History of gravitational theory

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Gravitation portal

In physics, theories of gravitation postulate mechanisms of interaction governing the

movements of bodies with mass. There have been numerous theories of gravitation since
ancient times.
Contents
[hide]

1Antiquity
2Modern era
o 2.1Newton's theory of gravitation
o 2.2Mechanical explanations of gravitation
o 2.3General relativity
o 2.4Gravity and quantum mechanics
3References

Antiquity[edit]
See also: Aristotelian physics
In the 4th century BC, the Greek philosopher Aristotle believed that there is
no effect or motion without a cause. The cause of the downward motion of heavy bodies, such as
the element earth, was related to their nature, which caused them to move downward toward the
center of the universe, which was their natural place. Conversely, light bodies such as the
element fire, move by their nature upward toward the inner surface of the sphere of the Moon.
Thus in Aristotle's system heavy bodies are not attracted to the earth by an external force of
gravity, but tend toward the center of the universe because of an inner gravitas or heaviness.[1][2]
In Book VII of his De Architectura, the Roman engineer and architect Vitruvius contends that
gravity is not dependent on a substance's "weight" but rather on its "nature" (cf. specific gravity).
If the quicksilver is poured into a vessel, and a stone weighing one hundred pounds is laid upon
it, the stone swims on the surface, and cannot depress the liquid, nor break through, nor
separate it. If we remove the hundred pound weight, and put on a scruple of gold, it will not swim,
but will sink to the bottom of its own accord. Hence, it is undeniable that the gravity of a
substance depends not on the amount of its weight, but on its nature.[3]
Brahmagupta, the Indian astronomer and mathematician whose work influenced Arab
mathematics in the 9th century, held the view that the earth was spherical and that it attracted
objects. Al Hamdn and Al Biruni quote Brahmagupta saying "Disregarding this, we say that the
earth on all its sides is the same; all people on the earth stand upright, and all heavy things fall
down to the earth by a law of nature, for it is the nature of the earth to attract and to keep things,
as it is the nature of water to flow, that of fire to burn, and that of the wind to set in motion. If a
thing wants to go deeper down than the earth, let it try. The earth is the only low thing, and seeds
always return to it, in whatever direction you may throw them away, and never rise upwards from
the earth."[4][5]

Modern era[edit]

This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to
reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (February 2009) (Learn how and
when to remove this template message)

During the 17th century, Galileo found that, counter to Aristotle's teachings, all objects
accelerated equally when falling.
In the late 17th century, as a result of Robert Hooke's suggestion that there is a gravitational
force which depends on the inverse square of the distance,[6] Isaac Newton was able
to mathematically derive Kepler's three kinematic laws of planetary motion, including
the elliptical orbits for the six then known planets and the Moon:
"I deduced that the forces which keep the planets in their orbs must be reciprocally as the
squares of their distances from the centres about which they revolve, and thereby compared the
force requisite to keep the moon in her orb with the force of gravity at the surface of the earth and
found them to answer pretty nearly."
Isaac Newton, 1666
So Newton's original formula was: