rt Psat) ‘This comprehensive instructional reference ae includes detailed information on: Concrete Bere ead Repair and Maintenance Illustrated * Problem Analysis * Repair Strategy * Techniques Peter H. Emmons Here is the tool you need to clearly understand and successfully carry out concrete repair and maintenance projects—with confidence! In this book you will find a detailed, yet ‘concise presentation of over 220 concrete repair and maintenance topics. Issues are ‘examined within the framework of analysis, strategy development, and repair techniques, with extensive and superbly detailed illustrations to guide you in the proper planning and execution of repairs. Written by Peter H. Emmons, President of Structural Preservation Systems, Inc., and a national authority on concrete repair, Concrete Repair and Maintenance, Mlustrated was technically reviewed and edited by James Warner, world-renowned concrete repair consultant and educator, and Alexander M ‘Vaysburd, Ph.D., an expert in concrete technology with more than 30 years experience in the industry. ‘This indispensable book provides extensive information about problem analysis, strategy development, engineering aspects, material cciteria, and repair and maintenance methods. Designed for ease of use by all participants in the repair and maintenance process—owners and facilities managers, ‘engineers, architects, material suppliers and. contractors—the book's unique format provides a highly structured, fully illustrated ‘examination of each topic a S| g a x o = w Illustrated air an Tea aby + Evaluating Concrete Problems + Susface Repair + Stabilization and Strengthening + Protection Dedicated to quality assurance and technical excellence, the author provides the concrete repair industry with a much-needed reference ‘guide designed to facilitate adherence to the highest standards in the design and execution of concrete repair and maintenance projects. About the Author Peter H. Emmons is President of Structural Preservation Systems, Inc, the nation’s largest dedicated concrete repair contractor, headquartered in Baltimore, MD. Mr. Emmons holds a B.S. degree in Civil Engineering from the University of Maryland, has over twenty years experience in structural concrete repair, and has been involved with over 3,000 concrete repair projects. He is the author of several widely distributed publications, including The Guidebook for Repair and Maintenance of Parking Structures (1988), and the highly respected quarterly publication, Repair Techniques (1989). He is noted for his articles and presentations addressing topics such as the importance of drying shrinkage values in the selection of repair materials, and innovative techniques forthe repair of posttensioned structures, as welll as for development of a atented waterstop repair system which has Filed ariel need in the repair of leaking waterstops, ‘Mr. Emmons provides industry leadership through the International Association of Concrete Repair Specialists (IACRS), serving as a member of the Board of Directors and as chairman of the Technical Guideline Committee, which produced the first industry ‘guidelines for concrete removal around exposed reinforcing steel, He is also a member of both the 546 Repair Committee and the 364 Rehabilitation Committee of the American Concrete Institute (ACD) Mr, Emmons is committed to fostering the development of much-needed strategic alliance between contractor, engineer, supplier, and owner to successfully address the complex, interactive requirements of effective concrete repairs Published by: R.S. Means Company, Inc. outa company intenance 100 Construction Plaza, P.O. Box 800, Kingston, MA 02365-0800 (617-585-7880 Fach and Boot Design by Norman R Fe oncre e AVEConcrete Repair and Maintenance Illustrated «Problem Analysis Repair Strategy “Techniques AyCe ereKe aoe itarrae! Maintenance Illustrated ‘Problem Analysis OG WANG -Techniques Peter H. Emmons DRL Brandon W EmmAl, ‘COMRGHT 1994 R.S. MEANS COMPANY, INC. ‘CONSTRUCTION PUBLISHERS & CONSULTANTS 100 Constevetion Plaza 20. Box 800 “Kingston, MA 02364-0800 (627)385-7800 JInkeeping with the general policy of RS. Means Company Ine i authors editors, and engineers appyliligence and adgraen in locating and using reliable soures forthe {formation publshed, However, na guarantee or waranty canbe gives, andall esponsibility and bil fr foss or damage ae hereby disclaimed bythe authors, edtors, engineers and publisher of hispublication with respect to the aceuracy correctness value and sufficiency of the data, methods, andthe information contained herein as applied for any purpose oF Use. “The editors fr this book were May Greene and Nell Smit; procuction and arc was managed by ‘Helen Marcell; composition by Public Services, Inc The ook and jacket weve designed by [Norman R For [No part ofthis publication may be reproduced, stored in a eceval system, or ransmited in ‘any form or by any means without prior writen permision of RS. Means Company, Inc Printed inthe United States of America 9876543 Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data ISBN 087629-286-4‘To all employees of Structural Preservation Systems, Inc. and all past, present and future clients.Table of Contents Part One—Concrete Behavior L Section 1; Introduction to Embedded Metal Corrosion 8 Embedded Metal Corrosion Process 9 Corrosion-Induced Cracking and Spalling 10 Reduction in Structural Capacity n Chloride Penetration RB Cracks ancl Chlorides 13 Cast-in Chlorides cs Carbonation 15 Structural Steel Member Corosion 6 Dissimilar Metal Cocrosion v Tose-Tension Strand Corrosion 18 Audiional Sources of Information 19 Section 2: Disintegeation Mechanisms 2 Introduction co Disintegration Mechanisms 2 Exposure 10 Aggressive Chemicals 2 Freeze-Thaw Disintegration B Alkali-Aggrepate Reactions 4 Sulfate Arvack 25 Erosion: Cavitation % Erosion: Abrasion 26 Additional Sources of Information rr Section 3: Moisture Effects 28 Introduction to Moisture Effects 29 Drying Shrinkage 30 Moisture Vapor Transmission 31 Volume Change—Moisture Content 2 Curling Additional Sources of Information Section 4: Thermal Effects Intcocction to Thermal Effects “Thermal Volume Change Uneven Thermal Loads Uneven Thermal Loads: Continuous Spans Restraint to Volume Changes Early Thermal Cracking of Freshly Placed Concrete ‘Thermal Movements in Existing Cracks Uneven Thermal Loads: Cooling Tower Shell Fire Damage Additional Sources af Information Section 5: Load Fffects Introduction to Load Effects Reinforced Conerete: Basie Engineering Principles Cracking Nodes: Continous Spans SlabyBeam-to-Column Shear Cantilevered Members| Continuous Structures Columns Post-Tensioned MembersGylindrical Suructures: Buried Pipe 6 Gylindrical Structures: Yanks a Connections: Contact Loading 58 ‘Aatlitional Sources of Information 3 Section 6: Faulty Workmanship: Designer, Detailer, Contractor 6 Faulty Workmanship: Intwdluction 4 Improper Reinforcing Steel Placement @ Improper Post-Tensioned Cable Drape 6 Improper Reinforcing Stéel Placement: Highly Congested 3B Improper Bar Placement: Location of Stirtups 64 Premature Removal of Forms 65 Improper Column Form Placement 6 Col Joints 66 Segregation 6 Improper Grades of Slab Surfaces o Construction Tolerances oa Plastic Sertlement (Subsidence) Cracking & Plastic Shirinkage Cracking 6 Honeycomb —Rock Pockets ey Part Two—Concrete Evaluation Introduction Testing Methods for Concrete Evaluation Table A: Test Methods Concltion Survey Procedure Section 1: Service and Exposure Conditions Section 2: Visual and Exploratory Investigation Section 3: Locating Delaminated Concrete: Acoustical Emission Methods 81 Section 4: Corrosion Act y Measurements 82 Section $: Chloride Content ra Section 6: Depth of Carbonation 84 Section 7: Petrographic Analysis 4 Section 8: Locating Voids, Cracks, Honeycomb: Impact Echo Method 85 Section 9: Locating Voids, Cracks, Honeycomb: Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity Methods 6 Section 10: Locating Voids, Cracks, Honeycomb: Remote Viewing Inside Structure 8 Section 11: Locating Embedded Reinforcing Steel 88 Section 12: Monitoring Movements 89 Section 13: Bond Strength of Overlays and Coatings: Pulloft Testing 90 Section 14: In Situ Compressive Strength: Rebound and Penetration Methods 31 Additional Sources of Information %2Part Three—Surface Repair Introduction Flow Chart of General Procedures Anatomy of Surface Repairs Section 1: Analysis, Strategy & Design JIniroduection to Analysis, Strategy & Design Performance Requicements Stcuctural Needs ‘Types of Stress Acting on Repairs Performance Requicements, Examples ‘The Challenge of Placing Loads into Repaits Causeiffect Design Biror Repair Problem—Analysis and Strategy ‘Additional Sources of Information Section 2: Material Requirements Introduction to Material Requirements Selection Process Flow Chart Checklist, User Needs ‘Checktist, Service/Exposure Conditions Checklist, Placement Conditions stablshing Material Properties Establishing Material Properties: Load Carrying Properties Establishing Material Properties: Service/Exposure Properties Establishing Material Properties. External Load Properties Establishing Material Properties: Constructibilty & Appearance Properties Volume Change Effects: Introluction Volume Change Effects: Summary of Volume Change Mechanisms ‘lume Change Effects: Drying Shrinkage Process Volume Change Effects: Selecting Low Shrinkage Materials ‘Additional Sources of Information Section 3: Material Selection Inwcoduetion to Material Selection Summacy of Repair Materials Repair Material Ingredients Section 4: Surface Preparation Introduction to Surface Preparation General Surface Preparation Procedures Surface Preparation: Recommended Layout of Surface Repairs Recommended Removal Geometry Removal Methods: Partial Depth Removal Methods: Full Depth Section 5: Reinforcing Steel Cleaning, Repair & Protection Intvoduction to Reinforcing Steel Cleaning, Repair & Protection General Procedure Reinforcing Steel Repair Reinforcing Steel Cleaning Reinforcing Steel Protection 9% 97 99 100 101 102 103 104 105 108 10 2 14 15 16 7 118 19 120 y21 12 123 14 25 126 27 128 129 Bl a2 33 134 136 137 138 139 143 4g M5 M6 uy 45 v9 150 151 152Section 6: Bonding Repait Materials to Existing Concrete 154 Introduction to Bonding Repair Materials to Existing Concrete 155 Measuring Bond Strength 156 Evaluating Bond Strength 158 General Procedures: 160 Bonding Agents 263 Additional Sources af Information 164 Section 7: Placement Methods 165 Tntroduetion to Placement Methods 166 ‘Summary of Methods 168 Dry Packing. 170 Form and Cast-in-Place 171 Form and Pump 172 Gtouted Prepliced Aggregate in Dry Mix Shoterete 178 Wet Mix Shorcreie 180 Tull Depth Repat 181 Overlays 182 ‘Summary of Overlay Materials 183, Hand/-Appled 184 Additional Sources of [nformation 185 Part Four—Strengthening and Stabilization 187 Introduction to Part Four 191 Section 1: Techniques/Design Considerations 193, Introduction to Techniques/Design Consiclerations 194 Summary of Techniques 195 Passive and Active Design 197 Matetial Behavior 198, Attachment of Steel to Concrete 199 Section 2: Beam Shear Capacity Strengthening 200 Introduction to Beam Shear Strengthening 201 Intemally Placed Passive Shear Strengthening 202 Beam Shear Capacity Strengthening at Moving Hinge 203 External Past-Tensioned Straps 304 Section 3: Shear Transfer Strengthening Between Members 205, Introduction to Shear Transfer Suengthening Between Members 206, Dowel Shear Device 207 Drilled Hole Shear Transfer Device 208 Grouted Subgrade 209 Cantleveced Shear Arm 210 Section 4: Stress Reduction Techniques aul Installing New Expansion Joint in Continuous Conevete Frame 212 Lateral Ground Movement Isolation (Seismic Isolation) 2B Section 5: Columa Strengthening 24 Column Compressive Strengthening by Section Enlargement 215,Shea Capacity Strengthening Using Shear Collars 216 Beam-Column Moment Capacity Strengthening 27 Confinement Stengthening, 218 Section 6: Flexural Strengthening 219 Summary of Methods 220 External Post-Tensioned Reinforcement 221 Span Shortening Techniques ne Bonded Steel Plate Reinforcement 223 Convection of Deflected Member with Ronded Steel Plate Concrete Overlay and Section Enlargement 25 ‘Wall Strengthening 226 Section 7: Connection Stabilization and Strengthening 27 Reconstruction of Corbel Bearing 208 Externally Mounted Compression Struts 29 Excernaly Mounted Bearing Assembly 230 Section 8: Crack Stabilization 21 Performance Requirements for Crack Repairs 232 Understanding Crack Movements 233 CauserBifec: Design Bors 235 Quality Control 236 Techniques for Placing Adhesives into Fractured Concrete 237 Adeitional Sources of ivormation 238 Pact Five—Protection 239 Introduction to Part Five 22 Section 1: Strategies 243, Introduction 10 Suategies 25 Controlling Chloride-Jaduced Corrosion —New Concrete 246 Conwolfing Chioriée-Induced Corrosion—Existing Concrete 248 CConnolling Chloride-Induced Corvasion in Cracks and Consttuction Joints 250 Controlling Carbonation-Induced Cocrosion 251 Controlling Carbonation 252 Controlling Aggressive Chemical Surface Damage 254 Controlling Freeze-Thaw Damage 256 Contolling Freeze-Thawe Damage Behind Surfice Repairs 257 Controlling Water Flow Through Structures 258 Controlling Water Leakage Through Plaza Deck Systems 260 Section 2: Methods 263 Introduction to Methods 264 Sucface Applied Protection: tmmpregnation 266 Sucface Applied Protection: Coatings 267 Surface Applied Protection: Surficing (Plastering, Rendering, Overlayanent) 268 Surface Applied Protection: Blastomeric Membranes (Laquid anel Sheet Applied) 269 Surface Applied Protection: Problemis\Concems 270 Surface Applied Protection: Pile Jacketing am Surface Applied Protection: Water Control Grouting (lnercept Penetration) 272 Surface Applied Protection: Water Control Grouting (Material Pevfornnance) 273xi Surface Applied Protection: Waret Contwol Grouting (Positive Side Penetration) 274 Susface Applied Protection: Water Control Growing (Pipe joints) Surface Applied Protection: joint Seals (Pressure-Rated Waterstop Joints) 275 Surface Applied Protection: Joint Seals (Water Control Rout & Seal) 27 Surface Applied Protection: Joint Seals (Loacl Supporting/Rout & Seal) 278 Surface Applied Protection: Joint Seals (Traffic Bearing Expansion Joints) 279 Altering Blectro-Chemical Behavior: Impressed Cutreat Cathodic Protection 28) ‘Additional Sources of Infotmiation BI Glossary 283 Index 289Introduction SS! Meane Comp eon. san ese Concrete repair is a complex process, presenting unique challenges very different from those experienced in the field of new concrete construction Conerete repair must successfully integrate new materials with old mate- rials, forming a composite capable of enduring the exposures of use, the enviconment, and time. Concrete repair, which began with the fist concrete placement, came of age as the nineteen sixties, seventies, and eighties produced a proliferation of concrete structures. Today, conerete repair is a major industry supporting the needs of virtually every concrete structure. Fach structure requires routine repair and maintenance, rang- ing from simple protective coatings (0 repair of spalling concrete to strength ening of under-designed components. ‘With the growth of any marketplace come new players eager to participate. Jn the concrete repair business, this includes contractors, engineers, atch tects, and material suppliers. What nneoeomers find is an industry in need of technical definition and guidelines for standard practice —the lack of ‘which can lead to poorly designed repats, illconceived materials, and poonly executed field precesures All 100 often, the results are premature repair failures ‘The purpose of this book is to prese concrete reps as an integrative pro- cess of analysis, strategy and tech- nique, eelating concrete behavior dicectly to the field repair process. The author stresses the ectical importance of continuity between engineering, materials, and technique, as well as the need for sound technical knowledge and effective communication within the project ream, The book raises ques- tions aad provides ideas for solutions The dynamics of new materials inter. acting with in-place snatetials is stil an emerging science. Enhances methods of analysis, improved strategies ancl techniques and new materials will facilitate quality growth of the concrete repaic industry, This book is designed to guide and support that growth through its emphasis on the practices of quality analysis, careful strategy development, and proper selection of technique and materials The book presents the phllosopty dhat ovwners, engineers, macetal suppliers, and contractors all need ¢0 understand the basis of each discipline repre sented in the repair process. The contractor must understand concrete deterioration mechanisms in order 10 understand surface preparation, The engineer must understand material behavior, including both physical cured properties and the chemical uncured behavior, in order to propery specify a success repair material, The mantr Factaer of repair materials most not only apply sound chemical principles, but also understand the engineering aspects of how repair materials wll interact with an existing substrate under load caurying conditions. The vwnes must be 4 generalss familiar ‘with concrete probtenis and potential solutions The Dook’s style of delivery is intended to support the purposes, philosophy, and needs outlined above, using easily understood graphics with explanatory text. Wherever possible, each topic is contained on onc page, presenting an inclusive unit of information, Bach page contains illustrations designed to hop the reader visualize a particular mechanism or strategy. xiixiv Many of the author's experiences, including failure experiences, are used as case studies. Understanding what (0 avoid can be the most valuable infor- mation gained ‘rom reading this book ‘The use 0f flow charts throughout the book provides comity between puges and sextions, Metric conversions are showin for most English units. The book 's designed to be easily understood by all who participate in the process of conerete repair and maintenance. “The book has been organized in @ fashion similac to the progression of steps found in a typical vepair project. Te begins with an extensive discussion of concrete behavior, addressing ele- ments which may lead co defect deterioration or damage. The section that follows addresses evaluation techniques commonly used 10 analyze the behavior and establish the general scope of defects, Pars Three, Fowr, and Five ofthe book deal with the strategy and techniques necessary 10 repair and maintain @ particular struc tue of member, art Three "Surface Repair," is the mast comprehensive, including discussion of engineering aspects, material requirements, surface preparation andl material placeiment techniques. Patt Four “Stabilization and Stvengthening,” includes discussion of various techmigues to sabilize or sirengthen a member or structure. The discussion is oriented cosvai ideas for possible solutions, Pat Five “Pro ection,” is a broad! categary including Cecfusiques andl strategies for water proofing, and barcers co unsranced exposure or service conditionsAcknowledgments 1 wish to extend my appreciation and gratitude co the following people: Brandon Einmons, Ulsteator, for contributing his extraordinary talent, cceativty, time and patience; ‘© Alexander Vaysburd, Ph.D, Techical uitor, for contributing painstaking researc, and for sharing his dleica- tion, enthusiasm, and technical expertise; © James Warner, Technical Editor and Consultant, for applying his vast technical knowledge and experience to the process of daring and re- Fining technical coatene; Susan Hodinko, Management Consull- ant, for providing guidance, clarity, meticulous esiting and moral support; © James & McDonald and Waterways Experimental Staion, US. Army Corps of Engineers, for providing a broad range of technical reports and strong support of the need to establish performance criteria for dimensionally compatible repaic materials; © Paul Carter and Alberta Trangporta- tion and Utes for conttibuting invaluable technical reports on tepair snaerial performance, and for review: ing the seetion on shrinkage of repair materials; ‘© Milt Collins and the International Association of Concrete Repair Spe cialis (ACRS), for extending support and encouragement, for sharing IACRS guidelines, and for providing metric conversions; ‘© Thomas Kline and Construction Tech nology Laboratories (CTL), for con ting technical reports and important technical knowledge of concrete behavior and evaluation; arty Krab, Mike Sprinkeb, ames Gifton and the National institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) for providing significant technical reports and for reviewing the section on bond performance criteria ‘Thomas J Pasko, Jt, of the Rederal Highway Administration, for contribut ing is highly professional advice; James E. Robeits of Caltrans for sharing his experiences in seismic strengthening; James B. Emmons, for providing the cover photograph, Margo Gray, for her meticulous word processing; Kelly Page, for her editing contibue tions, and Brenda, Becky, Megan, and Brandon for their unwavering patience, encour agement and support For offering their encouragement and comments, Rob Lambe, Ph.D, of Fosrac, ete Popovic of Wiss, Janney, Elsner Assoxiates, Ephuaim Senbetta of Mastex Butlers, Steinar Helland of Selmer, Nonway, Patrick Sullivan, Professor of City Universi, London, UK. and Jonge Bernal, Professor, Dept. of Civil Engineering, Universiciad Nacional el Nordeste, Republica of ArgentinaSymbols Ps Solar exposure afecting teal ieacing y i 7 Alls, keeseteptec roe : c indiates dreston 0: change, 8 ‘Change in time. Years, months, days are | Sood apne aunt 4 Bane oostze " $6 ° ' 4 } ipso ts Esyosue wagqesve Seo Exposure to chlorides Sot Cowasion products ec eirionng tee bar Sf Eon ape! d /\t Conceete Large aggregate Shear stess| Applied loads Compression Tension ‘a change resulting in decrease ‘2 change resuling in increase g ) Use caution, unclear ast right ‘answer. a Electrical power source J UU Say ’ Penetration or movement —S Banter to exposure or sevice conditions| Closeup view ‘denies wrong approach to a particular problem Bacar to the exposure specied witin th symbo wiiWhat You Need To Know Before Using This Book i The book wses extensive references to publications of the American Conerete Institute (ACI). Much of the technical Iknowiedlge avaiable about repair is contained in the Fve-volume ACT Manual of Concrete Practice. Pot more information abovn ACI, write American Concrece Institute, PO. Box 19150, Redford Station, Detroit, Michi gan 48219. Other sources of informa tion include: © American Society of Testing and Maresals (ASTM) ‘More information can be obtained! by writing: American Sovety of Testing and Materials 1916 Race Street Philadelphia, PA 19103-1187, USA International Associaton of Concrete Repair Specialists (CRS) Mote information can be obiinedt by woiting: Intemational Assecation of Concrete Repaic Specialists PO. Box 17402 Dalles International Aiport ‘Washington, DC 20041 © Additional reading macerials to further ‘one’s knowledge are referenced atthe ‘end of each section. ‘The graphies used in this book utilize symbols representing certain condl- tions or exposures. & symbol library is provided folowing the intoductionPart One Concrete Behavior PEE e S289 Oaa oo Part One Sections Section 1: Introduction to Embedded Metal Corrosion Embedded Metal Corrosion Process Corrosionvinduced Cracking and Spaling Reduction in Structaral Capacity Chloride Fenetcation Giacks and Chlorides Cascin Chlorides Carbonation Structural Steel Member Corrosion Djssimilar Metal Corrosion Post-Tension Strancl Corrosion Additional Sources of Inforination Section 2: Disintegration Mechanisms Introduction to Disintegration Mechanisms Exposure to Aggressive Chemicals Freeze-Thaw Disintegration Alkal-Agaregate Reactions Sulfate tack Erosion: Cavitation Erosion: Abrasion ‘Additional Sources of information Section 3: Moisture Effects Introduction to Moisture Effects 1g Shrinkage