & Pipelines The majority of piping systems utilize pumps to move the fluid through the pipelines. There are two Opes of systems typically found: the closed loop and open ‘oop. We will investigate what happens to cach type of system when a pump is installed Closed Loop Systems Ina closed loop system, the fluid is continuously circulated through the system, Essentially, the fluid flows from the pump suction, through the pump, tothe discharge pipeline, through the entie piping net- WPik: and then back to the pump suction, Since all ofthe uid in he system retums to the same point, all resistance in the system is due to friction loss in Pipelines and components. Figure 8-11 shows an example of a closed loop system with two parallel paths and ‘multiple pipelines connected in series flow through fered in Chapter 4, a centrifugal Phe ach Petifcally, for a given low rate through the pum, there is nly one head value that can be achieved by the pump, A balanced flow rate in a closed loop piping 5 the pump. In lool rates in Figure head developed by the pump ata flow rate of 402.9 gpm is 70.2 feet (this in- formation comes from the pump curve). In addition, when adding the head losses through each pipeline, based on the balanced flow rate, the total system head lows ie "0 2 feetPiping System Fundamentals The system is balanced because: * The flow rates into and out of each junction are balanced. * The head loss drop across the parallel paths is equal ‘The head loss forthe calculated flow rat i equal to the pump’s total head Head Loss Around Loop Pan 864+ (1745 +516 + 8.73) 425.90 6432-70208 Pain? 8.54 + (1298+ 11.87 +6.49) +25.90+4.32= 70.208 Fw 18988 gon ron am TB or 1 no vaen rCanee ow 23.8 gm ow. 2131 08 gon a a Row 3 Som MO Ree as Hose Figure 8-11 In a closed loop system, the fluid re-circulates in the system, The flow rates into and out of each pipe junction and item of equipment isin balance: In addition, the Pressure drops across the Parallel paths are identical, The flow rate through the total piping system can also be determined raphically by superimposing a re- StStance curve for te pipeines in the system onto the pump head curve supplied by the manufacturer. Figure 8-12 shows the pump-system resistance curve forthe same closed loop piping system that was developed graphically. The following steps were performed to arive atthe graphical solution, 1. A.set of four or more head loss calculations were performed for each pipeline to develop the Pipeline resistance curve. A graph was created for each pipeline to display the head loss for the expected range of flow 2. The component vendor’s head loss graph was obtained for the two components used in the system, 3. A series pipeline composite head loss graph was developed for pipelines Path 1, Path La, and Component 1 ‘+. A series pipeline composite head loss graph was developed for pipelines Path Component 2 Path 2a, and 5. Using the method previously outlined a parallel composite head loss graph w: developed for the two parallel paths, 6. A-system composite graph was developed forthe pipelines: Discharge, the parallel composite staph developed in step 5, Return, and SuctionChapter 8: The Total System 7 The pump curve forthe centrifugal pump was superimposed on top of the system composite graph generated in step 6. 8. The pump system curve was used. The balanced flow rate through the system occurs at the intersection of the pump and composite system curve Notice thatthe approximate flow of 400 gpm closely matches the calculated results from the computer program, Unlike the analytical solution, the composite system graph does not show the balanced flow rates through the two parallel paths. Determining the low rate through the parallel paths would require one to tke the balanced flow rate through the system ealeulated in step 8 and enter the composite parallel path curve developed in step 5 above Pump Curve Balanced flow rate through pump and system ‘System Curve Balanced Flow 408 gpm Figure 8-12 The intersection of the pipeline resistance curve and the pump curve shows the balanced ffow rate through the piping system. Open Looped Systems In an open system, the fluid is pumped from a source to a destination (Figure 8-13). Often the fluid Source and destination are at elevations or different pressures. This introduces a static head element in the system total head, The static head is made up of the elevation head and pressure headPiping System Fundamentals Peat toes et a Slat Head = Eton Hod « Pressure Hoag Leal s Eygration Head = Destination Tank Level - Supply Tk Level EHe (50+5) - (5+5) = 45 8 Stat Head = (Destination Tank Pressure - Supply Tk Pressure) * 144/Density SH=(10-0)* 144/62.4= 23.14 Static Head = 45 + 23.14 = 68.14 f Pump. ‘Supply tk Suct. 0 f P Set 0 psig Level 5 ft Figure 8-13 The piping schematic ofthe open loop system sh 'ows the elevation head and pressure head components of the static head, The elevation head takes into account the difference in the system described in figure 8-13, there is a 43 fi the supply tank and the liquid level in the destination clevation between the source and destination, In ifference in elevation between the liquid level in Ait Pressute head takes into account the difference between the inlet pressure and outlet pressure. In figure 8-13, the pressure on the surface of the Supply tank is 0 psig, and the pressure atthe destination fank is 10 psig. By using the Bemoulli equation, we can determine thatthe 10 psi pressure difference is equal to 23.14 ft. of uid of water at 60° E As discussed in the previous section, the suetion and dis op apipeline curve by the pe om Curve to account forthe static head, along with the teed I the pipe system curve must Irwe superimpose the pump curve onto the pipe resistance curve Work together. Since the pump must always operate onthe Pump curve, the balanced the open system occurs atthe intersection of the pump curve169 Pump Shutof 136 ft 3 Balanced | head 9148 —>y a Static head 68.1 ft Balanced Flow 418.8 opm Figure 8-14 The pipe and pump curve from an open loop system includes the static head and the ay. namic head forthe pipeline, along withthe pump curve. The intersection ofthe system eurve and pump ‘curve shows the balanced flow rate through the system, Adjusting Flow through the System Im this section, we will discuss how to vary the flow rate through a piping system. In any piping system, the balanced flow rate through the system occurs when the total head required by the system (including the static head and the head losses in the pipelines and components) equals the total head developed by the pump. The only way to achieve @ flow rate, other than the balanced flow rate, through the system is ‘o either change the shape of the system curve or change the shape of the pump curve The flow rate through the system can be adjusted by: + Inserting a control valve in the system, ‘Changing the pump impeller diameter, Changing the pump speed. Operating multiple pumps. ‘We will investigate each method and discuss the advantages and disadvantages,Piping System Fundamentals Using a Control Valve A flow rate through a piping system can be varied by insert causes the valve plug to move closer to the valve seat, the fluid flows through the valve seat. This reduction in area i fluid through the valve, increasing the fticton loss in the v sure drop across the control valve. ng a control valve. Closing the control valve reby reducing the cross-sectional where the in the valve seat increases the velocity of the lve seat, which results in an increased pres- Let us see what happens tothe system when a control valve is inserted. The first thing that we must remember is that, if contol valve is placed inthe system, it will add resistance even when the valve is fully open. Therefore, we will assume that the additional head is already included in the balanced flow rate shown in Figure 8-15 Control Valve dP @ half flow Control Valve AP design flow 60 0 HEAD - ft System Curve 240 320400480860 6a Ta FLOW RATE - gpm Half Design Design Flow Flow 400 apm 200 gpm Figure 8-15 ~ Adding a control valve into a piping system changes the shape of the system curve result- ing in a new flow rateChapter 8: The Total System Let us see what has to be done to reduce the flow rate in the system to half the balanced flow rate. In Figure 8-15, the head required by the system to achieve half of the balanced flow rate occurs at hS! on the system graph. The head developed by the pump occurs at hPY on the pump curve. Notice that the head delivered by the pump at the reduced flow rate is greater than that delivered by the pump at the balanced flow rate. In addition, the head required by the system at the lower ow rate is less than what is required at the design flow rate To reduce the low rate through the system to the desired value, the dference in pump head produced by the pump over what is required by the system must be removed by the control valve. The head lees required by the control valve to reduce the flow rate to half low is defined by the following formula Prey = Mos, ~ Roy ‘This information can be determined graphically by measuring the head difference between the pump curve and system curve for a given flow rate, or it can be calculated analytically ‘Two things can be determined from the pump-system curve in figure 8-15: 1. To reduce the flow rate from the balanced flow condition, the differential pressure across the control valve must be increased. 