CONTENTS

THE ELECTRICAL CIRCUIT....................................................................................................................3

CIRCUIT ANALOGY..................................................................................................................................4
THE HEATING EFFECT........................................................................................................................5
THE MAGNETIC EFFECT.....................................................................................................................5
THE CHEMICAL EFFECT.....................................................................................................................6
VOLTAGE....................................................................................................................................................6
METHODS OF VOLTAGE CONTROL...................................................................................................6
IMPORTANCE OF VOLTAGE CONTROL.............................................................................................7
LOCATION OF VOLTAGE CONTROL EQUIPMENT...........................................................................7
POWER IN AC CIRCUITS.........................................................................................................................7
POWER IN PURELY RESISTIVE LOAD................................................................................................7
POWER IN A PURELY INDUCTIVE LOAD........................................................................................10
POWER IN A PURELY CAPACITIVE LOAD.......................................................................................12
POWER FACTOR......................................................................................................................................14
DEFINITION OF POWER-FACTOR....................................................................................................14
BENEFITS OF POWER FACTOR IMPROVEMENT............................................................................14
LEADING AND LAGGING POWER FACTOR.....................................................................................15
HOW THE POWER FACTOR IS IMPROVED......................................................................................15
FREQUENCY CONTROL IN A POWER SYSTEM................................................................................16
HARMONICS............................................................................................................................................16

LIST OF FIGURES
1

FIGURE 1 CIRCUIT ANALOGY........................................................................................................................3

FIGURE 2 CLOSED CIRCUIT............................................................................................................................3
FIGURE 3: WATER FLOW ANALOGY...............................................................................................................4
FIGURE 4: MAGNETIC FIELD LINES................................................................................................................5
FIGURE 5: ELECTROLYTIC PROCESS...............................................................................................................6
FIGURE 6 RESISTIVE CIRCUIT AND WAVEFORMS............................................................................................7
FIGURE 7 VOLTAGE, CURRENT, POWER WAVEFORMS.....................................................................................8
FIGURE 8 CIRCUIT WITH INDUCTIVE LOAD..................................................................................................11
FIGURE 9: VOLTAGE AND CURRENT WAVEFORMS........................................................................................11
FIGURE 10: CIRCUIT WITH CAPACITIVE LOAD.............................................................................................13
FIGURE 11: THE POWER ASSOCIATED WITH A PURELY CAPACITIVE CIRCUIT...............................................13
FIGURE 12:POWER TRIANGLE......................................................................................................................15
FIGURE 13: FUNDAMENTAL FREQUENCY.....................................................................................................17
FIGURE 14: FUNDAMENTAL FREQUENCY, HARMONICS ETC........................................................................19

The Electrical Circuit

For continuous current flow, we must be a complete circuit. If the circuit is broken, by opening a
switch for example, electron movement and therefore the current will stop immediately. To cause a
current to flow through a circuit, a driving force is required, just as a circulating pump is required to
drive water around a central heating system.
Radiator

Pump

WaterPressure
or

Flow

Driving Force

Figure 1 Circuit Analogy

This driving force is the electromotive force (abbreviated to EMF ). It is the energy, which causes
current to flow through a circuit. Each time an electron passes through the source of EMF, more
energy is provided to keep it moving.
A circuit must have:
1. A source of supply ( EMF ).
2. A load ( Lamp ).
3. Connecting cables ( Conductors ).

1.

Figure 2 CLOSED CIRCUIT

The source of supply is always associated with energy conversion.

(a)
(b)

Generator ( converts mechanical energy to electrical energy )

Cell or Battery ( converts chemical energy to electrical energy )

The source of supply will provide pressure called Electromotive Force or Voltage.
The symbol for voltage is U.
2.
The load is any device that is placed in the electrical circuit that produces an effect when an
electric current flows through it. When an electric current flows through an incandescent lamp, the
lamp gives off light from heat.

