Nonlinear Structural Materials Module: User S Guide

Nonlinear Structural Materials Module
Users Guide
VERSION 4.3b
Nonlinear Structural Materials Module Users Guide

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Part No. CM022901
C o n t e n t s
Chapter 1: Introduction
About the Nonlinear Structural Materials Module
What Can the Nonlinear Structural Materials Module Do? . . . . . . .
Where Do I Access the Documentation and Model Library? . . . . . .
Overview of the Users Guide
Chapter 2: Nonlinear Structural Materials Theory

Hyperelastic Material Theory
Working with Hyperelastic Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Lagrangian Formulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Modeling Large Deformations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

Modeling Elastic Deformations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Thermal Expansion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Large Strain Plasticity Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
Isochoric Elastic Deformation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
Nearly Incompressible Hyperelastic Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
Theory for the Predefined Hyperelastic Material Models . . . . . . . . 18
Elastoplastic Material Theory
28
Introduction to Small and Large Plastic Strains. . . . . . . . . . . . 28

Plastic Flow for Small Strains . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
Isotropic Plasticity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
Yield Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
Hill Orthotropic Plasticity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
CONTENTS
|i
Hardening Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
Plastic Flow for Large Strains . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
Numerical Solution of the Elastoplastic Conditions . . . . . . . . . . 41
References for Elastoplastic Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
Creep and Viscoplasticity Theory
43
About Creep . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
Fundamental Creep Material Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
Creep Material Models for Metals and Crystalline Solids . . . . . . . . 49
Viscoplasticity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
References for Nonlinear Structural Materials
54
Chapter 3: Nonlinear Structural Materials

Working with Nonlinear Structural Materials
58
Adding a Material to a Solid Mechanics User Interface . . . . . . . . . 58

Hyperelastic Material . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
Linear Elastic Material . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
Creep . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
Viscoplasticity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
Plasticity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
ii | C O N T E N T S
Introduction
This guide describes the Nonlinear Structural Materials Module, an optional
add-on package for COMSOL Multiphysics designed to assist you to model

structural behavior that includes nonlinear materials. The module is an add-on to
the Structural Mechanics Module or the MEMS Module and extends it with
support for modeling nonlinear materials, including hyperelasticity, creep,
plasticity, and viscoplasticity.
This chapter introduces you to the capabilities of this module. A summary of the
physics interfaces and where you can find documentation and model examples is
also included. The last section is a brief overview with links to each chapter in this
guide.
In this chapter:
About the Nonlinear Structural Materials Module
About the Nonlinear Structural

Materials Module
These topics are included in this section:
What Can the Nonlinear Structural Materials Module Do?
Where Do I Access the Documentation and Model Library?
What Can the Nonlinear Structural Materials Module Do?

The Nonlinear Structural Materials Module is an optional package that extends the
Structural Mechanics Module to studies that include structural mechanics with
nonlinear material behavior. It is designed for researchers, engineers, developers,
teachers, and students that want to simulate nonlinear structural materials, including a
full range of possible multiphysics couplings.
The module provides an extensive set of nonlinear structural material models,
including the following materials:
Predefined and user-defined hyperelastic materials: neo-Hookean, Mooney-Rivlin,
Saint-Venant Kirchhoff, Arruda-Boyce, Ogden, and others.
Small-strain and large-strain plasticity models using different hardening models.
User-defined plasticity, flow rule and hardening models.
Predefined and user-defined creep and viscoplastic material models: Norton,
Garofalo, Anand, potential, volumetric, deviatoric, and others.
NOTE ABOUT MATERIALS
The material property groups (including all associated properties) can be

added to models from the Material page. See Materials in the COMSOL
Multiphysics Reference Manual.
2 |
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
Where Do I Access the Documentation and Model Library?

A number of Internet resources provide more information about COMSOL, including
licensing and technical information. The electronic documentation, context help, and
the Model Library are all accessed through the COMSOL Desktop.
If you are reading the documentation as a PDF file on your computer, the
blue links do not work to open a model or content referenced in a
different guide. However, if you are using the online help in COMSOL
Multiphysics, these links work to other modules, model examples, and
documentation sets.
THE DOCUMENTATION
The COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual describes all user interfaces and
functionality included with the basic COMSOL Multiphysics license. This book also
has instructions about how to use COMSOL and how to access the documentation
electronically through the COMSOL Help Desk.
To locate and search all the documentation, in COMSOL Multiphysics:
Press F1 or select Help>Help (
) from the main menu for context help.
Press Ctrl+F1 or select Help>Documentation (

) from the main menu for opening
the main documentation window with access to all COMSOL documentation.
Click the corresponding buttons (
or
) on the main toolbar.
and then either enter a search term or look under a specific module in the
documentation tree.
If you have added a node to a model you are working on, click the Help
button (
) in the nodes settings window or press F1 to learn more
about it. Under More results in the Help window there is a link with a
search string for the nodes name. Click the link to find all occurrences of
the nodes name in the documentation, including model documentation
and the external COMSOL website. This can help you find more
information about the use of the nodes functionality as well as model
examples where the node is used.
ABOUT THE NONLINEAR STRUCTURAL MATERIALS MODULE
THE MODEL LIBRARY
Each model comes with documentation that includes a theoretical background and
step-by-step instructions to create the model. The models are available in COMSOL
as MPH-files that you can open for further investigation. You can use the step-by-step
instructions and the actual models as a template for your own modeling and
applications.
In most models, SI units are used to describe the relevant properties, parameters, and
dimensions in most examples, but other unit systems are available.
) from the main menu, and
To open the Model Library, select View>Model Library (
then search by model name or browse under a module folder name. Click to highlight
any model of interest, and select Open Model and PDF to open both the model and the
documentation explaining how to build the model. Alternatively, click the Help
button (
) or select Help>Documentation in COMSOL to search by name or browse
by module.
The model libraries are updated on a regular basis by COMSOL in order to add new
models and to improve existing models. Choose View>Model Library Update (
) to
update your model library to include the latest versions of the model examples.
If you have any feedback or suggestions for additional models for the library (including
those developed by you), feel free to contact us at info@comsol.com.
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COMSOL WEBSITES
4 |
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Contact COMSOL
www.comsol.com/contact
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www.comsol.com/support/download
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www.comsol.com/support/knowledgebase
Product Updates
www.comsol.com/support/updates
COMSOL Community
www.comsol.com/community

The Nonlinear Structural Materials Module Users Guide gets you started with
modeling of nonlinear structural materials using COMSOL Multiphysics. The
information in this guide is specific to this module. Instructions how to use COMSOL
in general are included with the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual.
As detailed in the section Where Do I Access the Documentation and
Model Library? this information can also be searched from the COMSOL
Multiphysics software Help menu.
TA BL E O F C O N T E N T S A N D I N D EX
To help you navigate through this guide, see the Contents and Index.
NONLINEAR MATERIALS
Nonlinear Structural Materials chapter describes the features available with this add-on
moduleHyperelastic Material, Linear Elastic Material, Creep, Viscoplasticity, and
Plasticity.
These features are described in this guide. For all other features, see the
Solid Mechanics interface either in the Structural Mechanics Module
Users Guide or in the MEMS Module Users Guide for details. Or search
online.
NONLINEAR MATERIALS THEORY
Nonlinear Structural Materials Theory chapter describes the Hyperelastic Material

Theory, Elastoplastic Material Theory, and Creep and Viscoplasticity Theory features
available with this module.
O V E R V I E W O F T H E U S E R S G U I D E
6 |
Nonlinear Structural Materials Theory

The Nonlinear Structural Materials Module contains materials which are used in
combination with the Solid Mechanics interface and related multiphysics interfaces
such as Thermal Stress in combination with either the Structural Mechanics
Module or the MEMS Module.
In this chapter:
References for Nonlinear Structural Materials

In this section:
Working with Hyperelastic Materials
Lagrangian Formulation
Modeling Large Deformations
Modeling Elastic Deformations
Thermal Expansion
Large Strain Plasticity Theory
Isochoric Elastic Deformation
Nearly Incompressible Hyperelastic Materials
Theory for the Predefined Hyperelastic Material Models
Hyperelastic Material
If you have the Structural Mechanics Module, see Theory for the Solid
Mechanics User Interface in the Structural Mechanics Module Users
Guide.
If you have the MEMS Module, see Theory for the Solid Mechanics
User Interface in the MEMS Module Users Guide.
The links to the nodes described in the Structural Mechanics Module

Users Guide and MEMS Module Users Guide do not work in the PDF,
only from the on line help.
To locate and search all the documentation, in COMSOL Multiphysics,

select Help>Documentation from the main menu and either enter a search
term or look under a specific module in the documentation tree.
Working with Hyperelastic Materials

A hyperelastic material is defined by its elastic strain energy density Ws, which is a
function of the elastic strain state. It is often referred to as the energy density. The
8 |
CHAPTER 2: NONLINEAR STRUCTURAL MATERIALS THEORY
hyperelastic formulation normally gives a nonlinear relation between stress and strain,
as opposed to Hookes law in linear elasticity.
Most of the time, the right Cauchy-Green deformation tensor C is used to describe
the current state of strain (although one could use the left Cauchy-Green tensor B, the
deformation gradient tensor F, and so forth), so the strain energy density is written as
Ws(C).
For isotropic hyperelastic materials, any state of strain can be described in terms of
three independent variablescommon choices are the invariants of the right
Cauchy-Green tensor C, the invariants of the Green-Lagrange strain tensor, or the
principal stretches.
If you have the Structural Mechanics Module, see Geometric
Nonlinearity Theory for the Solid Mechanics User Interface in the
Structural Mechanics Module Users Guide.
If you have the MEMS Module, see Geometric Nonlinearity Theory
for the Solid Mechanics User Interface in the MEMS Module Users
Guide.
Lagrangian Formulation
The formulation used for structural analysis in COMSOL Multiphysics is totally
Lagrangian, for both small and large deformations. This means that the computed
stress and deformation state is always referred to the material configuration (material
frame), rather than to current position in space (spatial frame).
Likewise, material properties are always given for material particles and with tensor
components referring to a local coordinate system based on the material frame. This
has the advantage that spatially varying material properties can be evaluated just once
for the initial material configuration and do not change as the solid deforms and
rotates.
The gradient of the displacement vector u, which is mentioned frequently in the
theory, is always computed with respect to material coordinates. In 3D Cartesian
coordinates, this means
HYPERELASTIC MATERIAL THEORY
u u u
X Y Z
u = v v v
X Y Z
w w w
X Y Z
The displacement is considered as a function of the material coordinates (X, Y, Z), but
it is not explicitly a function of the spatial coordinates (x, y, z). It is thus only possible
to compute derivatives with respect to the material coordinates.
Modeling Large Deformations