2. Acontrol valve can only be used to reduce the flow rate below the balanced flow. The advantages of using a control valve to adjust flow are low intial cost and ease of installation and operation. Control valves have also been employed in piping systems for a long time and they are well understood by the users. One disadvantage of inserting a control valve to control the flow is the amount of excess pump head that must be dissipated by the control valve. This additional energy increases the operating cost forthe Pump, and if the differential pressure across the control valve is sufficiently large, there can be exces. sive turbulence and noise. One final note: Often, the energy dissipated by the control valve will be referred to as “ ‘wasted energy.” But actually, the excess energy is the cost that must be paid to control the system. Changing Pump Impeller Diameter Another way to vary the flow rate through a system is to change the pump curve. This can be accom plished by changing either the impeller diameter or the pump speed using the affinity rules As shown in Figure 8-16, the low rate through the piping system can be increased by inereasing the Pump’s impeller diameter. Conversely, the flow rate through the system ean be reduced by using a smaller pump impeller.Piping System Fundamentals Small impel Figure 8-16 Increasing the impeller diameter causes an increase in flow rate through the system. In ad- dition, notice that the differential pressure across the control valve is increased et « lonor flow rate ‘The major advantage of changing the impeller diameter isthe ability to match the ow rate ofthe pump and system. The impeller diameter can be adjusted so that the balanced flow rate through the system is exact and no additional energy must be consumed, ‘The major disadvantage of adjusting the flow by changing the impeller diameter i the time and cost needed fo make the change. To change the impeller diameter, the pump must be disassembled and the impeller diameter reduced by turning it in a lathe. Ifan increase inthe flow rate is desired then n nes impeller must be purchased and trimmed to the larger impeller diameter. Disassembling the pump to change the impeller diameter does not allow for operational changes to a piping, system, but ifthe flow [aie twough the system is expected to be constant fora length of time, then matching the pump impeller to the flow rate needed forthe system is a viable option, Changing the impeller diameter is often used when a pump is over sized for the task required. For example, referring to Figure 8-16, ifthe maximum flow rate through the system is 500 gpm, then the larger impeller diameter produces approximately 30 ft, of addtional head over the smal, impeller di- Giucter Trimming the impeller diameter wll reduce the differential pressure across a contol valve end the additional head that must be paid for in increased pumping cost. Changing Pump Speed Another way to change the shape ofthe pump curve is to change the impeller speed, Per the pump finity rules, increasing the impeller speed produces more head forthe pump and causes the do rate through the piping system to increase. Decreasing the impeller speed deereaces the Pump head, causing 119Chapter 8: The Total System the balance flow rate through the pi speed changes, the curve continues to intersect the tion to the BEP) on the pump curve. Figure 8-17 Adjusting the pump speed provides a wider rang out the need for a large pressure drop across the control valve, ping system to decrease. As you can see in Figure 8-17, as the pump Pump curve in relatively the same location (in rela- 3550.0 4 System | Flow Range ¢ of flows through the piping system with- There are several methods for varying the speed of the pump impeller: The Variable Frequency Drive (VFD) is a solid-state electronic control that varies the frequency of the power going to the pump motor. This method requires the purchase of a VED, and there is a small fraction of additional electrical power that is consumed by the VED. ‘The pump can be driven by steam turbines. The speed of the turbine can be adjusted so that the Pump can meet the needs imposed by the system, Applications using steam turbines are typically very large, and there isthe additional expense of the steam turbine and steam generating and condensing equipment. Eddy current drives are used to adjust the speed of the pump impeller, but they are generally less efficient than the other types of drives and are not as widely used. Another type of adjustable speed drive isthe Magnet Drive by MagaDrive. This device adjusts ‘he motor speed by changing the gap between two very strong rotating permanent magnets. These are but just a few of the Adjustable Speed Drive Technologies. All of them can offer substantial savings in pump operating cost. 120 sPiping System Fundamentals Running Multiple Pumps ‘he final method to adjust the flow through a piping system isto stage multiple pumps to meet the sys. tem flow requirements, For example, ifthe operational requirements ofa system call for a wide range of flows, the design engineers may elect to use two identical pumps, These pumps work together generate 100% of the design flow. Single pump Two pump operation Continuous operation Staged as needed 50% Pump B +++, 100% Pump | 50% Pump a 4 Cosa! valve 1 System Load | ‘Cota Vane 2 ‘System Load? FeV Y000 Us gom FEV‘ 0080s oom Figure $-18 4 ppical piping system showing the