3.
The connecting leads or cables complete the circuit. The cable consists of the conductor to
carry the current and insulation to prevent leakage. A water pipe must have a bore to carry the water
and the pipe material ( e.g. copper ) to prevent leakage.

Circuit Analogy
The simplest analogy of an electric circuit is to consider a hosepipe connected to a tap. The rate of
flow of water from the end of the hosepipe will depend upon:
The water pressure at the tap.
The diameter of the hosepipe
The restriction / resistance of the inner walls of the hosepipe.
The degree of any bends or kinks in the hosepipe.
If there are many restrictions, the water will flow out of the hosepipe at a reduced rate.

Figure 3: Water Flow Analogy

In much the same way, current flows through conductors by means of electric pressure provided by
a battery or generating source. This source of electric pressure, electromotive force ( EMF ),
provides the energy required to push current through the circuit. It can be referred to as the supply
voltage.
Every circuit offers some opposition or restriction to current flow, which is called circuit resistance.
The unit of resistance is the Ohm, symbol , pronounced Omega. At this stage, conductor resistance
is ignored and the load resistance is treated as the total opposition to current flow.
For a stable supply voltage, the current ( I ) which flows, is determined by resistance ( R ) of the
circuit. There will be a voltage drop across different parts of the circuit and this is called Potential
Difference ( PD ).
Unlike the hosepipe analogy, the electric circuit requires a go and return conductor to form a
closed loop or complete circuit. These conductors must offer a low resistance path to the flow of
current. Most metallic conductors satisfy this requirement.
The Effects of an Electric Current
When an electric current flows in a circuit it can have one or more of the following effects:
4

Heating Effect

Magnetic Effect

Chemical Effect

The Heating Effect

The movement of electrons in a circuit, which is the flow of an electric current, causes an increase
in the temperature of the load resistance. The huge number of electrons being pushed through the
load resistance, results in high friction and collision of these electrons. This generates heat. The
amount of heat generated depends upon the type and dimensions of the load resistance wire and the
value of current flowing. By changing these variables, a length of resistance wire may be operated at
different temperatures to give different effects, e.g. an ordinary light bulb or an electric heater.
The Magnetic Effect
Whenever a current flows in a conductor a magnetic field is set up around that conductor.
See Figure 17 below.
Switch
Direction
of
Current Flow

Magnetic field lines

Figure 4: Magnetic Field Lines

This magnetic field increases in strength if the current is increased and collapses if the current is
switched off. A current carrying conductor, wound in the form of a solenoid ( coil ), produces a
magnetic field very similar to that of a permanent magnet, but has the advantage in that it can be
switched on or off by any switch controlling the circuit current.
The magnetic effect of an electric current is the principle upon which electric bells, relays, moving
coil instruments, motors and generators work.
The strength of the magnetic field is directly proportional to the current in the circuit. The clamp
on type ammeter measures the strength of the magnetic field and produces a reading in Amps.
The Chemical Effect
When an electric current flows through an electrolyte (conducting liquid / paste ), this electrolyte is
separated into chemical parts. The two conductors, which make contact with the electrolyte, are
called the anode (positive plate ) and the cathode ( negative plate ).
5

An anode or cathode of dissimilar metals placed in an electrolyte can react chemically and produce
an EMF. When a load is connected across the anode and cathode, a current will flow in the circuit.
The chemical effect of an electric current is the principle upon which electric cells operate.

