CHAPTER I

THE PROBLEM AND ITS BACKGROUND

Introduction
Pineapple (Ananas comosus), locally known as pinya, belongs to and the
most important genus of the family Bromeliaceae because it has a number of
species that are cultivated.
Pineapples are one of the most important crops not only in the Philippines
but also in other countries such as Malaysia, Thailand, and Brazil. It is a crop
which plays an important role in the economy of our country since Philippines is
the 3rd largest exporter of pineapples in the world. It is estimated that 25,000
hectares of Philippines is used to raise pineapples (Lorenzo, 2010)
In 2009, there was a total of 487,700 metric tons of pineapples that were
exported amounting to 263.27 million US dollars. These were exported to United
States of America, Japan, Singapore, Korea and Netherlands (Bureau of
Agricultural Statistics, 2012)
Calauan, Laguna is one of the leading producers of a variety of pineapple
which is called Formosa. Formosa pineaaple is one of the sweetest varieties in
the Philippines. Its fruit is characterized by tapering shape, deep eyes, and
yellow fresh color. It is also known for its instinct aroma, crisp flesh and less juice.
It has a small core compared to other varieties. Formosa pineapples may be
cultivated by crown cutting of the fruit, then flowering in 20-24 months and fruiting
in the following six months. By then, it will be ready for harvesting.
1

After harvesting, Formosa pineapples undergo several processes and

practices. Post-harvest practices such as drying have significant effect in the
quality of the pineapple products. This process, hence require new technology
that will cater to an easier production and processing of the crop being studied,
the pineapple.
One technology that can be used in drying pineapple is using renewable
energy. This strategy of using renewable energy to dry pineapples would allow
farmers to improve their income since this is accost effective way of value adding
to their products. Also, construction of a machine is harnessing solar and
biomass energy could provide an effective solution in some drying problems.
Background of the Study
Drying is one of the easiest ways of removing water in fruits. It is a critical
aspect of crop processing since the quality and the price of the products depends
on how dry they are and also on the way in which they have been dried (Leisa
Magazine, March 2005).
In the Philippines, dryers have been developed and used to dry
agricultural products in order to improve shelf life, but most of these either use an
expensive source of energy such as electricity or a combination of solar energy
and some other form of energy. These technologies cannot be adopted by small
farmers, since they cannot afford the required investment for such technologies.
Due to these problems, a better and cost effective small scaled drying technology
is needed.
2

There are also problems associated with open air sun drying. One of this
is contamination by foreign materials like dust, fecal matters, and insects. Also
exposure of the product to the environment can cause microbrial growth that
could spoil the products.
Pineapple is a high value crop and a good source of income for people
who have farms. Irregularly-shaped, discoloured and sour-tasting pineapples are
always sold at a cheap price, and this is not good for pineapple farmers. One
way to increase the marketability and also the economic benefits of producing
and selling pineapples is by drying and processing it as dried products. Using
renewable energy, pineapples can be processed at a very low cost. In turn,
farmers can use this as an advantage to increase their profit even without raising
the price of pineapples.
The problems associated with open air sun drying and other expensive
drying methods can be solved through the use of a solar-biomass dryer, which
include a collector, a furnace, a drying chamber and sometimes a chimney
(Madhlopa, et al., 2002). Using a solar biomass dryer is an effective solution to
these problems since solar and biomass energy is free and renewable.
Furthermore, the conditions in tropical countries like Philippines make the use opf
solar energy and biomass for drying pineapple practically attractive and
environmentally sound.

Objectives of the Study

The general objective of the study is to design and develop a small scale
solar-biomass dryer for pineapple (Ananas comosus).
Specifically, the study aims to:
1.

Design a solar-biomass dryer suited for pineapple considering the

following:
1.1 System components

2.

1.2 Material specifications

Fabricate the solar-biomass dryer for pineapple using locally
available materials.

3.

Conduct a preliminary testing to ascertain the following parameters:

4.

3.1 Operating capacity

3.2 Operating temperature of the dryer
3.3 Operating time of the dryer
Evaluate the performance of the developed machine in terms of the
following:
4.1 Moisture reduction rate
4.2 Evaporation rate
4.3 Drying efficiency
4.4 Energy utilized

8.

Conduct cost-benefit analysis to determine the economic viability of

the project;
4

9.

Develop an operation manual for the fabricated solar-biomass dryer

for pineapple.

Significance of the Study

This study is primarily concerned with the development of a small scale
solar-biomass dryer for pineapple. The design and development of this machine
would be a basis of interest and would be beneficial to different sectors around
Southeast Asian countries including the Philippines.
To the agricultural industries, the study would serve as a responsiveness
of the technical improvements that can be completed to replace conventional
agricultural ways.

To the pineapple vendors, the study would help them to promote new
ways of preserving pineapple by means of drying.

To the Mechanical Engineering Department, it will function as a

demonstrating machine for the mechanical engineering students. It will also be a
mechanism for the completion of the departments goal of providing quality
education.
To the researchers, this study will be one of the proofs that they applied
their knowledge and skills for the design and fabrication of solar-biomass dryer

for pineapple. This will also be beneficial to those researchers conducting a

related study.
Scope and Limitations of the Study
This study will mainly focus on the design, fabrication and testing of small
scale solar-biomass dryer for pineapple. The said dryer will be evaluated based
on drying performance, thermal performance and cost effectiveness.
In the development of the dryer, the suitable selection of the
specifications, system components and capacity of the machine will be taken into
consideration. A lesser fabrication cost and maintenance cost will be applied but
the mechanical efficiency will still be in acceptable rating.
The output of this study will be a developed solar-biomass dryer for
pineapple and an operation manual that will guide the end-user on using the
machine.