Consider a certain physical particle, initially located at the coordinate X. During
deformation, this particle follows a path
x = x X t
Here, x is the spatial coordinate and X is the material coordinate.
For simplicity, assume that undeformed and deformed positions are measured in the
same coordinate system. Using the displacement u it is then possible to write
x = X + u X t
The deformation gradient tensor F shows how an infinitesimal line element, dX, is
mapped to the corresponding deformed line element dx by
x
dx = ------- dX = F dX
X
The deformation gradient F contains the complete information about the local
straining and rotation of the material. It is a two-point tensor (or a double vector),
which transforms as a vector with respect to each of its indices. It involves both the
reference and present configurations.
In terms of the displacement gradient, F can be written as
x
F = ------- = u + I
X
The deformation of the material (stretching) causes changes in the material density.
The ratio between current and initial volume (or mass density) is given by
10 |
0
dV
---------= ------ = det F = J
dV 0
Here, 0 is the initial density and is the current density after deformation. The
determinant of the deformation gradient tensor F is related to volumetric changes with
respect to the initial state. A pure rigid body rotation implies J1, also, an
incompressible material is represented by J1. These are called isochoric processes.
The determinant of the deformation gradient tensor is always positive (a
negative mass density is unphysical). The relation 0/J implies that
for J1 there is compression, and for J1 there is elongation. Note
that J0, so F is invertible. The variable solid.rho represents a
reference or initial density 0, and not the current density .
Since the deformation tensor F is a two-point tensor, it combines both spatial and
material frames. It is not symmetric. Applying a singular value decomposition on the
deformation gradient tensor gives an insight into how much stretch and rotation a unit
volume of material has suffered. The right polar decomposition is defined as
F = RU
where R is a proper orthogonal tensor ( det R = 1 , and R 1 = R T ), and U is the
right stretch tensor given in the material frame.
The internal variables for the deformation gradient tensor are named
solid.FdxX, solid.FdxY, and so on; for the rotation tensor they are
named solid.RotxX, solid.RotxY, and so on; and for the right stretch
tensor solid.UstchXX, solid.UstchXY, and so on. An upper case index
refers to the material frame, and a lower case index refers to the spatial
frame.
The right Cauchy-Green deformation tensor C defined by
T
C = F F = U2
is a symmetric and positive definite tensor, which accounts for the strain but not for
the rotation. Also, the Green-Lagrange strain tensor is a symmetric tensor
1
= --- C I
2
11
Some authors prefer to use the left Cauchy-Green deformation tensor BFFT,
which is also symmetric and positive definite but it is defined in the spatial frame.
The internal variables for the right Cauchy-Green deformation tensor in
local coordinate system are named solid.Cl11, solid.Cl12, and so on;
and for the Green-Lagrange strain tensor in local coordinates
solid.el11, solid.el12, and so on.
Modeling Elastic Deformations

The elastic deformation tensor is the basis for all strain energy formulations in
hyperelastic materials and it is derived by removing the inelastic deformation from the
total deformation tensor.
Normally, the total deformation is multiplicatively decoupled into elastic and inelastic
deformations
F = Fel F in
The elastic deformation tensor is computed as
1
F el = FF in
(2-1)
so the inelastic deformations are removed from the deformation gradient tensor. The
elastic right Cauchy-Green deformation tensor is then computed from the elastic
deformation gradient
T
C el = F el F el
and the elastic Green-Lagrange strain tensor is computed as:
1
el = --- C el I
2
12 |
The inelastic deformation tensor Fin is derived from inelastic processes, such as
thermal expansion or plasticity.
The internal variables for the elastic right Cauchy-Green deformation
tensor in the local coordinate system are named solid.Cel11,
solid.Cel12, and so on; and for the elastic Green-Lagrange tensor in
local coordinates solid.eel11, solid.eel12, and so on.
Furthermore, the elastic, inelastic, and total volume ratio are related as
det F = det F el det F in or J = J el J in
The internal variables for the elastic, inelastic, and total volume ratio are
named solid.Jel, solid.Ji, and solid.J.
Thermal Expansion
If thermal expansion is present, a stress-free volume change occurs. This is a pure
volumetric change, so the multiplicative decomposition of the deformation tensor in
Equation 2-1 implies
J
det F
J el = --------------------- = -------J th
det F th
Here, the thermal volume ratio, Jth, depends on the thermal stretch th, which for
linear thermal expansion in isotropic materials can be written in terms of the isotropic
coefficient of thermal expansion, iso, and the absolute change in temperature
3 and
J th = th
th = 1 + iso T T ref
Here, the term isoTTrefis the thermal strain. The isotropic thermal gradient is
therefore a diagonal tensor defined as FththI.
The internal variables for the thermal stretch and the thermal volume
ratio are named solid.stchth, and solid.Jth.
13
Large Strain Plasticity Theory

When large strain plasticity occurs, the plastic deformation gradient in not necessarily
a diagonal tensor, as when thermal expansion occurs. The multiplicative
decomposition of the deformation gradient tensor in Equation 2-1 implies
1
F el = FF p
Here, the plastic deformation tensor Fp depends on the plastic flow rule, yield
function, and plastic potential.
Plastic Flow for Large Strains
Isochoric Elastic Deformation

It turns out to be convenient for some classes of hyperelastic materials to split the strain
energy density into volumetric (also called dilatational) and isochoric (also called
distortional or volume-preserving) contributions. The elastic deformation tensor is
then multiplicatively decomposed into the volumetric and isochoric components
F el = F evol F el
with Fevol as the volumetric elastic deformation (a diagonal tensor) and F el the
isochoric elastic deformation gradient. Isochoric deformation means that the volume
ratio is kept constant during deformation, so the isochoric elastic deformation is
computed by scaling it by the elastic volume ratio. The elastic volume ratio is defined
by
J el = det F el = det F evol
and the volumetric deformation as
1 3I
F evol = J el
By using Jel it is possible to define the isochoric-elastic deformation gradient

1/3
F el = J el
the isochoric-elastic right Cauchy-Green tensor
14 |
F el
2/3
C el = F el F el = J el
C el
and the isochoric-elastic Green-Lagrange strain tensor

1
el = --- C el I
2
This scaling changes the eigenvalues of the tensor, but not its principal directions, so
the original and isochoric tensors remain coaxial to each other.
Some authors call F el and C el the modified tensors. Note that
det F el = 1 and det C el = 1
The internal variables for the isochoric-elastic Cauchy-Green deformation

tensor in local coordinate system are named solid.CIel11,
solid.CIel12, and so on.
The other two invariants normally used together with Jel are the first and second
invariant of the isochoric-elastic right Cauchy-Green deformation tensor
I 1 C el and I 2 C el
In these equations:
2/3
I 1 C el = trace C el = J el
I 1 C el
2
1 2
4/3
I 2 C el = --- I 1 C el trace C el = J el I 2 C el
2
Since I 3 C el = det C el = 1 , the third invariant is never explicitly used.
The internal variables for the invariants Jel, I 1 C el , and I 2 C el are

named solid.Jel, solid.I1CIel, and solid.I2CIel.
The invariants of the isochoric (modified) elastic Green-Lagrange strain tensor are
related to the invariants of the isochoric-elastic right Cauchy-Green deformation
tensor
15
1
I 1 el = trace el = --- I 1 C el 3
2
1 2
1
I 2 el = --- I 1 el trace el 2 = --- I 2 C el 2I 1 C el + 3
2
4
1
I 3 el = det el = --- I 1 C el I 2 C el
8
The internal variables for the invariants of the isochoric elastic

Green-Lagrange strain tensor are named solid.I1eIel, solid.I2eIel,
and solid.I3eIel.

As mentioned in Working with Hyperelastic Materials, isotropic hyperelastic materials
are described by their elastic strain energy density, Ws, written in terms of at most three
independent variables. Common choices are the invariants of the elastic right
Cauchy-Green tensor, the elastic Green-Lagrange strain tensor, the isochoric variants
of these tensors, or the principal elastic stretches.
Once the strain energy density is defined, the second Piola-Kirchhoff stress in the local
coordinate system is computed as
S = 2
W s
C
In the general case, the expression for the energy Ws is symbolically evaluated down to
the components of C using the invariants definitions prior to the calculations of the
components of the second Piola-Kirchhoff stress tensor. The differentiation is
performed in components on the local coordinate system.
If the Nearly incompressible material check box is selected for the Hyperelastic Material
node, the total elastic energy function is presented as:
W s = W iso + W vol
where Wiso is the isochoric strain energy density and Wvol is the volumetric strain
energy density.
16 |
The isochoric strain energy density can be entered as an expression involving the
following:
Components of the isochoric elastic right Cauchy-Green tensor C el in the local
coordinate system.
Principal invariants of the isochoric elastic right Cauchy-Green tensor C el .
Principal invariants of the isochoric elastic Green-Lagrange strain el .
The volumetric strain energy density, Wvol, can only be defined as an expression of the
elastic volumetric deformation. The most commonly used form is:
2
1
W vol J el = --- J el 1
2
(2-2)
where is the initial bulk modulus. From here, the volumetric stress (pressure) is
calculated as
pp =
W vol
J
When the formula in Equation 2-2 is used, it becomes

pp = J 1
The second Piola-Kirchhoff stress is then given by
S = p p JC
+2
W iso
C
(2-3)
and the Cauchy stress tensor by

= J 1 FSF T = p p I + 2J 1 F
W iso
FT
C
THE LOCKING PROBLEM
A numerical scheme is said to exhibit locking if the accuracy of the approximation

deteriorates as a parameter tends to a limiting value (Ref. 11). Finite elements in solid
mechanics are said to lock when exhibiting an unphysical response to deformation
(Ref. 12). Locking can occur for many different reasons. For linear elastic materials,
this typically happens as Poissons ratio tends to 0.5, or the bulk modulus is much
larger than the shear modulus. Numerical errors arise because the shape functions are
unable to properly describe the volume preserving deformation.
17
To avoid the locking problem in computations, the mixed formulation replaces pp in

Equation 2-3 with a corresponding interpolated pressure help variable pw, which adds
extra degrees of freedom to the ones defined by the displacement vector u.
The general procedure is the same as when the Nearly incompressible material check
box is selected for the Linear Elastic Materials node.

Different hyperelastic material models are constructed by specifying different elastic
strain energy expressions. This module has several predefined material models and also
has the option to enter user defined expressions for the strain energy density.
NEO-HOOKEAN
The strain energy density for the compressible version of the Neo-Hookean material is
written in terms of the elastic volume ratio Jel and the first invariant of the elastic right
Cauchy-Green deformation tensor I1Cel (Ref. 10).
1
1
2
W s = --- I 1 3 log J el + --- log J el
2
2
Here, and are the Lam coefficients. Note that the natural logarithm is used.
The nearly incompressible version uses the isochoric invariant I 1 C el and the initial
bulk modulus
1
2
1
W s = --- I 1 3 + --- J el 1
2
2
S T VE N A N T - K I R C H H O F F
One of the simplest hyperelastic material models is the St Venant-Kirchhoff material,

which is an extension of a linear elastic material into the hyperelastic regime.
The elastic strain energy density is written with two parameters (the two Lam
coefficients) and two invariants of the elastic Green-Lagrange strain tensor, I1el and
I2el
1
W s = --- + 2 I 12 2I 2
2
Here, and are the Lam parameters.
18 |
The nearly incompressible version uses the isochoric invariants I 1 el and I 2 el ,

and the initial bulk modulus is calculated from the Lam parameters
1
2
1
W s = --- + 2 I 1 2 2I 2 + --- J el 1
2
2
M O O N E Y - R I V L I N , TWO P A R A M E T E R S
Only a nearly incompressible version is available, and the elastic strain energy density
is written in terms of the two isochoric invariants of the elastic right Cauchy-Green
deformation tensors I 1 C el and I 2 C el , and the elastic volume ratio Jel
2
1
W s = C 10 I 1 3 + C 01 I 2 3 + --- J el 1
2
The material parameters C10 and C01 are related to the Lam parameter
C10C01
MOONEY-RIVLIN, FIVE PARAMETERS
Rivlin and Saunders (Ref. 2) proposed a phenomenological model for small

deformations in rubber-based materials on a polynomial expansion of the first two
invariants of the elastic right Cauchy-Green deformation, so the strain energy density
is written as an infinite series
Ws =
Cmn I1 3 m I2 3 n
m = 0n = 0
with C00. This material model is sometimes also called polynomial hyperelastic
material.
In the first-order approximation, the material model recovers the Mooney-Rivlin strain
energy density
W s = C 10 I 1 3 + C 01 I 2 3
while the second-order approximation incorporates second-order terms
W s = C 10 I 1 3 + C 01 I 2 3 + C 20 I 1 3 2 + C 02 I 2 3 2 + C 11 I 1 3 I 2 3
The nearly incompressible version uses the isochoric invariants of the elastic right
Cauchy-Green deformation tensors
19
and it adds a contribution due to the elastic volume ratio. The strain energy density is
then computed from
2
Ws =
Cmn I1 3
1
2
I 2 3 n + --- J el 1
2
m = 0n = 0
Here, is the initial bulk modulus.