Anode

C a th o d e
L iq u id
Figure 5: Electrolytic Process

Voltage
In a modern power system, electrical energy from the generating station is delivered to the ultimate
consumers through a network of transmission and distribution. For satisfactory operation of motors,
lamps and other loads, it is desirable that consumers are supplied with substantially constant
voltage. Too wide variations of voltage may cause erratic operation or even malfunctioning of
consumers appliances. To safeguard the interest of the consumers, the government has enacted a
law in this regard. The statutory limit of voltage variation is 6% of declared voltage at consumers
terminals.
The principal cause of voltage variation at consumers premises is the change in load on the supply
system. When the load on the system increases, the voltage at the consumers terminals falls due to
the increased voltage drop in (i) alternator synchronous impedance (ii) transmission line (iii)
transformer impedance (iv) feeders and (v) distributors.
Methods of Voltage Control
There are several methods of voltage control. In each method, the system voltage is changed in
Accordance with the load to obtain a fairly constant voltage at the consumers end of the system.
The
Following are the methods of voltage control in an *a.c. power system:
By excitation control
By using tap changing transformers
Auto-transformer tap changing
Booster transformers
Induction regulators
By synchronous condenser
Importance of Voltage Control
In case of lighting load, the lamp characteristics are very sensitive to changes of voltage. In
case of power load consisting of induction motors, the voltage variations may cause erratic
operation.
Too wide variations of voltage cause excessive heating of distribution transformers. This
6

may reduce their ratings to a considerable extent.

Location of Voltage Control Equipment
generating stations
transformer stations
the feeders if the drop exceeds the permissible limits

Power in AC Circuits
Power in Purely resistive Load
Consider firstly power dissipation in a resistor when supplied by a dc battery as shown in Fig 1. In
this case the voltage across the resistor is constant and therefore also is the current flowing through
it. Consequently, the power dissipation, given as the product of the voltage and the current, is
constant and invariant with time.
V

+
I

Figure 6 Resistive Circuit and waveforms

Fig. 1 Power Dissipation in a DC Driven Resistive Circuit
Power dissipated in the load is given as:
V2 2
P VI
I R
R
In the case of an ac voltage source as shown applied to a circuit in Fig. 2, the situation is somewhat
different. The voltage across the resistor varies with time and as a result so does the current flowing
through it. However, in a resistor the voltage and current are in phase with each other so that the
waveforms of each are the same. That is, both have the same function of time, as can be seen in the
case of the sinusoidal source shown. It can also be seen that the power, defined as the product of the
voltage and the current, is also a function of time, varying in a sinusoidal manner.

V t Vm Sin t

i(t)

V(t)

i t I m Sin t
RL

VL = V(t)

I m Vm / R

Pi t V(t)i(t)

Pi
PAVE

1 2
T
f
T

Figure 7 Voltage, Current, Power Waveforms

Instantaneous and Average Power
From the waveforms shown in Fig. 3 above for an ac voltage source driving a resistive load, it can
be seen that as the voltage and current have exactly the same phase relationship and that the
resulting power waveform is always positive. This means that power is continuously dissipated in
the load, even though it varies as a function of time from zero to some maximum value. It can also
be seen that the power waveform varies at twice the frequency of either the voltage or current. The
manner of variation of power on a short-term cyclical basis is rarely of significant interest and it is
the longer term power delivered to the load that is of interest, that is, the average power. As the
power variation is cyclical and therefore repetitive, it is possible to calculate the average value over
one cycle of excitation and this therefore represents the long-term value with time. It also
corresponds to the equivalent amount of constant or dc-type power, which would be delivered by a
battery driving the same load.
Instantaneous Power:
Instantaneous power is the product of the instantaneous voltage across and the instantaneous current
flowing through a load and is therefore a function of time.

Pi t V(t)i(t)

at the load

V t Vm Cos t and

i t I m Cos t

If

Pi Vm I m Cos 2t
Then

Pi

Vm I m

So that Instantaneous Power

1 Cos2t

Average Power:
Average power is the long-term or average value of the instantaneous power. For a periodic source it
is calculated over one full cycle of the source delivering it to a load.
It is an equivalent value of constant power.