re Vapor Transmission Volume Change —Moistuce Content 10 nL 1B 4 5 16 nr 18 9 2» 21 a 24 5 % %6 2» 31 3Curling ‘ditional Sources of Information Section 4: Thermal Effects Introduction to Thermal Bfects ‘Theumal Volume Change Uneven ‘Thermal Loads Uneven Thermal Loads: Continuous Spans Restraint to Volume Changes Early Thermal Cracking of Freshly Placed Conerete ‘Thermal Movements in Existing Cracks Uneven Thermal Loads: Cooling Tower Shell Fire Damage Additional Sousces of Information Section 5: Load Bffects Inteoduetion to Load Effects Reinforced Concrete: Basic Engineering Principles Slab/Beam-t0-Columnn Shear Cantlevered Members Continuous Seructures Columns Fost-Tensioned Members Cylindrical Steuccures: Buried Pipe Gylindsical Stauctures: Tanks Connections: Contact Loading ‘Additonal Sources of hwormation Section 6: Faulty Workmanship: Designer, Detailer, Contractor Faulty Workmanship: Intioduction Improper Reinforcing Stee! Placement Improper Post-Tensioned Cable Drape Improper Reinforcing Steel Placement: Highly Congested Improper Bar Placement: Location of Stirups Premature Removal of Foums Improper Columa Form Placement Cold Joints Segregation Improper Grades of Slab Surfaces Consttuction Tolerances Plastic Settlement Subsidence) Cracking Plastic Shrinkage Cracking Honeycomb—Rock Packets 33 34 35 37 39 0 41 2 B a 6 46 a B 51 52 53 57 58 9 ot a 8 6 6 66 66 o7 o7 63 6 0Introduction & cones Sewice Conditions Seni Loads. Material Interaction a j onstruction Deficiencies Le fe Win fy 4 OP Disintegration ‘Spalling ‘Cracking Leakage ‘Wear Dellection ‘Settlement. Sg Sake eae atti 5Introduction to Part One Effect Cause Leakage Design Detect — |-—P}Wataiats Setlemont Consincton _—_ Detection Ovoroading Chemical Wear Sa Damage |p| Eahquake: Spating Fre Frecze-Thaw Disintegration I Erosion Cracking CConosion at T Metals Delamination Deterarton — | —Pet pai Aggraga eacton Sealing Sutale Atack Concrete des not always behave as ‘ve would like; some of the undesirable behavior can be seen as disintegration, spalling, cracking, leakage, wear, de flection or settlement. Developing effective repair strategies requires an ‘understanding of what caused the Undesirable behavior, Understanding the cause allows the repair strategy to address both dhe cause and the effect (ehavion). The result isa successful, long lasting repair A variety of factors influence concrete behavior. These factors inclace: de sign, matetials, construction, service load, service Conditions andl exposure conditions. Most of the observed behaviots are a combination of these factors working together. The discus sion of concrete behavior in this sec tion has been subdivided into six ‘categories. The first wo categories, Embedded Metal Corrosion and Disin tegration, address deterioration mecha- nisms, The next three, Moisture Bf fecis, Thermal Bifects and Load Effects, address exposure and service condi tions, The last category addresses defects de to improper workinanship.Part One: Concrete Behavior Section 1: Embedded Metal Corrosion Section 1: Embedded Metal Corrosion ‘The following topics are covered in this section: Embedded Netal Corrosion Process Corrosion Induced Spalling Reduction in Structural Capacity Chloride Penetration Cracks and Chlorides Castin Chlorides Carbonation Structural Steel Member Corrosion. Dissimilar Mezal Cotrosion Post‘Tension Strand Corresion Se Serengeti ws ennEmbedded Metal Corrosion Process Corrosion Rate os 4 mmiyr " 03 0 ad vy kale or 7 os 4 t os4 0 2 4 6 8 mM pH of Concrete Relationship betwoen pH and corrosion rate Corrosion Inhibitors Corrosion Promoters: High quality conceote Drygen igh pt (Akay) Water concrete protects ‘Stray electica currents steel surface irom “Uneven chemical comeosion. envitonmont around ‘einforosment -Eaviconments thal loner the oH (alkalinity) Conecete is @ high alkalinity material. ‘The pif of newly produced concrete is usually between 12 ancl 13. In this range of alkalinity, embedded steel is protected from corrosion by a passvat ing film bonded! to the reinforcing bar surface. However, when the passivaiog film is disrupeed, corrosion may take place CCotrosion is an electrochemical pro ‘ess requiring an anode, a cathode, and an electrolyte. A moist concrete matrix forms an acceptable electrolyte, and the steel reinforcement provides the anode and cathode. Electrical current flows between the cathode and anode, and the reaction results in an increase in metal volume as the Fe (on) is oxidized into Fe(OH)2 anal Fe(OH); and precipitates as FeO OF (ust color)!, Water and oxygen must bee present for the reaction (0 take place. In good quality concrete the corrasion rate will be very slow. Accel erated corrosion will take place if the DH (alkalinity) is toweree. (arbonation) Or if ageressive chemicals or cisiilar metals ate introduced into the con- rete, Other causes include stray clectrical cutrenes and conentation cells caused by an uneveo chemical environment “fton, 18, Predicting the Remaining Service Life of Concrete, Nainal Institute of Stan dards ael Technology Report NISTIR 4712.Part One; Concrete Behavior Metal Corrosion, Corrosion-Induced Cracking and Spalling Corrosion © = Concrete Cover ar Bante ci Rao coer ar Sue Coeon 0 7 3589 cad 4% 3 1568 #4 1% 10 Cracking and spalling of concrete induced by steel corrasion is a fune- tion of the following variables 1, Conerete tensile strength 2. Quality of concrete cover over the reinforcing bar 3. Bond or condition of the interface between the rebar and sutrounding concrete 4, Diameter of the reinforcing bar 5. Percentage of corrosion by weight ofthe reinforcing bat With a coverto-bar diameter ratio GM) of 7, concrete cracking starts ‘when corrosion reaches 4 pescent, whereas, with a C/D ratio of 3, only 1 percent corrosion is enough to crack the concer Gee rable below) ¥ Alsulaman, aleemula, Basunbl and je, "“Tluence of Cortosion and Crack ing on Boe! Behavior an Strength of Rein forced Conerete Members,” ACI Sul Joucnal, Marc Api 1960, 22Reduction in Structural Capacity ‘The structural capacity of a concrete member is affected by bar corrosion and cracking of sureounding concrete. ‘The research conducted on flexural beams found that in steel with mare than 15 percent corrosion, the ult- mate load capacity begars to fall, and at 4.5 percent corrosion, the ulate Joacl was reduced by 12 percent— probably a result of reduced bar sliamerer.! It can be surmised that, in compressive members, cracking and spalling of concrete reduces the effective cross section of the conctete, thereby reduc ing the ukimate compressive loac capacity Ct | "AbSulsiari, Kaloerllth, Basuribal ane Rasheed, “Influence of Corension and Crick ing on Bond Behavioe and Strength of Rein foveed Concrete Members," ACI Struc ovina, MarceApri 1999, 9.20, ten’ ego an, nS iWPart One: Concrete Behavior Section 1: Embedded Metal Corrosion Chloride Penetration Orit pee Sea ee Se _ hen ts pat ot Dekminatanspat— Dd ee PGS Zl tata i ‘egulis in further corrosion, } C260, 4,0 ‘When steel is depassivated and the environment is acidic oF mildly alka- line, corcesios begins if moisture and ‘oxygen gain access into che concrete.! ‘Selamination ot ~Aal Corrsion takes place laser wien {he pl is lowered Carbonation shes piace win crack ‘Naysburd, AML, Sabnis, GM, and Sorokco, , Theocetical Aspects and Testing Methods ‘of Concrete Carbonation, Proceedings, Ine national Conference on Life Predicion of Conrodible Structures, Hawai, 1991, pp. 3-396, In good quality concrete, the catbon- ation process is very slow. Ithas been estimated that the process will pro- ceed at a rate up to 0.64 in. (1 mm) per year, The process requires con- stant change in moisture ‘eves from dry to damp to dry, Catbonation will not occur when concrete is constantly tunder water 15Part One: Concrete Behavior Section 1: Eimberlded Metal Corrosion Structural Steel Member Corrosion jt-—1— embeasea ‘Structural Member SS, ates Crack oe Constusten & Enveonnent Joint over Embed Structural See! 16 onme< Ling ots) from top of fiange by expanding products. oapex< Corrosion of embedded metas in- cludes strictural members such as steel beams cast into conereze to form a composite member, 0-10 provide fice protection. The cop fange of beam is susceptible co cortosion when a crack oF cosstruction joint intersects the flange. Moisture and corrusive salts ace trapped on the flange, providing an ideal environment for corrosive ‘activity. Corrosion on the top flange exerts a jacking force on the concrete above the flange, When the force is sufficient, delamination occurs. Ev «lence of slab separation from the beam then becomes apparent from the underside of the slab. Se thioresannans mtDissimilar Metal Corrosion See yp Alumina Aurea in contact wi. fresh concrete liberates ‘hydrogen gas, theeby eating locates porosity. Note: shades area ences level ef mesure pneiaton and actve ecoyjte. Vehiorces ‘are present, the process & is accoerated, 58 _ Hlstontiow atode (-) Anode (en OF Flow Corrion accu hee ‘Aun onde causes expansion andcahig 6 of surcounding cor 3 ute. os onpe< Corrosion can take place in concrete when two different metals are cast into a conerete structure, alang th an adequate electrolyte. A moist concrete mat provides for a good electroyte ‘This gype of corrosion is known as galvanic. Bach metal has a unique tendency 10 promote electrochemical activity. Gold, for example, is very ative, while zinc is inactive, Below is a list of metals in order of increasing activity Zine Aluminum Steel Iron Nickel Tin Lead Brass Copper 10. Bronze 11. Stainless Steel 12, Gold When two metals are in contact via an active electrolyte, the less active metal (ower number) in the seis is covtoded, One of the most common situations found in concrete i the use of alumi- ‘num cast into reinforced concrete. ‘Aluminurn was used as an elecical conduit, and more recently, as hand rail. Aluminum fas less activity than stecl, therefore, the aluminum is the ‘metal that corrodes. The steel will actually become cleaned, and the aluminum surfaces will grow a white oxide, which wil cause tensile forces to crack the surrounding concrete. 7Part One: Concrete Behavior_ Section 1: Embeded Metal Corrosion Post-Tension Strand Corrosion Unbonded Post-Tension Stans Corrosion of unbonded post-tension strands has become a common prob- lem for steuctures exposed to aggres- sive environments. Buildings exposed to ocean salt spray and patking,steuc- cures exposed to de-icing salts are typical locations for unbonded strand contosion, Unbonded post-tension strands are protected from corrosion aes G by protective grease and sheathing 88 ny Aggressive agents can penetrate the | protective systems when inadequate ccongrete cover is subject 10 damage by heavy wheel loads. y Extend Another common problem is poor a Broken corrosion protection of the end an- t ale chorages due to porous or cracked s ‘llows anchorage plug grout. Once corrosion exposure to promoters enter the strand system, corresive Ccortosion may begin, Comosion of unbondled strands is a serious condition. Unlike mild reia- forcement, post tension strands have stored energy from the stressing oper ation. It is not uncommon for strands to be stretched inches (203mm) pet 100 feet (30.5m). Corrosion of the strand reduces the cross section and. results in an incteasing stress level in the strand. Breakage occurs when the stress level exceeds the capacity of the steel. When the breakage occurs, it can be explosive, resulting in the freed strand collapsing on itself and, in sore cases, exiing the structure at ends oF locations svhere low cover exists. Locating broker strands may be dif ful if te strands do not exit the structure, Longitudinal cracking may be an indication of a broken strand. Collapsing broken stand may exit the structure at pons of ow cover oral ends /°- Unprotected Strand witout Vf,” Protective Sheathing vaapsea wy \ | Strand Sysiam 7 Wite Stand — Anchorage Plug Grout Wedges Ena nchor Casting — Breakout bars —— rolecive Seating Types Grease oe) Wires ge Push-theu iss Extruded 8 nchmmeserete aneAdditional Sources of Information American Concrete Lastitute, $P-102, Steel Corrosion in Concrete: Causes and Restraints, Detrait, 1987 ACI 201.28-77, Guide t Durable Concrete. ACI 318-83, Corrosion of Metals in Concrete Protection of Ste! in Prestressed Conerete Bridges, NCHIP Report No. 90, 1970 Chloride Corrosion of Stee! in Concrete, ASTM STP 627, Ametican Society for Testing and Materials, Philadelphia, PA., 1977Part One: Conerete Behavior Section 2. Disintegration Mechanisms Section 2: Disintegration Mechanisms ‘the following topics are covered in this section: Exposure to Aggressive Chemicals Freeze‘Thaw Disintegration Alkal-Aggregate Reaction Sulfate Attack, Erosion: Cavitation Erosion: Abeasion Disintegration ismembermant Aissoluton Erosion es 1 ’ E F ‘ = - g F ISTBY FOE0 € y VORYOY oD eV c aM Jaty . | fr A Dissoation Abrasion oe Q ot : Cavitation Seal 8 aa : Aogrogaes 7 Dissolution > of Portand Cament Cement Mati Swoing Capitan Cavy Sweling «\7 4 — a a we LS oo Crstals‘This section includes discussions of vatious processes which cause the constituents of concrete to (1) dis- solve, (2) be Forced to come apart @ismememment) through expansive volume change mechanisms, or (3) become worn say through abcasion cr cavitation, Aggressive chemical exposures (ither man-made or natu ral) can cause the concrete to alter its chemical makeup, resulting in changes Ins mechanical properties. Depencl- ing upon the type of attack, the con- crete can soften or disintegrate, in pact or in whole. Introduction to Disintegration Mechanisms ‘Water can be one of the mest agares- sive environments causing dsintegra- tion, If concrete is saturated with water and is subject to freezing, the expan sive force of the increase in volume (ce compared to water) may cause the concrete to come apart in small pies. Similar to the effects of ice is Ue swelling of salt crystals in the concrete surface subject to salt solutions. Not all disintegration mechanisms are caused! by extemal factors. Alkaly aggregate reactions are intermally contained within the originally co- structed conerete. They result in swell: ing of the affected aggregate 2Part One: Concrete Behaviot_Section 2: Disintegration Mechanisms Exposure to Aggressive Chemicals Certain chemicals in solution will attack various constituents of conezete. ‘Aggressive chemicals can be catego- rized as follows: ‘cid attack on conerete is the reaction between the acid and the calcium hhydioxide of the hydrated Porttanc cement. The reaction produces water 1. Inowganic acids soluble calcium compounds, which are 3 One aech leached away. When limestone or ganic acids dolomitic aggregates are used, the 3. Alkaline solutions acid may dissolve them. 4, Salt solutions 5. Miscellancous | ‘Acids dissolve silica and dolomite of 0%%¢ SD [| ft My Qqg XO o WQS onne< oes ES 0% 0%% ey (Cement mati attacked; Ss aggregates fal out. oy oP 0%¢ 2 SarayFreeze-Thaw Disintegration ‘Tension Mierooracking CCapilry Cavity ‘Swelng se ene OQ SS) O ‘Smal fakes rea aay Kom cortete Water pensate capilaes 6 6 aupontcana ves ‘causing tension and smal sutlace dssintegration Pore and Capitary sweling causes tansion cracking, Freeaing water in pore stueture expands fracturing aggregate and sping surouneing concrete Aa |” Zone of Satwation Water penetrates aggregates wih igh absorption Freeze-thaw cisintegration or deterio tation takes place when the following conditions ace present 1. Freezing and chawing temperature cycles within the conerece 2. Porous conerere that absorbs water (watered pores and capillaries) Freeze-thaw detetioration generally ‘occurs on, hotizoncal surfaces that are exposed t0 water, or on vertical sur faces that are atthe waterline in submerged portions of structures, The freezing water contained in the pore stuucture expands as itis converted into ice. The expansion causes local ined tension forces that fracture che siuroundling concrete matcx. The fracturing occurs io small pices, work- ing from the outer surfaces inward ‘The inte of freezesthaw deterioration is a function of the following: 1, Increased porosity (increases rate) 2, Increased moisture sarvcation (increases rate) 3, Increased number of freeze-thaw cycles (increases rate} 4, Ait enteainment (educes rate) 5. Horizontal surfaces that (rap stan Ing water (increases rate) 6. Aggregate vith small capilary structure and high assorption increases rate) res a asePart One: Concrete Behavior Reactive sca or sileate inthe aggregate react wth akan the cement ‘Age! fms onthe aggragate suiace wien sufleent moisture is present ‘when gelis ——— exposed te moisture, sweling tas place ‘Swoling of gel causes. surrounding concrete to grom, causing tension and compressive stesso. 24 oaae< anna onBe< Alketi-aggregate reactions (AAR) may cteate expansion and severe cracking of concrete structures and pavements, ‘The mechanisms that cause alkali aggregate reactions are not fully under- stood. What is known about tis type of reaction is that certain aggregates, such as reactive forms of silica, react with potassium, soelium, ane catcium hhydoxice fom the cement and! form a ‘gel around the reacting aggregates, ‘When the gel around the aggregate is exposed! 0 moisture, it expands creating forces that cause tension cracks to form around the aggregate. [Moisture wentent of the concrete must be approximately 80 percent: relative humidity at 70°F 75°F (21°C.24°C).] ‘Unconfined conerete undergping AAR exhibits tell-tale signs of surface map cacking on exposed surfaces. Once the cracking has formed, more mois: ture penetrates the concrete, accelerat- ing the alkalraggregate reaction and allowing additional freeze-thaw damage. ‘The allaliaggregate reaction may go uncecognized for seme period of tine, possibly years, before associated severe distress will develop, Usually, testing for the presence of alkal-aggregate reaction is conducted by petrographic examination of con- crete. Recently, a new method capable of monitoring possible reaction has been developed. This method! utilizes the uranyl (uranium) acetate Muores- cence technique and is rapid and economical "Handbook fr the Identification of Akal Silica Reavy iy Highway Structures, SURP-CARS1-101, National Research Counc, ‘Washington, DC, 1981.Sulfate Attack + Chemical Runat Sols + Steams ‘The presence of soluble sulfates (prin. Goeans Cipally those of sodium, calcium and magnesium is common in ateas of inning operations, chemical and paper é Woter-Borne Sulfate milling inclustries. Sodium and calcium are the most common sulfates in soils, water and incustrial processes. Magne: siuun sulfaes are less common, but more clestructive, Soils ar waters containing these sulfates are often called “alkali” soils oF waters, All sulfates are potentially hatmfl to ‘concrete. They react chemically with ‘cement paste’s hycrated lime and hiycated calcium aluminate, AS a result of this reaction, solid products with volume greater than the products entering the reaction are formed. ‘The formation of gypsum and ettring- ite expands, pressucizes and disrupts the paste. As a result surface scaling & Site ins ( and disintegration set in, folowed by 8 ‘mass deterioration Sulfate resistance of the eanerete is improved by a reduction in water cement ratio and an adequate cement factor, with @ low tricalcium aluminate and with proper air entrainment, With ‘proper proportioning, silica furne (onieosiiea), fly ash and ground slag generally improve the resistance of Concrete co sulfate attack, primaily by reducing the amount of reactive ele ‘ments (Guch as calciom) needed for reg rd apo op expansive sulfite reactions mati ordmmasaswea 2%Part One: Concrete Behavior Sestion 2: Disintegration Mechanisms Erosion Dam \Weter Flow 4 Cavitation Area Circulating debris ‘causes adaitonal abrasion damage, 2. Vapor forms in low pressure areas, 3. Collapsing air bubbles cause waler to jet with extreme foroe at surface below vapor 1, Curved surface causes DubbIES. localized high veloc, Abrasion Damage-vorn Aggregate an Matroc 26 Cavitation Cavitation causes erosion of concrete surfaces resulting from the collapse of apo bubbles formed by pressure changes within a high velocity water flow. ‘hen vapor bubbles form, they flow downstream with the water. When they enter a region of higher pressure, they collapse (implode) with great impact. The formation of vapor bub- bles and their subsequent collapse is jon, The energy released callapse causes “cavitation clamage." Cavities are foxmed! near curves and offsets, or at che center of vortices. Cavitation damage results ia the evosion of the cement matrix, leaving harder aggregate in place’ At bigher velocities, the Forces of cavita tion may be great enough to wear away large quantives of concrete. Cavitation Gamage is avoided by pro- ducing smooth surfaces and avoicing protruding obstructions (0 flow. Abrasion Abrasion isthe wearing away of the surface by rubbing and fiction. Gener ally, che surface is uniformly worn away, including the cement mateix and aggregates. Factors affecting abrasion resistance include 1. Compressive strength 2. Aggregate properties 3, Finishing methods 4, Use of toppings 5. CuringAdditional Sources of Information pe Sitereancrgaea gtanenne Performance af Concrete, Univesity of Toronto Press, Toronto, Caneda, 1968 ‘Woods, H., Durability of Concrete Construction, Ainerican Concrete Jnstitute and Jowa State University Press, 1968, ‘Aen EL, Resistance to Weathering, ASTM STP 169, Ametican Society for Testing andl Materials, Philadelphia, PS. Gordon, WA, Freezing and Thawing of Concvete—Mechanisms and Contra, Monograph 3, American Concrete Institute, Detrot, 1966 Handbook for Identification on AlkaliSilica Reactivity in Highway Structures, SHRP.C/FRDI-101, Washington, D.C, 1991 ACI 210R87, Brosion of Conexete in Hyckaulic Structures, Manual of Concrete Practice, Part 1, 1992.Part O Section 3: Moisture Effects Jonerete Behavior Section 3: Moisture The following topics are coverc ying Shrinkage Moisture Vapor Transmission Volume Change—Moisture Content Curing,Introduction to Moisture Effects Conevete is like fiesh-cut trees made into lumber. The lumber is wet when cut, but immediately begins to dey to a moisture level equal to the surcound- ing environment, As the wood dries, it also reduces in volume and, in some «cases, splits under the: stress of shrink: age. Even seasoned wood changes volume as the moisture level in the ‘wood changes with seasonal vatiations in humidity, Wood doors are easily opened in the winter when humility is lows, but swell and may he diffcale to cose during the humid summer months Gonerete behaves in a similar fashion, In fresh concrete, the space between the particles is completely filled with, water. The excess water evaporates after the concrete hardens, The loss of moisture causes the volume of the paste to contract This, in turn, leads to shrinkage stsess and shrinkage cracking, Like wood, concrete aiso changes volume in response 10 ambi cent humidity changes, Previous sections deal with the cole of moisture in freeze-thave disintegration and the corrasion process. This section cleals with the role of moisture in volume change effects and the effect of ‘vapor transmission through concretePart One: Concrete Behavior Section 3: Moisture Effects, Drying Shrinkage 20 eet ong Freshly Placed Concrete 0.15 inches A, & UUnvesrained ovisinehess —>} fe | ___ff (Cured Concrete Restrained not Reinforced Usiormly Spaced Cracks Retriercing Bor ——- a \ I {E ‘Cured Conreto Restrained and Renoioed Factors affecting drying shrinkage Factor Reduced Shrinkage Increased Shrinkage Cement ype ype LL type Ill Aggregate size 14" G8 mm) 2 (19 mm) Aggrogate type ‘quartz sandstone Cement content 550 they G25 kgm?) 700 Ib 15 kgf’) Slump 3 6 mm 6 (152 mm) Curing 7 days 3 days Placement ' 1 fempeatne GorF (16°C) 85°F (29°C) Aagreeate washed dirty 30 ‘On exposure ta the atmosphere, conerete loses some of its original water through evaporation and shrinks ‘Normal weight concrete shrinks from 00 to 806 microstrains (one micros- train is equal to 1 x 407 Sin /n,(mmymnm)) Example of Drying S| e sta length seen 1 microstrains 15 inches (4am) dying shinkage shrinkage of slab Drying shrinkage, if unrestrained, results in shortening of the member ‘without a build-up of shrinkage stress. Tete member is restrained from moving, stress build-up may exceed the tensile strength of the concrete. This over-stressing results in cry shrinkage cracking, Correct placement of reinforcing steel in the member dlistibutes the sheinkage stvesses and controls crack widths, Big ghee eaarca Baye Hh eerMoisture Vapor Transmission ‘water vapor tcavels through conerete ‘when a structural members surfaces are subject to different levels of retae ‘ive humidity (RE. Moisture vapor travels from high RE to low RH. The Amount of moisture vapor transmission i.a function of che RH graclient be: tween faces, and the permeability of the coneree. Moisture Vapor Transmission (mvt) ts a aii a ‘Typical Slab on Grade 4 4A Moisture moves from high moisture level subarade through slab to dyer conitons above the slab. Moisture vapor also moves into and out of tho pore streciur of conerete as diferences occur in relative humid. Moisture ‘vapor mises from high hum to low hurd. Yapor also moves wit changes in temperature. When the temperature ‘ses, zapor expands and moves out of he poe structure, yy “EY ay a Exaggerated Pore Structure within Concrete SSRI ein a “MS 31Part One: Concrete Behavior Section 3: Moisture Blfects Volume Change— Moisture Content 32 PH Concrete changes length clepencting upon its moisiure content. Moist conctete that dries out will shrink, ‘while dey concrete chat becomes moist sul expand, Concrete may follow seasonal changes: hot, humic summers generate higher moisture contents, hile cold, dry winters reduce mois- ture contents. CConerete wih Low Moisture Content Bie Concrete with High Moisture Content grows in volume eave to concrete wih low raisture content. Establishing values for the amount of shtinkage or expansion caused! by a change in moisture content can be carted out by estimating, based on dey shiinkage values. Drying shrinkage values are based! on an initial 100 efcent moisture content reduced t0 an ambient relative humidity of about 50 percent.Curling Gurting is 3 common problem with Temperature gradients across a slab slabs cast on grade. Curling is caused) can create the same prablems as by uneven moisture andl temperature moisture gradients, The typical situa- gradients across the thickness of dhe tion is solar heating of the slab’s top Shb, Curing is increased as drying surface, causing a higher temperature shrinkage progresses. Slab surfaces are on this surface, The top surface then usually dry on top, where they are has a tendency to grow in length exposed 10 air, anc! moist on the relative to the bottom surface. Stress bottom, where they are exposed to elief aceurs when the slab cutls| soil, The drier surface has a tendency downward. to contract in length relative 0 the moist bottom surface. The contraction of the top surface can only be relieved by the slab curling upward. Joint Slab on Grade A> CPU P lip Slab Cut Top surface contracts. bw Enum Sone A vee yea DOT LEE DD iY Y Moist Environment at se bottom surface remains the same length Slab/SolInterace ‘Tha sab cris upward whem the lop suface cotracs when ‘dyes than the slabs bottom surface sethantes 834 Part One: Concrete Behavior Section 3: Moisture Bffects Additional Sources of Information ACL 2098-82, Prediction of Creep, Shrinkage and Temperature Bffects in Conerete Structures. Mindess, S., Young, .