Conceptual Framework
This study will focus on the design and development of small scale solarbiomass dryer for pineapple. The conceptual framework of this study is
presented based on the CDIO (Conceive-Design-Implement-Operate) Model. It
will involve the conceptualization and design of the machine. The design will
consider the input and the output of the study as well as the processes and

procedures that will be involved in each operation. The principles of the operation
will also be included. Figure 1 shows the research paradigm of the study.
The conceive stage will consider the knowledge requirements necessary
for the study which are the knowledge about pineapple, procedures for the
operation and existing products and processes.
In the design stage, the system components and the material
specifications will be considered in the development of small scale solar-biomass
dryer for pineapple. The proposed designed will be modeled and simulated
through SolidWorks program.
In the implementation stage, the fabrication of small scale solar-biomass
dryer for pineapple will be accounted using the locally available materials. In
addition, the preliminary testing of the drying machine will be performed to test its
capacity and moisture content as well as to know if there will be some
modifications. The performance testing will also be conducted for each
experiment.
In the operation stage, an operation procedure and maintenance manual
will be provided for the proper use and maintenance of the small scale solarbiomass dryer for pineapple.

CONCEIVE

DESIGN

Knowledge

Design Requirements:

Requirements:

Characteristics of
pineapple
Existing dryer
Drying pineapple

Design layout
Fabrication of the

system
Material

specification
System

components
Dimension
SolidWorks

Hardware
Requirements:

OPERATE

IMPLEMENT

construction

dryer pineapple
Collection and
preparation of

material
Dried pineapple
Preliminary
Testing
Mechanical

Fabrication shop
Material and
equipment for

Fabrication of
Developed solarsolar-biomass
biomass dryer for

Performance
Mechanical
Operation and

Maintenance Manual
Efficiency
Performance
and Provision

Testing
Drying rate
Properties of dried

pineapple

Figure 1. Research Paradigm of the Study

Definition of Terms
This study governs terms which are beneficial in the development of
concrete knowledge with regards to solar-biomass dryer for pineapple. For better
understanding and clarification purposes, the following terms are defined
conceptually and operationally.
Biomass. Biological material derived from living or recently living
organism.
Dryer. A machine that remives moisture by means of ventilation or heat.
Drying efficiency. It is the ratio of the amount of raw materials to be dried
to the amount of the materials that the machine had dried.
Evaporation rate. It is the rate at which the liquid content of the pineapple
will vaporize.
Machine capacity. This refers to the ability to hold, receive or absorb
something of a machine. In this study, it refers to the ability of the dryer to
accommodate raw materials to perform its function and produce outputs
Moisture reduction rate. It is the ratio of the amount of moisture content
of the pineapple reduced during the drying process to the time of drying.
Operating temperature. This refers to the hotness and coldness of a
body. In this study, this refers to the maintaining temperature that the machine
will operate.
Operating time. This refers to the period which a system is working in a
manner acceptable to its operator. In this study, operating time refers to the
period of drying process that will be observed.
9

Overall heat loss. It is the total heat given off by the raw material in the
duration of the whole process.
Pineapple. The pineapple is a tropical plant with edible multiple fruit
consisting of coalesced berries, also called pineapples, and the most
economically significant plant in the Bromeliaceae family.
Solar dryers. These are devices that use solar energy to dry substances,
especially food.
Solar constant. Is a measure of flux density, is the conventional name
for the mean solar electromagnetic radiation (the solar irradiance) per unit area
that would be incident on a plane perpendicular to the rays, at a distance of
one astronomical unit (AU) from the Sun (roughly the mean distance from the
Sun to the Earth).
Solar energy. It is the energy created from sunlight. It is the radiant light
and heat from the sun.
Solar radiation. It is radiant energy emitted by the sun from a nuclear
fusion reaction that creates electromagnetic energy.
Thermal efficiency. It is the ratio of the heat input to the work output of
the machine.

10

CHAPTER II
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
This chapter presents the conceptual literature, research literature that is
considered to be fundamental in the pursuance of the research study.

Conceptual Literature
This contains the literary section from the different sources and unfinished
works which gave necessary information related to the study.
I. Pineapple
Pineapple is an edible fruit of tropical plant belonging to the genus
Ananas. It is a herbaceous plant with long, narrow, stiff leaves which are usually
armed with sharp spines along each margin except in a few varieties. Some
known varieties in the Philippines include Smoot Cayene, Queen/Formosa, Red
Spanish and other varieties. The most common variety of pineapple is the
Formosa. The fruit of Queen/Formosa variety is small, oblong, slightly tapering,
and has color yellow with brown markings. The eyes were prominent, small and
deep. The flesh is yellowish, tender, crispy, sweet, rich in flavor and has small
core. It has small to medium crown and good for the table. (PNS, Fresh
Pineapple Specification, 2004)
A typical pineapple usually weighs from 2 to 3.5 kg. The moisture content
of pineapple is more than 80 percent of its total weight, depending on the variety
and condition of the fruit. Pineapples are good for the health because they
contain many vitamins and other nutrients as shown in the Table 1.
11

Table 1
Nutrient Contents of Pineapple
Nutrients
Energy
Water
Protein
Fat
Fiber
Ash
Calcium
Phosphorus
Iron
Sodium
Potassium
Beta Carotene
Vitamin B1
Vitamin B2
Niacin
Ascorbic Acid (Vit C)

Per 100 gram Edible Portion

45.0 Kcal
87.8 gm
0.5 gm
0.1 gm
10.6 gm
0.6 gm
0.4 mg
24 mg
6 mg
1.4 mg
31 mg
40 mg
270 mg
0.17 mg
0.1 mg
15.2 mg

Source: Crop Protection and Plant Quarantine Services Division Department of Agriculture, Kuala
Lumpur, Malaysia, 2004

The Philippines is the second largest exporter of Sweet Golden Pineapple

and also dominates major markets in Japan and Korea as shown in Figure 2 and
3.

