PR E F A C E

TO S E C O N D E DI TI O N

o bj ec t of th is b oo k is to s upp ly ele m en t ary

kn o wle d ge of m e t allic m a t eri als u se d in th e c o ns t r u c t i o n
an d op era t i o n of m ac h ine s Th e ai m h as been to bring
to ge th er a gr oup of c o rrela t e d f ac t s to s t a t e th e m clearl y
an d to s ho w th eir rela t i o n
Th e b oo k is in t w o p ar t s : t h e rs t p ar t d eals w i th th e
m a n uf actu re of m at e rials ; an d th e sec o n d d e als wi th th e
U n d ers t an d ing of th e rs t p ar t
pr op erties of m a t erials
is b elieve d to be an essen t ial p reli m inary to th e s tud y of
t he sec o n d p ar t w h ile u n d e rs t an d ing of t h e sec o n d p ar t
is v ery d esirable fo r t h o se w ho d es ig n , c o ns t r u c t an d
op era t e m a c h ines
Th e wri t er wis h es to e xp ress h is grea t o b l i ga t i o n to
Pr of ess o r Her m an D ie d eric h s fo r h is ever -re a d y an d
e fcien t h el p o n p ar t rs t to P r of ess o r Ge o rge B
U pto n w ho se rese arc h e s an d k in d s u gges t i o ns m a d e i t
po ssible to p resen t p ar t sec o n d in i t s p resen t fo r m an d
to Pr of ess o r Heinr i c h R ies fo r h is k in d ness i n cr i t i c i z ing
th e c h apt er o n R ef rac to ry M a t eri als
T h o se w h o w i s h to fo ll o w p ar t sec o n d w i t h a fu ller
an d mo re scien t ic t rea tm en t are re f erre d to P r of ess o r
U pto n s fo r t h c o m i n g b oo k o n M a t erials of C o n st r u c

ti on
T

HE

I T H A C A , J uly 19 14

T A BL E

OF

C O N TE N TS
PA GE

PR E L IM

IN ARY C O N SI DE R T I O N O F F U E LS
A

26

RE FR A C T O RY M A TE RI A LS

O U T LIN E O F
O U T LI N E O F
l

IN C

A N D

T HE

30

M ET A LLU R GY O F I R O N

A N D

S TEE L

. .

M ETA LLU R GY O F C O P P E R LE A D T I N
A LU M IN U M

THE

37

77
91

E E

E Q U I LI B R I U M D IA G RA M O F I R O N

C AR B O N

AN D

C A S T I RO N

1 10

12 1
1 44

XI

H E A T T RE A TM E N T O F S TEE L
N O N F E RR OUS A LLO Y S

1 65
17 7

S E LE C T I O N O F M A TE R I A LS F O R M A C H IN E S

193

M A TE R I AL S 0F M A C H I N E S
PA R T F I R

ST
C

I NA R Y

P RE LI M

AN U F A C T UR E

H A P TE R I
N S I DE RA T I O N O F

CO

F UE L S

general a fu el is a s ubst ance w h ic h e v o lve s h ea t

w h ile u ni t ing c h e m icall y wi th oxygen Th e fu els o r d i
ho wever d e p en d fo r th eir v al u e upo n th e
n arily u se d
p resence of c a rb o n o r hy d r o gen A fu el m ay be pu re
carb o n ( s o li d ) pu re h y d r o gen (gas ) o r c omb inat i o ns
of carb on an d h y d r o gen lik e p e t r o le um (li q u i d )
F u el
m ay th er efo re b e s o li d liq u i d o r gase ou s
A ll in du s t rial fu els h ave th eir o rigin in p lan t g r o w th
A gr o wing p lan t beca u se of ener gy rece i ve d f r om th e
s un s rays se p arat es carb o n d i o xi d e of t h e a tmo s ph ere into
i t s c onst i tu ent s rele asing th e oxygen an d s to ring th e car
b o n wi th in th e gr o wing p lan t t iss u e ; i t als o sto res hy d r o
gen an d oxygen d erive d f r om th e sap so th a t th e res u l t ing
p lan t ber w ood o r st e m s o r leav e s o r grasses c o nsis t s of
a c omb i na t i o n of c arb o n h y d r o gen an d oxygen
W ood m ay be u se d d irec t l y as fu el o r m ay be c o n v er t e d
into c h arc o al N at u re s p r o cesses ac t ing th r ou g h l ong
p eri od s of t i m e h ave c onver t e d p lant ber into c o al o r
p et r o le u m o r natu r al gas ; an d ar t icial p r o cesses p r odu ce
f u el gas an d c o k e f r om c o al an d p r o d u ce fu el gas f r om
p e t r o le um Hence th e p ot en t ial h eat ener gy of fu els i s
IN

M AT E RI AL S O F MACHIN E S

rea lly energy which cam

e f r om t he sun an d was s t o re d
th r ou g h th e agency of p lant gr o wth

Th e e xp ressi o n c omp le t e c omb u s t i o n m eans t h e c om

b inat i o n of a fu el el em en t wi th th at amount of oxygen
w h ic h p r od u ce s t he mo st st able c ompoun d Thu s c om
l
e
t
s
a
c
om
b
u
t
i
o
n
of
c
rb
o
n
p
r
odu
c
carb
o
n
d
i
o
x
i
d
e
es
e
p
C 0 2 ; an d c omp le t e c om b u s t i o n of h y d r o gen p r odu ces
wat er H 2 0
C om b u s t i o n of uni t weig ht of any fu el p r od u ces a
d eni t e q u ant i ty of h e a t w h ic h is calle d i t s cal o ri c p o w er
S ince th i s is a q u an t i t y of h ea t i t is e xp res se d in u ni t s of
*
h eat q u an t i t y ; in th is cas e B ri t is h th er m al uni t s
W h en carb on is b u rne d wi th rest ric t e d oxygen s upp ly
th e gas car b o n mon ox i d e C O is fo r m e d U n d er p r op er
c o n d i t i ons of t e mp era tu re an d wi th a d e q u at e oxyg en sup
p ly th is carb o n mon ox i d e uni t es wi th mo re o xygen fo r m ing
carb o n d i ox i d e C 0 2 an d ev o lving h ea t Hence carb o n
mo n oxi d e is a gas fu el
C alo ri c po wers of c om b u s t ibles f r om e xp eri m ent al d e
t er m i nat i o ns are as fo ll o ws :
.

e
C arb o n bur n ed t o c arb o n di ox i de ( C 0 )
C arb o n b urn ed t o c arb o n m o n o xi d e ( C O )
C arb o n m o n o xi de b urn ed t o c arb o n d io xi de ( C 0 )
H ydr o gen b urn ed t o w at er (H 0 )
M arsh gas b ur n ed t o c arb o n di o xi de ( C 0 ) an d
w at er (H 0 )
C o m b u t ib l

a lo

ri fi c p we

B t

B t

B t

B t

IB

is t he q u an t i ty o f
B ri t ish th erm al u n i t (abb r evi atio n
h eat n ec essary t o rai se t he t em p erature o f o n e p o u n d o f w at er fro m
di vi d ed by 1 80 T h i s gi ves t he average q uan t i ty
3 2 F t o 2 12 F
o f h ea t p er d egr ee f or t he S p ec i e d t em p er a t ur e li m i t s
- o ur
r
i
ee
f
s
m
o
s
o
co
p ed
th f ths
1 S in c e o n e p o un d o f m ar sh ga s
p o u n d o f c arb o n an d o n e-fo u rth p o u n d o f hydro gen i t w o ul d seem
th at it s c alo r i c po w er sho u ld b e eq u al t o % x
i X
is
T h e d i ffer en c e 2 9 30
B t u
B t u i n st ead o f
en er gy us e d in sep ar at in g t he carb o n an d hydro g en o f t he m ar s h gas