difference berween a single 100% capacity pump and ‘40 50% capacity pumps We will demonstrate using the following example, Figure 8-18 shows a piping system that has a design flow rate of 1000 gpm, The operating requirements of the system range from 300 gpm to 1000 ‘gpm. We Will compare (wo pumping configurations for this system: one with a single pump capable of produc. ing 100% of the design capacity and one with two pumps each capable of producing 50% of the design flow rate. The advantage of operating two pumps in this example is that one of the pumps can be shut down when the system flow rate falls within the operating range of a single pump. The pump curves for the pumps used in the example system are displayed in Figure 8-19A and 8-19B.Chapter 8: The Total System stata Sng ry = 5-14 Pun 10% tow 19-13 Pump fr 50% ow A, Srenine cinerea Tio pump operation oo + omennge lester nan 00 gpm Figure 8-19 The pump performance curves are used to determine the operation of the pump, the power consumed, and the operating cost. If we look at the 6x5-14 (100% flow pump), we can see that the efficiency at 1000 gpm is 80.6%, ‘which corresponds to the pump's best efficiency point, The 4x3-13 (50% flow pump) has an efficiency of 71.8% at the design flow rate of 500 gpm, with a best efficiency of 73% at 600 gpm. For the same pump type, itis common for larger pumps to have higher efficiencies atthe BEP. Since the 50% capac- ity pumps are smaller than the 100% capacity pump, the multi-pump system has an efficiency penalty at the design flow rate, Table 8-3 shows the power needed by each pump to meet the range of required flow rates through the Piping system. Notice that the total power consumed by the two pumps is greater than that of the single Pump until the flow rate drops below 700 gpm. The pump curve for the 4x3-13 pump at 700 gpm is within the valid range of flow for this pump. This allows the system to be supplied by only one of the Pumps in operation. As you can see from the table, the total power consumed by the system with mul. tiple pumps is significantly less than the total power of the system with the single pump. Another point of interest is the differential pressure needed across the control valves to limit the flow Fate to the set value, The control valve differential pressure is generally greater in the single-pump system than in the multiple-pump system. This can be due to the shape of the pump curve, but more 0 10 the fact that when only one of the two pumps in the multiple-pump system is run, the differential Pressure across the control valve is significantly less, DUUUTUTT TT TVATAVADADUR TECPiping System Fundamentals Control valve | 50% Pump [30% Pump] Total ] Control valve dp psid Ahp Bhp +Bhp dp psid 35 25.6 312 900 442 23.8 24.1 241 482/207 300 423 3 22.5 5.0 [304 700 402 31.0 0 31.0 [282 600 373 28.6 0 28.6 39.7 | 300 337 25.6 0 256 (49.3 193 [607 Table 8-3 The above table is a comparison of the power consumed by identical iping system for single ‘Pump and multi-pump designs Summary of Controlling Flow In addition to the aforementioned methods for adjusting pump speed, there is a variety of other Ad- Justable Speed Drive (ASD) technologies that are less eficient. However, the discussion of the other methods is outside of the scope of this publication. Remeber that when implementing an ASD, there is a capital cost associated with the new equipment, as ‘well as a small drop in the overall efficiency of the driver-ASD-pump unit Jn addition, ASDs are not the best solution for every pumping application Piping systems that have ‘minimal static head and require a wide range of flow rates are excellent candidates for ASD implemen- tation, However, systems with a large amount of static head or where the flow rate through the piping System is fairly constant will achieve limited economic benefit by employing an ASD Solving Hydraulic Network System Earlier in this chapter, we discussed a branched system and introduced the concept of a hydraulic network. To review, a branched piping system is one in which the flow rates in each pipeline can be directly determined from the set values leaving the system. Once the flow rates are known, the pres- sures throughout the system can be calculated. Branching systems are characterized by the following attributes: * Only one source of fluid (a tank, pressure vessel, ora supply tap from a lan pressure), stem at a known * One or more demands in which a fixed flow rate is specified into or out of the piping system. * No loops or parallel flow paths in the piping system, Network systems are described as having one or both of the following attributes: * Can have multiple pressure sources,Chapter 8: The Total System + Can have muttiple loops. We will look at two complex hydraulic networks and see what can be done to simplify the piping sys- tem in order to determine whether it is operating properly. Compressed Air System Figure 8-20 shows a typical compressed air