PAVE

1
T

0 Pi dt

1
T

0 V t i t dt
T

V t Vm Cos t

and

i t I m Cos t

If
10

PAVE
Then

PAVE

Vm I m
2T

PAVE
PAVE

1.dt

1 T1
Vm I m 1 Cos 2t
T 0 2

Vm I m
2T

so

Vm I m
V I
(T 0) m m Sin 2T Sin 0
2T
2T2
2
4T
then 2T
4 2x2
T
T

Sin2 T Sin4 Sin0 0

PAVE

Then

Cos 2t.dt

Vm I m T
V I
T
t 0 m m Sin 2t 0
2T
2T2

2f
But

Vm I m
2T

xT

Vm I m
2
2

V
V I V
I R
Im m then PAVE m m m m
R
2
2R
2

For a resistive load

Recall the RMS value of a sinusoidal waveform, i. e the root of the mean of the square.

11

Vm
T

Vrms

Vave = 0

By definition:

VRMS

1 T 2
V t dt
T 0

VRMS

1 T 2
Vm Cos 2 t.dt

0
T

VRMS

Vm2
xT
2T

Vm2
2T

(1 Cos2t).dt

Vm2
V
m
2
2

It can be seen from the previous relationship for average power that if:

Im

Vm
R

then

PAVE

Vm I m Vm I m

VRMS I RMS
2
2 2

This is the idea behind an rms value by definition. The rms value of an ac sinusoidal source voltage
is that value of voltage which delivers the same average power to a load as a dc supply of the same
value.

PAVE VRMS I RMS

Also

2
VRMS

I 2RMS R
R

Note that for the sinusoidal source the instantaneous power varies between zero, when V(t) = 0, i(t)
= 0 and a maximum which occurs when V(t) = Vm and i(t) = Im. This means that for a sinusoidal
source the average power is half of the peak power.

12

Power in a Purely Inductive Load

In an inductor the current lags the voltage by 90o as can be seen from the waveforms shown in Fig.
4 below. If the source voltage is sinusoidal, then the current is also sinusoidal but shifted in phase.
The instantaneous power, defined as the product of the instantaneous voltage and current, can also
be seen to be sinusoidal in time. However, in contrast to the resistive load, the instantaneous power
in the inductor goes negative for part of the cycle of the source driving it. The average power can be
determined in a similar manner to that for the resistive load.

V t Vm Sin t
i t I m Cost
X L L

V t jLi t

i(t)
-j

V(t)
V(t)

i(t)

Figure 8 Circuit with Inductive Load

13

+
+
_
_

14

Figure 9: Voltage And Current Waveforms

Note: The instantaneous power alternates positive and negative at twice the frequency of the source
supplying it.

Pi V t i t Vm Sin t I m Cos t

Instantaneous Power

Pi

Pi

Vm I m
Sin 2t Sin 0
2

Vm I m
2

Sin 2t

PAVE
Average Power

PAVE

PAVE

PAVE

Vm I m
2T

1 T
Vm I m Sin 2t
2T 0

Sin 2t

Vm I m
T
Cos 2t 0
2T2

Vm I m
Cos 4 - Cos 0
2T2

PAVE

Vm I m
11 0
4 T

We conclude that the average power dissipated in a pure inductance is zero. However, it can be seen
that the instantaneous power is not zero, except at zero crossings of the time axis. This means that
power is drawn from the source. What happens is that when the instantaneous power is positive,
energy is drawn from the source and stored in the inductor for a quarter of a cycle. When the
instantaneous power is negative, this stored energy is returned to the source which reabsorbs it.
However, the source must still have the capacity to provide the power required by the inductor, even
though this is not dissipated or consumed.

15

Power in a Purely Capacitive Load

In a capacitor the current leads the voltage by 90o as can be seen from the waveforms shown in Fig.
5 below. If the source voltage is sinusoidal, then the current and the instantaneous power are also
sinusoidal. Again, in contrast to the resistive load, the instantaneous power in the capacitor goes
negative for part of the cycle of the source driving it, alternating between positive and negative
phases twice per cycle. The average power dissipated by the capacitor can again be determined by
integration of the instantaneous power.