MOONEY-RIVLIN, NINE PARAMETERS
The Mooney-Rivlin, nine parameters material model is an extension of the polynomial

expression to third order terms and the strain energy density is written as
3
Ws =
Cmn I1 3
1
2
I 2 3 n + --- J el 1
2
m = 0n = 0
YE O H
Yeoh proposed (Ref. 1) a phenomenological model in order to fit experimental data of

filled rubbers, where Mooney-Rivlin and Neo-Hookean models were to simple to
describe the stiffening effect in the large strain regime. The strain energy was fitted to
experimental data by means of three parameters, and the first invariant of the elastic
right Cauchy-Green deformation tensors I1Cel
Ws = c1 I1 3 + c2 I1 3 2 + c3 I1 3 3
Since the shear modulus depends on the deformation, and it is calculated as
W s W s
= 2
+
= 2c 1 + 4c 2 I 1 3 + 6c 3 I 1 3 2
I1 I2
this imposes a restriction on the coefficients c 1 c 2 c 3 , since 0 .
The nearly incompressible version uses the isochoric invariant of the elastic right
Cauchy-Green deformation tensor I 1 C el , and it adds a contribution from the elastic
volume ratio
1
2
W s = c 1 I 1 3 + c 2 I 1 3 2 + c 3 I 1 3 3 + --- J el 1
2
20 |
OGDEN
The Neo-Hookean material model usually fits well to experimental data at moderate
strains, but fails to model hyperelastic deformations at high strains. In order to model
rubber-like materials at high strains, Ogden adapted (Ref. 1) the energy of a
Neo-Hookean material to
N
Ws =
- + el2 + el3 3
---- p el1
p=1
Here p and p are material parameters, and el1, el2, and el3 are the principal elastic
stretches such as Jelel1el2el3.
The Ogden model is empirical, in the sense that it does not relate the material
parameters p and p to physical phenomena. The parameters p and p are obtained
by curve-fitting measured data, which can be difficult for N. The most common
implementation of Ogden material is with N, so four parameters are needed.
The nearly incompressible version uses the isochoric elastic stretches
13
eli = eli J el
and the initial bulk modulus

N
Ws =
- + el2 + el3 3 + --- J el 1

---- p el1
2
p=1
The isochoric elastic stretches define a volume preserving deformation, since

el1 el2 el3 = el1 el2 el3 J el = 1
STORAKERS
The Storakers material (Ref. 12 and Ref. 15) is commonly used to model highly
compressible foams. The strain energy density is written in a similar fashion as in
Ogden material:
N
Ws =
2 k
k k
- + el2 + el3 3 + ----- J el

-------2 el1
k
k=1
The initial shear and bulk moduli can be computed from the parameters k and k as
21
k and =
2k k + --3-
1
k=1
k=1
for constantparameters k, the initial bulk modulus becomes , so a

stable material requires and . In this case, the Poisson's ratio is given by
, which means that for a Poissons ratio bigger than is
needed.
VARGA
The Varga material model (Ref. 1) describes the strain energy in terms of the elastic
stretches as
W s = c 1 el1 + el2 + el3 3 + c 2 el1 el2 + el2 el3 + el1 el3 3
The nearly incompressible version uses the isochoric elastic stretches defined as
13
eli = eli J el
and the initial bulk modulus

2
1
W s = c 1 el1 + el2 + el3 3 + c 2 el1 el2 + el2 el3 + el1 el3 3 + --- J el 1
2
The simplest Varga model is obtained by setting c1 and c2

2
1
W s = el1 + el2 + el3 3 + --- J el 1
2
ARRUDA-BOYCE
The other hyperelastic materials described are phenomenological models in the sense
that they do not relate the different material parameters (normally obtained by
curve-fitting experimental data) to physical phenomena.
Arruda and Boyce (Ref. 3) derived a material model based on Langevin statistics of
polymer chains. The strain energy density is defined by
Ws = 0
cp I1 3
p
p=1
22 |
Here, 0 is the initial macroscopic shear modulus, I1Cel is the first invariant of the
elastic right Cauchy-Green deformation tensor, and the coefficients cp are obtained by
series expansion of the inverse Langevin function.
Arruda and Boyce truncated the series and used only the first five terms as listed in
Table 2-1:
TABLE 2-1: FIRST FIVE COEFFICIENTS OF ARRUDA-BOYCE MATERIAL MODEL
C1
1/2
C2
1/20 N
C3
C4
C5
11/1050 N
19/7000 N
519/673750 N4
The strain energy density is then defined as

5
Ws = 0
cp I1 3
p
p=1
Other authors (Ref. 1) use only the first three coefficients of the series. The number of
segments in the polymeric chain is specified by the parameter N so the material model
is described by only two parameters, 0 and N.
This material model is sometimes also called the eight-chain model since it was derived
for N.
The nearly incompressible version uses the isochoric invariant I 1 C el and the initial
bulk modulus
5
Ws = 0
cp I1
p
1
2
3 + --- J el 1
2
p=1
GENT
Many hyperelastic material models are difficult to fit to experimental data. Gent
material (Ref. 13 and Ref. 14) is a simple phenomenological constitutive model based
on only two parameters, and jm, which defines the strain energy density as:
I 1 3
W s = --- j m log 1 --------------

jm
2
Here, is the shear modulus and jm is a limiting value for I13, which takes care of
the limiting polymeric chain extensibility of the material.
23
Since the strain energy density does not depend on the second invariant I2, the Gent
model is often classified as a generalized Neo-Hookean material. The strain energy
density tends to be the one of incompressible Neo-Hookean material as j m .
The nearly incompressible formulation uses the isochoric invariants I 1 C el and the
initial bulk modulus
I 1 3 1
W s = --- j m log 1 -------------- + --- J el 1

2
j
2
m
Gent material is the simplest model of the limiting chain extensibility family.
BLATZ-KO
The Blatz-Ko material model was developed for foamed elastomers and polyurethane
rubbers, and it is valid for compressible isotropic hyperelastic materials (Ref. 1).
The elastic strain energy density is written with three parameters and the three
invariants of the elastic right Cauchy-Green deformation tensor, I1Cel, I2Cel, and
I3Cel
1
I2
1
W s = --- I 1 3 + --- I 3 1 + 1 --- ----- 3 + --- I 3 1

2
2 I3
Here, is an interpolation parameter bounded to , is the shear modulus, and
is an expression of Poissons ratio.
When the parameter , the strain energy simplifies to a similar form of the
Mooney-Rivlin material model
I2
W s = --- I 1 3 + 1 --- ----- 3
2
2 I3
In the special case of , the strain energy reduces to a similar form of the
Neo-Hookean model
2
W s = --- I 1 3 + ------ J
1
2
2
GAO
Gao proposed (Ref. 16) a simple hyperelastic material where the strain energy density
is defined by two parameters, a and n, and two invariants of the elastic right
Cauchy-Green deformation tensors Cel:
24 |
Ws = a I1 + I1
Here, the invariant I-1Celis calculated as:
I 2 C el
1
I 1 = trace C el = -----------------I 3 C el
Gao proposed that the material is unconditionally stable when the parameters are
bounded to n and a, and related these parameters under small strain to the
Youngs module and Poissons ratio by:
n 2
3 n 8a
n1
E = -------------------- and = ----------------2n + 1
2n + 1
Since n and it is bounded to n, this material model is stable for
materials with an initial Poissons ratio in the range of
MURNAGHAN
The Murnaghan potential is used in nonlinear acoustoelasticity. Most conveniently it

is expressed in terms of the three invariants of the elastic Green-Lagrange strain tensor,
I1el, I2el, and I3el
1
1
W s = --- + 2 I 12 2I 2 + --- l + 2m I 13 2mI 1 I 2 + nI 3
2
3
Here, l, m, and n are the Murnaghan third-order elastic moduli, which can be found
experimentally for many commonly encountered materials such as steel and aluminum,
and and are the Lam parameters.
USER DEFINED
When a material model is user defined, an expression for the elastic strain energy Ws is
entered, which can include any expressions involving the following:
Components of Cel, the elastic right Cauchy-Green deformation tensor in the local
material coordinate system.
Principal invariants of Cel
I 1 C el = trace C el
2
1 2
I 2 C el = --- I 1 C el trace C el
2
25
I 3 C el = det C el
The internal variables for these invariants are named solid.I1Cel,

solid.I2Cel, and solid.I3Cel.
Components of the elastic Green-Lagrange strain tensor elin the local coordinate
system.
Principal elastic stretches el1, el2, and el3, which are the square-root of the
eigenvalues of the elastic right Cauchy-Green deformation tensor Cel.
The internal variables for the principal elastic stretches are named
solid.stchelp1, solid.stchelp2, and solid.stchelp3.
Invariants of the elastic Green-Lagrange strain tensor. Since

1
el = --- C el I
2
the invariants of el are written in terms of the invariants of Cel:
1
I 1 el = trace el = --- I 1 C el 3
2
2
1 2
1
I 2 el = --- I 1 el trace el = --- I 2 C el 2I 1 C el + 3
2
4
1
I 3 el = det el = --- I 3 C el I 2 C el + I 1 C el 1
8
The internal variables for these invariants are named solid.I1eel,

solid.I2eel, and solid.I3eel.
26 |
When the Nearly incompressible material check box is selected for the Hyperelastic
Material node, the elastic strain energy is decoupled into the volumetric and
isochoric components.
Enter the volumetric strain energy Wvol, which can be an expression involving the
elastic volume ratio
J el = det F el
Also enter the isochoric strain energy, Wiso, as an expression involving the invariants
of the isochoric elastic right Cauchy-Green tensor
or the invariants of the isochoric elastic Green-Lagrange strain
I 1 el , I 2 el , and I 3 el
The internal variables for Jel, I 1 C el , and I 2 C el are named
solid.Jel, solid.I1CIel, and solid.I2CIel.
The internal variables for I 1 el , I 2 el , and I 3 el are named
solid.I1eIel, solid.I2eIel, and solid.I3eIel.
The strain energy density must not contain any other expressions
involving displacement or their derivatives. This excludes components of
the displacement gradient u and deformation gradient FuI
tensors, their transpose, inversions, as well as the global material system
components of C and . If they occur, such variables are treated as
constants during symbolic differentiations.
27

In this section:
Introduction to Small and Large Plastic Strains
Plastic Flow for Small Strains
Isotropic Plasticity
Yield Function
Hill Orthotropic Plasticity
Hardening Models
Numerical Solution of the Elastoplastic Conditions
References for Elastoplastic Materials
Introduction to Small and Large Plastic Strains

There are two implementations of plasticity available in COMSOL Multiphysics. One
is based on the additive decomposition of strains, which is the most suitable approach
in the case of small strains, and the other one is based on the multiplicative
decomposition of the deformation gradient, which is more suitable when large plastic
strains occurs.
The additive decomposition of strains is used when small plastic strain is selected as
the plasticity model. The stress-strain relationship is then written as
0 = C: 0 th p c
Here:
is the Cauchy stress tensor
is the total strain tensor
0 and 0 are the initial stress and strain tensors
28 |
th is the thermal strain tensor

p is the plastic strain tensor
c is the creep strain tensor, and
C is the fourth-order elasticity tensor.
The elastic strain tensor is computed by removing inelastic and initial strains from the
total strain tensor
el = 0 th p c
In the special case of zero initial strains and no creep or thermal expansion, the elastic
strain tensor simplifies to
el = p
(2-4)
If or p are large, the additive decomposition might produce incorrect results;

however, the additive decomposition of strains is widely use for metal and soil
plasticity.
When Small plastic strain is selected as the plasticity model for the
Plasticity node, and the Include geometric nonlinearity check box is
selected on the study settings window, the second Piola-Kirchhoff stress
is used instead of the Cauchy stress, and the additive decomposition of
strains is understood as the summation of Green-Lagrange strains.
When large plastic strain is selected as the plasticity model, the total deformation
gradient tensor is multiplicatively decomposed into elastic deformation gradient and
plastic deformation gradient
F = F el F p
The plastic deformation is removed from the total deformation gradient,
1
F el = FF p
so the elastic Green-Lagrange strain tensor is computed from the elastic

deformation gradient tensor Fel
1 T
el = --- F el F el I
2
ELASTOPLASTIC MATERIAL THEORY
29
and the plastic Green-Lagrange strain tensor is computed from the plastic
deformation gradient tensor
1 T
p = --- F p F p I
2
As opposed to the small strain formulation described in Equation 2-4, the total, plastic
and elastic Green-Lagrange strain tensors are related as
T
el = F p p F p
Under multiplicative decomposition, the elastic right Cauchy-Green tensor and the
plastic right Cauchy-Green tensor are defined as
T
C el = F el F el and C p = F p F p
When Large plastic strain is selected as the plasticity model for the
Plasticity node, the Include geometric nonlinearity check box in the study
settings is automatically selected and grayed out.
Plastic Flow for Small Strains

The flow rule defines the relationship between the increment of the plastic strain
tensor p and the current state of stress, for a yielded material subject to further
loading. When Small plastic strain is selected as the plasticity model for the Plasticity
node, the direction of the plastic strain increment is defined by
Q p
p = ---------
Here, is a positive multiplier (also called the consistency parameter or plastic
multiplier) which depends on the current state of stress and the load history, and Qp
is the plastic potential.
The dot (for p ) means the rate at which the plastic strain tensor
changes with respect to Qp/. It does not represent a true time
derivative. Some authors call this formulation rate independent plasticity.
30 |
The direction of the plastic strain increment p is perpendicular to the surface (in the
space of principal stresses) defined by the plastic potential Qp.
The plastic multiplier is determined by the complementarity or Kuhn-Tucker
conditions
0 , F y 0 and F y = 0
(2-5)
where Fy is the yield function. The yield surface encloses the elastic region defined by
Fy<0. Plastic flow occurs when Fy=0.
If the plastic potential and the yield surface coincide with each other Qp=Fy, the
flow rule is called associated, and the rate in Equation 2-6 is solved together with the
conditions in Equation 2-5.
F y
p = --------
(2-6)
For a non-associated flow rule, the yield function does not coincide with the plastic
potential, and together with the conditions in Equation 2-5, the rate in Equation 2-7
is solved for the plastic potential Qp (often, a smoothed version of Fy).
Q p
p = ---------
(2-7)
The evolution of the plastic strain tensor p (with either Equation 2-6 or
Equation 2-7, plus the conditions in Equation 2-5) is implemented at Gauss points in
the plastic element elplastic.
Isotropic Plasticity
For isotropic plasticity, the plastic potential Qp is written in terms of at most three
invariants of Cauchys stress tensor
Q p = Q p I 1 J 2 J 3
where the invariants of the stress tensor are
I 1 = trace
1
J 2 = --- dev :dev
2
J 3 = det dev
31
so that the increment of the plastic strain tensor p can be decomposed into
Q p I 1 Q p J 2 Q p J 3
Q p
p = ---------- = ---------- -------- + ---------- --------- + ---------- ---------
I 1 J 2 J 3
The increment in the plastic strain tensor p includes in a general case both deviatoric
and volumetric parts. The tensor p is symmetric given the following properties
I 1
-------- = I
J
---------2 = dev
(2-8)
J 3
--------- = dev dev 2
--- J 2 I
3
A common measure of inelastic deformation is the effective plastic strain rate, which
is defined as
pe =
2
--- p : p
3
(2-9)
The trace of the incremental plastic strain tensor, which is called the volumetric plastic
strain rate pvol , depends only on the reliance of the plastic potential on the first
invariant I1(), sinceJ2/ and J3/ are deviatoric tensors
Q p
Q p
pvol = trace p = trace ---------- = 3 ---------

I 1
For metal plasticity under the von Mises and Tresca criteria, the volumetric plastic
strain rate is always zero because the plastic potential is independent of the invariant
I1. This is known as J2 plasticity.
Plasticity
32 |
The effective plastic strain and the volumetric plastic strain are available in
the variables solid.epe and solid.epvol.
Yield Function
When an associated flow rule is applied, the yield function must be smooth, that is,
continuously differentiable with respect to the stress. In COMSOL Multiphysics, the
following form is used:
F y = ys
where ys is the yield stress.
The predefined form of the effective stress is the von Mises stress, which is
commonly used in metal plasticity:
mises =
3J 2 =
3
--- dev :dev
2
Other expressions can be defined, such as Tresca stress, Hill orthotropic plasticity, or
another user defined expression.
The Tresca effective stress is calculated from the difference between the largest and the
smallest principal stress
tresca = 1 3
A user-defined yield function can by expressed in terms of invariants of the stress tensor
such as the pressure (volumetric stress)
1
p = --- I 1
3
the effective (von Mises) stress mises, or other invariants, principal stresses, or stress
tensor components.
Plasticity
33
Hill Orthotropic Plasticity

Hill (Ref. 4, Ref. 5) proposed a quadratic yield function (and associated plastic
potential) in a local coordinate system given by the principal axes of orthotropy ai
Q p = F 22 33 2 + G 33 11 2 + H 11 22 2 +
2
(2-10)
2L 23 + 2M 31 + 2N 12 1
The six parameters F, G, H, L, M, and N are related to the state of anisotropy. As with
isotropic plasticity, the elastic region Qp0 is bounded by the yield surface Qp0.
Hill demonstrated that this type of anisotropic plasticity is volume preserving, this is,
given the associated flow rule
Q p
p = ---------
the trace of the plastic strain rate tensor is zero, which follows from the expressions for
the diagonal elements of p
Q p
p11 = ------------ = 2 G 33 11 + H 11 22
11
Q p
p22 = ------------ = 2 F 22 33 H 11 22
22
Q p
p33 = ------------ = 2 F 22 33 + G 33 11
33
so the plastic volumetric strain rate is zero
pvol = trace p = p11 + p22 + p33 = 0
Hill plasticity is an extension to J2 (von Mises) plasticity, in the sense that

it is volume preserving. Due to this assumption, six parameters are needed
to define orthotropic plasticity, as opposed to orthotropic elasticity, where
nine elastic coefficients are needed.
E X P R E S S I O N S F O R T H E C O E F F I C I E N T S F, G , H , L , M , N
Hill noticed that the parameters L, M, and N are related to the yield stress in shear with
respect to the axes of orthotropy ai, thus they are positive parameters
34 |
1
1
1
L = ---------------, M = ---------------, N = ---------------2
2
2
2 ys23
2 ys31
2 ys12
Here, ysij represents the yield stress in shear on the plane ij.
The material parameters ys1, ys2, and ys3 represent the tensile yield stress in the
direction, a1, a2, and a3, and they are related to Hills parameters F, G, and H as
1
1 - --------1
- + --------2F = -------- 22
2
ys2 ys3 ys1
1--------= G+H
2
ys1
1
1 - --------1
1--------- + --------= H + F or equally 2G = -------- 22
2
2
ys3 ys1 ys2
ys2
1
1
1
- + ---------- ---------2H = --------2
2
2
ys1 ys2 ys3
1--------= F+G
2
ys3
Note that at most, only one of the three coefficients F, G, and H can be negative.
In case of hardening, these coefficients (either Hills coefficients or the

shear and tensile yield stresses) are renamed with the initial prefix.
In order to define a yield function and plastic potential suitable for isotropic or
kinematic hardening, the average initial yield stress ys0 is calculated from the Hills
parameters F, G, and H (this is equivalent to the initial yield stress ys0 in von Mises
plasticity)
2
1 1
11 - --------1
---------- + --------= --- F + G + H = --- --------+ 2 -
2
2
2
3
3
ys0
ys1 ys2 ys3
(2-11)
Defining Hills effective stress as (Ref. 5)

2
hill = ys0 F 22 33 2 + G 33 11 2 + H 11 22 2
2
+ 2 L 23 + M 31 + N 12
makes it possible to write the plastic potential in a similar way to von Mises plasticity.
Hardening is then applied on the average yield stress variable ys0, by using the plastic
potential
35
Q p = hill ys
Here, the average yield stress
ys = ys0 + h pe
now depends on the initial yield stress ys0, the hardening function h, and the
effective plastic strain pe.
Plasticity
Hardening Models
The plasticity model implements three different kinds of hardening models for
elastoplastic materials:
Perfect plasticity (no hardening)
Isotropic hardening
Kinematic hardening
PERFECT (OR IDEAL) PLASTICITY
In this case the plasticity algorithm solves either the associated or non-associated flow
rule for the plastic potential Qp
Q p
p = ---------
with the yield function
F y = ys0
In the settings for plasticity you specify the effective stress for the yield function
from a von Mises stress, a Tresca stress, Hill effective stress, or a user-defined
expression.
Plasticity node, either the associate or non-associated flow rule is applied
as written in Equation 2-14.
36 |
ISOTROPIC HARDENING
In this case the plasticity algorithm solves either the associated or non-associated flow
rule for the plastic potential Qp
Q p
p = ---------
with the yield function
F y = ys pe
where pe is the effective plastic strain. The variable yspe is the yield stress, which
now depends on the effective plastic strain. The yield stress versus the effective plastic
strain can be specified in two different ways tangent data (linear isotropic
hardening), or hardening function data. When using hardening function data, the
hardening curve could also depend on other variables, such as stress or temperature.
Tangent Data (Linear Isotropic Hardening)

In this case, an isotropic tangent modulus ETiso is given. This tangent modulus is
defined as (stress increment / total strain increment), and it relates the hardening to
the effective plastic strain linearly. The yield stress yspe is a linear function of the
effective plastic strain
ys pe = ys0 + h pe
1
1
1
with h pe = k pe and --- = -------------- ---k
E Tiso E
here, ys0 is the initial yield stress, and k is the isotropic hardening modulus. A value
for ETiso is entered in the isotropic tangent modulus section for the Plasticity node.
The Youngs modulus E is taken from the linear elastic material. For orthotropic and
anisotropic elastic materials, E represents an average Youngs modulus.
Hardening Function Data

In this case, define the (usually nonlinear) hardening function hpe such that the
yields stress reads
37
ys pe = ys0 + h pe
This is the preferred way to define nonlinear hardening models.
The internal variable for the effective plastic strain is named solid.epe.
The effective plastic strain evaluated at Gauss points is named
solid.epeGp, where solid is the name of the interface identifier for the
physics user interface.
Plasticity node, either the associate or non-associated flow rule is applied
as written in Equation 2-14.
KINEMATIC HARDENING
The algorithm solves either the associated or non-associated flow rule for the plastic
potential Qp
Q p
p = ---------
with the yield function defined as
F y = shift ys0 and shift = f p
Here, ys0 is the initial yield stress, and the effective stress is either the von Mises
stress or a user-defined expression.
The stress tensor used in the yield function is shifted by what is usually called the back
stress, shift. The back stress is generally not only a function of the current plastic strain
but also of its history. In the case of linear kinematic hardening, f p is a linear
function of the plastic strain tensor p, this is also known as Pragers hardening rule.
The implementation of kinematic hardening assumes a linear evolution of the back
stress tensor with respect to the plastic strain tensor:
shift = c p
where the work hardening constant is calculated from
38 |
3
1
1
1
--- = --- -------------- ----
c
2 E Tkin E
The value for ETkin is entered in the kinematic tangent modulus section and the
Youngs modulus E is taken from the linear elastic material model. For orthotropic and
anisotropic elastic materials, E represents an average Youngs modulus.
When kinematic hardening is added, both the plastic potential and the
yield surface are calculated with effective invariants, that is, the invariants
of the tensor defined by the difference between the stress tensor minus
the back-stress. The effective invariant of deviatoric tensor is named
solid.II2sEff, which is used when a von Mises plasticity is used
together with kinematic hardening.

When Large plastic strain is selected as the plasticity model for the Plasticity node, a
multiplicative decomposition of deformation (Ref. 4, Ref. 2, and Ref. 5) is used, and
the associated plastic flow rule can be written as the Lie derivative of the elastic left
Cauchy-Green deformation tensor Bel:
1
--- L B el = ------- B el
(2-12)
The plastic multiplier and the yield function (written in terms of the Kirchhoff
stress tensor ) satisfy the Kuhn-Tucker condition, as done for infinitesimal strain
plasticity
0 , 0 and = 0
The yield function in Ref. 4 and Ref. 2 was written in terms of
Kirchhoff stress and not Cauchy stress because the authors defined the
plastic dissipation with the conjugate energy pair and d, where d is the
rate of strain tensor.
The Lie derivative of Bel is then written in terms of the plastic right Cauchy-Green rate
L B el = FC p 1 F T
(2-13)
39
By using Equation 2-12 and Equation 2-13the either associated or non-associated

plastic flow rule for large strains is written as (Ref. 2)
Q p
1
--- FC p1 F T = ---------- B el
2
(2-14)
together with the Kuhn-Tucker conditions for the plastic multiplier and the yield
function Fy
0 , F y 0 and F y = 0
(2-15)
For the associated flow rule, the plastic potential and the yield surface coincide with
each other (Qp=Fy), and for the non-associated case, the yield function does not
coincide with the plastic potential.
In COMSOL Multiphysics, the elastic left Cauchy-Green tensor is written in terms of
the deformation gradient and the right Cauchy-Green tensor, so Bel=FCp1F. The
plastic flow rule is then solved at Gauss points in the plastic element elplastic for the
inverse of the plastic deformation gradient Fp1, so that the variables in Equation 2-14
are replaced by
T = FF 1 F T F T
C p 1 = F p 1 F pT + F p1 F p T and B el = F el F el
p
p
The flow rule then reads
Q p
1
--- F p 1 F p T + F p 1 F pT = F 1 ---------- FF p 1 F pT
(2-16)
After integrating the flow rule in Equation 2-16, the plastic Green-Lagrange strain
tensor is computed from the plastic deformation tensor
1 T
p = --- F p F p I
2
and the elastic Green-Lagrange strain tensor is computed from the elastic deformation
gradient tensor Fel=FFp1
40 |
1 T
el = --- F el F el I
2
Plasticity node, the effective plastic strain variable is computed as the true
effective plastic strain (also called Hencky or logarithmic plastic strain).
Numerical Solution of the Elastoplastic Conditions

A backward Euler discretization of the pseudo-time derivative is used in the plastic flow
rule. For small plastic strains, this gives
Q p
p p,old = ---------
where old denotes the previous time step and = t , where t is the pseudo-time
step length. For large plastic strains, Equation 2-16 gives
Q p
1
T
T
T
T
--- F 2MM M old M MM old = ---------- FMM
2
1
where M = F p .
For each Gauss point, the plastic state variables (p and M, respectively) and the plastic
multiplier, , are computed by solving the above time-discretized flow rule together
with the complementarity conditions
0 , F y 0 and F y = 0
This is done as follows (Ref. 4):
1 Elastic-predictor: Try the elastic solution p = p,old (or M = M old ) and = 0 .
If this satisfies F y 0 it is done.
2 Plastic-corrector: If the elastic solution does not work (this is F y 0 ), solve the
nonlinear system consisting of the flow rule and the equation F y = 0 using a
damped Newton method.
References for Elastoplastic Materials

1. J. Simo and T. Hughes, Computational Inelasticity, Springer, 1998.
41
2. J. Simo, Algorithms for Static and Dynamic Multiplicative Plasticity that Preserve
the Classical Return Mapping Schemes of the Infinitesimal Theory, Computer
Methods in Applied Mechanics and Engineering, vol. 99, pp. 61112, 1992.
3. J. Lubliner, Plasticity Theory, Dover, 2008.
4. R. Hill, A Theory of the Yielding and Plastic Flow of Anisotropic Metals, Proc.
Roy. Soc. London, vol. 193, pp. 281297, 1948.
5. N. Ottosen and M. Ristinmaa, The Mechanics of Constitutive Modeling, Elsevier
Science, 2005.
42 |

In this section:
About Creep
Fundamental Creep Material Models
Creep Material Models for Metals and Crystalline Solids
Viscoplasticity
About Creep
In the literature, the terms viscoplasticity and creep are often used
interchangeably to refer to the class of problems related to
rate-dependent plasticity.
Creep is an inelastic time-dependent deformation that occurs when a material is
subjected to stress (typically much less than the yield stress) at sufficiently high
temperatures.
The creep strain rate, in a general case, depends on stress, temperature, and time,
usually in a nonlinear manner:
c = F cr T t
It is often possible to separate these effects as shown in this equation:
F cr t T = f 1 f 2 T f 3 t
CREEP AND VISCOPLASTICITY THEORY
43
Experimental data shows three types of behavior for the creep strain rate at constant
stress as function of time. Researchers normally subdivide the creep curve into three
regimes, based on the fact that many different materials show similar responses:
In the initial primary creep regime (also called transient creep) the creep strain rate
decreases with time to a minimum steady-state value.
In the secondary creep regime the creep strain rate is almost constant. This is also
called steady-state creep.
In the tertiary creep regime the creep strain increases with time until a failure
occurs.
When this distinction is assumed, the total creep rate can be additively split into
primary, secondary, and tertiary creep rates
c = F cr1 + F cr2 + F cr3

In most cases, Fcr1 and Fcr3 depend on stress, temperature and time, while secondary
creep, Fcr2, depends only on stress level and temperature. Normally, secondary creep
44 |
is the dominant process. Tertiary creep is seldom important because it only accounts
for a small fraction of the total lifetime of a given material.
c
1
primary creep
2
secondary creep
tertiary creep
1 >2
log time
Figure 2-1: Uniaxial creep as a function of logarithmic time.
Creep and Viscoplasticity
Fundamental Creep Material Models

Despite the fact that the creep response of a given material is related to its atomic
structure, a macroscopic (continuum mechanics) description is normally appropriate
for modeling scientific and engineering problems.
The fundamental mathematical models available for modeling creep are:
Creep Potential
Volumetric Creep
Deviatoric Creep
User-Defined Creep
45
These creep models are contributing subnodes to the Linear Elastic Material and they
can also be combined with Plasticity and Thermal Expansion subnodes for more
advanced models.
Creep and Viscoplasticity
Plasticity
See the Solid Mechanics interface in the Structural Mechanics Module
Users Guide or in the MEMS Module Users Guide for details about
the Thermal Expansion and Linear Elastic Material nodes.
To locate and search all the documentation, in COMSOL Multiphysics,

select Help>Documentation from the main menu and either enter a search
term or look under a specific module in the documentation tree.
CREEP POTENTIAL
Some authors use a creep potential to describe the secondary creep rate, so that the
creep rate is written in a way similar to the flow rule for plasticity:
Q cr
c = ----------- and 0
Here, Qcr is a user-defined creep potential, which is normally written in terms of

invariants of the stress tensor.
Volumetric creep is obtained when the creep potential depends only on the first
invariant of Cauchy stress tensor, I1, since
Q cr
Q cr
----------- = ----------I
I 1
This is equivalent to that the creep potential would depend on the pressure pI1.
When the creep potential depends only on the second deviatoric invariant of Cauchy
stress tensor, J2, the deviatoric creep model is obtained since
Q cr
Q cr
----------- = ----------dev
J 2
This is equivalent to that the creep potential would depend on the effective stress
e3J2.
46 |
When (in SI units) the creep potential, Qcr, is given in units of Pa, the rate multiplier
is given in units of 1/s.
VO L U M E T R I C C R E E P
The creep strain rate is calculated by solving the rate equation

1
c = --- F cr I
3
so the creep rate tensor is a diagonal tensor, and the trace of the creep rate tensor, the
volumetric creep strain rate, equals the user input Fcr
trace c = F cr
(2-17)
The creep rate, Fcr, usually depends on the first invariant of Cauchy stress I1 or the
pressure pI1, in addition to the temperature and other material parameters.
DEVIATORIC CREEP
c = F cr n D
Here, nD is a deviatoric tensor coaxial to the stress tensor.
The creep rate, Fcr, normally depends on the second deviatoric invariant of the stress
J2 or the effective or von Mises (effective) stress e, in addition to the temperature
and other material parameters.
The deviatoric tensor nD is defined as
3 dev
n D = --- ----------------2 e
The resulting creep strain rate tensor is also deviatoric, since trace (nD)
trace c = F cr trace n D = 0
Given the property
3
n D :n D = --2
the effective creep strain rate equals the absolute value of the user input Fcr
47

ce =
2
--- c : c = F cr
3
Deviatoric creep is very popular to model creep in metals and alloys. For example,
Nortons law is a deviatoric creep model.
The effective creep strain and the effective creep strain rate are available in
the variables solid.ece and solid.ecet.
USER-DEFINED CREEP
c = F cr
where Fcr is a user-defined symmetric tensor field.
Potential, Volumetric, Deviatoric, or User defined creep do not overwrite
each other. These are all contributing nodes to the Linear Elastic Material
node.
ENERGY DISSIPATION
Since creep is an inelastic process, the dissipated energy density can be calculated by
integrating the creep dissipation rate density (SI unit: W/m3) given by
W cdr = : c
In case many creep sub-nodes are added to a Linear Elastic Material node, the creep
dissipation rate density is calculated from the total creep strain rate tensor c .
The total energy dissipated by creep in a given volume can be calculated by a volume
integration of the dissipated creep energy density Wc (SI unit: J/m3).
When the Calculate dissipated creep energy check-box is selected, the creep
dissipation rate density is available under the variable solid.Wcdr and the
dissipated creep energy density under the variable Wc.
48 |
Creep
Linear Elastic Material in the Structural Mechanics Users Guide
Creep Material Models for Metals and Crystalline Solids