distribution system consisting of two compressors in paral- {el (with one only operating at a time), an air receiver, and two branched lines, each supplying air at 100 sig to five air drops. The drops provide compressed air to other smaller loads in the plant, At first glance, the example in Figure 8-20 appears to be a branched system because only one compres- sor is operating ata time and there appear to be no other loops. However, the system actually contains eleven loops because of the multiple drops in each of the branched lines. The first unconstrained flow is between the inlet and the air receiver, and the remainder are between the inlet and the air drops. There are a total of eleven loops, A system with this many unconstrained flow loops must be solved using hydraulic network methods. 'g SAB Wooia set @ reope Dre | Ore? bapa porn te SHE aig SaB Tong Saeieimvs Sue ienig ahelons Figure 8-20 This is an example of a hydraulic network that consists of 1! loops. This problem can be simplified and calculated as a branching system. Analyzing the system without the aid of fluid piping software would appear to be a difficult task. However, we can make some assumptions to simplify the problem. In this example, we will set up the problem to determine what exact information we need to know about our system, Each of the ten drops in the system is set to 100 psig because that is the pressure required at the regula- tor to feed the ait loads in the compressed air system. Rather than considering the flow rate each drop will receive when the regulators are set for 100 psig, we will determine the pressure at each drop when they are supplying sufficient flow. twas determined that each drop must supply 90 sefim in order to match the air loads being supplied by the compressed air system. In order for all the air loads in the system to work properly, each drop must have a pressure greater than or equal to 100 psig, To solve this problem, we will replace the 100 psig pressure demands at each drop with a flow demand of 90 sefin. By doing so, we replace the unconstrained flow circuits (loops) with branched flow paths that can be calculated using the known flow rate. With the flow rates through each pipeline in the sys- tem, we are can use the Bemoulli equation to calculate the pressures at each air drop. As long as the 124APES OYSEMA EF undamentats: calculated pressure at each drop is greater than or equal to the required pressure of 100 psig, we know thatthe system will operate as designed. Ifthe calculated pressure at any of the air drops is less than the requited design pressure, the system will be unable to meet the load requirements of that drop A full hydraulic network analysis desired. only needed if the flow rate to an air drop at a spec ic pressure is In the compressed air example system, we still have a loop going from the air inlet through the com- pressor to the air receiver, Based on the vendor information, the compressor capacity is greater than the demands at the drops. As a result, the compressor will cycle on and off. When the compressor is Funning, it can meet all the loads of the system, and any excess capacity will go into the air receiver Once the air receiver pressure is high enough, the compressor will cycle off, and the air receiver will supply all the loads to the system, When the air receiver pressure reaches its lowest pressure level, the compressor will eycle on again. Since the compressor and air receiver operate together, one can look at the air receiver as a single source of compressed air. One final point about this system: if an additional loop were created by connecting the two branches with a pipeline (ie. from drop 5 to drop 10), that system would require advanced network analysis techniques to solve. Cooling System Cooling water systems are — found in a wide variety i 4 | 3 of industrial and process. necw isd, acc ing plants. A heat transfer fluid—usually — water—is circulated in a closed loop system, supplying liquid i to heat exchangers that re- move heat from process equipment and heat loads. The hot fluid is then sent through another heat ex- changer to remove the heat from the system, Figure 8-21 shows an ex- ample of an open loop cooling system, Water is pumped from the cooling tower basin, through a com- ‘mon suction line, and into one of two cooling pumps. A common discharge line transfers the fluid to the four heat exchangers. In cooling systems, the heat exchangers are typically in a parallel configuration. The temperature of the cooling ‘Water increases as it passes through the heat exchanger. The return fluid passes through a common retum header and into the top of the cooling tower. There, the water is sprayed over the fill where the Groplets come into contact with cold air. Some of the droplets evaporate, removing heat from the cool- Figure 8-21 This example of a cooling water system, is also a looped hydraulic network, common in a wide variety of industries 125Chapter 8: The Total System ~ ing water. The remaining water falls into the cooling tower basin and is re-circulated. = ‘he Key clement ofa wet cooling tower isthe evaporation of some ofthe water, called drift. Makeup Water is fed info the cooling tower to account for the evaporation. Minerals in the makeup water will continue to concentrate in the cooling water basin, The concentration of mineral in the basin increases due to the addition of makeup water. Particulate and other debris also collects in the basin because of the contact between the cooling water and the ambient air, Due to the accumulation of minerals and debris in the basin, an active water chemistry program should be used to maintain proper cooling tower operation, In the system shown in Figure 8-21, there are four heat exchangers in parallel, resulting in a total of four loops. To determine the ow rate through each heat exchanger, one must perform a hydraulic net- Work analysis. How does one determine if there is sufficient flow through each heat exchanger to meet the cooling needs of the process? Once again, we will make some assumptions in order to simplify the problem, Since purpose of the cooling system is to remove heat from the process loads, one should know the amount of heat that must be removed. This i either determined by a process simulation of the loads or Specified by the manufacturer of the equipment being cooled. ‘The temperature of the heat transfer fluid increases as it flows through the heat exchanger, removing heat fiom the process fluid. When designing a cooling system, one parameter that must be specified is the temperature difference (called delta T) across the heat exchangers. With a specified delta T and the flow rate of the process fluid, one can determine the amount of heat that needs to be removed from the process by the heat exchanger and, subsequently, the flow rate of the heat transfer fluid needed to remove that heat ‘Required Flow Rate 700 Table 8-4 Here are the flow rates required for each heat exchanger in the cooling system Table 8-4 provides the required flow rates for each heat exchanger in the cooling system with a 20° F delta T. When the required flow rates listed in the table are supplied, each loadin the system will be Betting sufficient flow to meet its heat rejection requirements. When looking atthe operating system, Wwe must ensure that each heat exchanger is getting the specified flow rate. The difficulty lies in knowing whether each heat exchanger is getting the required flow. The system shown in Figure 8-21 will require a full hydraulic network analysis in order to determine the balanced flow rate through each heat exchanger. Once again, we will simplify these calculations to see if the desired flow rates can be achieved. ‘We could allow the piping system to operate at the balanced flow rates that would occur if all of the valves were open, and determine whether this is sufficient to keep the equipment cool. But instead, we will set the flow rates through each circuit as specified in Table 8-4 and then look at the differe pressure across the controls Our objective is to set up the system with the flow rates through each circuit with the values specified 126NS SE OEEETTECTUAS in Table 8-4 and to see if the pump is able to meet the required flow rates, In Figure 8-2 broken at each of the control valves on each circuit 2, the system is 1 56t@ 360s gor} Fest repsig DP=25.16 psid revs, 1 Set@ 150 US gpm /I | Set 350 US oom P:asa3psig” f | | P9261 psig = L Fon 1400 US apm Figure 8-22 The cooling water system is balanced by inserting demands as control valves. This makes the system two branches that can be solved directly By inserting a flow demand leaving the system (where the flow control inlets are located), equal to the Set flow rate through the circuit, we are able to create a branched system for the pipelines between the cooling tower basin and control valve inlets. In the branched system, the flow rates and pressures can be caleulated. Using this approach, we can determine the pressure atthe inlet of the control valves using the head loss calculations and Bernoulli equation. By inserting a demand entering into the system (where the flow control outlets are located), equal tothe Set flow rate through the circuit, the piping from the control valve outlets to the cooling tower becomes a branched system. Using this approach, the pressure at the outlet of the control valves can be deter. mined using the head loss calculations and Bemoulli equation “The differential pressure across the control valve can be calculated by subtracting the valve outlet pres- sure from the inlet pressure. These differential pressure values are shown in Table 8-5. Ifthe differential Pressure is positive, then there is sufficient head to achieve the set flow rate. Ifthe differential pressure across the control valve is negative, then the pump head is not sufficient to meet the set flow rate. If there is nota great enough differential