Figure 2. Pineapple Export from the Philippines

Source: www.lapanday.com

12

Figure 3. % Volume of Pineapple Exported in Asia

Source: www. lapanday.com

Some industries devote fresh fruits for drying. Dried fruits constitute at
least 34% of total export value for processed food in the Philippines alone (DTI,
2002). As for dried pineapple, the volume of export rose to 122,200 metric tons in
2001.
Pineapples are also sliced and juiced. These products are usually canned
and preserved for market purposes.
II. The Sun

The suns energy is widely used all over the world. The United States
Department of Energy stated that the sun has been used since 212 B.C. when it
was used to ignite temple fires as cited by Nicomel (2011). It was only in the late
80s that the people started to realized to harvest the energy supply from the sun.
13

The earth is showered by the sun as much energy that we can use. In less
than three days, the solar energy reaching the earth can match or even exceed
the estimated total of all the fossil fuel s on earth. Translated into terms we can
more visualize, a square meter of area exposed to direct sunlight continuously
receives radiation equivalent to nearly 1318 watts from the sun (USDE, 1978).
The sun has played a significant role in different natural activities in the
universe and also in the formation of fossil and renewable energy sources in
earth. It will continue to do so until the end of Earths remaining life, which is
predicted to be about 5 x 109 years (Sen, 2008). Fossil fuels in the form of coal
which are used through combustion are only expected to last for an
approximation of 300 years. After this, human beings will only be left with
renewable sources of energy.
The sun is only one of the 1011 stars in the Milky Way. It moves around the
center of this galaxy at a distance of about two-thirds of the maximum radial
extent of the galaxy (McDaniels, 1984). It has a diameter of 1.39 million
kilometers and has an average distance of 150 million kilometers from the Earth.
It is an internal energy generator and distributor for other planets including Earth.
Just like the other stars, it is a big gas ball made up mostly of hydrogen and
helium gas. The sun makes energy in its inner core through the process of
nuclear fission.
III. Solar Radiation
Solar radiation enters the atmosphere at the space-atmosphere interface,
where the ionization layer of the atmosphere ends (Sen, 2008). Afterwards, a
14

certain amount of solar radiation or photons is absorbed by the atmosphere,

clouds, and other particles, some are reflected back into space, and others are
absorbed by Earths surface. About 50% of the total radiation remains at the
atmosphere and Earths surface. Total solar energy available to the earth is
approximately 3850 zettajoules (ZJ) per year and in 2004, worldwide energy
consumption was .471 ZJ (Paras, n.d.)
Three forms of the solar radiation are usable by solar thermal processes.
The most important of which is called direct radiation. This is the solar radiation
that travels from the sun to a point on Earth without having suffered any
scattering in traversal of the atmosphere (Kreider and Kreith, 1982). This is the
type of sunlight that causes a sharp shadow, and which can be as much as 80
percent of the total sunlight striking a surface during a sunny day. The second
type of solar radiation is diffuse or scattered radiation. This is the sunlight that
comes from all directions other than the direction of the sun. It is produced by the
scattering of sunlight by atmospheric components like particulates, water vapor
and aerosols. Scattered radiation cannot be focus by any optical system, but it
also contributes flux to flat-plate and other non-focusing collectors (Meinel and
Meinel, 1976.) The last type of radiation is reflected radiation. Reflected radiation
is either direct or diffuse, which is reflected from the foreground onto the solar
aperture. The amount of reflected radiation varies significantly with the nature of
the foreground, being relatively higher for a light colored environment near the
collector and relatively lower for a dark colored environment. The term total or
global radiation refers to the sum of direct and diffuse solar radiation. This is

15

sometimes used to indicate quantities integrated over all wavelengths of the solar
spectrum.
There are several instruments used to measure and record solar
insolation. The most important of these are pyranometer and pyrheliometer. The
pyranometer is a reliable and convenient measuring device for total or global
insolation. On the other hand, pyrheliometer is the one being used to measure
the direct solar radiation. In order to measure the scattered components of
sunlight, the pyranometer is sometimes modified with a shading ring to exclude
direct sunlight.
The total solar radiation absorbed by the earth in the tropics is about 690
W/m2 (Paras, n.d.). This is an average value since it varies according to site or
latitude, season, time of the day, and climate, particularly cloudiness. It can reach
a value of 1100 W/m 2 or more at noon on a clear day and may decrease to 100
W/m2 or less during heavy overcast (Nicomel, 2011).
IV. Solar Constant
The amount of solar energy receive per unit time per unit area of the
collector at the mean distance of the earth from the sun on a surface normal to
sun is called solar constant ( Meinel and Meinel, 1976). It has a value of 1353
W/m2. Because of the uncertainties in correcting the observed flux for the effects
of the atmosphere, solar constant is difficult to measure from the surface of the
earth (Nicomel, 2011).