£, Concrete, Prentice Hall, Inc, 1981, pp. 481-519 Emmons, PH., Selecting Conerete Repair Materials for Long-Term Durability, Pro ceedings of the 2nd National Concrete Engineering Conference, Chicago, 1992Section 4: Thermal Effects ‘The following topics are covered in this section: ‘Thermal Volume Change Uneven Thermal Loads ‘Uneven Thermal Loads Continuous Spans Restraint ro Volume Change Early Thermal Cracking of Freshly Placed Conerete ‘Thermal Movements in Existing Cracks Uneven Thermal Loads: Cooling ‘over Shell Fire Damage Lae 35Part One: Concrete Behavior Section 4: Thermal fects Introduction to Thermal Effects 36 c ‘The effect of temperature on concrete sseuetures and members is one of volume change. The volume relation ship (o temperature is expressed by the coefficient of thermal expansions conttaction. Volume changes create stress when the conerete is restrained The resulting stresses can be of any type: tension, compression, shear, et ‘The stressed! conditions may resue in undesirable behavior such as eracking spalling and excessive clefletionThermal Volume Change Concrete, lke all materials, changes volume shen subjected to temperature changes. An increase in temperature increases the volume of concrete; conversely, a learease in temperature reduces the volume of concrete. The thermal coefficient of concrete is approximately 5 X 10° init (9 x 1076 mmimm/C). A change of 10°F (68°C) ina 100" (0.5m) length will change the overall length by 78" Ze, oF 100° long nue a7Part One: Concrete Behavior Section 4: Thermal Effects Uneven Thermal Loads oe ‘Temperatute gradients exist in many sieuctures. The temperature on the surface of a deck slab exposed 10 dlirect sunlight may reach TI8°R (48°C), while the underside of the deck may toe only 78°F 26°0)—a 40°F 22°C) difference known as ditwrnal solar wer heating, This causes the top sucface to have a tendency to expand more than the bottom surface. This results in 3a. upward movement during heating, and a downward movement curing cooling ‘A precast double-T shaped structured 4 member with a 60" (18m) span can 10 Dp move %" (19m) upward at midspan bars from normal diurnal solar heating, 078 causing the ens to sorate and sitess at the ledger beam bearing pads and | concrete. Noe: Cantiover Porton moves in ‘opposite recon to center of span, in propodion fo length ‘at cantiovr. 38 Bw Eee Sen— te te ‘Working Example of Temperature Gradients Top of Sad Bottom af Slab CF T8F Air Temperature Se areas a an mmc Lo kc ced a er Ave Hages err (plea) erring 1 (i PK peor = Continuous Spans Diurnal solar heating affects structures, differently depending upon their configuration. Simple span structures deflect up andl dovin and are free rotate at end supports. Continuous structures may behave differently because they are not free to rotate at supports. Fenough thermal gradient ‘exists, together with insufficient tensile ‘capacity in the bottom of the member, a hinge may form. Hinges may occur randomly in new formed cracks, oF may form in constructisn joints near the cohazms. Hinges open and close with daily temperature changes 39Part One: Concrete Behavior _ Section hermal Effects Restraint to Volume Changes Ifa structural member is fee to de- cant. When stress build-up is relieved, form as a resuit of changes in tempera- it will occur in the weakest portion of ture, moisture, or loads, there is nthe structural member or its connec- build-up of internal stess. IF the sue- tion to other parts ofthe structure. tural member is restrained, stress ‘The stress may result in tension build-up occurs andl can be very signifi- cracks, shear cracks, and buckling. Working Example Elastic modulus of concrete Length of concrete member = 400,000 psi 28 10 MPa) 100 feet (50-5m) ‘Temperature change 0"F FO) ‘Thermal coefficient 10° infin (9 x 10% mm/mm/’C) Unit strain OCF) x (5X 10° infin’F) =500 x 10° indin G42 x10-Fman/nm) 000 psi (14 MPa) = elastic modulus, x unit strain 188,000 psf ~ 2,000 psi x 144 in? ess (if restrained) Force per square foot “Cr ‘Sheat Cracking nmemceanre tu eaEarly Thermal Cracking of Freshly Placed Concrete Concrete Placed with High Temperature Rise \Whhen conarete coos, the member conracs.H restraint ‘cuts, tension devslons, forming cracks. Example of Temperature Rise! -e ambient = concrete “30 “S a ~ avo 10 “i Cooling Will 1m thick Cement 360kg/m3 s07lcy o 41 2 9 Days After Casting Freshly placed conercre undergoes a semperaqure nse from the heat gener- ated by the cement bydration, The heat rise occurs over the frst few hours or days after casting, then cools to the surcounding ambient tempera- ture, When cooling takes place two or thee days after casing, the concrete has very little rensile strength. Weak tensile srength, coupled witha ther- rmally contracting membet, provide for the likelihood of tension cracks Factors affecting early temperature rise include: 1. Initial temperature of materials, ‘Warm materials lea to watmn con- crete, Aggregate temperatuce isthe most critical Ambient temperature. Higher ambient temperatures lead (0 higher peaks. 3, Dimensions. Larger sections gen- erate more heat 4, Curing. Water curing dissipates the build-up of heat. Thermal shocking shoul be: avoided. 5, Formwork removal time. Eaily removal of formwors reduces peak temperature 6, Type of formwork, Wood forns prodluce higher temperatures than steel forms, 7. Gement content, More cement in the mix means moze heat 8. Cement type. Type lil cement produces more heat than most other cements used, 9. Cement replacements, My asb reduces the amount of heat build-up, "Turton, Ca, “To Crack or Not © Crack", WI. 8, No I, Now. 1974, pp 32-36, aPart One: Concrete Behavior Section 4. Thesmal Effects Thermal Movements in Existing Cracks Newly Gast Conrel, stained Cracks lrmed ct esained dy shrinkage. eT ‘Mermai changes acing on the structure nds the crack: rise in temperature clases he ‘As temperatures fall, the crackopens as tho concrete contact, at II [fe a Y e a r s At ‘Thermal stresses can be relieved in sways other than by the formation of cracks, Cracks that were formes sia other mechanisms, such as dry shrink age cracking, may provide a location in the memiper where thermal change strain can be absorbed. The crack moves with the same cycle as the temperature cycle in the conerece member. Thermal mavement taken up by these cracks reduces the movement at planned expansion jointsUneven Thermal Loads Cooling Tower Shell Lange exposed cooling towers can undergo uneven thesmal stresses as the sun makes its way from east (0 \ ‘west. The cooling tower has a relatively thin concrete shell, which is exsily Ineaced by che sun. The sun's rays hit only about 50 percent of the tower's, shell at any one time. The portion of the tower that is being heated expands in size relative to the Cool sie of the tower. An egg-shaped cross section is, formed, which moves as the sun moves, heating other portions of the tower. Problests may accut in portions Of the tower where rig framing is connected to the constantly moving ‘outer shel Cooling Tower Undergoing Dynamic Thermal Loading 2 4, bOVO (C00 Side of Tower ‘wath of Tormal Loading sg amen 8Part One: Concrete Behavior Section 4: Theumal Biects Fire Damage 70 Bite attecis concrete in extreme ways, some of which are listed below 1. Uneven volume changes in affected members, resulting in distortion, buckling, and cracking, The temper 70°F ate gre are extreme; mm ainbent 70°F (21°C), to higher than Localized spaing 1500°F (00°C) at the source of che fire and! near the surface 2, Spaling of rapidly expanding con- crete surfaces from extreme heat near the source of the fite, Some aggregates expand in burst, spal- ling the adjacent matrix. Moisture rapialy changes to steam, causing localized bursting of small pieces of concrete, 3, The cement mortar converts 10 ‘quicktime at temperatures of 750°F (400°C), thereby causing disintegra- tion of the conerete, 4, Reinforcing steel loses tensile capac- ity as the Cemperature rises 5. Once the reinforcing steel is ex posed by the spalling action, the steel expands more rapidly than the 60 minutes surrounding concrete, causing buckling and loss of bond to adia- cent concrete where the reinfarce- ment is fully encased. Con! Surface Temperature 160°F High Sutsce 12eminutes| f Buctling of Connecion to Roiniocing Stee! other members experionces ‘Cracking fram Excessive ‘moment and Bending ‘rust stains Example used fromACl Fre Endurance Tests 2168 Fig 7.5.1(t Sica Aggregate 7” thick slab as BRS eon.Additional Sources of Information ASTM STP 16944, Concrete and Concrete Making Materials, Amecican Society for Testing and Materials Behavior of Concrete Under Temperature Extremes, SP39, American Conerete Institute, Deteoit, 1973 Neville, AM, Hardenecl Concrete: Physical and Mechanical Aspects, Monograph 6, American Conerete lnstitute, Dewoit, 1971Part One: Coneret ‘havior Section 5; Load Effects Section 5: Load Effects 6 ‘The follo this section: Reinforced Concrete: Basic Engineering Principles Cracking Modes: Continuous Span Slab/Beam-o-Column Shear Cantilevered Members Continuous Suuctures Columns Post-Tensioned Members Cylincrical Stcuetures: Buried Pipe Cylindeical Strwetures: Tanks Connections: Contact Loading ig topics are covered inIntroduction to Load Effects Concrete structures and inctivitoal members afl carry loads, Some carry ‘only the weight of the materials they are made of, while others carry loads applied (0 the structure. All materials change volume when subject co stress. Concrete is no exception, When sub- ject to tensile stress, concrete siretches; when subject to compressive siress, it shortens. Reinforced concrete js a composite of wo materials. plain ccanerete and teinforcing stee!, Con- crete possesses high compressive strength but lide tensile streng, and reinforcing steel provides the needed strength in tension, Steel anc concrete work effectively together in 2 compos: ite material for several reasons: 1. Similar coefficients of thermal expansion 2. Bond between rebars andl concrete prevents the slip of rebars relative to the concrete, 3. Good quality concrete aclequately procects veinforcing steel from, corrasion. Concrete problems, such as excessive deflection, cracking, ot spalling may be ‘caused by volume change associated with load effects. on een } Seam ——#| Colurnn, +t - —t j 7 nS - Shear Cracks 4 | Applied Loads supporting column. Column connections co slabs 2c bbeams experience considerable shear stress. Excessive stress prochuces cracks in the beams an in the surrounding sah ‘Slab and boam are inctined to fall rom F Honzontat 4 Forces Plan View of Punching Shear Crack Pattern Cracking Column Below CColumnjsoam shear eacking at connections can be caused by narizoniel movement, Hor- 2onll foroes can accumLiae fom 4. Volume changes caused oy temperature changes. 2. las shortening caused by posctension forces. 43 Foundation movements caused by stte- ‘mont o° earthquakes,Cantilevered Members Cantlevered Sa Cantitevered members are supported conly on one side (balcony slabs are-a typical example). Tension forces are acting in the member's top portion (op portion tension is siso known as Applied Loads Hi Detlecton Tension and Possible Cracks Location of Maxum negative moment). Tension is greatest at the member's fed ene. Tension forces ave carie' by the reinforcing steel located in the top portion of the rember. Two critical factors should be considered when using cantilevered members || Noe: Reinforcing stet ‘must bo located in upper ‘orton of member to ‘ropery carr tension loads 1, The negative moment steel must be placed in the correct position near the member's cap surface, Im- proper placement of the reinforcing steel may result in bending faire ‘of a structural member. ‘Tension cracks that develop over the negative moment steel ate natucal canyons for moisture and ‘other corrosion inducing sub stances. Heavy corrosion results in section loss and causes proportional loss in tenston capacity. Yielding of reinforcing steel may result in hinging and complete aiure, Flexural Tension Cracks Caner in Comproscien ‘on Bota’ Hal af Sia 5Part One: Concrete Behavior Section 5: Load Effects Continuous Structures Continuous Concrete Frame ‘Applied Loading JHE Oe oo —d Negative Mement rea Possible Tension Cracks Live Load Detlecton ‘Sialic Deflectons “59 Dynamic Detections (Vivations) \ehisle Distance From Point A Conceptual Diagram 32 Most castinplace structures are de- signed a5 continuous members. Unlike simple spans, continuous spans erans- fer load to adjacent spans. For static ‘oadings, tension stresses usually occut at the bottom (positive moment), at midspan, and at the top (negative moment) over supports. Concrete in negative moment areas (ensile zone) may be subject to ten sion cracking, For example, in centile- vered construction, these cracks pro- vide direct access for moisture ara ‘other corrosion-inducing substances into the concreie, Continuous struc- tures such as parking and bridge decks are also affected by moving loads, which change the stress distribution in adjacent spans, thereby causing cever ‘sal defieccions and vibrations. These reversal deflections and vibrations at breaks in the structure (expansion joints) may pose maintenance prob- Jems for connecting joint systems. Typical Deflection: 5-Span Continuous Bridge Repeated deflection reversals occur at Point B, both while the vehicle is on the bridge and just after the vehicle has left the bridge. Continued stress reveisls and vibrations can induce cracking, and widen and deepen exist- ing cracks, Cracking is aggravated by increases in span deflection. Cracking ‘occurs in planes of weakness, particu: lacy along the uppermost wansverse reinforcement.Columns Maximum Compressive Stengih Stress psi) 40% of Max, Compressive Shength E = Modulus of Elasisiy (ost) = stress stain ‘Sean fn 10-9 Relationship Between Applied Stress and Amount of Shortening Columns are designed to carry vertical all materials, stretches (lengthens) under tension, andl compresses (shortens) under compression. When concrete is cor pressed, the member shortens (vertical sain) and bulges (horizontal strain). Horizoncal strain is equal to vertical strain times Poisson's Ratio (4-0-2. ‘The buige generates tension forces that are restrained by steel reinforce men (Column ties). Shortening of columns consists of three components: Applied Load = easic Shortening |. Elastic shortening, Flastic short- ening oxcurs as soon as loads ate applied, and is equal to stress (psi) divided by Elastic modulus) 2, Greep shortening, Creep shosten- ing occurs over tne and is affected by constant stress and long-term loss of moisture Goncrete met rity. 3. Drying shrinkage. Drying shrink- age occurs over time with loss oF moisture and is a time-dependent process, wa mex Creep Shere Tension Cracks Working Example: Reniorced concrete 1500 ps0. SMPa wil shorten B"204run (2. umn in 500153) tak bing under substained sevice stress of (64mm) elastic, 2 5°(S4mm) crying shrinkage, 05° 2mm) oi), ‘Note: Bulge shown is exaggerated, Crack is shown ta demonstrate lensle stress. Column ties resist lension sess, Be Sidecar en a 3Part One: Gonerete Behavior Section S: Load Effects Post-Tensioned Members ——————————— Tensnea Fane Ce —<—<—<—<———_— tensioned, compressing the concrete Etesic shortrtng takes place ater stressing Aston shoring occurs asa resuk of creep and ying shrinkage SrTp one < Postcensioning of castin-place con ‘rete is an effective method of produc. ing durable, efficent structures. The member is compressed with high tensile steel sttands. The strands are jacked from one end of the member, and slippage of the strand through the concrete is allowed with grease ancl sheathing, The stretching of the strands compresses the concrete to offset any tension stress froan future service loads. The lak of tension in the concrete reduces the potential For Cension cracking Upon stressing, the concrete shortens. This is known as elastic shortening ‘The amount of elastic shortening depends upon the modulus of elas ity (&) and the unit stvess to which the concrete is compressed. After stress ing, long-erm shortening, known a5, creep, will ake place. lt may take over 1500 days to reach ultimate creep,Restrained Volume Change A.common problein in post-tensioned for stress relief. The column designed structures is lack of cesign consider- for vertical loads s subject to horizon- ation of volume changes in members tal pulling i¢ opposite divections, ‘caused! by clastic and plastic (rep) thereby causing sever shear cracking, shortening, Short columns in parking The shear is also aggravated by cliurnal structures with opposing post- solar heating if the structure is dizectly tensioned framing are ideal locations exposed to the sun Working Example Length of beam = 60! (183 m ; E 4,000,000 psi (28 10" May 1,000 psi (69 MPa) 0.18" (4.6 mm) = steessiE XL (1000 sif4,000,000 psi) x (60! x 12) 036" (.1 mm) = 0.18" 4.6 mm) x 2.0 (Creep Coefficient) 0.54" = 036" (9.1 mm) + 018" (46 mm) SS N Lat short Column ‘Compression Direction of Pull =<-— ‘Shear Cracking Short Colurn Seduinsesscraa ners 5Part One: Concrete Behavior Section 5. Load Bffects Cylindrical Structures Crackin Spring —' {ine of Pipe Pipe Deforms: unde: Load Buried Pipe Buried pipes are loaded with surround ing backfill anc overburden. Non form loads surrounding the pipe may result in: defommation of the pipe loads on top may exceed the load an the pipe’s underside, The pipe is compressed in the vertical axis anc bulges along the horizontal axis Cracks may develop, forming hinges at ree possible locations: the crown {top of pipe), and at the two spring line locations (Gide of pipe)Tanks Example ‘Tanks are constructed to hold liquids The tensile swess in a xeinforcedl ‘and flowable solids, The loads imposed! concrete tank wal is caried by rein ‘on the tank are proportional to the forcement. Given three configurations materia’ dersity and height of liquid! on the right, all have equal tensile in the cank, Pressure is greatest at che loads (1), but each configuration has bottom and zero at the top surface. cebars ofa different diameter and Internal pressure pushes against the cross sectional area (A), All bars have tank wall, creating tension. The tension equal modulus of elasticity The stress forces rust be carried by the reinfore- level is L/1.0A in Fig. A, 1/200 in Fig ing steel that circles the tank. The B, anc 1/3.08 in Fig. C. Bach ba will amount of stress in the reinforcing _elongate proportional to the stress sted’ dictates how well the steel holds level. The bar in Fig. wil elongate the concrete together, thereby prevent- chee times the elongation of the bar ing cracking shown in Fig. C. The more elongation, the more likely itis that the conevete will crack ACI 350R-89, Section 2.5 recommends ‘minimum of 0.28 percent and 2 maximum of 0.60 petcent shrinkage ancl temperature reinforcement, de- pending upan the grade of stecl and length between 'shrinkage-clssipating” jcints Fluid figure A Loads 08 + oP | Tonsoni coated by ne fouee 208 wa a Veta aks om fouec orzo reinforcement 80k vas +A excessie stesso, oeiimemmragen grrr sPart One: Concrete Behavior Connections Double T Ptaton of Tat bearing can cause point loading, Front Edge Slab Construction Joint th Keyway Cracking f Voreinforced Contact Points PAY A Section 5: Load Effects Contact Loading In every structure, individual compo: nents come into contact. Precast struc tures are comprised of many compo nents, each interacting with others, Point loading of contact points is quite common, often resulting in excessive tension and shear. Bxtemites andl edges of members suet 19 point loading are free to crack and spall sehen tension stresses exceed the tensile capacity of the concrete. Em- bedded reinforcing steel is nota factor, since most steel is embeddet! below the contact point Precast double-T stems resting on ledger bearns often point load che front edge of the non-reinforced por- tion of the ledger beam. Point loading ‘can be 4 result of rotation (imal solar heating) oF length change from ‘seasonal thermal changes, Slabs cast on grade are separated by ‘construction joints, Shear transfer Detween slabs at these joints are loca- tions where point loading can occur. Rolling toads place the joint edges into contact with One anather, often creat ing stresses that spall and crack the non-reinforced postions Another common problem with pave- ment slabs is che filling of the open jpint with non-compressible debris, Preventing the joint from unclergoing Fee thermal expansion. Restrained. volume change can induce very high shear, compression and cession stresses, ‘Working Example: Dirt accumulation in joint restrains thermal movement. 