In addition to the basic models for creep described in Fundamental Creep Material
Models, this module also contains predefined material models for creep in metals and
crystalline solids.
NOR T ON LAW (POWER L AW)
The most common model for secondary creep is the Norton equation where the creep
strain rate is proportional to a power of the effective stress, e:
n
c e
This is normally true at intermediate to high stress levels and at absolute temperatures
of T/Tm > 0.5, where Tm is the melting temperature (that is, the temperature in the
solid is at least as high as half the melting temperature Tm). An Arrhenius type
temperature dependency can also be included. It is defined by
Q RT
c e
where Q is the activation energy (SI unit: J/mol), R is the gas constant, and T is the
absolute temperature (SI unit: K).
Norton creep is a deviatoric temperature-dependent creep model, with a creep rate
equation written as
Q
e n -------RT D
c = A --------- e
n
ref
Here, A is the creep rate (SI unit: 1/s), n is the stress exponent (dimensionless), ref
a reference effective stress level (SI unit: Pa), and nD is a deviatoric tensor coaxial to
the stress tensor.
Material data for a Norton law is often available as
n
c = B e
49
In this case, the coefficient B has implicit units which depend on the value of n and the
stress units. You can then introduce an arbitrary reference stress ref for converting the
data to the form used in COMSOL Multiphysics.
NOR TON-BAILEY LAW
A common model for modeling primary and secondary creep together is the so-called
Norton-Bailey model. The creep strain is proportional to a power of time and to a
power of the effective stress
n
c e t m
which for the creep strain rate becomes a time hardening formulation of Nortons law.
n
c e mt m 1
Norton-Bailey creep is a deviatoric temperature-dependent creep model, furbished

with either a time-hardening or a strain-hardening primary creep model. The creep
rate equation for the time-hardening model is written as
t + t shift m 1
c = F cr m -------------------
nD
t ref
with
Q
F cr
e n -------RT
= A --------- e
ref
Here, A is the creep rate (SI unit: 1/s), n is the stress exponent (dimensionless), ref
is a reference effective stress level (SI unit: Pa), tref and tshift are the reference and shift
time (SI unit: s) used for either scaling or shifting the primary creep response, and m
is the time-hardening exponent (dimensionless).
The strain-hardening variant is implemented as
ce + shift
c = F cr m ------------------------
t ref F cr
m1
-------------m
nD
where ce is the effective creep strain, and shift is the effective creep strain shift.
50 |
GAROFALO LAW (HYPERBOLIC SINE LAW)
At very high stress levels, the creep rate is proportional to the exponential of the
effective stress
e
c e
Garofalo showed (Ref. 8, Ref. 9) that the power-law and exponential creep are limiting
cases for the general empirical expression
n
c sinh e
This equation reduces to a power-law (Norton law) for e 0.8 and approaches
exponential creep for e 1.2 , when 1/ is a reference effective stress level.
Garofalo creep is also a deviatoric creep model with a creep rate proportional to the
hyperbolic sine function. It can also be augmented by an Arrhenius type temperature
dependency such that
Q RT
c e
where Q is the activation energy (SI unit: J/mol), R is the gas constant, and T is the
absolute temperature (SI unit: K). The complete creep rate equation then reads
Q
e n -------RT D
c = A sinh --------- e
n
ref
where, A is the creep rate (SI unit: 1/s), n is the stress exponent (dimensionless), and
ref a reference effective stress level (SI unit: Pa).
NAVARRO-HERRING CREEP (DIFFUSIONAL CREEP)
At low stress levels and high temperatures, Navarro and Herring (Ref. 6, Ref. 7)
independently derived an expression for the creep rate as a function of atomic diffusion
7D v b 3
c = -----------------2- e n D
k B Td
Here, d is the grain diameter, Dv is the volume diffusivity through the grain interior,
b is Burgers vector, kB is the Boltzmanns constant, and T is the absolute temperature.
51
COBLE CREEP (DIFFUSIONAL CREEP)
Coble creep (Ref. 6, Ref. 7) is closely related to Navarro-Herring creep but takes into
account the ionic diffusivity along grain boundaries Dgb
50D gb b 4
- nD
c = ---------------------k B Td 3 e
Coble creep is more sensitive to grain size than Nabarro-Herring creep.
WEER TMAN CREEP (DISLOCATION CREEP)
At intermediate to high stress levels and temperatures T/Tm > 0.5, the creep
mechanism is assumed to be diffusion-controlled movements of dislocations in the
crystal lattices (Ref. 7)
e n
Db
c = ----------- ref --------- n D

ref
kB T
Generally, the stress exponent takes values between 3 and 5.
A general relation between creep rate and several material parameters is the
Mukherjee-Bird-Dorn equation (Ref. 6)
DGb e n b p Q RT
c ------------- ------ --- e

k B T G d
Here, T is the temperature, d is the grain size, b is the Burgers vector, D is the self
Q RT
diffusion coefficient, G is the shear modulus, and e
is an Arrhenius type of
temperature dependency.
For high temperatures, Mukherjee-Bird-Dorn equation describes Weertman creep
when setting p = 0. Setting n = 0 and p = 2 describes Nabarro-Herring, and setting
n = 0 and p = 3 describes Coble creep. Harper-Dorn creep is obtained by setting n = 1
and p = 0.
Creep
52 |
Viscoplasticity
The Anand viscoplasticity (Ref. 9) is a deviatoric creep model suitable for large,
isotropic, viscoplastic deformations in combination with small elastic deformations.
The viscoplastic strain rate equation reads
c = F cr n D
where the creep rate is calculated from
F cr = Ae
Q RT
e
sinh -----
sa
1---m
Here, A is the creep rate coefficient (SI unit: s-1), Q is the activation energy (SI unit:
J/mol), m is the stress sensitivity, is the multiplier of stress, R is the gas constant, and
T is the absolute temperature (SI unit: K).
The internal variable, sa, is called deformation resistance (SI unit: Pa) and is calculated
from the rate equation
sa
s a = h 0 1 ----*sa
a 1
sa
1 ----*- F cr
sa
with the initial condition sa(0) = sinit. Here, h0 is the hardening constant
(SI unit: Pa), and a is the hardening sensitivity.
The variable sa* is the saturation value of the deformation resistance sa, which is
calculated from the expression
F cr Q RT n
s a* = s 0 ------- e
A
where s0 is the deformation resistance saturation coefficient (SI unit: Pa), and n is
the deformation resistance sensitivity.
Viscoplasticity
53
References for Nonlinear Structural

Materials
1. G.A. Holzapfel, Nonlinear Solid Mechanics: A Continuum Approach for
Engineering, Wiley, 2000.
2. R. S. Rivlin and D. W. Saunders, Large Elastic Deformations of Isotropic Materials.
VII. Experiments on the Deformation of Rubber, Phil. Trans. R. Soc. Lond. A, vol.
243, no. 865, pp. 251288, 1951.
3. E. M. Arruda and M. C. Boyce, A Three-Dimensional Constitutive Model for the
Large Stretch Behavior of Rubber Elastic Materials, J. Mech. Phys. Solids, vol. 41, pp.
389412, 1993.
4. J.C. Simo and T.J.R. Hughes, Computational Inelasticity, Springer, 1998.
5. J. Lubliner, Plasticity Theory, Dover, 2008.
6. K. Grote and E. Antonsson, Springer Handbook of Mechanical Engineering,
Springer, 2009.
7. R. Hertzberg, Deformation and Fracture Mechanics of Engineering Materials,
Wiley, 1996.
8. F. Garofalo, An Empirical Relation Defining the Stress Dependence of Minimum
Creep Rate in Metals, Trans AIME, vol. 227, no. 351, 1963.
9. S. Brown, K. Kim, and L. Anand, An Internal Variable Constitutive Model for Hot
Working of Metals, Int. J. Plasticity, vol. 5, pp. 95130, 1989.
10. M. Attard, Finite Strain - Isotropic Hyperelasticity, Int. J. Solids Struct., vol.
40, pp. 43534378, 2003.
11. I. Babuska and M. Suri, On Locking and Robustness in the Finite Element
Method, SIAM Journal on Numerical Analysis, vol. 29, pp. 1261-1293, 1992.
12. A. F. Bower, Applied Mechanics of Solids, CRC Press, 2009.
13. A. Gent, A new constitutive relation for rubbers, Rubber Chem. Technol., vol.
69, pp. 5961, 1996.
54 |
14. C. Horgan and G. Saccomandi, Constitutive Models for Compressible

Nonlinearly Elastic Materials with Limiting Chain Extensibility, J. Elasticity, vol. 7,
pp. 123-138, 2004
15. B. Storakers, On Material Representation and Constitutive Branching in Finite
Compressible Elasticity, J. Mech. Phys. Solids, vol. 34, pp. 125-145, 1986.
16. Y. Gao, Large Deformation Field Near a Crack Tip in a Rubber-like Material,
Theor. Appl. Fract. Mec., vol. 26, pp. 155-162, 1997.
REFERENCES FOR NONLINEAR STRUCTURAL MATERIALS
55
56 |
Nonlinear Structural Materials

The Nonlinear Structural Materials Module has materials that are used in
combination with the Solid Mechanics or MEMS interfaces.
57
Working with Nonlinear Structural

Materials
In this section:
Adding a Material to a Solid Mechanics User Interface
Linear Elastic Material
Creep
Viscoplasticity
Plasticity
Nonlinear Structural Materials Theory
Adding a Material to a Solid Mechanics User Interface
The Nonlinear Structural Materials Module requires a Structural

Mechanics Module or a MEMS Module license.
1 Add a Solid Mechanics or a Thermal Stress interface from the Structural Mechanics
branch (
) in the Model Wizard.
2 In the Model Builder:
- Right-click the Solid Mechanics node (
) to add a Hyperelastic Material node.
- Right-click the default Linear Elastic Material node to add Plasticity, Creep, and
Viscoplasticity nodes.
These nodes are described in this guide. For all other nodes, see the Solid
Mechanics interface either in the Structural Mechanics Module Users
Guide or in the MEMS Module Users Guide for details.
58 |
CHAPTER 3: NONLINEAR STRUCTURAL MATERIALS
The Hyperelastic Material node adds the equations for a hyperelastic solid. A basis for a
hyperelastic material is a strain energy density function. Hyperelastic materials can be
suitable for modeling rubber and other polymers, biological tissue, and also for
applications in acoustoelasticity.
When a hyperelastic material is present in your model, all studies are
geometrically nonlinear. The Include geometric nonlinearity check box in
the study settings is selected and cannot be cleared.
DOMAIN SELECTION
From the Selection list, choose the domains to define a hyperelastic solid and compute
the displacements, stresses, and strains.
MODEL INPUTS
Define model inputs, for example, the temperature field of the material uses a
temperature-dependent material property. If no model inputs are required, this section
is empty.
HYPERELASTIC MATERIAL
Select a hyperelastic Material model from the list and then go to the applicable section
for more information.
For any selection, the material Density (SI unit: kg/m3) uses values From material by
default. Select User defined to enter a different value or expression.
Neo-Hookean
Varga
St Venant Kirchhoff
Arruda-Boyce
Mooney-Rivlin, Two Parameters
Gent
Mooney-Rivlin, Five Parameters
Blatz-Ko
Mooney-Rivlin, Nine Parameters
Gao
Yeoh
Murnaghan
Ogden
User defined
Storakers
WO R K I N G W I T H N O N L I N E A R S T R U C T U R A L M A T E R I A L S
59
Neo-Hookean
If Neo-Hookean is selected as the Material model, you can use a mixed formulation by
adding the negative mean pressure as an extra dependent variable. For this case, select
the Nearly incompressible material check box. Then if the check box is selected, enter a
value for the Initial bulk modulus (SI unit: Pa).
The default values for both Lam parameter (SI unit: Pa) and Lam parameter (SI
unit: Pa) use values From material. Select User defined to enter different values or
variables.
St Venant Kirchhoff
If St Venant-Kirchhoff is selected as the Material model, you can use a mixed formulation
by adding the negative mean pressure as an extra dependent variable. For this case,
select the Nearly incompressible material check box.
The default values for both Lam parameter (SI unit: Pa) and Lam parameter (SI
unit: Pa) use values From material. Select User defined to enter different values or
variables.
Mooney-Rivlin, Two Parameters