pressure across any one circuit in the system, then you eannot determine which, if any, of the remaining circuits can achieve the set flow rateChapter 8: The Total System FCV-38 FCV-41 Table &-5 shows the differential pressure across the various circuits at the set flows using the above method. {his approach can be used when evaluating the operation of an existing system or adding to the eapac- iy of an existing cooling system, One final point: knowing the inlet pressure, differential pressure, set flow rate through a control valve, and the valve characteristics of the valve, one should be able to eatcu- late the approximate valve position needed to balance the system to achieve the desired flow rates Changes to Systems In this section, we will be evaluating a variety of example systems to see how operational changes affect the system, Piping systems are designed for a specific design condition, Pipelines, pumps, and control valves are chosen to meet design requirements, Piping systems may be designed for one specific condition, but the system is called upon to operate under a variety of conditions, suck as startup, shut down, and reduced system capacity. Additionally, the system may change over time due to process modifications or changes in equipment due to wear In this section, we will investigate what happens when there are: + Changes in tank levels and pressures within a piping system, * Changes in the process requiring adjustments to process fluid and temperature. * Changes in the condition of the pipe over time. Changing Tank Levels & Pressures Within an operating piping system, the levels and pressures within the tanks and vessels often vary, In this section, we will look at what happens when the tank levels and pressures vary within a ange of expected limits. Figure 8-23 shows the system we will be examining. 128 “= = - - - - = = = “ = - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -~ -~ - -” o-Piping System Fundamentals wes, pweaea | | Peer stpue Bain &4in Eb 125 ft ‘The pressure in the Pressure Tank ranges External souce to Supply Tank from 3t0 20 psig, en on 2 fleve Seco on teva The levelin the tanks st to maintain a constant level of 3 ft BED pg f bin Transfer Pump Suct. Ek 100. ‘Supply Tank P Set 0 sig Level: 2it El: 88 ft Figure 8-23 This isthe piping system under evaluation with varying tank levels and pressures. The system shown in Figure 8-23 consists ofa tank (Supply Tank) supplying a pump (Transfer Pump) that is pumping the process fluid to a pressurized vessel (Pressure Tank) The Supply Tank is open to the atmosphere and filled from an extemal source, based on the level in the tank The design condition for the Supply Tank level is 5 ft. When the fluid level in the tank drops ‘below 2 ft. an external supply valve opens in order to refill the tank. When the level in the Supply Tank Teaches 9 ft, the external valve closes. The base of the Supply Tank is at an elevation of 88 ft ‘The Transfer Pump is a 4x3-10 end suction pump running at 3560 rpm. The pump is located at an eleva- tion of 100 ft. which creates a suction lift on the pump (i.e. the pump suction is above the liquid level). with the fluid being pumped to a pressurized tank. The Pressure Tank is connected to an extemal steam source. The pressure in the tank varies from 3 psig to 20 psig, based on the plant load, The bottom elevation of the Pressure Tank is 125 ft, maintained at a level of 3 ft. with the use of an extemal control. The objective is to evaluate the operation of the piping system under a variety of expected levels and pressures within the system, We will tackle this problem by + Evaluating the design case. + Evaluating the system as we change the levels in the Supply Tank, + Evaluating the system as we change the pressure in the Pressure Tank * Evaluate the system in the range of the levels and pressures Under each operating condition, we want to ensure that the pump is operating within the manufacturer's requirementsChapter 8: The Total System Design Case In the design case, we will calculate the static head, along with the head losses inthe pipelines ELEVATION HEAD TAtt Supply Tank level S8R+5H=93 fe Pressure Tank level 125 R+3 f= 128 fe Elevation head 128-93 f= 35 f PRESSURE HEAD Supply Tank pressure Opsig Pressure Tank pressure 10 psig Pressure Head 10 Ibvin? * (144 in? / 8 / 61.25 Ib’) = 23.5 fe STATIC HEAD 35 +235 1-585 ft PIPELINE HEAD Loss Pipe-001 6-inch steel schedule 40 pipe 25 ftlength water at 160° F 2 long radius 90° elbows, | inward entrance, 2 gate valves. Head loss for 400 gpm = 0.7 ft : Pipe-002 inch steel schedule 40 pipe : 160 ft length i water at 160° F ; 6 long Radius 90° elbows, 1 globe valve, 1 lift check angle seat : Head loss for 400 gpm = 25.2 ft i Control Valve Fully open Cv = 302 i Head loss for 400 gpm=5.6 ft i Pipe-003 4-inch steel schedule 40 pipe 20 ft length water at 160° F 1 long radius 90° elbow, 1 projecting exit Head loss for 400 gpm = 3.6 ft With the above