4,000,000 i (Modus of lass), unit sain = 0.0008 hema coe. x temp change) Sess = 1200 p= Ex Unit Stain «4000000 psi x0:0008 inn = compressive skess JL then temperature rises, causing compressive forces a deveop, ll a Debs its joint 58 iS tarescanaiae mnAdditional Sources of Information Wang, Chee-Kia and Salmon, C.G., Reinforced Concrete Design, Thomas ¥. Crom well, Harper & Row Publishers, New Yor. Notes on ACI 318-89, Buliding Corle Requirements for Reinforced Concrete with Design Applications, Portanc! Cement Association, 1990 ACI 350889, Environmental Engineering Concrete Structates, ACL Manual of Con- crete Practice, Par 4, 1991Section 6 Section 6: Faulty Workmanship— Designer, Detailer, Contractor ‘The following topics are covered in this section: Improper Reinforcing Steel Placement Improper Post-Tensioned Cable Drape Improper Reinforcing Steel Placement Highly Congesed Improper Bar Detailing: Location of scraps ~Peemnature Removal of Forms improper Column Form Placement Cold Joins Segregation Improper Grades of Slab Sucfaces Construction Tolerances Plastic Sewement (Subsidence) Cracking Past Shrinkage Cracking Honeycomb—Rock PocketsFaulty Workmanship: Introduction Methods used to conscruet concrete structures are different from methods used in other types of construction Conerete is one of the few materials in which ray ingredients are brought together at, oF neat, the construction site, where they are mixed, placed andl molded into a final product. There are so many variables affecting the produc- tion of comevete that there is always a potential for something to go wrong, very building proxess inches a sequence of necessary step-by-step ‘operations—from conceptual plan to finished! structure. Following is flow care of a typical building process Each box represents a category of peoblems that can acise in the buikling process, ) Prepare Prepare Design Pans & ye Shop Lon —— ie ad Fabicae & Buld& git sa > cmt Canoe Reinforcement Formwork Stip Completed Format ove Structure “1Part One: Concrete Behavior Section 6: Faulty Worlmanship— Designer, Detaiier, Contract Improper Reinforcing Steel Placement ACKrequired concrete cover ‘There are two important reasons to reinforcing steel requires adequate for corrosion protection control the proper location of reinfore- concrete cover to protect it from 7 ——— _ ing steel in structures. Fist, reinforcing _corrasion. The alkalinity of the con Cover steel is placed in concrete to carry crete isa natural corrosive inhibitor. If Condition required tensile loads, and if te steel is mis- the concrete cover is inaclequate, it will in. (mm) placed, the concrete may not be able not provide the necessary long-term to carry the tensile loads, Cantilevered protection. Shifted reinforcing bar Goncree deposited on | Gay slabs and negative moment areas near Cages in walls or beams may aso the ground ‘columns pose particular risk. Second, cause the reinforcing steel to lose ——______- proper cover. ried surfaces exposed fo weather Te “Tension cack may form inthis ae bas > #6 ro fension cack may form in this area. —_____] Propet location of Negatine Moment Stee! bars < #5, 15 G8) Formed surfaces not exposed to weather Cantilever Slab beams, girders, columns 69 f ¥ slabs, walls, joists eee ‘Stee located to low o cary tension fads. bars < #11 075 (19) {Sifted cage, not enough cover bars #14, #18 15 G8) | bp qd ‘Area of Potential Rebar Corsion 6 Se NSISImproper Post-Tensioned Cable Drape Drapoasconsiveed — _- ackloms ely above Core placement of postension cable is critical to achiewe the designed structural load-carrying capacity. ln proper placement may resul in tension sures, causing the conereteto crack “Toardtdepan ie Direction of Reaction Force Proper Drape Location — Improper Reinforcing Steel Placement Highly Congested Reinforcement Beams ancl columns are usually heavily reinforced members. Lap splices re qquize overlaps of bars and may result ina mat of steel that concrete mix cannot pass through during placement and consolidation, The result is either a visible, or worse, a latent oid around the reinforcement. Congested reinforcement prevents ‘concrete rom fling arond bars, X— wis Si Skt ehwyne eewion. aw 8Part One: Concrere Behavior Section 6: Faulty Workmansiiip— Designer, Detailer, Contact Improper Bar Placement Location of Stirrups Double-P members are acommon forces in the cantilever are taken up by element usec! in this type of sonstruc- stierups ditectly beneath the stem don. T's ate generally supported ay sa. location, Improper placement of the inverted Theam or ledger beam. The stirrups may resul in a alle of the cantilevered portion of the beam leciger beam support, and the supports the double-'s stem. Critical couble-T may then drop. Typical Precast Parking Structure Configuration prope Step Location —— Proper Stinup Locaton Ts%em — (Cut Away Viow of Ledger Beam Reinforcement « Seharagerngac MemePremature Removal of Forms Newly Cast Concrete Removal of forms (including shoring) Cracking al he la bea interlace ey before the concrete has reached its wt proper strength may resule in compres: Som and tension stresses, causing ro fs t aking defen, a pas le a pono fom cute Improper Column Form Placement SON ting prennrearaue Coad qinde ome ae widely L used in the construction of round z columns. Typically, columns are cast prior to the placement of the slaby beam formwork. The exact elevation of the slabybeam bottom may not be precisely determined when the col Foim panetatos tumns are cast. Ifthe column is cast slab system, {00 call and penetrates the slabybeam reducing shear area concrete, critical shear stesses may ‘occur because of inadequate shear capacity atea between the column and the slalybeam. The smooth form Waxee Cardboard sutface may not provide adequate Cota Farm ‘counn shear transfer EA CMEecaton ns 6Part One: Concrete Behavior Section 6: Fault Workmanshil Designer, Detailer, Cont Cold Joints {—- New Placement on Hardened (or nal Soy Concrete Coie Jin: Latance —— Hardened Concrete Cold joints are places of discontinuity within a member where concrete may no tightly bond to itself. Cold joints may form between planned placements and within a placement. Some con- struction piscement procedures re ‘quire multiple lifts. Adam is a good ccxample, a5 are tall walls To achieve proper boncl and water-tightness, the surlace of hardened conctete must be free of ditt, debts, and laitance. Proper cleaning and placement proce- dures sometimes are not follow or are very cifficult to achieve. The result is a weak connection between place- ments that could result in weakness or leakage at a later date ‘The other type of coke joint may occur within a planned placement if a part of the concrete in one placement sets, and then the cest of the concrete is placed on it. During the set, eitances form, providing for a weakened plane. Leakage may ocout when the structure {is pun into service, Coarse agcregate fais o bot. Segregation of concer results in ‘nonuniform distribution of its constitu. ents, High slamp mixes, inoortect methods of handling concrete, ancl overvibration are causes of this prob- lem, Segregation causes upper surfaces to have excessive paste and fines, and may have excessive watet-cement tao. ‘The resultant concrete may lack ac- ceptable duvabily.improper Grades of Slal Surfaces frais Po ‘Water collet in tow points Slabs requiring drainage for proper ‘runoff need special attention. Drains should be at low, not high points, Proper slope-to-pitch for quick cunoff is important to prevent deterioration and leakage withia the structure Standing water provides concrete with the potential for saturation, the worst condition for a freeze-thaw cycle. The ‘quicker the water runs off the struc ture, the less leakage can occur through joints and cracks. Construction Tolerances (Qut-o- Plum Column Structural members that are cast out of tolerance pose aesthetic and structural problems. Members cast out of toler ance may have improper concrete cover and cross section, which may Produce eccentric loading Tolerances for Formed Surfaces Variation from plumb in (mm) ‘any 10 length wi 6) ‘maximum entire 105) length Variations from level slab soffits 10° length | 1/4 (6) ‘maximum entire fength | 3/4 (19) ‘Variations in ¢ross section minus 14 6) plus 12 (13) oPart One: Concrete Behavior Section 6: Faulty Workmanshi Designer, Detailer, Contractor Plastic Settlement (Subsidence) Cracking | r Inia! Elevation of Coarate at Placement Void Under Bar ‘As bleed water comes io sutace, volume of cncrel is reduced. Probable Location ‘or Bar Corasion Probability of Subsidence Cracking (%)" 2" Slump: 3° Shimp. 4 Slump: Cover #i | #5 | #6 | we | os | #6 | ta | #5 | #6 we 804 | 878 | 925 | 919 | 987 | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100 v 60 7 1 | 7 834 89.9 | 85.2) 94.7 | 100 ve [16 [345 [456 [ani [477 | 589) W2) Gal 2 Pa 0 18 | 141 49 | 127 263 5.1) 247) 39 NCHRP 297, Table 4, . Plastic settlement cracking is caused by the settlement of plastic concrete around fixed reinforcement, leaving @ plastic tear abowe the bar and poss: ble void beneath the bar. The probabil ity of cracking isa function of 1. Cover 2. Slump 3. Bar size Settlement of plastic concrete is caused by 1. Low san! content and high water content Lange bats Poor thermal insulation Restraining settlement cue 10 iereg> ular shape 5. Excessive, uneven absorbency 6. Low humidity 7. Insufficient time between top-rt of columns and placement of slab ancl beam 8, Insufficient vibration 9. Movement of formwork Plastic Shrinkage Cracking Water Loss Poste ecagh Shinkage rads Eraporaion \ . » th ) 4 it | = Irestrained, lesion devolops, which may cause cracking, I Raid ess of water hough evaporation causes concsele o reduce in vekime Plastic shrinkage is caused by the rapid evaporation of mix water (not bleed water) while the concrete is in its plastic state and in the early stages of intial set. Shrinkage results in cracking when it produces tension stress greater than the stress capacity of the newly placed concrete, Pastic sheinkage cracking rarely fractures aggregate, but separates around the aggregate. Plastic shrinkage cracks may tead to points of thermal and dry shcinkage movement, intensifying the cracking SES Mice an AHoneycomb and Rock Pockets Loose fiting ‘marta io escape, rocks remain Low compressive songth form allows See emery caer moto Honeycomb is a wold left in concrete ‘due 9 failure of the mortar to effec tively fill the spaces arnong coarse aggregate particles. Rock pockets are generally severe conditions of honey- Comb where an excessive volume of agaregace is found Primary Causes of Honeycomb Design af members + ‘highly congested reinforcement narrow section © invernal interference reinforcement splices Foims aking a joints severe grout loss Construction conditions 4 reinforcement too close to forms 4 high temperature © accessibiley Properties of fresh conerere insuficient fines low workability eaty stillening excessive mixing aggregate that is too large Placement © excessive feel © excessive ave in forms it that is coo high ‘© improper treme or drop chute segregation Consolidation vibrator too small frequency too low amplitude too small short immersion time ‘excessive spacing between insertion inadequate penetration 0Part Two Concrete Evaluation — Part Two. Sections Introduction Testing Methods for Concrete Evaluation Table A: Test Methods Condition Survey Procedure Section 1: Service and Exposure Conditions Section 2: Visual and Exploratory Investigation Section 3: Locating Delaminated Concrete: Acoustical Emission Methods Section 4: Corrosion Activity Measurements Section 5: Chloride Content Section 6: Depth of Carbonation Section 7: Petrographic Analysis Section 8: Locating Voids, Cracks, Honeycomb: Impact Echo Method Section 9: Locating Voids, Cracks, Honeycomb: Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity Methods Section 10: Locating Voids, Cracks, Honeycomb: Remote Viewing Inside Structure Section 11: Locating Embedded Reinforcing Stect Section 12: Monitoring Movements Section 13: Bond Strength of Overlays and Coatings: Pall-off Testing Section 14: In Situ Compressive Strength: Rebound and Penetration ‘Methods: Additional Sources of InformationPart Two: Concrete Evaluation Should We Repair or Protect, 2 Yes Effect Design Leakage Detect Pe) Materials maesaey? Setement Conetuction 7 Detection vertading ‘Structural inadequacy ? homical et Leatage? anagem} Sl ae Earthquake a re Elects on Envrooment Fire Disitgratin zeThaw Use Distuncton? Cracking Freexe-Tas ——, Erosion Delamination Detorraton > Aesthetics? CCovtsion of Meals ‘Sealog ‘Alka Aggregate eacion Sufte tack %Introduction to Part Two ‘This Part presents information on howe ta ‘conduct ar evaluation of concrete in an ‘existing structure, A thorough and logical ‘evaivation of the current condition of the strweture is the frst step of any repair or rehabilitation project. Concrete can be defective for several reasons, z including inadequate desiga, material selec tion andor workmanship. Concrete ean also deteriorate or be damaged in use. Conse: ¥ uently, existing reinforced concrete may not be functioning as orginaly intended and designed. Concrete in a stractre has a rum Repair Analysis Evaluate User beer of funetions. First andl foremost, as a siructovall matesal, concrete is designed 10 Needs cay lols: for example, co provide a beating sunface for traf inclucing pecestean and vehictlar. Concrete also provides protection to embeclded reinforcement. Reinfared concrete isa composite materia consisting of concrete and reinforcing steel. The bond between the indvidvaf constituents is most ital forthe properties ofthe composite Vv matetial. Embedded reinforcing stee! must be cause r hn ‘clequately bonded to the surrounding con- Uselul Lito Stusiual Needs ete Canrying the anticipate! design loads I Disfunction of concrete structures ustally ‘occurs in some form of visible distress such Urgency Etet of Repair ‘as ctacking, leaching, spaling, scaling, stains, ‘on Stuciue disintegration, wear, settlement, o deflection. Fora more complete description of concrete «lisfurction, see Part 1, Concrete Behavior Consincibity ‘The evaluation of concrete structures can be ‘scope —— either a reactive or proactive process. Gen- cally, evaluation takes place as a result of User Secical some visible sign of distress, causing struc- Portomance Environment tutal andlor durability concerns of poor Fequitements functional performance, which, in tira, I result in sfety concerns The evaluation process is impoctant in cere mining such Factors as cause of the disfune= tion ancl structual saery, and for establishing 4 general scope of probiems found. The follosing, sections will Outline che: mast com. ion methorts used to evaluate concrete. Other sources of information on concrete evaluation can be foundl in the ACK Mraual ‘gf Goncrete Practice, ACL 201.18 Guide for Durable Concrete anc ACI 207.3R, Practices for Evaluation of Concrete in. Existing Massive Structures for Service Conditions Isp gent to a tame 5 ‘statics SaletyPart Two: Conevete Evaluation Inwroduction Testing Methods for Concrete Evaluation Mechanical Chemical Physical External Manitstation Properties Make-up Condition (oehavion) _/ Compressive Strength] | Electro-chemical Uniformity Cracksispals “Core sting (1) Aectivit Petographic analysis (11) “Flamer soning ace saat tty fee sad ay un ae tel rton ics pl “Inout eco. Elecircal resist {10} Rebound hammer (2) -lsa velocity (4) ‘Cor testing (1) -Rommote viewing 7, Qualiy of Concrete Torco) Uiasonk peasant || Cazbanation Depth - “Ey ana (Prerapinan Sato) Ai-Void System Tensile Strength ra atacton Deflections from “Put cesing nied spectoecopy | [—— Service Loads Satin ensle Delaminations/vaids emer ‘engi (5) Han! same ‘onitoang movemeais Ake Raegate wrowone eactions: Pulse velocity (4) Feu -Pevogrephc analysis 11) Exgaon eral Movements of ay (union) “Sonete on SorvicelExposure ‘Acetate Muresconco heen) Conditions Abrasion resistance rete “nred bemegraphy Load esting (C4878) @ “Mertang movers Chloe Content Location\Condtion of 2) oh (8) Bond Strength Embedded Metals Leakage -Pullatesing Radiography intuea heme Ground penetrating radar mares Export removal Noe: Figures in parentheses note number of standard testin Table A % Water permeability Ar permeatility Water absorption (19) Frost & freeze-thaw resistance (16) (7) Resistance to deicing salts (18) Temperature/moisture conditions Themecoupi Thamoneter External Geometry igual observations ‘ig ty pameomece tr enterTABLE A. STANDARD TEST METHODS FOR EVAIMIATING CONCRETE No. [ DESIGNATION. | ‘TITLE 1 | asIMc 4 ‘Obiaining and Testing Drilled Cores and Sawed Beams of Conevete 2 | ASTM C805 | Rebound Number of Hardened Concrete 3 | ASIMC803 | Penetration Resistance of Hardened Concrete 4 | ASTW.C597 | Plbe Velocity Through Conciete 5 | ASTM'C496 | Spliting Tensie Suength of Cylindrical Concrete Specimens 6 | astnc7s Flexural Strength of Concrete (Using Simple Beam with Third-Point Loading) 7 | ASTW.C295 | Flexural Strength of Concreve (Using Simple Beam with Center-Point Loading) 8 | ASTM. CIB | Abrasion Resistance of Concrete by Sandblasting 9° | ASTIM.C876 Half Cel Rocenrials of Uncoated Reinforcing Steel in Concrete 10 | ASTM 3633 | Electrical Resistivity of Membrane-Pavement Systems 11 | ASTM.C.856 | Standart Practice for Retrographic Examination of Rardened Concrete 12 | AASHTOT 259 | Resistance of Concrete 10 Chloride [on Penetration 13 | AasHT07 260 | Sampling and Testing for Total Chlovide on in Concrete and Concrete Raw Materials MM | AASHTOT 277 | Rapid Determination of the Chlovice Permeabibty of Concrete 15 | ASTM.C457 | Microscopical Determination of Parameters ofthe AirVoid System in Hardened Concrete 16 | Asi C666 | Resistance of Concrete to Rapid Freezing and Thawing 17 | ASTMC671 | Ceical Distion of Concrete Specimens Subjected to Freezing 18. | ASTIN C67 Scaling Resistance of Concrete Surfaces Exposed to Deicing Chemicals. - 1) | ASTNCO42 | Specific Gravity, Absorption, and Voids in Hardened Concrete SEMEN EI TRPart Two: Concrete Evaluation Introduction Condition Survey Procedure ‘The steps in a typical evaluation of a concrete structure ate 1. Viewal inspection (wall-through) 2. Review of engineering data 2, Design and construction documentation bb Operation and maintenance records Concrete (including materials used) records Periodic inspection reports 3. Condition survey 4. Mapping of the various deficiencies, b. Monitoring Joint survey d, Sampling and testing ©. Nondestructive testing £ Structural analysis 4. Binal evaluation 5. Condition survey report “The resuits of aay evaluation, espe: cially determining the cause and! scape of the problem, are only as accurate as the understanding and effort applied to the process. A cursory review oF wallethrough inspection will not pro- duce as accurate an evaluation as an in-depth, detailed investigation involv ing the necessary mapping, sampling, testing and exploratory effortsSection 1: Service and Exposure Conditions ‘Concrete evaluation is nor limited to stuclies ofits physical condition, me- chanical properties, chernical make-up, and external manifestation, Under- standing its interaction with the envi- ronment is equally important. In many cases, the cause of a concrete problem is related to.a service or exposure contition. The catalog of service and expostce conditions presented below Js a listing of some of the conditions to bee considered shen analyzing concrete behavior Temperature Moisture Chemical Loading High-Low re “ype Moving Froqueney eee Concentration Static uration Frequency Gas, (Shea Impact Freszathaw Cycles uation Frequeey Viaion sot ne a cos i ot Prtecon a Ey Saaaagetaco Frequency DveationPart Two: Concrete Evaluation Section 2: Visual and Exploratory Investigation / External Behavior / Maistre Vapor Transmission Lowkage Thu Stuctsre Dellecfons to Service Loads Movemenis o Senice! Exposure Condions Physical Condition Ais Vold Syston voids Delamination | Unioeaty cation Gonaiion af Embodied Votis Cracks'Spats External Geomeny Tomparanuenoite ‘Condon Existing Sess Levels Any thorough investigation starts with a visual review of conditions. Key indicators of probleins are: 1. Ctacking (@xazing) 2. Surface distress a. Spalling b, Disiniegration of the surface ©. Surface honeycomb . Sealing 3. Water leakage a, Surface dampness , Seepage or leakage theo joims or eracks 4, Movements a. Deflections b. Heaving ¢. Settlement 5. Metal carroston a. Rost staining b. Expased postension cable strands Exposed reinforcing bars 6, Miscellaneous A, Blistering membranes and ‘coatings . Ponding of water © Discoloration Visual examination, mapping the {ocation of peablems on paper, and then reviewing these along with as- built drawings ane) conseruction records can provide a general scope of the problems and possible clues to causes, Visual examination often results in many questions regarding the extent and details of cleteriorationistress. A Useful way to answer these questions is the exploratory removal of concrete to expose hidden elements. Chipping and cove drilling ace the most common exploratory methodsSection 3: Locating Delaminated Concrete Physical Condition Ale Vold System ois Delaminations Unitormiy Loraton/Condtion 1 Enbected Mela Laem] “Tempartureoisare Condon Existing Sess Levels Acoustical Emissions and Thermography Methods Sounding of concrete with a hammer provides a low-cost, accurate method for identifying delaminated areas When suiking areas of delaminated concrete, the sound changes from “ping” t0.a hollow sounding “puck.” Boundaries of delaminations can easily be determined by sounding areas surrounding the first “puck” until “pings” are heard Hammer-sounding ¢ large areas gen- erally proves to be exteemely time consuining. More productive sounding methods are available when working with horizontal surfaces. Chain drag- ging accomplishes the same result as hhammersounding, As the chain is ayged across a concrete surface, a distinedy different sound is heat! when it crosses over a delaminated area Hammer Sounding (Taper y avting Pain hee Tests Large wea <—_ = Chain Drag Soun = : ( ee ey a ° ‘Corrasion Limits are Generally elamination ‘Greater than Delamination Area ‘Automated electronic systems are also availble, eliminating the need for an ‘operator to listen for cferences in acoustic emissions. However, these methods have proved to give only a general picture ofthe areas of dela nation. Consequently, they should be used only for general assessment, not for the derailed layoot tequiced for reconstruction Infiared theinography is a useful etl! of deseeting dletaminations in bridge decks, This method is also used for other concrete components ex- posed to direct sunlight. The method ‘works on the principle that, as the concrete heats and cools, thete is substantial thermal gradient within the conerete because concrete is @ poor conductor of heat. Delaminations and other discontinuities interrupt the heat ucansfer through the concrete. These clefects cause 4 higher surface temper ature than the surrounding concrete during periods of heating, and a lower surface temperature than the sue- rounding concrete during periods of cooling. ‘The equipment can record and identify areas of deamination anc inclicate depth of delaminations below the surface Noe: Area of corrosion activity in concrete is generally lager than area of delamination alPart Two: Concrete Evaluation Section 4: Corrosion Activity Measurements 2 Chemical Makeup Elecro-cemicat Actiy Aba ggregate Reactions Chleide Content carbonation Depth Cotzosion of reinforcement is the clectcochemical degradation of steel in ‘concrete. It occurs when the passivity of the steel is destroyed by earbon- ‘ation or by chloride ions andl electio- chemical cells develop. When steel ccomtodes in concrete, a potential lifer: ‘ence exists between the anodic half- cell areas andthe eathodic falc areas on the steel! This difference can be detected by placing a copper copper sulfate halEcell on the surface of the concrete ane! measuring the potentacifetences between the reinforcing steel and a wet sponge on the concrete sutfice. The reference call connects the concrete surfice 10.2 high-impedance volimeter, which is also connected elecrrlly 0 the reinforcing steef mat, The voltmeter ther reads the potential difference at the test location. These readings are taken on a grid basis and converted §nto potential gradient mapping. Potential Reading Corrosion Activity High-Impecance Voleter CCopperCopper Suite Reteroce Cell Porous Sponge Reinforcing Steet {is generally agreed thac the half-cell potential measurements can be inter- preted 2s follows? Less negative than 0.20 volts inde ceates 2 90 percent probability of no corrosion. © Between 9.20 and ~035 vols, ccomosion activity is uncertain. ‘More negative chan ~.035 vols is inclcave ofa greater than 90 percent probabily that corrosion is occurring If positive veacings are obtained, i vsually means that insufficient mois- ture is available én the concrete and the veadlings are not valid, These tests cdo not indicate the rate of corrosion the measurements only manifest the ppatental for corrosion at the time of measurement ‘These half-cell methods cannot derect corrosion in post tensioned stds, nor can they detect corrosion when seinforcing steel is discontinuous from the voltmeter. However, half-cell mea- surements are often useful because they are easy to perform, ancl vesuis can be delivered quickly at relatively low costs, ‘Afull description of the above test procedure and equipment is detailed in ASTM .C 876, Half Cell Potentials of Reinforcing Steel in Conercte "NCHRP Repurt 140, Davabiliy of Prestesse Conerewe Highway Structuces, TRB, 1988, p22, 2NCURP Report 312, Colton Surves of Conciete Bridge Components—User's Manual, TRB, 1985, p35.Section 5: Chloride Content Because the amount of chlorides present in reinforced concrete can areatly alfect its performance, chlovide- jon content evaluation is an iayporeant testing method. Iris done by taking a sample of concrete from che structure, cither by drawing pulverized concrete using a rotary-percussion hammer (pretecably electio, or by taking coves and then pulverizing the concrete in the laboratory. Fiel! pulverization ‘samples are generally taken at various locations of the suspect member uncier investigation At each level of sampling, the puber ined material is collected and stored in dean container, the hole is vacuum sleaned, and the next sample is drawn ar the next desired depth. Where deep holes are to be chilled, care must be taken to prevent contamination of the Chemical Makeup locvo-chemical Aciy ‘Alka Aggregate Roctons Chloe Contant atbonaton Depth Bostic Rotary Percussion Hammer Dail, f Puveraed Concrete Sample Rotary Carbide Laboratory sample fram the abrasion of the rotary dil bit azainst the side of the hole. Using a dil bic with a steppeckciown, bit diamerer will reduce the chance of contamination. Powdered sunples are analyzed using a wet chemical method. Sepaating castin chlocides from Chlorides that have entered the struc: ture from the surface can be done by comparing the chloride content at various levels in the suspect member Castin chlorides will generally have similar chloride contents throughout the member, whereas chlorides that have entered the concrete after casting will have higher concentrations at the surface and Tower levels further into the member NCHRP Report 118, Deteting Defects and Deterioration in High Serene, TRB, 1985, p. 8Part Two Concrete Bvalu Section 6: Depth of Carbonation Seta rerophlin frenorel Carbonated Layer (Clear) shown hatched S.urlaces with pl tow 10 (carbonated) wil hhave no change in cole, wih a pH above 10 the ooo of concrete wil enange toa pink color. Carbonation of concrete is the reaction among acidic gases fiom the ait, mois ture, and the alkaline cement paste. To cletermine the depth of carbonation, & fresh conerete surface must be ex- posed. This can be done by core sampling the suspect sutface and splitting the core with a hammer and chisel. The postion of the carbonation front is measured by spraying the conerere surface with an acid-based indicator which changes the colors at a pH of about 10, indicating the inter face between carbonaved and uncar bonated zones, The most commonly used indicator for this pocpose is a solution of phenophtalein, which colors the canerete an intense ree (pink) at pH values greater thar 10 and i colorless at pHT values less than 10. The pHindicators are not sup- posed t0 give the exact pH value of the concrete, but merely to measure the depth of the layer altered by car. bonvion, Section 7 Petrographic Analysis Chemical Makeup Electo-cherical Actviy Akal Aggregate Rosctons Chote Content Carboration Depth Petrographic analysis is a detailed examination of concrete 10 determine ‘the formation and compasition of the concrete and 10 classify its type, condi- tion, and serviceability. The petro graphic examination attempts £0 an- wer two general, objective questions “What isthe composition?” and "How is it put together?" The petiographic ‘examination helps to improve the extapolation from test results to performance in situ, Together with various other concrete tests, pervo- sraphic analysis helps ro determine swhy this concrete in situ behavedt in the way it did, andl how it may behave in the future. To perform this eype of analysts, conerete specimens are taken "aftr, Katherine, Pographic Esamination ASIM STP 169.4, Concrete and Concrete aking Material, Philadelphia from the siructure and are prepared by either polishing or etching a surface of the specimen. Petrographic examina. ‘ion includes identification of mineral aggregates, aggregate-paste interface, assessment of the structure, and integ, tity of the cement paste. Petrographic cxamination helps determine some of the following mechanisms: 4, Freeze-thaw resistance Sulfare attack Alkalicaggregate reactivity Aggregate durability 5. Carbonation etrographic examination isa highly specialized practice requiring sailed petcographersSection 8: Locating Voids, Cracks, and Honeycomb Impact Echo Method Detecting flaws under the suface of conereie has always been dificult Recent developments in instrumenta tion and computer technology can Voids provide a reliable method of locating voids, cracks, honeycomb, and other flaws. The impacteecho technique ‘Alc Vis System Detaminations works by impacting the concrete. Untormity pulse that is reflected from defects and al Couns bck to. ches : (canuduca) The sank ceed se siooraioe areal buoy sper and are displayed on a computer . screen, Artificial inteligence software is Rial used! 10 analyze these signals, predict- ing the probability and depth of de External Geometry hh fects. The system works quickly, taking. Ay, approximately two seconds to process Temparatueniostve cach readng.! Cordon Biting Stess Levels On Computer Signa Display ‘Amalie Receiver impactor Trance g ey ay 4 Ea! A Ci ds DesNeter ase hen ene 85But Two: Concrete Evaluation Section 9: Locating Voids, Cracks, and Honeycomb Physical Condition ‘Air oid Systam Vos Detaminatons| Untoxmiy Loaion’Gondiin of ‘Embodied Melle Cracks pals Exeral Geomeny “Temperaturenoisure Conon Exiting Suess Loves Velocity Mee Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity Methods Pulse velocity is the measurement of the transit time of an ultrasonic pulse between a tcansmitter and a receiver IF the distance between she transmitter and the receiver is known, the velocity of the pulse can be determined (is cance divided by time), In general, the more clese and strong ¢ompressive) the concrete being cesiad, the higher the velocity of the puis, To test concrete, contact between the conerete and the transmitter and foceiver is made with a coupling agent such as a petcoieum jelly, The velocity of sound waves chrough the concrete is retluced by the presence of voids or cracks. ‘Transit velocity i also influenced the presence of reinforcing steel. Ifthe reinforcing steel runs parallel to the ‘wave propagation, the influence of the sel wil be high, thus reducing the ieansit time. Transit velocity for reinfore ing steel will be 12X to 1.9X, as com pared to concrete. There isa correlation between pulse velocity ancl compressive steength, generally + 20 percent, ‘The pulse velocity method! is an excel lent tool rapidly to compare concrete uniomity from one part of the struc. ture to another. Another valuable use Of this technique is the non-destructive evaluation of cracks that have been filled wieh epoxy (epoxy injection). In this case, che transmiater and receiver are fixed at a given distance apa, andl the assembly is placed perpendicular to the crack, where pulse velocity measurements ace taken. Calibration is carvied out in an uncracked section of the concrete, Readings taken along the repaired crack are compated (0 the calibration reading of the uncracked section (fully monolithic). A propedly repaired crack (one that is completely filled wth cured epoxy resin) will dlisplay a transit velocity equal to that Of the uncracked section. The values of this method of quality assurance are speed and the number of tests that can be performed." NCHRP Report 118, Detecting Defects snd Deterioration in Higheay Strocrutes, TAB, 1985, p. 13, Abenaa=- bs Dy, a Sound raves shortest lslanoe. hy cece J ‘Wide crack: no signal received ‘Sound raves through slel faster DA Sound travels around crack, transi ime ; PED IBS Ved aio eck oa vs ard wininocoss art tn Spoor Pe deo bone ee rad lh nwt ne 86 a Tuomeariaten mnSection 10: Locating Voids, Cracks, and Honeycomb : Remote Viewing Inside a Structure Since access to certain parts of struc tures may be limited, remote viewing Viewot ‘may be the only way to inspect these Detect areas, Fiber optics (borescope),vileo ‘cameras, and periscopes are tools that allow for eemote viewing. The fer ‘optics methoc! utilizes a bundle of glass fibers thar transi ight 10 the subject being viewed, Images are then transmitted back to a lens for viewing by eye or camera. With this method, views ate limited t0 small areas, since tiled holes can be as sill as 1/2” (1.27 em) for penetration of the bores: cope. Use of video cameras ancl peri- scopes requires larger died holes and provide a larger viewing area of the subject. However, thete ste now video carieras available with less than 2 (6.08 cm diameter. Sehimciagsgttere 8Part Two: Concrete Evaluation Section 11: Locating Embedded Reinforcing Steel Physical Condition Ae Void Syston Vaiss etaminatons Unfoemity eeatonCondton of Embedded Metais rackets External Gaomety Temperatureoitxe ‘ondian Existing Sess Levels Reinforcing Steet 88 Pachometer Magnetic devices, known as pachome. ters or covermeters, are used 10 deter imine the location of embeded! steel reinforcement in concrete. Ifthe size ‘of reinforcement is known, the amount ‘of concrete cower can be determined. In general, these devices can measure cover to within 1/4" (6 mm) at 9 10 3° 0 t0 75 mm) from the surface. The ‘accuracy of the devices is dependent ‘on the amount of reinforcing steel tha is present in concrete, The more con- ested the reinforcing, inducing multi ple layers, the less accurate the device Inecames. In some eases, when other boars interfere the device cannot identify either location or depth of cover: Calibration of the pachometer is ree- ‘ommended in cases where there Is possible magnetic interference from metallic particles or additives, such as fy ash, in the concrete, Calibration can bbe cone boy excavating the concrete, measuring the actual cover, and aduse- ing dhe pachometer to the acweal measurement. Pachometers are also teiable in tocat- ing post-tension strands when the strands are 0 t0 3° (0 to 75 mm) from the surface. Other devices, such as groundlpene trating radar or x-ray, can be used for locating embedded metals when che pachometer fails t0 provide the neces- savy information. Ground-peneteating radar can be useel for locating reinfore ing steel bars or other non-magnetic metals; honever, xray i the most aceucate method. An x-ray works by photographing che inside of the con- rete in question, showing all embed- ded objects (similar to a chest x19). Xray exposure at each location will {ake 30 minutes or more t0 penetrate the concrete clement. The thicker the mene, the longer the exposuve timeSection 12: Monitoring Movements L External Behavior Moisture Vapor 'ansmission Leakage Thru Structure Detlecions to Service Loads Movements fo Serve! Exposure Conditions «3 tae |e fie | Tempecalure Moning (rack Movement Gage Detection Dial Gage Monitoring movement in structures is important when assessing the behavior ‘of the structure in response to changes in loads, temperature, intemal condi tions, and support at its foundation. ‘The monitoring of cracks ean be condcteel with various tools including optical comparitors, glued glass strips, glued ineplace crack anges, IDDTs (elect cal transducers), ard extensometers ‘Changes in crack widths are generally related to temperature changes, but can also be caused by settlement, creep, and! load-related strains: Expan- siop joint movements can be measuted with hand rulers or dal gauges; how- ‘ever, actual deflection of members is best measured with dial gauges. 89Part Two: Concrete Evaluation Section 13: Bond Strength of Overlays and Coatings: Pull-off Testing Mechanical Properties Compressive Siength ‘Tensile Stength Floral Strength Bond Strength PormsabiyDansy ‘Types of Tensite Breaks A B ©. Substrate Bond Surface Faiure Failure Materia Faiue Devos glued to surface, Tension is appli, Determining the bone! strength of overlays and other surface-boncled materials can be accomplished through in situ testing. One useful in situ testi the pulloff test, which measures the bbond bermeen ro layers. fo this test, @ core is made through the surface layer into the second layer, peoviding an isolated rest location where the pullofF tester can be attached. Once attached the tester generates a tensile force on the core und tensile failure occurs. ‘There are thee types of possible tensile failure: 1, Railure in the substeate layer 2. Separation at the interface between the substrate and the surface layer {bond failure), 3. Failure in the surface layer ‘The testing device can also record the force required to cause failure, which, if divided by the surface area of the specimen, will result in tensile strength (psi). The results of 2 pull-off tes are greatly influenced by aggregate size, core size, the alignment of the device to the surface and the care taken in performing the test, The results are best used in a qualitative review of the band! between materials Oege o * ao ‘Surtach attra Peondtine O O98 ‘Cored Hole through surface Material and into Substrate LaosSection 14: In Situ Compressive Strength: Rebound and Penetration Methods (UA Swiss Hammer Shiri Rebound and penetration methods are ‘used 0 measure che surface hardness ‘of concrete. Since surface hardness is propartional to concrete compressive strength, these strengths can be pre- dicted to within #25 percent. Re- bound methods (Schmidt Hammer or Swiss Hamer) utilize a spring-loaded plunger that impacts the sueface, easing the mechanism to rebound, ‘The rebound is measured and com. pared to the initial extension of the spring, yielding a rebounel nur: Rebound can be affected by the angle (of test, surface smoothness, type of aggregate, carbonation of concrete, and the moisture content. When eval. ating concrete, the rebound method is best used only to measure the general uniformity of conerere and to identify (questionable areas that may require fucther study, Penetration methods! are similar co rebound methods, but use more pow” erful energy to dive a probe into the concrete surface. The Windsor Probe, the most common type of penetration method, drives 2 hardened alloy probe ‘U4 in, (6mm) in diameter into the ‘concrete, using a powder charge, The ‘expased length of the probe is mea suted and is used to determine the compressive strengtt. The accuracy of determining compressive strength is subject to many variables, such as aggregate type. Calibration of the ‘Windsor Probe is best dane by obtain- ing and vesting a concrete core from a sicucture being investigated NCHRP Report #118, andl ASTM C 83 omPart Two: Concrete Evaluation Additional Sources of Information oy Evaluation and Repaic of Concrete Structures, Engineer Manual, EMIL10- ‘Army Corps of Engineers, 1986 Condition Surveys of Concrete Bridge Components—User’s Manual, NCHRP Re- port No. 312, TRB, Washington, DC, 1985, Detecting Detects andl Deterioration in Highsray Stcuctures, NCHRP 118, 1985. ASTM C 823—Standard Practice for Examination and Sampling of Hardened Con- rete in Constructions. ACI 437R—Strength Evaluation of Existing Concrete Buildings “Ameziran Society for Testing and Materials, STP 169-, Significance of Tests anc Propesties of Concrete and) Concrete-Making Materials, 1964, 2002, US. EEStor Kine “NTSPart Three Surface Repair Part Three Sections. Introduction Flow Chart of General Procedures Anatomy of Surface Repaics Section 1: Analysis, Strategy & Design Intociuction to Analysis, Strategy & Design Performance Requirements, Structural Needs ‘Types of Stress Acting on Repairs Performance Requirements, Examples “The Challenge of Placing Loads into Repairs Causciffect Design Error Repair Problem—Analysis and Strategy Additional Sources of Information Section 2: Material Requirements Iniroduction to Material Requirements Selection Process Flow Chart Checklist, User Needs Checklist, Service/Exposure Conditions Checklist, Placement Conditions Establishing Material Properties, Establishing Matcial Properties: Load Carrying Properties Establishing Material Properties: Service/Esposure Properties Establishing Material Properties: Extenal Lozd Properties Establishing Material Properties: Constructbilty & Appearance Properties plume Change Effects: Introduction Yolume Change Effects: Summary of Volume Change Mechanisms 7 98 100 101 102 103 108 105 110 42 14 ns 116 17 ng 19 120 12h we 133 124 125 126 D7 5Part Three Sections, continued Volume Change Effects: Drying Shrinkage Process Volume Change Effects: Selecting Low Shrinkage Maceials Additonal Sources of Information Section 3: Material Selection Introduction to Material Selection Summary of Repait Materials, Repair Material Ingredients Section 4: Surface Preparation Introduction to Surface Preparation General Surface Preparation Procedures Sucface Preparation: Recommended Layout of Surface Repairs Recommended Removal Geometry Removal Methods: Partial Depth Removal Methods: Full Depth Section 5: Reinforcing Steel Cleaning, Repair & Protection Introduction 10 Reinforcing Stee! Cleaning, Repair & Protection General Procedure Reinforcing Stee! Repair Reinforcing Steel Cleaning Reinforcing Stee! Protection Section 6: Bonding Repair Materials to Existing Concrete Introduction to Bonding Repair Materials to Existing Conccete Measuring Bond Strength Evaluating Bone! Strength General Procedures Bonding Agents Additional Sources of Information Section 7: Placement Methods Introduction to Placement Methods Summacy of Methods Dry Packing Form and Castin-Place Form and Pump Grouted Preplaced Aggregate Dry Mix Shoterete ‘Wet Mix Shorcrete Full Depth Repair Overlays Summary of Overlay Materials Hand-Applied Additional Sources of Infoxmation 128 129 BI 132 155 4 136 137 138 159 145 Mg 45 146 “7 445 149 150 151 152 154 155 156 158 160 165 M64 165 166 168 170 m7 me W7 178 181 182 133 184 185Introductionto Part Three Surface repair of conczete has been practiced ever since the frst concrete jlacement. Much has been eae and forgotten over this period. The process was once simple, with few choices for materials and placement techniques. The current practice of surface repair is far more complex than in the past for a number of reasons 2s indicated below. ‘© Hig performance concrete is used! for new construction, (igh strength, lightweight, containing efferent allies), ‘Design practice is more precise. © Concrete is vsed for many applica: tions énvoling aggressive environ- nents ‘© Axmospheric pollution and the use of de-icing salts are more prevalent ‘© Structures are more complex, inchad- ing post-iensioned, precast, and composite ‘© Aiwide variety of epalr materials available For special applications ‘© More placement techniques ave avail. able for repair. The current state of the art techniques for surface repair requires a working knowledge of material testing and evaluation, structural engineering, surface preparation tools ant effec, ‘material properties and behavior, environmental regulations and place ‘ment technology. Accomplishing dara bile, effective repairs is not a sure process. Much can go wrong, there art few redundancies, and many steps clepenc! upon the success of others Building durable and effective surface repairs is an ever-improving process. The following flow chart cltals these imajor steps involved in surface repair: Repair analysis, strategy and cesign ‘© ‘Material selection © Surface preparation © Reinforcing steel cleaning, repair and protection Bonding surface repairs to existing substrate Placement techniques ”Three: Surface Repair Introduction. Flow Chart of General Procedures a sare I sept vine aca scr co io supa sn v vo sting . sn v v ee Tnioesos conte = |-—y seca v ‘Steel Cleaning coe Se coun OT ¢ Bonding New to ‘Steal Repair : y ‘Application of Reinforcing ae sna 98 SHANG arn norAnatomy of Surface Repairs Surface Preparation Repair Deteriorated Surface: Concrete / Steel System Re rpaeee Be / fff Lt a Corodes Pentcng Sel Protection Romfrcn Gar spat Aeinorcng Stee! Ceoiog Conarinatea Contin Concete Sulace Cotinrg Shoes or Carooration Removal af Contaminated Concrete Undereutng of Exposed Reinforcing Stee! — Delamination Edge CondtoningSection 1: Analysis, Strategy & Design ‘The following topics are covered in this section: Introduction to Analysis, Strategy & Design Scructural Needs ‘Types of Swess Acting on Repairs Poifosmance Requirements, Examples ‘The Challenge of Placing Loads into Repairs Causerffect Design Exvor Repair Problem—Analysis and Strategy wo re pes indIntroduction to Analysis, Strategy & Design Evaluation User Needs ‘The proces of solving concrete repair problems includes repair analysis, strategy and design. A comprehensive evaluation mast be conducted, includ ing the scope of both the cause and effect cf the deterioration, The results of the evaluation, together with the twer’s needs or requirements, form the snecessary external information 10 begin the design process. The final design presents a solution based on consicerations of durability, construct: bility and compatiblity with the exist ing structure. Repair Analysis The section, “Surface Repair Analysis, Strategy and Design,” covers the cause/ effect relationship in tepaie design, performance criteria for repair method's and material selection, the structute’s impact on repair effectiveness, and some typical repair design errors. {tis important to note that the scope Of this book precludes a detailed ‘examination of this enormous topic, the discussion offered here is intended {0 provide the reacer with a broad framework to perform the design of a repair project. Repair Strategy Methods / Materials, Usetul Lite ‘Sttucturat Neods Cause 7 L Urgency Eifect of Repair | fon Structure J Effect ost > Cost Construcibilly Seope Technical I Performance Environment Requirements L Aesthetics Safety Repair Protection 101Part Three: Surface Rep: Section 1: Analysis, Strategy & Desi Performance Requirements wo Remar Surface deterioration problems are ee a diverse in nature. ach concition a requires a clear understanding of what is expected of the repait. Thice gen- eal performance requirements are protection, appearance, and load carrying. The process of repair analy- sis is to cletermine the exact function oye vo rete of the repair so thar necessaty proper: soe ‘ i" ties of the repair material can be specified. en = r ve) a “i T ¥ Swlace Repair ve ves Proecowhapearance oad Cnyng (Cosmetic Son (Strata) | v | | ¥ | eat eae Wear Restart ie Inpact Dead Unwanted Loads toads Loads Enivcnment 1 tee pamStructural Needs A-concrete surface repair must replace damaged concrete, restore requited structural function, protect itself and possibly underlying concrete from aggressive environments, and restore any lost user performance requirements Its important to analyze all possible stresses in the repair material and at the interface between the repair and the existing substrate, Stresses in the repair are generated by relative volume changes between the repair and the existing conctete substrate, and by service loads carried by the repair. Suresses in the repair must be within the capacity of the new and existing materials. Otherwise, failure may occur Jn many situations it i difficult to achieve the stress-carrying function of the surface repair. Where a significant ‘To recteate the original load dlstabu tion, fall load relief must be provided ‘uring the surface cepair process Repait material must be installed, cated, and after the material reaches the specified strength, loads would be allow! on the member. Load relief from members is typically provided with temporary shoring and jacking, Relative volume changes caused by drying shrinkage of the new material place the repair into tension (assuming the repaic material is restrained ftom shrinkage by the bond beeween the repair matevial and the existing con- crete). In most applications, the desir- able condition is to have the repair in a compressive state so that compres- sive loads can be carried. This topic is ciscussed in more detail in the follow. amount of material in the compression ing sections NY zone has been lost, loads vedistebute themselves around the damaged #22. Noving Loads Live Loads < € ) Thermal Loading 1 Slab coum {eternal Loads Shnkage Loads Overy Stab On Grade 105Part Three: Surface Repair_Section 1: Analysis, Strategy & Design ‘Types of Stress Acting on Repairs = Compesite Ovettay — tl Setleent New -] OW Shear Bond r ‘ ESTEE] sirohage o« Thema tees t ‘Owverlay’ Upltt «4 Tense Bond ‘ab Duero Temperate oc Shrinkage Btects Uneven Flexural Bond i" Checklist of Possible Fortes Acting on a | ion) tm Tensie the Repate! # Steuctural Fees (ternal) * Static Concentrated! Loads (External) Moving Loals (Horizontal and Vertical) # Impact Loads # Temperature Expansion # Temperature Cortraction ‘Shear ‘Thermal Shack Expansion ‘Thermal Shock Contraction Internal Moisture Expansion Invernal Moisture Conwaetion — ct compressa 4 Concenttate Strain (Reflective Cracking) ach of the above forees can act aS one ‘0 in combination. The orientation of the force and the configuration of the repair will dictate che type of stress ‘acting on the repair. Sore typical stress configurations are detailed in the fol- Flexural Jowing figures plum, DA, Mateials—How to Seer, Con- struction Mainenance and Repair, November) December 199, England, pp. 27-30. 