16

V. Sun Drying
Preservation of human and animal food by open-air drying in the sun was
presumably one of the first conscious and purposeful technological activities
undertook by humanity (Imre, 1995). Sun drying is only possible in areas where,
in an average year, the weather allows foods to be dried immediately after
harvest. The main advantages of sun drying are low capital and operating costs
and the fact that little expertise is required. Traditional open-air, sun drying
methods are based on long term experiences and continually used all over the
world to dry plants, seeds, meat, fish, and other agricultural products for
preservation. Over the last few decades, open-air sun drying has gradually
become more and more limited because of the required of an area, the
possibilities of quality degradation, pollution from the air, infestation caused by
birds and insects, and inherent difficulties in controlling the drying process (Imre,
1993).
VI. Solar Drying
Solar drying refers to methods of using the suns energy for drying, but
excludes open air sun drying. A Solar dryer is an enclosed unit, to keep the food
safe from damages caused by, birds, insects, and unexpected rainfall. The food
is dried using solar thermal energy (Vaipulu, 2009). Due to higher cost of fossil
fuels and uncertainty regarding future cost and availability, the use of solar
energy in food processing will probably open opportunities for economic
development in the near future. Solar dryers have some advantages over open
17

sun drying when correctly designed. For instance, they give faster drying rates by
heating the air to 10-30 C above ambient. This enables the air to move faster
through the product inside the dryer. Faster movement of drying air would
minimize humidity buildup inside the drying chamber and would promote faster
dehydration of the product. Furthermore, since the drying chamber is enclosed,
contamination of the products could also be prevented.
Shorter drying time reduces the risk of spoilage, improves quality of the
product and gives a higher throughput. However, care is needed when drying
fruits. Too rapid drying will prevent complete drying due to case hardening
thereby trapping moisture inside the pulp. The trapped moisture would be
conducive for mold growth.
Solar dryers should be constructed from locally available materials and at
a relatively low capital cost. Since solar energy is free, there would be no fuel
costs. Thus, such dryers can be useful in areas where fuel or electricity is
expensive or where land for open sun drying is not available, and where
sunshine is plentiful. Moreover, they may be useful as a means of heating air for
artificial dryers to reduce fuel costs. Solar food drying can be used in most areas
but the period of time in which the food dries can be affected by many variables,
especially the amount of sunlight and relative humidity. Typical drying times in
solar dryers range from 1 to 3 days depending on sun, air movement, humidity
and the type of food to be dried (Szulmayer, 1971).

VII. Biomass Utilization in Drying

18

Biomass is the biodegradable fraction of products, wastes and residues of

biological origin from agriculture, forestry and related industries, including
fisheries and aquaculture, as well as the biodegradable fraction from industrial
and municipal wastes.
Biomass include a broad variety of raw materials such as wood,
agricultural crops, by-products of wood processing, agricultural and forestry
industry products, manure and the organic fraction of waste streams. Forestry
and wood-based industries provide a wider range of different fuels including logs,
bark, chips, sawdust and pellets. (RASLRES, 2011)
A In the Philippines, agricultural biomass (e.g. wood, ricehull, charcoal,
bagasse, corncobs, coconut shells) are usually used as fuel for drying since
fossil fuel are expensive.

Depending on the availability of such biomass

materials from our farms, these renewable energy sources makes it very
practical to use the biomass for drying than simply incinerating them. Such
materials burn easily and can supply the necessary heat for evaporating the
moisture of crops to be dried. Table 2 shows the heating value of different
biomass fuels.

Table 2. Heating Value of Different Biomass Fuels

Biomass Fuel

Heating Value (kJ/kg)

Wheat straw
Barley straw
Rice straw
Coconut shell charcoal
Corn Straw

17,510
17,310
16,280
29,600
17,700
19

Sugarcane Bagasse
Corn cobs
Fuel pellet
Sawdust
Compost
Wood (dry)

17,330
18,960
18,610
18,610
16,010
17,400

Source: www.biomassrules.com

VIII. Solar Dryer

Solar dryers are usually of simple construction. They are designed to
efficiently capture the suns radiant energy. Under the correct climatic conditions,
solar dryers can provide many advantages over open sun drying. These include:
higher drying temperatures which results in shorter drying times and the ability to
dry to a lower final moisture content. It provides protection from contamination by
dust and from rain showers and they are low cost and simple to construct in local
workshops (Neilnob, 2006).
According to Baker & Christopher G.J, (1997), there are three types of
solar dryers which are classified according to the type of energy being used.
Solar natural dryers are devices that use only ambient energy and have
no active elements. The air flow, if there is any, is maintained by natural
convection or, in some cases, by thermosiphon effects induced by a chimney.
Solar natural dryers are mainly used as substitutes for traditional open-air drying
methods in areas where no other source of energy is available. Figure 2-3 shows
examples of tent type arrangements.

20

Figure 4. Example of Solar Natural Dryers

Source: Neilnob, Drying Technologies 2006

Semi-artificial solar dryers are usually featured a solar collector and a fan
for maintaining a special air flow through the drying space as cited by Baker &
Christopher G.J, (1997). The use of semi-artificial solar dryers is justified by their
unsophisticated and fairly cheap construction. They can be recommended for
drying materials that are not sensitive to change when it comes to drying
conditions caused by the periodic character of the solar irradiation and by the
changing atmosphere conditions. Figure 2-4 shows an example of semi-artificial
dryer.