information forthe pipelines, we can compute the head loss for each pipeline, over a range of flow rates, and create a resistance curve for the pipelines, Table 8-6 shows the head loss values fora variety of flow rates through the pipelinesHead Loss vs. Flow Rate for Figure 8-22 0 [Few Rategpm Jo [iw [am [00 Too [Headiessit Jo [54 fo Tiss Table 8-6 The head loss values for various flow rates for the sample system in figure 8-22. ‘The only elements changing in the piping system are the Supply Tank level and the Pressure Tank pre sure. These changes will affect the static head component of the piping system curve. The static head values for each operating condition are added to the head loss values in Table 8-6 to generate a system curve that represents the different operating conditions. In looking at the range of static heads based on tank levels and pressures, you can see that the lowest static head value is 38.1 ft. of fluid. This occurs when the Storage Tank level is at 9 ft. and the Pressure Tank pressure is 3 psig. The maximum static head value is 85.1 ff. of fluid and occurs when the Storage Tank level is 2 ft. and the Pressure Tank pressure is 20 psig Figure 8-24 shows the pump and piping system curves for the design case, along with the curves rep- resenting the most extreme conditions for the Supply Tank levels and Pressure Tank pressures. The in- tersection of the pump and the piping system curves indicates the flow rate through the pump under the ‘operating conditions. The flow rate through the system ranges from 420 gpm to just over 520 gpm. % - EFFICIENCY Greatest static nea —“ Design conations —pt Smallest static heas —Pf B et ot POWER -hpChapter 8: The Total System Now that we know the flow rate through the pump, we can see where the pump is operating on its curve. 'W rate through the pump is within the manufacturer's ating region. Lastly, we need to make sure that the pump’s NPSH re. NPSHa is 15.52 ft. with 457 gpm flowing through the Tunning at 3560 rpm, the NPSHr is 14.7 ft, Since th Pump should not cavitate. quirements are met, In the design case, the Pipeline. In the pump curve for the 4x3-10 pump fe NPSHa is greater than the pumps NPSHr, the Ctr, Using equation 4-1 from Chapter 4, we will look a all of the parameters that affect the NPSHa: NPSH,= (Pr Py) + UA 4 (2, -Z,) ~ hy The Pt or pressure on the supply tank is consta elevation on the surface of the Supply Tank vat The low level of fin the Supply Tank increases the suction lift needed by the pump. In addition, the low pressure of3 psig in the Pressure Tank reduces the system static head, causing the pump to run far- ther out on its curve, This increases the flow rate through the system, The higher flow rate of 485 gpm also increases the head loss in the suction pipeline. As a result, the NPSHa decreases to 12.41 fe. As mentioned previously, decreasing the static head increases the flow rate through the system. The ran nes Row rate through the pump increases the NPSHr to 16.0 ft. At this value, the NPSIia less than the NPSHr, resulting in cavitation within the pump. Ifthe pump is cavitating, it will most likely be Unable to deliver the flow rate indicated on the pump curve Changing Fi Properties 1p this example, we will see how changing the uid properties affect the op This can occur when making a change to a process (using a different prove the uid temperature of a heat transfer fluid during a plant startup or shut eration of a piping system, 88 fluid), or when changing lown. [ro demonstrate how fluid changes can effect the operation ofa piping system, we will lok ata closed loop system supplying 100 gpm of heat transfer fluid for four heat exchangers (Figure 8-25). During normal operation, a single pump is operating withthe four flow control valves set at 100 gpm.Piping System Fundamentals Surge tank P Set T0psig Covet 3 + x §. Main header Pump #1 _ .! Hx.04 x02 ea rove FOV @ 100US gpm $y Fovs FOV @ 100 US opm ai rova FV @ 100 US gpm Fova FCV @ 100 US gpm Figure 8-25 Closed loop heat transfer system used to heat tank and other loads ina plant The heat transfer fluid is Therminol® 55 and, under normal operating conditions, the fluid temperature is 300° F (Therminol is a registered trademark of Solutia Inc.) Table 8-7 shows the fluid properties of ‘Therminol 55 at a range of operating temperatures, 200° F 100° F 60°F 51.34 54.61 3.239 18.14 0.003 Table 8-7 Fluid Properties of Therminol 55, courtesy of Solutia Inc 1 looking at the viscosity of the heat transfer fluid, we can see that there isa substantial difference fetween the operating temperature and the cold startup temperature of 60°F. Therefore, we should ves how the system would operate during the startup condition, During normal operation, a single pump is operating providing sufficient head and flow rate to meet all the loads required by the heat exchangers. Table 8-8 shows what happens tothe system when operating at the various operating temperatures during plant startup.