104 WSR Re, aaPerformance Requirements Examples / Column Surlace rept addresses ‘deop spaling in negative moment avea of connection al pons o high sheer stress, Ropair Primary Repair Portormance +) Suatogy Requirements (refer to cn flow chart) 1. Sura repairs are required ees tocar shards f 2 Prod enssedesie ‘scene wit ree <— {toss arto 6. roe erp —— ‘embedded reinforcement amar Repair Parormance Requirements .n 1. Siriaecopair must ‘8 ale ck es from the beam ino the | ‘alumna surac pao copa ssresses racking reseg fom leona See corosen cote or Naeagaeegnt ge 105Part Three: Surface Repal ion 1. Analysis, Strategy & Design Performance Requirements Examples, continued Railing Repair Performance Requirements 1. Provide for protection of ‘imbedded reintorcement. 2, Aesthetically pleasing 3, Willrot come eese. from substrate (Bee Tow chart for umber reference.) Eameel ops [gf Fepar ] —— Surtace repair ras Stay caries na fs) structural loads Te ‘Cantilever Baloony Skat ' es La = ——— sutace opi aes coon tee | he 8 | spaling ard repair ot Site rae Fepair Performance Requirements attachment, (See fow cat x number lrense) vnuas 1. Provide for | pocctonel bavoate | enorme fanetcly pecs Tinto ese vomsustle ie sretolots ronalg 980 Surface ropa wl carry stuctural loads ‘associaled with raling anctorages and applied ive lads 106I stess lovin remaining ‘concrete is acceptable, Column ~—— ..then surtace ceparis not required to cary ‘stuctural lon \remnining oss sections overstiassed Column shen sutace repairs are recuird to cary ‘aporion ofthe stucura loads Prinery Repair Performance Requirements 1. Provides for protection of embeded ‘eiorcoment 2. Aestnaticaly pleasing 3. Witnot come loose. from substrate Refer to low chart for number references, ‘Evauate eet, ol Siategy Cae] 4 joe) oF] ee 2 ee) ee Primary Repair Performance Requirements 1. Provides fo protection of embedded ‘einfrcoment. ‘estietcaly pleasing, 3. Wil not come loose trom substate 4. Wi cary a potion of ‘comoressive loads. Reler lo low char for umber references.Pact Three: Surface Repa Section I: Analysis, St The Challenge of Placing Loads into Repairs Repair Repair vate [af Pepa as [vs] yf = —— PEE Column Repair Columns carry compressive loads. AMtet surface deterioration, comptes sive foals within the column are reds twibuted around the affected area, imereasing the stress level in the re- maining cross-section. A surface repait will not cary is share of stress unless the compressive loads are removed from the column during repair opera tions, Another factor that affects the ability ofthe cepair to carry the e* pected proportion ofthe load, i dying shrinkage of the repair material Drying shrinkage reduces the volume Of repair material relative to the exist ing conerete, and as a test, the surface repair is not filing the origi nally prepared space, Excessive eying shvinkage is evident when tension cracking appeats on the surface of the repair. Ths topic is discussed in more etal in the section, “Surface Repair Material Requirerients.” i Shear Bond Stess igh stoss 108 Levels in reas ‘whore Loads Are | Not Redistibuted tothe Repai. — Drying shrinkage btepair material reduces abiiy to cary compressive loads. Eventual al the load is cated bythe core coneel \ahich may become oversee, Procedure for placing foads in repair materials 1. Remove loads from member by appropriate shoring and jacking ‘during repair procedure and matu- rity of repair materials, 2, Select extremely low drying shrink- age repair materials See note) 3. Select repaic materials wth low ‘creep values over anticipated envi ronmental conditions 4, Select repaic materials with a come patible stress-strain (B) relationship to the existing concrete, Nove: IF che repair material has drying shrinkage of 500 microstrans, ic will take an additional compressive strain ‘of 500 microstrains in the member to begin the process of making the repair load carryingSianate | —a] Pepa } Sts | Beam Member may detect Stresses redsribu column Repair doesnot parizipate in lead sheving le around delerocated area. Ss o> SaaS rs ‘Shoring nd Jacking of Member Load reel dung repair operation may erable the repaie material to cary is share of stress. Aeinforcing stel caries most of loads inthe tension zones. Stress Distribution in. Flexural Members Compression Zone Deterioration in compression zones of flexural members results in vedistribu- tion of siress to the remaining sound ‘concrete section, Significant section loss may result in overstvess and exces- sive deflection. Removal of toads ducing cepair operations allows the repair to carry the expected propor tion of the load. Stress Distribution in Flexural Member's Tension Zone Deterioration in tension zones of flexural members exposes tensile sel reinforcement. Most, if not al, eension is carted by the reinforcing steel. Toads clo not usualy relisuibute around the deteriorated area unless the tension steel has lost cross-section in the corrosion process. I the steel has lost section, excessive detections ‘nay resuit, Duting the repair process, relief of tension Joads is desirable and is usually accomplished! by temporary support ofthe affected member. Active shoring Ghoring that cartes the acting ‘dead an lve loads of the member) will allow for cepair of damaged rein- forcing bars ata low stcess level, Ater completion of repairs and removal of shoring the tepaived bary wail be able to carry the original loads 109Fart Three: Surface Repair Section 1: Analysis, Strategy & Design Cause/Effect Design Error Repair of Surface Freeze-Thaw Deterioration Without Removing the Cause Freeze-thavw damage to concrete sur faces is common. The effec is suiface disintegeation; the cause is water saturation of the porous concrete matrix and freeze-thaw cycles, A.common problent found with repair of freeze-thaw dantaged concrete where the source of moisture is fom ‘within the member, is contiaued disintegration behind the surface repait. Internal sources of moisture are typically found in structures such as retaining wall, dawnstceam faces of dams, lock alls, and water cetaining tanks. Water under a pressure head ‘vill attempt 0 follow a path co a lower pressure head, Paths are found Abrough cracks, construction joints, expansion joints, and in some cases, porous concrete. Conerete adjacent 10 a water path may become saturated ear Bear Brave }——e) grays | —P]Stalegy [|] Let SS ee Spt ea 10 (en with water and, upon freezing, may disintegrate. Surface repairs that do sot stop the internal Flow of water into conerete are susceptible «0 freeze-thaw damage ané may have a short life because of the continued freeze-thaw dlisintegration behind the surface repair. In some cases the disintegea tion process is accelerated because wf the damming effect of the surface repait on the free Row of water mov ing through the structure, When this condition exists, intemal water flow should be cut off via grout= ing, extemal waterproofing techniques ‘or drainage systems that route the flow cof water through the structure. Other techniques utilize deep surface repaics, that place the bond line below the frost lineCrack in Mernber Allows Water To Flow Through Surface concrete absorbs water ‘andi becomes saturated . racetion 6 | ww Disintegration ol The ‘Surlaoe Surface Repai is Instaled Without Adsrossig The Water Leakage Wiater tow dams up behind rele Freaze Thaw Cisiteraton Continuts Behr The | Sunestops an Sy pv Accelerated Rate m4Past Three: Surface Rey Repair Problem Section 1: Analysis, Strategy & Design cone Lo eee Eat Anais Strategy ve 3 3 tex} Ge es ec cause Pinay] [Bendy Pinay Seana Crag iia Renoreng cates Stee | [Delaninaton From Trang Coresion Peat Sas Spang Taste Bar Cover High Permeaiiy ‘concrle Rept Sonton Provolive Matarenco Surtace Repair ¥Y ¥ Y tucimiza Ch] [nize Moise Prevent om nto motte reat ab Fou nt sab cemtoson y t v v en ack overay| | mtrane | | [220] [Sean chore Catnose] [Coating fara | Set ae] [es 1 Analysis Example: A parking structure has spalling at the traffic surface of a castin-place flat slab It is decided that an in-depth evaluation of the slab souk! be performed! to assess both the problem (effect) and the cause The cause of concrete distress needs to be known so areas of the deck not yet affected can be conwolled with preventive maintenance protective strategies (if owner so desires). The ‘lelaminated areas are located by chain ‘lrag, corrosion activity is evaluated by half cell anc! chloride ion content testing, The technical clocumentasion, deck maintenance and use records, and results ofthe testing provide the information needed to determine the cause of concrete detetioration. Cho ride ion content at the reinforcement level is found ia excess of the level required for corresion activity when moisture and oxygen are present, It is also found that spalling is limited to areas where reinforcing steel does not hhave an adequate concrete cover Additional laboratory testing indicates, that slab concrete is highiy permeable ancl subject to progressive chiorice penetration under current conditions In this example, itis determined that the cause of concrete distress paling and cletamination) is chloride contami- nation, which caused corrosion of reinforcing steel. A secondary cause is inadegeate cover of very permenble conctete. Only after the cause and effect are evaluated, can a durable repair program be designed. the repair program require only veplace- rent of spalled and delamninated. concrete with repair material, without considerations of inadequate concrete cover, chloride intcusion, et, the repair will be a shore term seu >emtoany i ein aeteo -hngrsuodsoa aunsso wonssioud 0s Busosofuras pun rojas arodoa poounque 94) exnpof wodp “aanptof pun wonnoraud ‘iessooeu sopmoud Butro09 sou.aog Kuswuted ogy, sopoupunpas ory sayoruy «Bans S14, (uaisis aamaaid pax BuEIOWNO! eg aogns wo Humans ‘aueIquaW ‘yeas aunaoioxd aoe @ puff ayy ueyp Aen sayy Aquedguiis eyo joew sedon paouoyD 208g & ¢ Sareng soupuanspw sypovied amb Kost waists si, uonoIoad Bpracud ype -eiput anode poounguea qs us yynsoe js sazccog ogy Jo aunyynf iy azo aq) or pando ways Sayan sayetng Cacniid b gna tuopunpax 51 ways aodac a ans uo @uoeD> ‘auenquia ‘2298 anpa2y0K ane @ reuse ap uray Aypnb soySiy ipueyuisw yo eure sedar pooueyss 230d & + saves sGanqvawead aompas seq sounyxnupe pun sappy fo asn ag agony sjouaivu anodes panungug ‘uoyrajoud jo apracud 0} uated wos agp “fo dayionso94 uo sou wuayss ag, Sountwef ravpunpas ou soy wawsts rodea 94, jeu aan ung: sayy Auesguls Aen eyo yeuanew tedas pooueyun aoe. « ¢ ASaeatg popiaaud 5101s Say2vojeyas agt oF uotDor0Ud ouomypn Ssw.0 ogy Buipuy fo aygexto9 pum suaworsoj 93 wersts anyoeraut aga ff ouuanairn >ypouad ait vac doiu ABoqoasssiqy, power oda agy Bunyroqu0 waif orp doy jp Bunvoo ayy, Buyooo pando aonfans v Bugajoass ‘wanpunpa st ways ayode 94, “aqjns uo Bueos ‘ouEAqDU Yop IDyNS MISO AI Suusx> ump snag J0yBhy reyaws Ayent v Jo yeumrew slay gEINP ZL z Afovens cnopysoraud Kaneda aptaad 0 warsts aayaoraud jars reowosofites aq Suanbas‘aooyd ager ou po}opou yoda agg fo wooujwmsuod jooruagD ‘sus / ‘ if pouiad 9 sano ron patunssn st 1 agamory ‘nenpunpad st ways arodas 244, @iwarsis aumparond paors BumrOHUD eg Sunigoct ryt Zana rayaaUIOS Aen v yo youre med MEIN ae] 1 ABorens Suyjeds power pue vorsou0a Sursmey ‘joors BumIoqUias aR YEN Yt sfeonurayD pry avepmns ay/Oaut SuON ‘pion aansodxayaDicios tous Seay doejans ajqemp apisaid 2 saySanes aaty / ia y sasorengPare Three: Swiface Re Additional Sources of Information m4 Johnson, S.M., Deterioration, Maintenance and Repair of Structures, McGraw-Hill Book Co., New York, 1965. Evaluation and Repair of Concrete Structures, Engineee Manual EM 1110-2.2002, US. Army Corps of Engineers, 1986,Section 2: Material Requirements ‘The following topics are covered in this section Intcoduction to Matevial Requirements Selection Process Flow Chart Cheeks, User Needs Checklist, Serviee/Exposure Conditions ‘Checklist, Placement Conditions Establishing Material Properties Establishing Material Properties; Lond Careying Properties Establishing Matevial Properies Service/Exposure Properties Establishing Material Properties: Exter- nal Load Properties Establishing Material Properties, Consteuetiilty & Appearance Properties Volume Change Effects: Introduction Volume Change Effects: Summary of Volume Change Mechanisms Volume Change Effects: Deving Shrinkage Process Desired Properties Volume Change Fifects: Selecting Low Shrinkage Materials Adcltional Sources of Information 15Part Three: Surface Rey jt_Section 2: Maverial Requirements Introduction to Materials Requirements Establishing Criteria for Surface Repair Materials Selecting repair materials for surface repair is an important andl complex process involving an underseanding of ‘what is required of the repair by the ‘owner (user) ancl engineer, service and exposure conditions, and instalation technique. After requirements are ‘established and maverial properties are defined, the selection of specific mate- rials can be made, [n some instances, more ian one material or system of snarerials will satisty the established ‘requirements, Fival selection of aateri- als is made based on the relationship becwcen cost, performance and risk Selecting cepair materials requires an ‘unidetstanding of matevial behavior in the uncured and cured states in the antiipated service and exposure conditions. One of the greatest chal lenges facing the successful pexfor- mance of repair materials is their dimensional behavior relative (0 the substrate. Relative dimensional changes ‘cause intemal stresses within the repair material and within the sub- strate, High internal stresses may result in tension cracks, los of load. carrying capability, delamination o deterioration, Particular attention is required to minimize these stresses and co select materials that propedy ackiress relative dimensional behavior Anather difficult challenge is selecting surface repair macerials for structural dload-carying) applications. Many ‘would like the new repair material to assume the stress level which existed ‘originally, There ate two obstacles t0 achieving, 100% repair efficiency (Cepair efficiency = amount of seress carried by repair as compared to original ‘concrete stress level) First, how is the repair material loaled initially? Are loads removed from the structure cting cepa? Second, how will the dimensional behavior relative 0 the substrate affect the repair's stress level? {tis unlikely that one will Find mater als that fill the repair cavity completely, do not shrink during cure, and behave in the same way as the substrate when subjected to loads, temperature and moisture change. Selecting materials is 4 job of compromise!Selection Process Flow Chart A Material Selection Process What are the pestomanoe requirements? ‘What wil be the service and exposure conditions? “ana What are the nalysis load canrying requirements? ‘What wil be the operating condtions using placement anc cure? asthe orginal cause of deterioration been caressed? iL Repsie Stalegy y \ ‘Wat properties ae requis to meet the conditions and requiaments? ¥ hat materials oF systems it Provide the required propertis? a ‘Choose material! system wth ‘opfinum cost performance risk : ae requred for Pacement? uyPatt Three: Surface Repair Section 2: Material Requirements Checklist, User Needs Material Selection Process What is the required appearance? Yes No Comments Repaie hidden Repair visble Crack free Surface texwwre fie ania ep 18 How will the repair work interfere with the use of structure? ‘Turn around time What is expected life of repair? How long Maintenance interval What is tolerance for a repair failure? ‘Type of fukire— Dienicking D disintegration Oi delamination (1 separation fect of failure on a injury Effect of falure on process interruption Effect of failure on structural pecformance Bffect of failure on environmentChecklist, Service/Exposure Conditions ‘What are the load carrying requirements? Live loads and design section. What will be the service/exposure conditions surrounding the material? pepe als ‘hans ats? ‘ten oorren BEE Ene Sine epson as ‘Type ‘Atmospheric ses Concenteation Duration o%s ON Frequency TH Chemicals | tee _ in contact Concentration Duration ves No Frequency UV exposure oration Yes No | Rrequen Moiswure Duration conditions Dyes Om | Frequency Operating Range Temperauure Dwation Dyes DN Frequency Freeze-Thaw Cycles Ges [ON | Comment Wheel External Pedestal loading, Sac ves ON — | impace Liquids static Liquids — moving 19Part Three: Surface Repair Section 2: Material Requirements Checklist, Placement Conditions What will be the operating conditions during placement and curing? 120 — ba Naneeses” | Access: seer a Wind Wind velocity voene Substtate 5 ‘Temperature Surrounding environment Substrate Moiscare Environment eee Tum-around time ‘Srhiowar Vileations Loading J Deflection l What is chosen placement technique? “San What characteristics are required for placement? oa ca Flowabilty Non-sag Set tine ‘What is geometric configuration of repair? Bposed sure sea ‘Thickness of repair Size of exposed reinforcing barsieot Spacing of enfowing bass Clearance berween reinfore and substrate ig bacs Clearance between reinforcing bars ancl exposed surfaceEstablishing Material Properties Material Selection Process =F mss = teed corning ‘sin Ss ay ane = a Se ‘acanet? pa oo ay Light (UV) Gaset sano Expocue Temperature | Conditions ime Selecting repair materials that will successfully perform under anticipated service and exposure conditions re ‘quites an understanding of how the service and exposure conditions affect the repaired member (acv’ repair material, bond, substrate). For each service/exposuce condition, @ response {an effet) is generated. The response ‘ay occur at different levels (locations) within the repaired! member, including the surface, repair material, reinforcing steel, bond interface and the substrate Example 1: Condition: Calcium chlo- ride and moisture deposited on sur Face, Response: Surface of repair is subjected to chloride. Over time, the cilodce will penetrate to the level of teinforcement; costosion will res Level of influence — Surface attests Bxample 2: Condition: Steel wheel load travels over repaired joint nosing Response: Surface of repair is sub- jected to impact loarhing (local crush: ing at comer); repair material transfers load to bond line at substrate. (Bond is sessed celamination may occur.) Understancing the repair material's response to a given service/exposure condition helps in determining re- quired material properties (ox a suc- cessful repair program. ‘The following pages outline particular structural (load-carrying), serviceexposure, constructibilty, and appearance condi tions typical to many repair situations. The following tables present positive and negative properties to be consid ered in the selection of a successful repair material — Repair Material atoots j-— Reinforcing affects — Interface affects ‘Substrate affects 7 Repair Materia! Sesh Esrethepatiare sa Interface NewiOld — existing ‘Suostrale 121Pact Tiwee: Surface Repaiv_Section 2: Material Requirements Establishing Materials Properties Load-Carrying Properties Goal Results if the wrong material is selected Look for these Avoid these! (performance (undesirable response) properties requirements) Bond to substrate Loss of bond, Tensile bond, low High internal stress delamination, ingernal stress caused by then detachment of incompatibility, drying repair from shrinkage sulbsteate Load carrying as Does not camry Equal modulus of — | Low or high modulus intended by the loacis as anticipated, | elasticity with of elasticity compared ‘engineer ovesstressing either’ | substrate to substate substeate or repair material Carries loads Extremely low High compression initially, but over compression creep | creep time, the repair relaxes under creep deformation Drying sbrinkage | Extremely low Shrinkage® causes material Se4_, lose volume, 1 reducing its abilicy tocar) compressive loads drying shrinkage Refer q0 Wolume Change Elects induded a the end ofthis section.Service/Exposure Properties Goal Results if the wrong material is selected Look for these Avoid these! (performance (undesirable response) properties ‘quirements Temperature — og a Shrinkage stresses | Equal thermal Unequal thermal changes [C7 aause cracking in | cocfficien to coefficient to repair material. ‘substrate* substrate ¢ i = Compressive Equal thermal ‘Unequal thermal t | °) Ry sc toeficearto | coeticen 0 ‘substrare causing — | substrate* substeate spaking, ‘Temperature c Shrinkage stresses | Lov exotherm High exotherm changes in repair in repair maverial | during placement | during placement material during causing cracking. and cure and cure placement ‘Atmospheric gaes | Maoure Cone Tow permaily | High perme conditions reinforcing steel, ‘at surface or cacking in repair By tisiteptie | xemay 90 | mater cement at, | ac Chemical contact Moisture Corrode Low permeability, High permeability, conditions KS, teinforcing stecl at surface or cracking in repair i internally no cracks | material Disincegrate. Chemical resistance | Lack of chemical cement matrix to substance at surface or internally resistance UV exposure ‘Change in mechan: ical properties oF High UV resistance ar surface low UV resistance repair material, changes to modu- lus of elasticity Moisture Freeze thawy fj « Dissintegration of | ow permezbiluy | High permeability conditions, oycles 64 Ym cement matrix at surface or saturation internally, Moisture Changes in Shrinkage steesses, | Low permeability, | High permeability, conditions inteenal & | using cracking. | low drying high drying moisture 4 shrinkage* sheinkage® Refer to volume change afecs i Se ShRamrenspaag cluded at the end of this section 103Part Three: Surface Repair Section 2: Maverial Requirements Establishing Material Properties External Loads/Properties Goal, Results if the wrong material is selected | Look for these Avoid these! (performance (undesirable response) properties requirements) Moving liquids Erosion of surface High densiey Low density Bigh compressive | Low compressive High tensile Low tensile Moving liquids and High density Low density suspended solids High compressive | Low compressive Erosion and abrasion of surfaces High tensile Low tensile Vehicle wheels Abrasion | High density high | Low” density, low damage to | compressive compressive strength surface strength Edge High compressive, | Low compressive, spalling tensile and bead’ | tensile and bond at joints | strength, tensile sssength anchorage neo substrate Impact Spalling | High tensile Low tensile strength strength, internal tensile reinforcement ‘High compressive | Low compressive strength strength Low modulus of High moduls of elasticicy elasticity Loss of High boncl strength, | Low bond stvength nord tensile anchorage into substrate 124 SIEConstructibility & Appearance Properties Goal (performance requirements) Look for these properties Avoid these? Constructibility Turns Rapial steength gain | Slow strength gain around tine Flowability igh stamp Low sump Smal aggtegate, Large aggregate, fines, round shape | angular shape, lak of fines Non sag High internal {ow intemal cohesion, cohesion, high low adhesive grip adhesive gtip Forgiving Simple formulation, | Complex formulation, teclundant dependent reactions “Murphy's Law” Goal Results if the wrong material is selected | Look for these Avoid these! (performance (undesirable response) properties requirements) Appearance Cracking of surface | Low drying dying from drying. shrinkage,* fenble | shrinkage shrinkage surface membrane CRACKS ca Cracking of surface | Low exotherm High exorhern in plastic stage Sow surface water Joss during, placement High surface water loss curing placement “Refer fo volume change affects included at the end of this section, SSMS St gesPart Three: Surface Reprir_ Section 2: Material Requirements Volume Change Effects ‘Surface Repair Material Noses Introduction One of the greatest challenges in the selection of repair materials is mi. Gaining their relative dimensienal compatibiliy with the substrate. Moisture-relaced volume changes in repair materials (ying shrinkage) cause many repaie failures: shrinkage cracking, delamination, loss of load carrying capacity, corrosion of imbye dled reinforcing steel, and poor appcar- ance Selection of repair macerials with tinimal drying shrinkage is cxtical for lurable repairs. Selecting repair materials with minimal drying shrinkage requires an uncle standing of the drying shrinkage pro- cess, Most repair materials that are mixed and placed have an excessive amount of water above that which is required for hydration. 