16

17

Figure 10: Circuit with Capacitive Load

18

__

+ +

+ +

19

Figure 11: The Power Associated with a Purely Capacitive Circuit

Note: As in the previous case, the instantaneous power alternates between positive and negative
phases at twice the frequency of the source supplying it.
Instantaneous Power

Pi

Pi V t i t Vm Sin t I m Cos t

Vm I m
Sin 2t Sin 0
2

Pi

Vm I m
2

Sin 2t
PAVE

Average Power

Vm I m
2T

Sin 2t 0

Therefore, as was the case for the inductor, the average power dissipated in a capacitor is zero. As
with the inductor, power is drawn from the supply and stored as energy in the capacitor for a quarter
of a cycle and then returned to the source during the following quarter cycle.

Power Factor
In electrical engineering, the power factor of an AC electrical power system is defined as the ratio of
the real power flowing to the load to the apparent power in the circuit,[1][2] and is a dimensionless
number in the closed interval of 1 to 1. A power factor of less than one means that the voltage and
current waveforms are not in phase, reducing the instantaneous product of the two waveforms (V
I). Real power is the capacity of the circuit for performing work in a particular time. Apparent
power is the product of the current and voltage of the circuit. Due to energy stored in the load and
returned to the source, or due to a non-linear load that distorts the wave shape of the current drawn
from the source, the apparent power will be greater than the real power. A negative power factor
occurs when the device (which is normally the load) generates power, which then flows back
towards the source, which is normally considered the generator.
In an electric power system, a load with a low power factor draws more current than a load with a
high power factor for the same amount of useful power transferred. The higher currents increase the
energy lost in the distribution system, and require larger wires and other equipment. Because of the
costs of larger equipment and wasted energy, electrical utilities will usually charge a higher cost to
industrial or commercial customers where there is a low power factor.
Definition of power-factor
The power factor is defined as the ratio of active power to apparent power in a circuit. It varies from
one to zero but is generally given as below:
Power factor = Active power in KW / Apparent power KVA
Power Factor = cosine of angle between active power and apparent power
20

= Cos
Active Power = Apparent power Power Factor
= (KVA). (PF)
Benefits Of Power Factor Improvement
Most benefits provided by a power factor improvement system from the reduction of reactive power
in the system. This may result in
A) Lower purchased-power cost if the utility enforces a power-factor clause
B) Release of system electrical capacity
C) Voltage improvement and
D) Lower system losses
Maximum benefits are obtained when capacitors are located at low power-factor levels. Although
reducing the power bill is still primary reason for improving the power factor, and it is becoming
more important because of conservation of energy, the function of releasing system capacity is
sometimes the decisive factor.
Causes of Low Power Factor.
Most utilization devices require two components of current.
a) The power producing current or working current is that current which is converted by the
equipment into useful work, usually in the form of heat, light or mechanical power. The unit of
measurement of power is WATT.
b) Magnetizing current, also known as Watt-less, reactive or non-working current, is the current
required to produce the flux necessary for the operation of electromagnetic devices. Without
magnetizing current, energy could not flow through the core of transformer. The unit of
measurement of reactive power is VAR.
The normal relationship of these two components of current to each other, to the total current, and to
the system voltage is explained in Fig-1. It shows that the active current and reactive current add
vectorially to form the total current which can be determined from the expression,

Figure 12:Power Triangle

Leading And Lagging Power Factor
The power factor may be lagging or leading depending on the direction of both the active and
reactive power flows. If these flows are in same direction, the power factor at that point of reference
is lagging. If either power component flow is in an opposite direction, the power factor at that point
of reference is leading. Since the capacitors are a source of reactive power only, their power factor is
21

always leading. An induction motor or transformer has a lagging power factor as it required both
active and reactive power into in the motor or transformer.(same direction)
How The Power Factor Is Improved
When the reactive power component in a circuit is reduced, the total current is reduced. If the
active power component does not change, as is usually true, the power factor will improve as the
reactive power component becomes zero, the power factor will be unit or 100 percent.
Suppose a transformer load (in the power plant used in DOT) takes an active load of 80A and a
reactive load of 60A from the mains, the total or line current will be of v802 + 1002 = 100 Amps. If
a capacitor is installed so that it will supply the reactive current of 60A, then the supply needs to
deliver only 80A to the exactly same load of the transformer. The supply circuit is now carrying
only active power, hence the system capacity is not wasted in carrying reactive power.
Now, if we increase the capacity of capacitor further to increase the reactive current, the excess
reactive current tends to flow towards the mains, causing the leading power-factor, which is also not
advisable in the view of Electricity authorities.
Therefore the capacitor rating required to improve the power factor is
Reactive power of capacitor = Active power (Tan 1 - Tan 2 )

Frequency Control in a Power System

Frequency all over a synchronous power grid is the same in steady state. Maintaining a nearconstant frequency (one may allow frequency to vary over a very narrow band) is considered an
important requirement of power system operation. Frequency in a power system is intimately related
to the electrical speed of synchronous generators. The difference between mechanical and electrical
torques govern acceleration of a rotor of a generator. Therefore to maintain a constant speed,
mechanical input and electrical output power need to be continually matched. Electrical load can
vary randomly, but the total load versus time roughly follows a trend. For example, total load in a
grid can vary over twenty four hours as shown in the figure on the right.
Frequency variation is dependent on several factors which includes the load characteristics and
generator prime mover controls.
Frequency needs to be maintained near 50 Hz for the following reasons:
Steam turbine blades are designed to operate in a narrow band of frequencies. Deviation of
frequency beyond this band may cause gradual or immediate turbine damage.
Consequently, protective and control equipment take corrective action in case of under/over
frequency. A 50 Hz steam turbine may not be able to withstand frequency deviation of +2 Hz
to -2.5 Hz for more than an hour in its entire life!
Loads and other electrical equipment are usually designed to operate at a particular
Frequency. Off-nominal frequency operation causes electrical loads to deviate from the
desired output. The output of power plant auxiliaries like pumps or fans may reduce, causing
reduction in power plant output.
22

Harmonics
Non-sinusoidal complex waveforms are constructed by adding together a series of sine wave
frequencies known as Harmonics. Harmonics is the generalised term used to describe the
distortion of a sinusoidal waveform by waveforms of different frequencies.
Then whatever its shape, a complex waveform can be split up mathematically into its individual
components called the fundamental frequency and a number of harmonic frequencies. But what
do we mean by a fundamental frequency.
Fundamental Frequency
A Fundamental Waveform (or first harmonic) is the sinusoidal waveform that has the supply
frequency. The fundamental is the lowest or base frequency, on which the complex waveform is
built and as such the periodic time, of the resulting complex waveform will be equal to the
periodic time of the fundamental frequency.
Lets consider the basic fundamental or 1st harmonic AC waveform as shown.

Figure 13: Fundamental Frequency

Where: Vmax is the peak value in volts and is the waveforms frequency in Hertz (Hz).
We can see that a sinusoidal waveform is an alternating voltage (or current), which varies as a sine
function of angle, 2. The waveforms frequency, is determined by the number of cycles per
second. In the United Kingdom this fundamental frequency is set at 50Hz while in the United States
it is 60Hz.
Harmonics are voltages or currents that operate at a frequency that is an integer (whole-number)
multiple of the fundamental frequency. So given a 50Hz fundamental waveform, this means a 2nd
23