Figure 5. Example of Semi-artificial Solar Dryers

Source: www.nepalsolar.com/products/Solar-dryer

21

Solar-assisted dryer are conventional dryers having a solar collector. They

are generally fitted with a heat storage system and are always fitted with an
auxiliary energy source, such as a thermo-generator fueled by natural gas or oil,
to be use in situations where the solar energy collected is insufficient for drying
purposes. They are normally fitted with modern control systems.

Figure 6. Example of Solar-assisted Dryer

Source: www.callahan.eng.pro/blog/index.php/2008/10/20/solar-hot-water-for-grain-drying

IX. Flat-plate Solar Collector

Flat-plate solar collectors are devices for collecting and using solar energy
for drying. They receive and utilize the incident solar radiation without any
concentration of the energy density (MacDaniels, 1984). Flat-plate collectors are
based on two principles. The first is that a black base that absorbs the solar
radiation better than any other color and the second is to have a glass lid that
traps the heat in ( Sen, 2008). The surface of the solar collector must be
perpendicular to the solar radiation direction for a better solar energy gain.

22

Thermosiphon system is the simplest and reliable method for attaining the
air movement in the solar dryer. Figure 2-6 shows the movement of air in the
solar dryer.

Figure 7. Air Movement in a Solar Dryer

Source: http//:solardevicesforthirdworld.webs.com/solar dryers

Thermosiphon systems are passive fluid heating systems that require no

controls. According to Kreider and Kreith (1982), the force for circulating fluid is
density difference, caused by solar fluid heating, between the collector inlet and
outlet. As the collector heats up, air that passes the flat-plate also heats up,
causing the air movement to the drying cabinet then to the exhaust. This hot air
displaces cold air in the chamber moving it up and out of the dryer.
The transparent cover glass or plastic is the uppermost component of a
flat-plate collector. Its purpose is to trap solar radiation and to provide thermal
resistance to heat loss from the absorber plate (Kreider, 1982). The transmission
value for solar radiation of glazing must be high as recommended. The glazing
23

that most likely to be used is the glass since it has good resistance to large
temperature changes. Another important factor to consider about the cover is the
attachment to the collector housing. Glass seals must be designed accordingly.
They must be able to withstand large temperature variation and the differential
expansion and contraction of housing.
The absorber plate is another important part of the solar collector. Metals
are usually used as absorber plates. According to Kreider (1982) as cited by
Nicomel (2011), aluminum, copper and steel are the most widely used metals as
absorber plate. These metals are usually coated with flat-black oil-based paint
with thin undercoat and primer to improve the absorption of solar radiation.
The second layer next to absorber plates serves as storage materials.
Storage materials can be rocks, pebbles, sand or other metals that can retain
heat for a long period of time. It must have direct contact with the absorber plates
for better conduction and transfer of heat for storage.
Insulation is another vital part of any flat plate collector. Losses through
the insulation depend on its conductivity and thickness (Kreider, 1982). The
insulation should be designed to operate at higher temperatures. According to
Bautista (2007), a thicker insulation is recommended at the bottom since most of
the heat losses occur on the underside of the collector. Insulation must not
deteriorate, expand, contract and most importantly, they should not accumulate
moisture.
The housing is the last part of the collector. This served as the frame of
the insulation, rocks, absorber plate and glass cover. It must be made of by

24

various metals (aluminum and galvanized steel) fiber plastic and hightemperature thermal plastic.
X. Drying Performance of Solar Dryer
Madamba (1999), as cited by Factor (2004), stated that drying underlies
two distinct processes occurring simultaneously: first, heat transfer from the
outside environment to the food solids to evaporate the water and second is the
mass transfer in liquid form of water at inner section of the food and vapor from
the surface diffusing through the air. In porous solid, mass transfer occurs
through the void spaces. Before drying, food material has water in it, which called
the moisture content. After drying, moisture content was lowered to attain desired
weight for storage. The rate at which water in product is vaporized by heat is
called moisture reduction rate. It can be computed using this formula:
MCr = (MCi - MCf)/Td

(Equation 1)

where:
MCr
MCi
MCf
Td

is the moisture reduction rate (kg/hr)

is the initial moisture content of test material, kg
is the final moisture content of test material, kg
is the actual drying time, h

Moisture reduction in percent can be computed by the formula:

MC = ((mi - mf)/ mt) x 100

(Equation 2)

where:
MC
mi
mf
mt

is the moisture content, %

is the initial mass, kg
is the final mass, kg
is the total mass, kg

25

Usually, the moisture content of pineapple is above 80%, so lowering its

moisture content to less 20% requires a long period of time.
The drying performance can also be evaluated by heating value based on
evaporation rate. The heating value can be computed using the formula:
Q = mCp(Te-Ti)

(Equation 3)

where:
Q
m
Cp
Te
Ti

is the heating value, kJ

is the mass of evaporated water, kg
is the specific heat of water, 4.186 kJ/kg-C
is the exhaust temperature, C
is the inlet temperature, C

Another factor of drying performance of a dryer is its efficiency. It is mainly

affected by the heat required to vaporize moisture inside the fruit and the heat
supplied to the dryer. The heat required to vaporize the moisture in the fruit can
be computed using the formula:
Qr =

Qv x Mr
Td

(Equation 4)
where:
Qr
Qv
Mr
Td

is the heat required to vaporize the moisture in the fruit, kJ/hr.

is the heat of vaporization of water, kJ/kg
is the moisture removed, kg
is drying time, hr.