4s the repair is allowed to dry out and assume the hhuiniclty of the surrouncling enviton- ment, the matesal shrinks ih volume ancl tensile stress begins (0 accumulate in the repair material, Wet curing of ‘cementitious materials will postpone the start ofthe drying process, ancl may cause slight expansion. The repair material resists cracking until the stress exceeds its tensile capacity (Fefer 10 accompanying illustration of the drying shrinkage process) Drying shrinkage of repair materials affects dimensional slab. Bond With Substrate Load Carrying Capabity Duratlty To Service Conditions ¥ : CConstrctity| 126 %, NN, Possible results if excessive ‘shrinkage stess ooours: + Gracin, Spating + Delamination + Comtsion of inbedded Reinforcing Steet, + Loss of Load Carrying Capacity + Poor Appearance pg remesencn an nceSummary of Volume Change Mechanisms New {n) a, Thermal a” Coeticiont oid (0) © of Expansion (a) Given a temperature change evenly distibued Through the material, the folowing stresses wil cceur aocording to the relationship ofthe Theimal Cofcients ofthe new and old mates, Modulus Of a Elasticity (E) Given an evenly distributed load, th folowing stesses wil cecur according fo the rolaionship the Modulus of lasiciy ofthe new and od materials, ny No stess occurs. ‘Shear bond i sessed. No stess occurs. oe, Selecting Low Shrinkage eq -———————————+--—-———" Materials =p om ‘i ap ss ge Pan Ioreased Tendency to rack Shrinkage test ess, Abrta Concrete Patch Evaluation Program, Report No. ABTRIROIAR-87405 Aggregatet Cement Ratio Water/Cement Ratio ‘Shuinkage aller 160 dey in RHSO', 21°C, $*squere cross-section, ‘Sourco: Loa, PM. Tho Chemistry of Cement and Cancrete, tia econ, Edward Amold (publishers) Lt, 1970) 130 | sitios eaosteagy Ho Sage Ny —_ Meme Seann ___gjg____tanins content. Process for Scwening Repair Matetials for Low Drying Shrinkage “Select materials which demonsteate dying shrinkage clase to 0.00%, Mate rials in the low category, D t0 0.05%, Ihave less risk of cracking than materi- als in the moderate category, 0.05% to 0.10%. Avoid materials above 0.10%, ‘unless special conditions exist Recommendations for Rechicing Deving, | _Shriniage of Surface Repait Materials: | ¢ Gsemiaes with maximum agreate + Ube clean, sound aggregates Use aggregate size 2 large as pric ESE SEB BBB IB ceteris enpermre mixes ‘© Use minimum required cement con tents to meet steength requirements ‘© Lise proper wet curing techniques that provide reduced eam shrinkage. * Use placement techniques that allow for optimum aggregate loadings Size and amount ‘The table at left shows the effects of vasious watentcement/aggregate ratios oon shrinkage. High Strinkage Moderate Shrinkage Lon ShrinkageAdditional Sources of Information ACI 2008-2, Prediction of Creep, Sh Structures. Warmer, J. Selecting Repair Materials, Concrete Construction, Vol. 29, No, 10, Oct. 1984, pp. 865-871 Plum, DR, The Behavior of Polymer Materials in Concrete Repair, and Factors Influencing Selection, The Structural Engineer, England, Sept. 1990, pp. 337-345 Mays, G. and Wilkenson, W, Polymer Repairs to Concrete: Their Influence on Structural Performance, Katherine and Bryant Mather International Conference on Concrete Durability, ACT SP-100, Vol. 1, 1987, pp. 351-376. kage and Temperature Hfects in Concrete 131Section 3: Material Selection 132 “Towee: Surface Repair_Section 3: M election ‘The following topics are covered in this section: Inrodiesion to Material Selection Summary of Repats Macecials Repaic Material IngredientsIntroduction to Material Selection Process Material Selection ‘What are the Wat willbe tha} ser service and perfomance exposure requirements? 1B er Cement Concrete coment “ Airentr, 30 Tdays inex ihe Portland Cement Poston ae 125, we Concrete 30 lays Palmer Modi ela na Teun Corentnocar | Tethad | MEE | set wanton imepeson Mapp som shee PapateCemene | phe 230) Sin Concrete cement 1 2 days Prepedagente | ford ies wi 40 oo ver Concrete cement Paral Fluidifier > 76 S32 T days the Epoxy Mona Bpowy en 12-03 she Methyimethacryate ‘erylc resin 025-050 Lin (MMA) Conerere ry 06-13 6 be. Weer ronan rece 30 ver Shorerete cement Powzolans acceler 13 Tdays: ince BEMaterial Properties Coeft, of Perme- ° | Ther: Compressive Strength ability | Freeze Drying | _ mal Elastic | (Con- | Thaw Shrink | Expan- Modulus | crete = | Resis- | Non-Sag | Exo- age | sion | 1H. | 1 Day | 3 Days | 28 Days 10) | tance | Quality | therm | Comments Bul 0 renee || 9 | > | owt Jotee| tow state Equal to ow |B} og | 9 | coat | ww J tan strate 5 Equi som | 4000 | 7500 | 4xro® 6 tow J ee] 9 | aor | as | su |zaxor | © | Oot ‘ow Compat. 6000 | 2.5% 106 tow | wb sono |2sei | 5 escent] NA | Low Compt vteme | 0 5 | eck | een [nine state 103 Bylo | ay 5 wo | Gio sin [32x10 vidoe | OMb | ap) HOO |ARAE | 5 | catem| low | ign | ACL 308R-25 Equal to 54 6 - so | 250 | ss |aaxr0 5 / veri |b] oo | | 2D | SD Be | | coed | xx | tow | acise wow | 155) awe ]22xi0t | 1 | pcotem | eae] High | “protiansin cone wr | 5x nm Movers confined ae rate | 5-9) | S000] 42000 rao [33x08 sel Moderate | concr 76 827 B27 | 2x 10% ' Excel “A High ‘Equal to 800, 3500 5000 | 38x 108 Modente |" sb) Sy | | BR RR | s |) Good | na | tow | act soor-s0 “Dey shila: Low <005% te The matt popertes shown inthis Modeste O0SK-010% abe vary Hom mansBcuter to manda High >010% av ae shown fo eomparsonpuposes only Sethdamessairatea ahem 155Part Three: Sutfa ye Rep lion 3; Material Selection. Repair Material Ingredients Ingredient Description Benefit ‘The binder is glue that binds all fillers ancl aggregates together to form a composite material, Binder maierals include: Pottand cement, ‘other tiydrauic cements, epoxy, acrylics, Portland cements are used for most eneral repair Wotk, Polymer macerials sueh as epoxy and acrylics are used for special applications requiring chemical resistance, oF very thin applications. Fine Aggregate Aggregates are used to reduce binder | Fine agaregates properly graded! reduce volume and enhance mechanical binder conten: and shrinkage. Special properties. Fine aggregates may be | aggregates can be used (0 improve used! without the addition af large | abrasion resistance. The shape of aggregates, ngregates affects how well the material ‘ean be compacted and Finished when used with trowels. Coarse Aggregate Coarse aggregates more efficiently | Coarse aggregates reduce drying SECS GIRS PO reduce overall binder volume than. fine aggregates ancl enhance general ‘mechanical properties. sinrinkage. Special aggregates are used to enhance abrasion resistance, Special Fillers Special fillers fil in spaces left by the | Microsiica increases the steengih and : fing and coarse aggregaces. Some reduces permeability filets (flyash, microsiica) replace some af the cement requived. Fillers are ako wsed to impeove incr Cohesion Polymer Modifiers Polymer modifiers are used (0 ‘Some polymers enhance the properties enhance progertes ofthe rept of the epar mater Latex suse nari. Latex (SBR) the most reduce pemeabty and increase bon common, Other modifiers include strength with the substrate, and reduce acrylic, PVA and epoxy emulsions, ‘modulus of elascicity. Fiber Reinforcement Phatic or steel fiber reinforcement is | Fiber reinforcement provides contrel of PAULING fe of | Sei oats sueneh ant shrinkage cracking Stel and in some CH PE ME LL a impact ane abrasion, Misc. Chemical Modifiers ‘Miscellaneous modifiers are used to Use of modifiers allows control of some Repair Material SWgegmrrasuceon vac PERE PRD OTT 5D,09 Ue Sa SS Sb, enhance and mocify behavior of the repait material They include: accel erator, cetarders, shrinkage-com pensaing alive, water reducers, lowabiliy agenss, expanding agents, and airenuraining adnestures. “The repair maerial isa blend of binders, aggregates, fillers, and ‘enhancers optimizing effectiveness, consuructbilty durabaity, and predictably jn properties of the uncured and cure materia, Material design should be kept simple. Dost se more ingredients than necessary. Hae complex materials generally cause moze problems. 136Section 4: Surface Preparation The following topics are covered in this section: Introduction to Surface Preparation General Surface Pre Proceclures Surface Preparation: When Oxidized Reinforcement Is Encountered Recommenced Layout of Sucfare Repairs Recommended Removal ration jeometty Remewal Methods: Partial Depth Removal Methods: Full Depth 1B?Part Three: Surface Repair_ Section 4: Surface Preparation Introduction to Surface Preparation Cas Surface repair ines the process of The quality of surface preparation may ate conditioning the existing concrete 10 be best addessed in conjunction with receive repait materials. Conditioning the in-place repair materia Evaluation ‘pa ar is required to remove deteriorated, of the complete system (substrate! contaminated, or damaged concrete 10 interface/tepair material) can be ac provide surfaces that wil promote complished by direct tension (uniaxial) honding ofthe repair materials. The pull esting, Peformance ean be surface preparation process is one of evaluated qualitatively based! on the the most critical phases of site work. location of the breaking surface ancl Without proper understanding and quantitatively by measuring the tension care, the necessary requirements will stress a failure, This procedure is most likely not be met cussed in the Section, "Bonding Many techniques are available to per. Repair Marerials o Bxisting Concrete.” form various aspects of concrete te- The Section, “Surface Preparation,” moval and cleaning, Each metho! fas adresses such copies as general re —— creas | specie ackantages and limitations. moval, edge conditioning, undercut Ser Much of the removal work is sll done cing of bars, and surface conditioning condos > by small hand-held chipping hammers Emphasis is placed on surfaces involv (15# class) because oftheir mobility ing corcodest reinforcement PERSE ] and versatility. New technology is, £ = hhowever, conrinuously being devel teow] |[ meee] oped. Hydrodeinolition and hydromil a5 paimion | ing are two of the latest methods. iting | LT se 1338 Seeman temsGeneral Surface Preparation Procedure Step 1 Locate area 10 be repaired (Gee "Con. crete Evaluation”). Hammer sounding ‘or chain drag ate used when locating delamination, Design and install tem. porary support system ptior to any concrete removals. Step 2 Remove deteriorated concrete using acceptable methods. When embedded steel is encountered, follow recom- inenclations on following pages. Under. cutting of exposed bars is critical to Jong term success of swwface repairs. Bars which are damaged by the re moval operation or have a significant section Joss may requize repair Step 3 Prepare surface repalt boundaries to prevent feather exiged conditions. Geometry of boundaties should mint mize edge length. Shaterete may reaqive some modifications t squared ‘edges. (ACT S06R-90.) Step 4 Clean the surface of the exposed reinforcing steel and concrete. Surface cleaning is critical to achieve an ade- ‘quate bond between the repair and the existing concrete. ee “Bonding Repair Materials to Existing Conereve.") SY Samana aoe 9Part Three: Surface Repair _Section 4: Material Requirements, Surface Preparation When Corroded Reinforcement Is Encountered Sucace ater loose concrete is removed Perimeter of repair area is out by saw forother methods approximately ‘90° angle to surface, less than 1/2" doep. Conereteis removed 19 expose bar. — Concrete is Femoved a mivimum of 2344" under ‘orraded bat Stool and concrete sutlaces are ‘leaned, Adapted from IACRS—Surface Preparation Guideline 03730, 31, 32, 34 dated 10/1589, 140When Corroded Reinforcement Is Encountered Heavily Carros Reinforcemont \Vunearoded bars ae exposed and disturbed by the emoval process (bond of bar to concrete is weakened} Bond Weakened ‘hen the bar shal be ful wth Existing ‘exposed as it were found to be Substate heavy corroded. Cut aporenimnately 99° to top surace; avoid Feather edges. 4 minimum desrance under bar ‘Aclape! fom IACRS—Sorface Prepariion Guidetine 03730, 31, 32,34 daned 100589. Sirhiacensgrigama a nen MlPact Three: Surface Repair Section 4: Surface Preparation Surface Preparation When Corroded Reinforcement Is Encountered ‘Any heavy coroded reinforcement thats encountered shal be fully exposed by {undercutting to sound concrete beneath affected bars Heavily Corded Reinforcomont Minima 3 Clearance Undor Bar ‘A exposed stee and conerote suraces cleaned To temove cortsion and ether bond inhtting materials Adapted from IACRS.—Sutface Preparation Guideline 03730, 31, 32,34 dared 1/59. 12 ‘Ee Sth itn "MSRecommended Layout of Surface Repairs Deterioration of concrete surfaces generally is not uniform, Areas requ ing repair should be modified to provide for simple layouts. The layouts shoul! be designed to recluce bound- Layouts should be made as simple as possible. Boundary of Loose Recommended avy edge length. Excessive oF complex and Delaminated Layout edge conditions result in shrinkage Conroe stress concentrations and cracking. I sing sawcutting as a methox for edge conditioning, keep i mind that saws cout straight aa that, at cums, the saw ‘may be required to overcut Recommended Plan Vow of Baleony Slab > Adapted from IACRS—Surce Preparation Guideline 03740 31, 32, 34 dated 101588. Srigrokonaann 4%Part Three: Surface Repair Section 4: Surface Preparation Recommended Removal Geometry Section Elevation Beam or Rb Elevation Section ° Os 28 ‘Column fi 0° | Comer | L oe Slab or Wall Patt Depth Slab or Wall Full Depth ‘Aap fom ISCRS ~Susface Preparation Guideline 03750, 1, 32, 34 dated 1071579. 144Concrete Removal Methods: Partial Depth Pneumatic Chipping Hammer The 15# to 30 class chipping ham. mers are the most common removal tool for surtace repait, The 15 hhammer is light enough for use on vertical and overhead surfaces. Chip- ping points are used for general re- mnovals, Hammers lagee than 30% can ‘damage encountered reinfocing steel and shout! be avoided for partial clepth removals, Blectrc and hydraulic chippers are also available. Hydro Removal High pressure water (20,000 to 40,000 pst (158 to 276 MPa) projected cn affected concrete surfaces effectively removes concrete. Equipment is remotely controlled an! mounted on a movable vehicle. Some colbotc equipment can remove concrete not only on hotizontal surfaces, but also (on vertical and overhead surfaces. Water removals do not damage reinforcing ste Undercutting of reinforcement can also be accomplished using this method. Cleanup of slumry and water requires extra effort, Pneumatic Scabbler Pneumatic scabblers utilize reciprocat ing bushing tools hitting the concrete surface. After each hit, small amounts of concrete are removed. Preumatic scabblers are effective (ouls for remow- ing up to 14 " (64mm) of surfaces for preparation of overlayments. When Using pneumatic scabblers, caution should be exercised co avoid bruising of the concrete surface. Rotary Milling Machine Milling inachines ate available in all sizes for varying field situations. Most utilize carbide-mounted tips on a rotary drum. ‘The drum rotates, causing the carbide to chip away atthe concrete sueface. Miling is generally used for removing concrete surfaces in preparation for an overlay ment. billing can only be used for re- moval of concrete down to the top surface of reinforcing steel 45MG Hand Held Pneumatic Breakers Harel hele breakers 304 10 90# class are effective tools for concrete te moval, Care must be taken not 10 damage teinforcing steel that may be ‘encounter Pneumatic/Hydraulic Mounted Breakers Mounted breakers ave effective high: volume removal tools. They ate gener ally found on backhoes, skid steer loaders, and remote-controlled robots. Wher using breakers, caution should be exercised to avoid bruising of the conerere surface. Splitters Splers are tools used! to fracture concrete into easily removable debris. Splitters are available in three types: Dydraulic wedges, fuid pressure, ‘expansive cements. The most common are hydraulic wedges andl expansive cements. Holes are drilled for al types Hydraulic wedges utilize steel wedges. inserted into the drill hole spread via a hnyrautic ram, Expansive cement is mixed with water and poured ot tamped into the drilled hole. Within 24 hours, the cement expands, exerting forces great enough to fracture the concrete. Hydro Demolition Hyclro demolition equipment utilizes bgh pressure water (20,000 to 40,000 psi(158 to 276 MPa)) projected on to the conerete surfaces. Full clepth removals with this equipment can be effective on thin stabs,Section 5: Reinforcing Steel Cleaning, Repair & Protection ‘The following topics are covered in this section: Ingroduction co Reinforcing eel Cleaning, Repais & Protection General Frovedue Reinforcing Stee! Repait Reinforcing Stee! Cleaning Reinforcing Steel ProtectionPast Three: Sa Repair ‘ion 5: Reinforcing Steel Cleaning, Repair & Protection Introduction to Reinforcing Steel Cleaning, Repair & Protection eae Soe siete Seep watery | "Soe 48 Sonam aw] fa oe ico Contoded of otherwise damaged rein. forcing steel is usually found in con- junction with concrete deterioration. Heavy rust layers that build up on reinforeing steel daring the corrosion process are the cause of concrete elamination andl spalling, Removal of ‘oxide build-up is critical t0 the long ‘ecm success of surface repairs. Many cepairs have alle within afew yeats ‘of completion because of insufficient leaning. Proper cleaning of corroded bars requites removal of conerere around the full ciecumference of the bar, although in the past, practice requized removal around the full circumference only when costosion exceeded more than 5% of the c= cumfcrence. By removing the full circumference, he contaminated concrete can be removed. Chlorides and carbonated concrete may be present axound the rebar, even though corosion is not present. Two other reasons for removing the concrete around the bar are (2) to allow the repair matetial 1o encapsulate the bar, providing a relatively unifoim electro- Chemical environment, and (2) to anchor the repair to the subatrate Whenever bars corrode, they ako lose valuable section, thereby reducing the Uleunae Koad carrying capacity. In some instances, bars lose al section through the corrosion process, Structural evalua ion is required «0 understand the effects of secon loss and whether repaits ave required to restore it Common sense would seem to recom ‘mend placing protective coatings or using other means to prevent the recurrence of corrosion. However quality concrete is generally all that is necessary t0 protect embedded rein forcing steel. While the current prac- tice of protecting exposed bars is conteoversial, many systems are avail able, Several protective systems are discussed in this section.General Procedure Step 2.1 Bxposed corroded reinforcing steel encountered in the repair process reques concrete 0 be remove around che full circumference of the bar. This allows the reinforcing bar to be cleaned ane allons aur mate tal wo be placed around i Step 4.1 Heavy oxides or other bonckinhibiting materials must be removed by any acceptable cleaning method. See “Reinforcing Stee} Cleaning.”) Step 4.5 Bars damaged during removal opers- tions oF with critical section loss may tequite repair or replacement. (See “Reinforcing Steel Reni") Step 5.1 In certain situations, special coatings may be applied ro add aciditional protection to the reinforcing bars. (See Reinforcing Steel Protection.") SEEM Sato nero ca WoPart Three: Surface Repai Section 5: Reinforcing Steel Clean i Repair & Protection, Reinforcing Steel Repair (from Section Loss) Loss 0 Secon AtecteLangth the reinforcing steel nas los! more than 25% ofits cs section {0 20% to or more adjacon bars are affected), thon confocing steel repair is _genecallyrecuire. No: When damage to enforcing steel is uncovered, is good practice co peroxm a structural review of stuation, it epaits ace requied fo: he reinforcing sles, one of the foewing methods should be used 1. Supplemental bar ovr affected lena. New bar may be mechanically spied to affected bar ‘or placed parallel o exiting bar. 2. Complete bar placement. Supplemental Bar Required Lap* Roqured Lap Slick Wold Theaded copy “Lap length shal be determined in accordance wilh ACI 318, also rler to AASHTO and CRS! Manuals Adapted from WACRS—Surface Preparation Guideline 3730, 31,32, 34 cated 10/1589 150 ee messi taReinforcing Steel Cleaning Reintrcing _ S88 Abrasive Nozzle Adapted! from IACRS~ Surface Preparation Guideline 3731, October 15, 1989. General Procedure AN heavy rust and scale should be ce- moved fom the rebar to promote m: smum bond with repair materials. A tightly bonded light oxide build-up may develop after cleaning, This is usually not deceimental to bord. Ifa protective coating is being appiied (0 the rebar, the manufaciurer's recommendations for surface preparation shoul be followed. Needle Scalers Needle scalers are peumatic tools utilize ing a group of small diameter steel rocls onered by an internal piston. The steel tod hit the intended surface, causing removal of sucface materials. Needle scalers are effective tools for removal of heavy oxide layers, as well as for surface eaning of small sveas of concrete High Pressure Water Cleaning High pressure water (3,000 to 10,000 psi(20.7 to 6 MPa)) leans concrete ancl sieel surfaces, removing unsound mater: als, Water mixed with sand cleans faster andl results in-a roughened surface which ‘will promote a better bond with coatings: ‘ with cepair materials. Abrasive Blast Cleaning. Abrasives mixed with pressurize air ancl projected through a nozzle are the best method of providing steel or concrete surfaces with a clean profiled susface. Airborne debris ust) is an environmen- tal concern when using this method Water can be injected at the nozzle ¢© reduce dustin this process. Power Wire Brushing ‘A power wite brush isan effective cool for removing unvssnted oxide from steel surfaces, Wire brushing is a very slow and ineffective operation when rebar has to be cleaned on the back side, 51Reinforcing stee! is naturally protected from cottosion when surrounded by an alkaline environment of newly cast, ‘good quality concrete. In certain repair Situations, altional protection for the ‘encased reinforcement is prudent. Protection systems fall into four (4) categories: 1. Encapsulation: Insulating the bar fromm electrical currents in the ‘sutroundling concrete can be complished by encapsulating the bar with epoxy: When new bars are used, fusion-bonded epaxy provides the best protection, Bars ate shot blasted andl heated, andl powered epoxy is sprayed onto them under & controlled environment, In field applications where encapsulation of cessting bass is necessary, epoxy resin is sprayed o, more commonly, Drushec onto the bats. Wh fekd application oF epaxy it is very dit Fieult (0 achieve 100% coverage of the exposed bars. intersections andl hack sites of bars create almost impossible access. Encapsulation ‘works weil when all bars in the affected member are protected, however, when bacs are partially coated, einer within the repair zone or adjacent to the repair, clecttical currents can become concentrated in the unprotected toass, and accelerated corvosion may be a problem, 2. Cathode Protection/Sacrfiiat Ane cde: Protecting bars from corrosion can be accomplished by coating them with a sacrificial metal. Zinc is the metal commonly used far this purpose. Zinc is applied to the bar with a brush. Recently, molten zinc has been used California DOT) a a sacrificial surface-applied coating ‘This method is used afterall sur faces are repaired, The sarfce- applied zine is electrically connected 10 the reinforcing steel cage. Since this method is sacrificial, the service Part Three; Surface Repair Section 5: Reinforcing Steel Cleaning, Repair & Protection Reinforcing Steel Protection life is dependent upon the degree of exposute to a conosive environ iment and anode activity. This method of protection is used only 6on-an experimental basis. 