harmonic frequency would be 100Hz (2 x 50Hz), a 3rd harmonic would be 150Hz (3 x 50Hz), a 5th
at 250Hz, a 7th at 350Hz and so on. Likewise, given a 60Hz fundamental waveform, the 2nd, 3rd,
4th and 5th harmonic frequencies would be at 120Hz, 180Hz, 240Hz and 300Hz respectively.
So in other words, we can say that harmonics are multiples of the fundamental frequency and can
therefore be expressed as: 2, 3, 4, etc. as shown.
Complex Waveforms Due To Harmonics
Note that the red waveforms above, are the actual shapes of the waveforms as seen by a load due to
the harmonic content being added to the fundamental frequency.
The fundamental waveform can also be called a 1st harmonics waveform. Therefore, a second
harmonic has a frequency twice that of the fundamental, the third harmonic has a frequency three
times the fundamental and a fourth harmonic has one four times the fundamental as shown in the
left hand side column.
The right hand side column shows the complex wave shape generated as a result of the effect
between the addition of the fundamental waveform and the harmonic waveforms at different
harmonic frequencies. Note that the shape of the resulting complex waveform will depend not only
on the number and amplitude of the harmonic frequencies present, but also on the phase relationship
between the fundamental or base frequency and the individual harmonic frequencies.
We can see that a complex wave is made up of a fundamental waveform plus harmonics, each with
its own peak value and phase angle. For example, if the fundamental frequency is given as;
E = Vmax(2t), the values of the harmonics will be given as:
For a second harmonic:
E2 = V2max(22t) = V2max(4t), = V2max(2t)
For a third harmonic:
E3 = V3max(32t) = V3max(6t), = V3max(3t)
For a fourth harmonic:
E4 = V4max(42t) = V4max(8t), = V4max(4t)
and so on.
Then the equation given for the value of a complex waveform will be:

Harmonics are generally classified by their name and frequency, for example, a 2nd harmonic of the
fundamental frequency at 100 Hz, and also by their sequence. Harmonic sequence refers to the
phasor rotation of the harmonic voltages and currents with respect to the fundamental waveform in a
balanced, 3-phase 4-wire system.
A positive sequence harmonic ( 4th, 7th, 10th, ) would rotate in the same direction (forward) as
the fundamental frequency. Whereas a negative sequence harmonic ( 2nd, 5th, 8th, ) rotates in the
opposite direction (reverse) of the fundamental frequency.
Generally, positive sequence harmonics are undesirable because they are responsible for overheating
of conductors, power lines and transformers due to the addition of the waveforms.
Negative sequence harmonics on the other hand circulate between the phases creating additional
problems with motors as the opposite phasor rotation weakens the rotating magnetic field require by
motors, and especially induction motors, causing them to produce less mechanical torque.
Another set of special harmonics called triplens (multiple of three) have a zero rotational
sequence. Triplens are the odd multiples of the third harmonic ( 3rd, 6th, 9th, ), etc, hence their
name, and are therefore displaced by zero degrees. Zero sequence harmonics circulate between the
phase and neutral or ground.
24

Unlike the positive and negative sequence harmonic currents that cancel each other out, third order
or triplen harmonics do not cancel out. Instead add up arithmetically in the common neutral wire
which is subjected to currents from all three phases.
The result is that current amplitude in the neutral wire due to these triplen harmonics could be up to
3 times the amplitude of the phase current at the fundamental frequency causing it to become less
efficient and overheat.
Then we can summarise the sequence effects as multiples of the fundamental frequency of 50Hz as:
Harmonic Sequencing
Name
Frequency, Hz
Sequence

Fund.
50
+

2nd
100

3rd
150
0

4th
200
+

5th
250

6th
300
0

7th
350
+

8th
400

9th
450
0

Note that the same harmonic sequence also applies to 60Hz fundamental waveforms.
Sequence
Rotation
Harmonic Effect
+
Forward
Excessive Heating Effect

Reverse
Motor Torque Problems
0
None
Adds Voltages and/or Currents in Neutral Wire causing Heating

25

Figure 14: Fundamental frequency, Harmonics Etc.

26