And the heat supplied to the dryer can be computed by the formula:
Qd =

( h2h 1 ) x Va
x 60 min /hr
Vsp

(Equation 5)
where:
Qd
h2

is the heat supplied to the dryer, kJ/hr

is the final enthalpy of drying air, kJ/ kg dry air
26

h1
Va
Vsp

is the initial enthalpy of ambient air, kJ/ kg dry air

is the airflow rate of drying air, m3/min
is the specific volume of drying air, m3/kg dry air

The drying efficiency () of the dryer is the ratio of the heat required to vaporize
the moisture in fruit over the heat supplied to the dryer.
=

Qr
Qd

x 100

(Equation 6)

XI. Heat Losses in Solar Dryer

The movement of heat in a solar dryer is caused by three processes of
heat transfer. These are conduction, convection, and radiation. Conduction is the
transfer of heat through a material due to molecular motion. Convection, on the
other hand, is a direct consequence of conduction. It is a process whereby a fluid
moves from one place to another, resulting to a transfer of energy. Lastly,
radiation involves the transfer of energy by means of electromagnetic waves.
McDaniels (1984), as cited by Nicomel (2011), observed that there are
four principal heat loss mechanisms in a solar collector: (1) conduction loss from
the back of the absorber plate through insulating material, (2) conduction loss
through the side of the collector, (3) convection losses upward to the cover plates
and (4) the upward radiation loss.
XII. Energy Utilized by a Solar Dryer

27

The performance of a solar collector is directly affected by large number of

operational and design variables. Tiwari (1993) cited that the useful energy gain
of a solar dryer can be evaluated using the three parameters, which include the
thermal energy carried away by flowing air in the collector to the chamber (Q a),
total loss coefficient (UL), and the effective transmittance-absorptance product of
the glass cover system (). Given these parameters, the useful energy gain of
the collector per unit time (Qu) can be computed.
The mass and energy balance would reveal the needed parameters for
evaluating the efficiencies. The thermal performance of the solar collector can be
calculated using the energy balance equation.
Useful energy = energy absorbed by the collector heat loss to the
surrounding
The energy balance can be written as
Qu = ItAc()s (ULAc ( Tmp Ta)

(Equation 7)

Useful energy = thermal energy carried away by flowing air to chamber + energy
stored at the flat-plate with rocks.
Qu = mCp (Tac Tdc) +Qs

(Equation 8)

where
Qu
It
Ac
S
S
UL
Tmp
Ta
m
Cp
Tac

is the rate of useful energy gain (W)

is the global solar radiation in plane of collector (W/m 2)
is the area of the collector that absorbs solar radiation (m 2)
is the net solar transmittance of glazing
is the solar absorptance of collector plate
is the overall heat loss coefficient (W/m2-C)
is the average collector plate surface temperature (C)
is the ambient air temperature (C)
is the mass flow rate (kg/s)
is the specific heat of air (kJ/kg-K)
is the air temperature in the collector (C)
28

Tdc
Qs

is air temperature in the chamber (C)

is stored energy at rocks (W)

The value of the overall heat losses coefficient (U L) is the key to thermal
performance of the solar collector ( Kreider and Kreith, 1982). This value
determines how much of the incoming solar energy is loss to the surroundings for
a given average plate surface temperature (T mp). Reducing the overall heat loss
will improve the collector performance.
Efficiency is another important factor of solar collector performance. It is
the ratio of the useful energy delivered to the working fluid with the solar energy
striking the collector. The efficiency can be written as:
=Qu/IT

(Equation 9)

XIII. Solar Dryer Orientation

According to Nicomel (2011), one of the most important decisions that
must be considered regarding the installation of a solar collector is its orientation
relative to the sun. The angle of the collectors should be greater than 15 to
allow rain water to run-off. The collector should also be tilted an angle equal to
the latitude of the site where it will be installed. And also the collector should be
placed away from shadows from trees or buildings. They can vary by 5 and
the annual performance of the collector will vary with very negligible effect.

29

30

31

32

33

CHAPTER III
RESEARCH METHODS AND PROCEDURE
This chapter covers the presentations and discussions of the research
development methods and procedures that are to be used in drying pineapple.
This provides the outline of steps to be implemented in order to achieve the
objectives of the study.

Research Design
This study will employ a developmental research which includes
engineering design, planning and analysis.
Development Stages
This study will consider different development stages to attain the
objectives of the study. This will include:
1. Design Stage
This stage will include the preparation of schematic diagram of the
prototype. This will cover the identification of dimensions and materials
to be used for fabrication. Material specifications will consider the
availability and cost.
2. Fabrication Stage
This stage will cover the identification of the machine shop and the
fabrication procedures. Fabrication of the prototype will be based on
the design requirements
3. Preliminary Testing Stage