3. Cathodic Provection/Impuessed Current: Protecting bars from corto sion can be accomplished by revets- Jng the electrical current flow which ‘uses the corvasion process. An- Codes are installed on oc reac the concrete surface and are electicaly connected to the reinforcing bars Electrical curcent is purmped into the citcwit, protecting de bars. Impressed current must be bal ‘anced with the environment on a continual basis in orter fo provide prorection. Constant monitoring and necessary adjustments ace required, 4. Alkaline Slurey Coating: Like untcar Donated concrete, alkaline slurry coating pratects the reinforcing steel from cottosion, Some systems Utilize non-passivating epoxies 35 a binder forthe passivating (alkaline) fillecs. Some questions exist con- cerming whether the epoxy insulates the alkaline filles from clrect con- cact withthe sebars and whether the epoxy provides any benefits other than electrically insulating the bar ‘There are many unanswered questions regatding reinforcement protective systems and their effect on surround- ing reinforcement. By protecting rein- forcing steel in a repaired area we have created an wand of new material Jn doing s0, potentially more eocrasion could occur than woul have originally Only independent research, testing and monitoring will answer these ‘questions. msg meReinforcing Stee! Protection Naural Protection by Atkatine Environment Created by Coment Matix ‘Avaine Protection Akal sry coating enances the alkaline erironment ‘around the bar Zire applied to bar surtace sacttioas isl to protect he ste Zice apples to concrete surface sacitces Cato ise to protect the steel, Proc ‘Surtace iostalled anode ‘connected to bar with impressed cont changas the Row of electncalcurent to protect the ste! bar 4 fheuce © etctcalinaton reinforcing ber. Seemegrnaaaer ramen 3Pari Three: Suviace Repair_Section wevete Section 6: Bonding Repair Materials to Existing Concrete 154 ‘The following topics are covered in this section: Introduction to Bonding Repair Maceriais to Existing Concrete Measuring Bond Strength ating Bond Strength General Procedures Bonding Agents Acditional Snurces of InformationIntroduction to Bonding Repair Materials to Existing Concrete eo wares ij ence Forces Tensile Bond Mechanisms. Repair Material Keys to developing bond 1. Clean, sound substrate 2, Roughened profile of substrare for mechanical interlock. 3. Open pore steucture in substrate. 4, Repair materiabonding agent with sufficient paste for absoeption ineo substrate pores 5. Repair material is appliod with sulficient pressure to facilcare ‘contact between the repait material and the substtate a the bond line. ‘Shear Bond Mechanisms Foces are Transmitted via Mechanical interlocking 8 ‘va oor Waals Forces (Pectcal traction) Achieving an adequate bond between repair materials and existing concrete isa critical requirement for durable surface cepaits. Various techniques are avaiable 10 achieve the required bond, ‘This section presents a brief review of some of the test methods for deter ‘ning the bond of repair or overlay materials to existing concrete, and a descriptian af the step by step process of achieving an adequate bond, The bond at the interface between the repair material and concrete substrate is likely co be subject to consicerable sess ftom volume changes, freeze- thaw, force of gravity, and sernetimes, impaet and vibration, The stress states that levelop at the bond lines will vary considerably, depending on the type and use of the structure. Ror example, the bond on the bridge deck overlay may be suibject to shear stress in conjunction with tensile or compres: sive stress induced by shrinkage ar thermal effects, and to compression and shear from service loads." Itis essential that the repair material achiewe a strong bond to che substrate aud that subsequent stresses are not sufficiently great as co cause debond- ing. Repairs which have bond lines in direct tension have the greatest depen- ' dency on bonding, Repairs that are subject to shear stresses at the bond line are capable of stvess resistance not only by bonding mechanisms, but also by aggregate interlock mechanism, which add ‘reat to shear bond capacity 1c should be remembered that high inital bond strength is generally not as impoctant as bond durability "wal 18, and Shine, NG, Factors Afecting Bond Between New and Oki Cone, Ct Notes Jounal, Mar-Apr, 1968, pp. 117-125, 155Part Three: Surface Repair Section 6; Bonding. Repair Materials to Existing Concrete. Measuring Bond Strength Repair Mari Comments: + Laboratory test oni. Reference Test Methods ASTM C a3, 882, 889, ‘884 epoxy boncing + Value affected by comprossive agents strength of materials" ASTM C1042, 1059) + Value alfecie by degree of latex bonding agents sandelastng’. Sancbiasted Surace Direct Shear (Gullotne) Reference Comments: Test += Can measure both laboratory Methoos ‘and field specimens. BNLdroct + Value afected by compressive shear ‘strength of matetials. {Br00%- + Value affecid by degree and aven ‘method of surface prep. + Measures shear bord TF ttt tt Vy 156 le) PP Beste Uniaxiat Tension Roference test Methods ‘ACI S03 uniaxial direct tension [NIST study NISTIR 4648 Unica! tensile tests tomeasure the bond olin situ concrete overlays Comments: + Measure field specimens in-situ or removed. + Measures dec tensile strength ct bond + Measures actual fold conditions; surtaco oreo, ‘curing, mat + Aaparatus must be atlached concenticaly with cove + Measures materials ony “Not controled by test method. Evaluation of the bond between the repair material and substrate is impor tant in assessing the quality ofthe repait, In recent years, various test mettiods have heen developed anc! are available at this time. Some of these methods are used extensively, while ‘others have had litle use in the field Understanding the Iinitations in the reliability or applicability of each test method is critically important in achieving the performance goals. A brief review of some of the test meth ‘odds currently in use is presented below. Slant shear test is used! by most ‘manufacturers of repair materials © evaluate product performance, The testis economical and is easily repro: duced. Bond values are determined by taking the load at failure divided by the elliptical bond area, The results ace highly variable depending upon the compressive strengi and degree of sandblasting used. Slant stear bond values are difficult to cocrelate with field performance. ‘The method used for assessing repair materials, the slant shear test, is Far from being representative of the actual in situ conditions. When the results of ‘other test methods are compared with ‘hose obtained from the slant shear test, its evident thatthe lauer can give rise to inaccurate conclusions. Bond strength values are generally higher when evaluated by the slant shear method or by the divect shear method, 2s compared to he direct tension method ‘nab, £1, Sprinkel, MLL ane! Lane, Of, Preliminary Pecformance Criteria forthe Bone! of Pordand Cement a Latex Modified Core crete Overlays, NISTIR 891156, National Institute of Standars and Technology, 1989,Direct shear method measures shear bond between the repair material and the substeate. Field and laboratory core specimens are tested in a special guillotine apparatus. Shea bond values are determivied by taking the load at failure divided by the bond area. Cor- relations can be developed between laboratory and fii tests Uniaxial tensile test measures the tensile bond or tensile strength of surface repaits andl avedlays, Direct tension bond testing establishes the Jocation of the weakest link of the ‘composite. Uniaxial testing can be performed in situ or in a laboratory. In situ testing is performed by coring through the repair material inta che substrate, White the core remains ‘connected to the substrate, a tension ing device is connected to the core ancl loaded until failure occurs, Tensile values are letermined by taking the load at faitore divided by the cross sectional avea of the core, The advan. tage of in situ testing is the benefit of ‘evaluating actual tepairs, providing feedback direety to the parties in- volved, establishing acceptance or necessary adjustments to the repair procedures. 157Bart Thee: Surface Repair Section 6: Ronding Repair Materials to Existing Concrete Evaluating Bond Strength ‘Table 1, Preliminary Performance Criteria for Portland Cement Concrete (PCC) and Latex Modified Concrete (LMC) Overlay Materials Based on the BNI, (Brookhaven National Laboratory) Direct Snear Bond Test Metiod!"* Class Overlay | Minimum Bond | Average Bond Minimom Compressive Material Strength Strength Compressive Strength of (psisnitay* (psiaPay* Strength of Overlay | Base Concrete psi(MPa)* psi/(MPa)* 2 3000 30003500 1 uncirec 200.4 w2912.2 io wey Ta Sx 2 LMGIPOC B06 375/26 an ay 505000 34 3 LMCIPOC 2601.8 $2529 em =e ‘the meni convesion is produced by the aur ‘Table 2. Relationship Between Bond Test Methods? (Adapted ftom Table BI) Conditions Bond Test Method Bond Strength Relationship Between (psiMPay** Test Methods ‘Avg, of 7-10 Tests Sandasted, 2 day POC Slant shear 119082 360%, overlay on 50 day ol PCC Direct sheac BNL 330723 100% Uniasial tension 89/13 5% “The telaionship beeen test methods is wot well defined except in genera. The purpose of utilizing the test cata gathered in the NIST sty to ‘compare rest methods is dat the daa represents unique suc which has compare test methods under contol and relatively consistent ‘onions Tue meuie conversion is produced by the author nab, Li, Spiel, MLM. and Lane, OJ, Pelinary Performance Criteria fr the Bond of Portand Cement and Latex Maified Concrete Over lay, NISTIR 89-4155, National Insitute of Sandards and Technology 1989. Or #PB50-204520 NIST), 158 SWS ear Eaeoe ton MOEAcceptable bond values for materials and in situ repairs are not established. Table 1 presents the range of accept able bond properties. Iti strongly recommended that the entire refer= enced report be read when using the preliminary performance criteria table. ‘The values are derived from direct shear tests and are not comparable to Luniaxial tensile bone! test results that are generally lower as demonstrated in Table 2 Acceptable bond values, when using ‘he uniaxial in situ test method, are not established! ‘The tniaxial in situ test can be used to establish general acceptance criteria for surface repair ‘Quancicative test results are highly dependent upon: 1, Compressive and tensile strength of substrate concrete Sueface preparation Placement techniques Repair material ‘When bond stiength values evaluated by this method are inadequate, adjust- ments ¢0 surface preparation methods and placement techniques can be made, andl adequate bond achieved. By evaluating the location of the break in ‘cornposite structures, the decision can be made as to whether changes in procedures or materials are necessary ‘The following examples demonstrate how in situ testing i usec ‘© Hlycrodemolition techniques are used to remove concrete from a parking or bridge cleck. Cleaning the slur is time consuming sed a tedious opera tion, By ip sit tension testing the degree of cleaning can be optimized. * Removal of concrete by some: tech niques may cause damage co underly: ing concrete surface. By using in situ ‘esi esting, the acceptable tech niques can be selected. © Fical surfe cleaning techniques may provide different degrees of bruising, profile, and pore cleaning. By in situ Tension testing, various cleaning teel- riques caa be optimized, i, ling ‘without abrasive lasting vs. milling, vith sbeasve blasting: abrasive blasting 4s, high pressure water blasting. © The effeciveness of different bonding agents can also be evaluated by these ests, 159aut Three: Surface Repair_ Section 6 Bonding Repair Materials to Existing Concrete General Procedures Step 2 General Existing concrete surfaces need to be roughened to a profile necessary t0 achieve mechanical imterdack, The necessary profile (stance berween high points and low points over a specified distance between the points) ‘Sa function of the magnitude of shear forces that will he ating, che repair material properties, the existing con- ‘crete properties, the placement tech nique or any combination of these Field cestng is required to establish the optimum profile. ‘Typical Tools Used for Development of Profile Tool Profile Hand chipper 1/2" (13mm) + Ryden milling 12 (13mm) + Rotary miting ——1/8-1/4" (3-6) Scabhlers 18" Gm) = Shotblasters 18" (3mm) - Abrasive blasting 1/8" (mm) {A standard practice of prepating exist ing conerete bridge decks for overtays is rotary milling followed by abrasive blast cleaning, Excellent results are achieved with profiles less than 1/4" Condition after ‘Step 2 Complete 160 Step 2.0 Surfaces of existing concrete expectec to receive the rept material must be sound, clean, and free of bond inhibit. ing materials (oil, fats, hardened epoxy, ef), An ideal sound Surface is one of adequate compressive strength, free of any defects, with aggregate bonded 10 the cement matrix. Step 2.01 ‘iter initial removals, surfaces should bye sounded for delaminations and voids Step 2.02 Any Concrete areas found to be sound should be re-chipperdCondition before Step 4. Condition after Step 4 Complete Mosc eo sub 605 Step 4 General ‘The surfaces of existing concrete must have an open pore structure. The abbsoxption of the repair material into the substrate's pore structure is a ‘critical boning mechanism. 1 the pore structure is clogged with dust, slurry or water, the absorption process will be hindered, and bond strengths redluced. Step 4 Desirable results in opening the pore structure can be achieved! using one of the following methoxs: Shoibasting (horizontal surfaces) Abrasive bestng Hydroblasting ‘Combinations of abrasives and water acum ‘The open pore structure will provide capillary suction of the repair material, fr bonding agents, in the substrate concrete. Before application of the repair materials, surfaces shoul! be inspected for any foreign materials ‘which might inhibit the bond, Step 5 ‘The moisture level ofthe substrate may be critical to achieving bond. An ‘excessively dry substeate may absorb too much water from the repair mate tin, This will result in excessive shirk sige. Excessive moisture in the sub- strate may clog the pores andl prevent absorption of the repair mate: fia, Io situ tension testing to evaluate the optimum moisture condition for a particular substrate and repair material may be approptiate, Saturated, surface dry condition can be considered 10 be the best solution, unless otherwise determined, 161Part Three: Surface Repair Section 6: Bonding Repair Materials to Existing. Concrete, General Procedures Condition after Steps 5.2 and 6 are complete Step 5.2 ‘The repair material must contain a sufficient amount of fac paste for absorption inio the open pore st ture of the substrate. In some cases, @ separate bonding agent is used. The Step 6 “The surface repair material should be installed in @ manner which produces invimage contact between the new and the old at the bond line, Intimate contact is produced by a number of mechanisms, inclucling © Internal bration (produces Au flow, hyelaulic pressure and dissipates Making sure that all necessaty steps for achieving aciequate bonding ave taken, 1 pulloff test can be performed to ‘monitor the tensile bond strength between repair and substrate. This in situ test involves the use of partial coring down through the repair mate Step7 ° a | o oO 0 > 162 bonding agent must be easily absorbed into the pore structure and must be compatible with the repair material nc! substrate. + Incemal hyraulic pressure reated by pump pressure in confined spaces, wailing form and pump or growed preplaced aggregate repair techniques). ‘High velocity impact @reated by the thrusting of repair material on the prepared surfice, utilizing preumat: cally placed mortar, sir pottel). © Lov velocity impact (ereated by the compaction of repair material by rodding and tamping, utilizing hand applied or dry pack technique) Step 7 tial and into che substrate, The ‘method is more qualaative chan quan- tiatve, Ideally, the bond stiengeh should be such thatthe compesite siructure should behave monolithically Under oad; the failure should occur in original concrete substeateBonding Agents Adequate bonding can be achieved by placing repair material divectly against properly prepared substrate. There are ‘special concltions when bonding agents are used. Three main types of bonding agents are frequently used: cement based slarces, epoxies, and latex emulsions, Tor Portland cement based repaits ancl overlays, cement or sanc-cement slurry 4s use, After the substrate has been prepared, and immediately before placing the repair material, a thin Coating of “creamy?” grout must be vigorously and thoroughly roomed or brushed into the prepared surface. In the case of atex-modified or microsilca-modified repair materials or ‘overlays, the bonding grout can be bbroomed in from the mix tse. For latexmodified mareral, it can also be mixed separately. There are, now avail able, factory blended tates-modified cernent sluery bonding agents which are mixed with water on site ane applied 10 the prepared concrete surface suice Re OP Sig OY tora gs oi 8 Oe Sh Sf Berna Age | — Existing Substrate [= No Bonding Agent Latex bonding agents ate also used in the industry, The matecial must meet the requirements of ASTM C1059. Manufacturers’ instructions should be stictly followed when using latex products because not all ae compat ble with concrete. The following latex products ate used a5 bonding agents: Styrene Butadiene (SBR) © Acrylic + Poywinylacerate (PVA) Re-emulsfiable Polyvinylacette (PV) ‘bonding agents should not be used in structural applications. This agent can ce-emulsify after being subject t0 swetdy gcles, resulting in eventual toss of bond A vaiety of epoxy penduets are avail able for use as boncling compounds. ‘The material must meet the require iments of ASTM C 881—"Epoxy-Resin Based Bonding Systems for Concrete," related to physical properties such as bond strength, viscosity, thermal com: pauibilty and shrinkage. Use of an epoxy bonding agent may praduce a vapor barter, resulting in the Eailure of the bond, Epoxies have poor creep properties and should be avoided when ‘he tepai is subject 0 constant acing. ‘The additional step in the repair pro- ess, application of a bonding agent, may create an additional quality asst ance problem, Bonding agents are not {designed co compensate for poor sut- face preparation, Successful use of bonding agents must inckace the seven step bonding process outlined above, 163Pact Three: Surface Repait Section 6: Bonding Repair Materials to Existing Concrete Additional Sources of Information ACI 503R-89, Use of Epoxy Compounds with Concrete, ACI Manual of Concrete Proctice. Guide Specifications for Concrete Overlays for Pavements and Bridge Decks, AASHTO-AGC-ARTBA, Task Force 30 Report. 164 2Pf See Sonu encSection 7 Placement Methods are covered in ‘The following topi this section: Introduction to Racement Methods Summary of Methods Dey Packing Foxm and Cast in Place Form and Pump Growted Preplaced Aggregate Faull Depth Repair Dry Mix Shoterete ‘Wet Mix Shoterete Full Depth Repair Overiays Hrand-Applied Summary of Overlay Materials SPS Aan Ean Fane 165Part Three: Surface Repair Section 7: Placement Methods, Introduction to Placement Methods ne 7S go ¢ Diss] Lee | (Ses. Pues [iP sry J pis = ioe [eee sete || a cere a ¥ a sua oa 166 Selection of a surface repair placement ‘method inclales the Fling impor- tant steps 1, Selection of a tepair material chat best reconstitutes the strength, egrity and performance required by the structare’s original design and current situation 2, Selection of a method! of phicement that will successfull deliver che tepair material oot0 the prepared! concrete substate 3. Checking the constructblty ofthe selected repair material and installa tion method: 4, Adjusting the material and installa: tion methods to provice a con structible repair Important Considerations ‘The placement technique must deliver the selected repair material to the prepared substrate with specified results. The. repair material must achieve satisfactory bond to the exist- ing substrate, must fil the prepared cavity without segregation, and fully encapsulate exposed reinforcing steel ‘Without achieving the above cequite- ments, the surface repair may noc perform its intended structural, protec- tive, and aesthetic duties. Bond of the repaic to the substrate depends to a large degree on mechani- cal interlocking with the prepared conerete surface. For this to occur, an adequate force should be applied! (0 the vepair material co bring it into intimate contact with the prepared surface. The repair material must also have an adequate amount of binder co interact with the prepared surface. The ‘aay in which force is applied to the repair material to achieve bond de- pends on the application technique. In trowel-applied systems, the repair material is forced into the prepared. surface by the trowel pressure applied by the finishencement mason.