If Mooney-Rivlin, two-parameters is selected as the Material model, the Model parameters
(SI unit: Pa) C10 and C01 both use values From material. Select User defined to enter
different values or variables. Enter the Initial bulk modulus (SI unit: Pa).
Mooney-Rivlin, Five Parameters

If Mooney-Rivlin, five-parameters is selected as the Material model, the Model parameters
(SI unit: Pa) C10, C01, C20, C02, and C11 all use values From material. Select User
defined to enter different values or variables. Enter the Initial bulk modulus (SI unit:
Pa).
Mooney-Rivlin, Nine Parameters

If Mooney-Rivlin, nine-parameters is selected as the Material model, the Model parameters
(SI unit: Pa) C10, C01, C20, C02, C11, C30, C03, C21, and C12 all use values From
material. Select User defined to enter different values or variables. Enter the Initial bulk
modulus (SI unit: Pa).
Yeoh
If Yeoh is selected as the Material model, the Model parameters (SI unit: Pa) c1, c2, and
c3 all use values From material. Select User defined to enter different values or variables.
Enter the Initial bulk modulus (SI unit: Pa).
60 |
Ogden
If Ogden is selected as the Material model, you can use a mixed formulation by adding
the negative mean pressure as an extra dependent variable. For this case, select the
Nearly incompressible material check box.
In the table for the Ogden parameters, enter values or expressions in each columnp,
Shear modulus (Pa), and Alpha parameter.
If the Nearly incompressible material check box is selected, also enter the Initial bulk
Storakers
If Storakers is selected as the Material model, in the table for the Storakers parameters,
enter values or expressions in each columnp, Shear modulus (Pa), Alpha parameter,
and Beta parameter.
Varga
If Varga is selected as the Material model, the Model parameters (SI unit: Pa) c1, c2,
and c3 all use values From material. Select User defined to enter different values or
variables. Enter the Initial bulk modulus (SI unit: Pa).
Arruda-Boyce
If Arruda-Boyce is selected as the Material model, you can use a mixed formulation by
the Nearly incompressible material check box.
The default values for the Macroscopic shear modulus 0 (SI unit: Pa) and the Number
of segments N (dimensionless) use values From material. Select User defined to enter
different values or variables.

If the Nearly incompressible material check box is selected, also enter the Initial bulk
Gent
If Gent is selected as the Material model, the default values for the Macroscopic shear
modulus (SI unit: Pa) and the model parameter jm (dimensionless) is to use values
From material. Select User defined to enter different values or variables. Enter the Initial
bulk modulus (SI unit: Pa).
Blatz-Ko
If Blatz-Ko is selected as the Material model, the Shear modulus (SI unit: Pa) and the
Model parameters and (dimensionless) all use values From material. Select User
defined to enter different values or variables.
61
Gao
If Gao is selected as the Material model, the Model parameters a (SI unit: Pa) and n
(dimensionless) all use values From material. Select User defined to enter different values
or variables.
Murnaghan
If Murnaghan is selected as the Material model, the Murnaghan third-order elastic moduli
constants l, m, and n (SI unit: Pa) and the Lam parameters and (SI unit: Pa) use
values From material. Select User defined to enter different values or variables for the
constants as required.
User defined
If User defined is selected as the Material model, you can use a mixed formulation by
the Nearly incompressible material check box.
If the Nearly incompressible material check box is selected, enter the Isochoric strain
energy density Wsiso(SI unit: J/m3) and the Volumetric strain energy density Wsvol
(SI unit: J/m3).
If the Nearly incompressible material check box is not selected, enter an expression for
the Strain energy density Ws (SI unit: J/m3).

For examples of:

Mooney-Rivlin, two-parameters and Ogden, see Inflation of a Spherical
Rubber Balloon. Model Library path:
Nonlinear_Structural_Materials_Module/Hyperelasticity/balloon_inflation.
Murnaghan, see Elastoacoustic Effect in Rail Steel. Model Library path:

Nonlinear_Structural_Materials_Module/Hyperelasticity/rail_steel.
Linear Elastic Material

The Linear Elastic Materials included with this module are extended with Plasticity,
Creep, and Viscoplasticity nodes.
62 |
Several creep models can be added to the same domain, in which case the creep strain
rates are added, for example two Norton models gives a Double power law. Creep
and plasticity can be used together on the same domain.
The Plasticity, Creep, and Viscoplasticity nodes are described in this guide.
For all other features, see the Solid Mechanics interface either in the
Structural Mechanics Module Users Guide or in the MEMS Module
Users Guide.
Creep
Right-click the Linear Elastic Material node to add a Creep node to a model. Use the
Creep node to define the material model.
DOMAIN SELECTION
From the Selection list, choose the domains to define.

MODEL INPUTS
From the Temperature T (SI unit: K) list, select an existing temperature variable from
a heat transfer interface (for example, Temperature (ht/sol1)), if any temperature
variables exist, or select User defined to enter a value or expression for the temperature
(the default is 293.15 K).
CREEP DATA
Select a Material modelNorton, Norton-Bailey, Garofalo (hyperbolic sine),

Navarro-Herring, Coble, Weertman, Potential, Volumetric, Deviatoric, or User defined.
Then follow the instructions as below.
Norton
When Norton is selected, enter the following settings:
Creep rate coefficient A (SI unit: 1/s). The default is 0 1/s.
Reference creep stress ref (SI unit: N/m2). The default is 1 MPa.
Stress exponent n (dimensionless). The default is 0.
Select the Include temperature dependency check box to add an Arrhenius-type
temperature dependence. Then enter a Creep activation energy Q (SI unit: J/mol).
63
Norton-Bailey
When Norton-Bailey is selected, enter the following settings:
Stress exponent n (dimensionless). The default is 0.
Select a Hardening modelTime hardening, or Strain hardening.
- When Time hardening is selected, enter the hardening exponent m (dimensionless),
the Time shift tshift (SI unit: s) and the Reference time tref (SI unit: s).
- When Strain hardening is selected, enter the hardening exponent m
(dimensionless), the Effective creep strain shift shift (dimensionless) and the
Reference time tref (SI unit: s).
Select the Include temperature dependency check box to add a Arrhenius-type
temperature dependence. Then enter a Creep activation energy Q (SI unit: J/mol).
Garofalo (hyperbolic sine)

When Garofalo (hyperbolic sine) is selected, enter the following settings:
Garofalo n parameter n (dimensionless). The default is 1.
Select the Include temperature dependency check box as required. Then enter a Creep
activation energy Q (SI unit: J/mol).
Navarro-Herring
When Navarro-Herring is selected, enter the following settings:
Volume diffusivity Dv (SI unit: m2/s). The default is 0 m2/s.
Burgers vector b (SI unit: m). The default is 0 m.
Grain diameter d (SI unit: m) The default is 0 m.
Coble
When Coble is selected, enter the following settings:
Ionic diffusivity Dgb (SI unit: m2/s). The default is 0 m2/s.
Grain diameter d (SI unit: m) The default is 0 m.
64 |
Weertman
When Weertman is selected, enter the following settings:
Diffusivity D0 (SI unit: m/s). The default is 0 m/s.
Stress exponent n (dimensionless) The default is 0.
Potential
When Potential is selected, enter the following settings:
Rate multiplier (SI unit: 1/s). The default is 0 1/s.
Creep potential Qcr (SI unit: N/m2). The default is 0 N/m2.
Deviatoric
When Deviatoric is selected, enter the Creep rate Fcr (SI unit: 1/s). The default is 0 1/s.
Volumetric
When Volumetric is selected, enter the Creep rate Fcr (SI unit: 1/s). The default is 0 1/
s.
User defined
When User defined is selected, enter each element for the symmetric Creep rate tensor
Fcr (SI unit: 1/s). The defaults are 0 1/s.
The Energy Dissipation section is available on the Linear Elastic Material
settings window as an advanced feature (to display the section, click the
Show button (
) and select Show Advanced Physics Features).
See Energy Dissipation in the theory section for more information about
this option and the feature.
For an example of Norton and Norton-Baily material models, see

Combining Creep Material Models: Model Library path
Nonlinear_Structural_Materials_Module/Creep/combined_creep.
Viscoplasticity
Right-click the Linear Elastic Material node to add a Viscoelasticity node to a model. Use
the Viscoplasticity node to define the viscoplasticity model.
65
DOMAIN SELECTION

MODEL INPUTS
From the Temperature T (SI unit: K) list, select an existing temperature variable from
a heat transfer interface (for example, Temperature (ht/sol1)), if any temperature
variables exist, or select User defined to enter a value or expression for the temperature
(the default is 293.15 K).
VISCOPLASTICITY MODEL
The Viscoplasticity model defaults to Anand. Enter these settings:

Creep activation energy Q (SI unit: J/mol).
Multiplier of stress (dimensionless). The default is 0.
Stress sensitivity m (dimensionless). The default is 0.
Deformation resistance saturation coefficient s0 (SI unit: N/m2). The default is 0 N/
m2.
Deformation resistance initial value sinit (SI unit: N/m2). The default is 0 N/m2.
Hardening constant h0 (SI unit: N/m2). The default is 0 N/m2.
Hardening sensitivity a (dimensionless). The default is 0.
Deformation resistance sensitivity n (dimensionless). The default is 0.
Viscoplastic Creep in Solder Joints: Model Library path

Nonlinear_Structural_Materials_Module/Viscoplasticity/
viscoplastic_solder_joints
Plasticity
Right-click the Linear Elastic Material node or the Hyperelastic Material node to add the
Plasticity subnode. It adds the equations for plasticity in order to make it possible to
model elastoplastic materials.
66 |
DOMAIN SELECTION
By default, this node inherits the selection from its parent node, and only
a selection that is a subset of the parent nodes selection can be used.
MODEL INPUTS
Use this section to define model inputs such as the temperature field if the material
model uses a temperature-dependent material property. If no model inputs are
required, this section is empty.
PLASTICITY MODEL
Use this section to define the plastic properties of the material.
Plasticity Model
Select Small plastic strains or Large plastic strains to apply either an additive or
multiplicative decomposition between elastic and plastic strains. Only Large plastic
strains is available if plasticity is used for a hyperelastic material.
Yield Function
The Yield function F (SI unit: Pa) defines the limit of the elastic regime Fys0.
Select a Yield function F criterionvon Mises stress, Tresca stress, Hill orthotropic
plasticity, or User defined:
The default is von Mises stress with associate plastic potential.

Select Tresca stress to use a Tresca yield criterion. The plastic potential is
nonassociated with the von Mises criterion as flow rule.
Select Hill orthotropic plasticity to use Hills criterion. When Hill orthotropic
plasticity is selected, from the Specify list, also choose either the Initial tensile and
shear yield stresses ys0ij (SI unit: N/m2) or Hills coefficients F, G, H, L, M, and N
(SI unit: m2s4/kg2). The default for either selection uses values From material (if it
exists) or User defined. The principal directions of orthotropy are inherited from the
coordinate system selection in the Linear elastic feature.
67
Select User defined to enter a different value or expression. Write any expression in
terms of the stress tensor variables or its invariants (SI unit: Pa) in the field.
- When User defined is selected, also select the Plastic potential Q (SI unit: Pa)
related to the flow ruleAssociated (the default), von Mises, or User defined
(nonassociated). Enter a User defined value (SI unit: Pa) in the Q field as required.
Initial Yield Stress

For all yield criteria, the default Initial yield stress ys0 (SI unit: Pa) uses values From
material and represents the stress level where plastic deformation starts. Select User
defined to enter a different value or expression.
Hardening Model
For all yield function criteria, select the type of plasticity from the Hardening model
listIsotropic, Kinematic (not available for Hyperelastic Materials), or Perfectly plastic.
Select Perfectly plastic (ideal plasticity) if it is a material that can undergo plastic
deformation without any increase in yield stress.
If Isotropic is selected, also choose an Isotropic hardening modelUse tangent data
or Use hardening function data.
- If Use tangent data is selected, the default Isotropic tangent modulus ETiso
(SI unit: Pa) uses values From material (if it exists) or User defined. The yield level
ys is modified as hardening occurs, and it is related to the effective plastic strain
pe as
E Tiso
ys = ys0 + ------------------------ pe
E Tiso
1 -------------E
This is a linear isotropic hardening model, so the yield level increases
proportionally to the effective plastic strain pe. The Youngs modulus E is taken
from the elastic material properties.
- If Use hardening function data is selected, enter the Hardening functionh(pe)
(SI unit: Pa), so the yield level ys is modified as
ys = ys0 + h pe
This definition implies that the hardening function must be zero at zero plastic
strain. In other words, ysys0 whenpe0. With this option it is possible to
fit nonlinear isotropic hardening curves. The hardening function can depend on
more variables than the effective plastic strain, for example a temperature.
68 |
If Kinematic is selected, as the Hardening model, the default Kinematic tangent

modulus ETkin(SI unit: Pa) uses values From material. Select User defined to enter a
different value or expression as required. This parameter is used to calculate the back
stress shift as plasticity occurs:
E Tkin
2
shift = ------------------------ --- p
E Tkin 3
1 --------------E
This is Pragers linear kinematic hardening model, so the back stress shift is
collinear to the plastic strain tensor p.
Springback Prediction in Sheet Metal Forming: Model Library path

Nonlinear_Structural_Materials_Module/Plasticity/sheet_metal_forming
For an example of Large plastic strains, see Necking of an Elastoplastic

Metal Bar: Model Library path Nonlinear_Structural_Materials_Module/
Plasticity/bar_necking.
69
70 |
I n d e x
A
Anand viscoplasticity 53
Arruda-Boyce material 22
energy function 8
F
flow rule 30
Gao material 24
associated flow rule 31

B
back stress 38
Garofalo law 51
Blatz-Ko material 24
Gauss points 31, 40
Burgers vector 51
C
Gent material 23
Coble creep 52
complementarity 31
Green-Lagrange tensor 11
H
consistency parameter 30
hardening function data 37
creep (node) 63
hardening models
creep dissipation rate density 48
plasticity node settings 68
creep strain rate 43
theory 36
crystalline solids and creep 49

D
hardening sensitivity 53
deformation gradient 10
Hencky plastic strain 41
deformation resistance 53
Hill orthotropic plasticity 34
saturation coefficient 53
Hills effective stress 35
sensitivity 53
hyperbolic sinus 51
deviatoric creep 48, 51
hyperelastic material (node) 59
diffusional creep 51
hyperelastic materials 18
dilatational contributions 14
nearly incompressible 16
dislocation creep 52
theory 8
dissipated energy density 48

distortional contributions 14
documentation 3
E
hardening constant 53
ideal plasticity 36
inelastic deformation tensor 13
initial bulk modulus 20
effective creep strain rate 47
initial yield stress 37
effective plastic strain rate 32
Internet resources 3
eight-chain model 23
invariants 9
elastic deformation gradient 29
isochoric
elastic deformation tensor 12
contributions 14
elastic Green-Lagrange strain tensor 12,
process 11
29
strain energy density 16
elastic right Cauchy-Green tensor 12, 30
isochoric strain energy 27
elastic strain energy 27
isochoric-elastic
elplastic 31, 40
deformation 14
emailing COMSOL 4
Green-Lagrange strain tensor 15
INDEX|
right Cauchy-Green tensor 14

isotropic hardening 37
Murnaghan material 25
N
isotropic plasticity 31
K
nearly incompressible hyperelastic mate-
kinematic hardening 37
rials 16
knowledge base, COMSOL 4
Neo-Hookean material 18
Kuhn-Tucker conditions 31
non-associated flow rule 31

Norton equation 49
Lagrangian formulations 9
Norton-Bailey model 50
large deformation modeling 10

large plastic strain 29
large strain plasticity 14
Ogden material 21
perfectly plastic hardening 36
left Cauchy-Green tensor 12
plastic deformation gradient 30
Lie derivative 39
plastic element 31, 40
limiting chain extensibility 24
plastic flow rule 41
locking 17
plastic Green-Lagrange strain 30
logarithmic plastic strain 41

M
Navarro-Herring creep 51
plastic multiplier 30
macroscopic shear modulus 23
plastic potential 30
material coordinates 9
plastic right Cauchy-Green tensor 30
material frame 9
plasticity (node) 66
materials, hyperelastic 8
plasticity models 67
metal plasticity 32
polynomial hyperelastic material 19
metals and creep 49
power law 49
Model Library 4
Pragers hardening rule 38
Model Library examples
primary creep 44
principal stretches 9
creep models 65
large plastic strains 69
Mooney-Rivlin, two parameters 62
rate independent plasticity 30

right Cauchy-Green deformation tensor
Ogden 62
9, 11
plasticity models 69
right polar decomposition 11
viscoplasticity models 66
right stretch tensor 11
modeling, large deformations 10

modified tensors 15
Mooney-Rivlin material
five parameters 19
nine parameters 20
two parameters 19
MPH-files 4
Mukherjee-Bird-Dorn equation 52
ii | I N D E X
secondary creep 44
small plastic strain 28
spatial frame 9
St Venant-Kirchhoff material 18
steady-state creep 44
Storakers material 21
strain energy density 27
tangent data 37
volume-preserving contributions 14
tangent modulus 37
volumetric contributions 14
technical support, COMSOL 4
volumetric creep strain rate 47
tertiary creep 44
volumetric plastic strain rate 32
thermal expansion, hyperelastic materi-
volumetric strain energy 27
als and 13
von Mises criterion 32
Tresca stress 33
von Mises stress 33
two-point tensor 10
U
W web sites, COMSOL 4
user community, COMSOL 4

user defined material 25
volumetric strain energy density 16
transient creep 44
Weertman creep 52
Y
yield function 33
Varga material 22
yield stress levels 68
variables
yield surface 31
deformation gradient tensor 11

density 11
effective creep strain 48
effective plastic strain 33, 38
elastic Green-Lagrange tensor 13
elastic right Cauchy-Green tensor 13
elastic, inelastic, and total volume ratio
13
Green-Lagrange tensor 12
invariants 26
isochoric elastic Green-Lagrange
strain tensor 16
isochoric-elastic Cauchy-Green deformation tensor 15
isochoric-elastic right Cauchy-Green
deformation tensor 15
principal elastic stretches 26
right Cauchy-Green deformation tensor 12
right stretch tensor 11
rotation tensor 11
thermal stretch and thermal volume
ratio 13
volumetric plastic strain 33
viscoplasticity (node) 65
INDEX|
iii
iv | I N D E X

Nonlinear Structural Materials Module: User S Guide

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Nonlinear Structural Materials Module: User S Guide

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Nonlinear Structural Materials Module

Nonlinear Structural Materials Module Users Guide

What Can the Nonlinear Structural Materials Module Do? . . . . . . .

Where Do I Access the Documentation and Model Library? . . . . . .

Overview of the Users Guide

Chapter 2: Nonlinear Structural Materials Theory

Working with Hyperelastic Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Modeling Large Deformations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

Introduction to Small and Large Plastic Strains. . . . . . . . . . . . 28

Chapter 3: Nonlinear Structural Materials

Adding a Material to a Solid Mechanics User Interface . . . . . . . . . 58

add-on package for COMSOL Multiphysics designed to assist you to model

About the Nonlinear Structural

What Can the Nonlinear Structural Materials Module Do?

The material property groups (including all associated properties) can be

Where Do I Access the Documentation and Model Library?

) from the main menu for context help.

Press Ctrl+F1 or select Help>Documentation (

) on the main toolbar.

ABOUT THE NONLINEAR STRUCTURAL MATERIALS MODULE

THE MODEL LIBRARY

For general product information, contact COMSOL at info@comsol.com. To receive

Support Knowledge Base

Overview of the Users Guide

Nonlinear Structural Materials Theory chapter describes the Hyperelastic Material

Nonlinear Structural Materials Theory

Hyperelastic Material Theory

The links to the nodes described in the Structural Mechanics Module

To locate and search all the documentation, in COMSOL Multiphysics,

Working with Hyperelastic Materials

CHAPTER 2: NONLINEAR STRUCTURAL MATERIALS THEORY

HYPERELASTIC MATERIAL THEORY

Modeling Large Deformations

CHAPTER 2: NONLINEAR STRUCTURAL MATERIALS THEORY

HYPERELASTIC MATERIAL THEORY

Modeling Elastic Deformations

CHAPTER 2: NONLINEAR STRUCTURAL MATERIALS THEORY

HYPERELASTIC MATERIAL THEORY

Large Strain Plasticity Theory

Plastic Flow for Large Strains

Isochoric Elastic Deformation

By using Jel it is possible to define the isochoric-elastic deformation gradient

the isochoric-elastic right Cauchy-Green tensor

CHAPTER 2: NONLINEAR STRUCTURAL MATERIALS THEORY

and the isochoric-elastic Green-Lagrange strain tensor

The internal variables for the isochoric-elastic Cauchy-Green deformation

Since I 3 C el = det C el = 1 , the third invariant is never explicitly used.

The internal variables for the invariants Jel, I 1 C el , and I 2 C el are

HYPERELASTIC MATERIAL THEORY

The internal variables for the invariants of the isochoric elastic

Nearly Incompressible Hyperelastic Materials

CHAPTER 2: NONLINEAR STRUCTURAL MATERIALS THEORY

When the formula in Equation 2-2 is used, it becomes

and the Cauchy stress tensor by

THE LOCKING PROBLEM

A numerical scheme is said to exhibit locking if the accuracy of the approximation

HYPERELASTIC MATERIAL THEORY

To avoid the locking problem in computations, the mixed formulation replaces pp in

Theory for the Predefined Hyperelastic Material Models

One of the simplest hyperelastic material models is the St Venant-Kirchhoff material,

CHAPTER 2: NONLINEAR STRUCTURAL MATERIALS THEORY

The nearly incompressible version uses the isochoric invariants I 1 el and I 2 el ,

Rivlin and Saunders (Ref. 2) proposed a phenomenological model for small