34

This stage will cover the preliminary testing of the fabricated

prototype to establish the following parameters such as: working
capacity, operating temperature and operating time.
Necessary modifications will be adopted to attain the optimum
performance of the machine.
4. Final Performance Testing Stage
Performance testing will be conducted to evaluate the following
parameters such as: machine capacity; machine efficiency; and
production rate.
5. Experimental Testing Stage
Experimental testing will be done to evaluate the properties of the
finish product such as effectiveness and drying rate.
Methods of Testing
The following methods will be used to determine the following parameters:
1. Methods of determining operating capacity
Operating capacity will be determined by considering the
amount of pineapple that will be fed in the machine.
2. Methods of determining the operating time
The operating time will start at the time the pineapples are
fed to the machine and will end at the time the pineapple is dried to
desired moisture. The time that will be consumed by the machine to
dry the pineapple will be determined using a time measuring
device.
3. Method of determining the operating temperature
Operating temperature of the machine will be determined
using a digital thermometer.
4. Method of determining the moisture reduction rate
It can be computed using this formula:
35

MCr = (MCi - MCf)/Td

where:
MCr is the moisture reduction rate (kg/hr)
MCi is the initial moisture content of test material, kg
MCf is the final moisture content of test material, kg
Td is the actual drying time, h
5. Method of determining the drying performance evaluated by
heating value based on evaporation rate
The heating value can be computed using the formula:
Q = mCp(Te-Ti)
where:
Q is the heating value, kJ
m is the mass of evaporated water, kg
Cp is the specific heat of water, 4.186 kJ/kg-C
Te is the exhaust temperature, C
Ti is the inlet temperature, C
6. Method of determining the drying efficiency
Another factor of drying performance of a dryer is its
efficiency. It is mainly affected by the heat required to vaporize
moisture inside the fruit and the heat supplied to the dryer. The heat
required to vaporize the moisture in the fruit can be computed using
the formula:
Qr =

Qv x Mr
Td

where:
36

Qr is the heat required to vaporize the moisture in the

pineapple, kJ/hr.
Qv is the heat of vaporization of water, kJ/kg
Mr is the moisture removed, kg
Td is drying time, hr.
And the heat supplied to the dryer can be computed by the formula:
Qd =

( h2h 1 ) x Va
x 60 min /hr
Vsp

where:
Qd is the heat supplied to the dryer, kJ/hr
h2 is the final enthalpy of drying air, kJ/ kg dry air
h1 is the initial enthalpy of ambient air, kJ/ kg dry air
Va is the airflow rate of drying air, m3/min
Vsp

is the specific volume of drying air, m3/kg dry air

The drying efficiency () of the dryer is the ratio of the heat

required to vaporize the moisture in fruit over the heat supplied to
the dryer.
=

Qr
Qd

x 100

7. Method of determining the energy utilized

37

The mass and energy balance would reveal the needed

parameters for evaluating the efficiencies. The thermal performance
of the solar collector can be calculated using the energy balance
equation.
Useful energy = energy absorbed by the collector heat loss to the surrounding

The energy balance can be written as

Qu = ItAc()s (ULAc ( Tmp Ta)
Useful energy = thermal energy carried away by flowing air to chamber + energy
stored at the flat-plate with rocks.

Qu = mCp (Tac Tdc) +Qs

where
Qu is the rate of useful energy gain (W)
It is the global solar radiation in plane of collector (W/m 2)
Ac is the area of the collector that absorbs solar radiation (m 2)
S is the net solar transmittance of glazing
S is the solar absorptance of collector plate
UL is the overall heat loss coefficient (W/m 2-C)
Tmp is the average collector plate surface temperature (C)
Ta is the ambient air temperature (C)
m is the mass flow rate (kg/s)
Cp is the specific heat of air (kJ/kg-K)
Tac is the air temperature in the collector (C)
Tdc is air temperature in the chamber (C)
Qs is stored energy at rocks (W)
38

The efficiency can be written as:

=Qu/IT
Preparation of Raw Materials
This study will utilize pineapples as raw materials. The pineapple will
prepared by peeling the fruit. Pineapple fruit will be peeled with 5 in diameter
and will be cut 10mm thick and was divided in 4 smaller pieces. The purpose of
making it smaller is for better drying since more surfaces will be exposed in
heated air. The pineapple pieces will be soaked for 24 hours in sugar solution for
a longer preservation. Then, the fruit wil be put in the tray and then drained. After
draining, it will be put in the cabinet to dry.

BIBLIOGRAPHY
Baker & Christopher G.J. 1997. Solar Dryer Potentials. Retrieved on January 10,
2013 from http://cms.cnr.edu.bt/cms/files.

39

Bala B. K., 2009. Solar Drying of Fruits, Vegetables, Spices, Medicinal Plants
and Fish: Developments and Potentials. Department of Farm Power and
Machinery

Bangladesh

Agricultural

Universi ty,

Mymensingh-2202,

Bangladesh.

Bolaji B.O. and Olalusi A.P., 2008. Performance Evaluation of a MixedMode Solar Dryer .Department of Mechanical Engineering, University
of Agriculture Abeokuta, Ogun State, Nigeria.

Bureau of Agricultural Statistics, 2012. Pineapple Export. PCARRD-DOST.

Retrieved on March 19, 2013 from http://www.pcaarrd.dost.gov.ph.

Callahan Engineering 2005. Solar Hot Water for Grain Drying. PLCC Cambridge
NY.

Retrieved

on

March

19,

2013

from

www.callahan.eng.pro/blog/index.php/2008/10/20/solar-hot-water-forgrain-drying
Dufie, j. and w. beckman.1980. Solar Engineering of Thermal Processes. New
York: John Wiley and Son Inc.

Jenner, M., 2008. Biomass Rules LLC. 100 E. Harris Avenue. Greenville IL.
Retrieved on April 1, 2013 from www.biomassrules.com

40

Khalil E.J., 2007. Testing Of the Performance of a Fruit and Vegetable Solar
Drying System in Iraq. College of Engineering, Al-Nahrin University,
Baghdad,

Iraq.

Retrieved

on

February

2013

from

http://www.sciencedirect.co

Kreider J.F. and F. Kreith. 1982. Solar Heating and Cooling Active and Passive
Design. New York Hemisphere Publishing Corporation

Leisa, 2005. Drying of Coffee. Leisa Magazine, March 2005. Retrieved on April 30, 2012
from www.nepalsolar.com/products/Solar-dryer

Lorenzo, F.X. n.d.2010. Fresh Fruit Exports from the Philippines: The Lapanday
Foods Opportunities. A Power point Presentation. Retrieved on February
2, 2013. www.lapanday.com

Madhlopa A., Jones S. A. and Kalenga Saka J.D. 2002, A Solar Air Heater with
Composite Absorber Systems for Food Dehydration Renewable Energy

Mcdaniels D.K. 1984. The Sun our Future Energy Source. United States of
America: John and Wiley & Sons, Inc.

41

Meinel A.B. and M.P. Meinel. 1977. Applied Solar Energy: An Introduction.
Massachusetts: Adison Wesley Publishing Company.

Mohamed Akoy E.A.O, 2006. Design and Construction of a Solar Dryer for
Mango Slices. Full paper - Deutscher Tropentag 2006, University of Bonn,
October 2006.

Othman A.B., 2004. For Market Access of Pineapple (Ananas comosus ) Crop
Protection and Plant Quarantine Services Division Department Of
Agriculture Kuala Lumpur Malaysia.

Paras

F.O. n.d. Introduction to Solar Energy. Power Point Presentation.

AENG167 AY 2011-2012

Philippine National Standard, 2004. Fresh Fruit Pineapple Specification.

Bureau of Product Standards. Department of Trade and Industry,
Philippines.

Raslres, 2011. Using Biomass for Process Drying: Technical Report Under the
RASLRES Project . Western Development Commission Dillon House,
Ballaghaderreen, Co. Roscommon

42

Sen, Z. n.d. Solar energy Fundamentals and Modeling Techniques: Atmosphere

Environment, Climate change and Renewable Energy, London: SpringerVerlag London Limited

Tiwari G.N., 1992. Design Parameters of a Shallow Bed Solar Crop Dryer with
Reflector. Center of Energy Studies. Indian Institute of Technology. Delhi,
Hauz Kaz. New Delhi, India.

United States Energy Department. 1978. Introduction to Solar Heating and

Cooling Design and Sizing. United States of America: USDE.

Vaipulu, S.E.U., 2009. Design A Prototype Solar Dryer For Drying Sea
Cucumber. Faculty of Engineering and Surveying. University of Southern
Queensland. Australia.

43

APPENDIX A
SCHEMATIC LAYOUT OF THE PROTOTYPE

44

Figure 8. Design of Solar-Biomass Dryer

45

Figure 9. Front View of the Designed Solar-Biomass Dryer with Dimensions

46

Figure 10. Solar-Biomass Dryer with Dimensions

47

Figure 11. Tray of the Solar-Biomass Dryer with Dimensions

48

APPENDIX B
COST ESTIMATES

49

Cost Estimate
This table shows the cost estimates for the materials used for the
prototype.
Unit
(piece)

Unit Price
(Php)

Total Price
(Php)

Galvanized Iron
Sheet

1400

5600

Good Lumber

180

720

Angle Bar

10

380

3800

Marine Plywood

350

700

Iron Glass

1800

1800

Bolts and Nuts

30

13

390

Aluminum Insulation

400

800

Flat Bar

290

290

Thin Rocks

100

300

Screen Wire

900

900

Polyglass Fiber
Plastic

300

300

Caster Steel Wheels

85

510

Miscellaneous

2500

Fabrication

8000

Total

26610

Material

50

APPENDIX C
CURRICULUM VITAE

51

De Castro, Noel C.
Jaybanga, Lobo, Batangas
09059750038
decastronoel1994@yahoo.com

PERSONAL BACKGROUND
Date of Birth

December 21, 1994

Place of Birth

Lobo, Batangas

Age

21

Civil Status

Single

Citizenship

Filipino

Gender

Male

Fathers Name

Fidel A. De Castro

Mothers Name

Emelita C. De Castro

EDUCATIONAL BACKGROUND
TERTIARY

Bachelor of Science in Mechanical Engineering

Batangas State University
Main Campus II, Alangilan, Batangas City
2012 present

SECONDARY

Lobo International Institute Foundation, Inc.

Lobo, Batangas
2007 2011

52

Pasquil, Neil Dominic A.

Cawong, Pantay, Calaca, Batangas
09162656258
neildominicpasquil@yahoo.com

PERSONAL BACKGROUND
Date of Birth

June 11, 1996

Place of Birth

Calaca, Batangas

Age

19

Civil Status

Single

Citizenship

Filipino

Gender

Male

Fathers Name

Nestor F. Pasquil

Mothers Name

Evelyn A. Pasquil

EDUCATIONAL BACKGROUND
TERTIARY

Bachelor of Science in Mechanical Engineering

Batangas State University
Main Campus II, Alangilan, Batangas City
2012 present

SECONDARY

Dacanlao Gregorio National High School

Dacanlao, Calaca, Batangas
2008 2012

53