PRE LIMINARY C O NSID E RAT I O N O F FUE LS

T h e cal o ric po wer of carb o n mo n ox i d e b u rn e d to car

b o n d i ox i d e m ay be d erive d f r om th e cal o ric po we rs of
carb o n b urne d to carb o n mo n oxi d e an d carb o n b urne d to
carb o n d i ox i d e as fo ll o ws :
T he carb o n in o ne po u n d of C O eq u als f r om th e rela t i o n
of a tom ic weig ht s 1%
po un d In b u rning to C 0
4 5 00 X i$
1 9 28
th is
poun d c arb o n ev o lve d h eat
I f i t h a d be en b u rne d to C 0 2 th e h ea t ev o lve d
B t u
w oul d h ave eq u ale d
X
Th e d if
62 3 1 B t u
f erence be t ween th ese t w o h ea t q u an t i t ies e qu als th e
h ea t th a t w ou l d be ev o lve d b y b u rning carb on mo n ox i d e
to carb o n d i ox i d e Th i s eq u al s 6 2 3 1
19 2 8
4 303
B t u
Th is v al u e c h ec k s cl o sely wi th val u es d erive d f r om
e xp erim ent
T em pe r atu r e s r e su l ting f r o m c omb u sti o n
W h en a
c omb u st ibl e is b u rne d an d t he h e at ev o lve d is app lie d
e x c l u sively to th e p r od u c t s of c om b u s t i o n
th e t e mp era
tu re a tt aine d d e p en d s o n th e fo ll o wing f ac to rs :
,

27

Th e cal o ric po wer of th e c om b u s t ible

Th e na t u re relat ive w eig ht s an d th e s p ec ic h ea t s

of th e p r odu c t s of c om b u s t i on
,

Th e q u an t i t y of air s upp lie d

Th e t e mp era tu r e be fo re c om b u st i o n of th e fu el an d
th e air th a t s upp lies oxy gen fo r th e c om b u s t i on
'

F ac to r

is a m eas u re of th e q u an t i ty of h ea t th a t is
available fo r a pp lic at i o n to th e c om b u st i o n p r odu c t s an d
wi th a given q u ant i t y of a giv en m at erial to h eat th e
res ul t ing t emp erat u re is p r opo r t i o nal to th e q u an t i ty of
h ea t availabl e
2 Th e t e mp era tu re of c om b u s t i o n d e p en d s o n t he
n atu r e of th e c om b u st i o n p r odu c t s ; th is m ay be ill u st rat ed
a s fo ll o ws :I f th e fu el is h y d r o gen th e c om b u s t i o n p r odu c t
1

MATE RIALS O F MACHIN E S

i s wa t er ; t h e wa t er mus t be vapo ri z e d an d th e h ea t of
v apo ri z at i o n b ec om es lat en t an d h ence cann ot affec t t e m
r
a
u
r
e
t
e
Th is is of c ou rse n ot t r u e w h en th ere is n o
p
c h ange of s t at e of c om b u st i on p r odu c t as in c ase of carb o n
b urn e d to carb o n d i ox i d e I t is o bvi ou s th at wi th a given
q u an ti ty of h ea t available th e t emp era tu re increase d e
p en d s u po n th e weig ht o f s u b s t ance h ea t e d an d upo n th e
q u an t i ty of h ea t th at will raise un i t weig ht of th e s ub st ance
th r ou g h a t emp era tu re range of o ne d egre e ; th a t is upo n
i t s s p ecic h eat
3 T h is f ac to r ae c t s th e res u l t beca u se any e x cess of air
i ncreases t h e weig h t of m att er to be h eat e d by a given h ea t
q u an t i ty wi th c o rres pon d ing r edu c t i o n of t emp eratu re
4 Th is f ac to r aff ec t s th e re su l t beca u se wi th 1 2 an d 3
S p ecie d th e p r odu c t s of c om b u st i on w ou l d be rais ed in
t emp eratu re th r ou g h a cer t ain ran ge an d th e n al t em
u
b
r
u
r
s
w
ou
l
d
d
e
p
en
d
o
n
th
e
t
e
mp
era
tu
re
of
th
e
e
a
t
e
p
st ance w h en h ea t ing began
T o n d t h e t em pe r ature p r o du c e d by c omp l et e c Om
C h e m icall y
bu st ion of pu r e c arb o n w i th o ut e x c e s s of air
th e c om b u s t i o n m ay be re p resent e d as fo ll o ws :
,

24

64

02

2 02

88
2 002

T h e relat i ve weig ht s a pp ear a b o ve th e sym b o ls F o r

every 2 4 weig ht uni t s of car b o n 64 w eig ht uni t s of oxy gen
mu s t be s upp lie d ; h ence fo r o ne weig ht un i t of carb o n 3%
weig ht u ni t s of oxygen mu st b e s upp lie d B u t th e oxygen
is s upp lie d f r om th e air w h ic h is a m i xt u r e of oxygen an d
ni t r o gen wi th v er y sm all amo un t s of wat er va po r c arb o n
d i o xi d e an d oth er gases F o r th e p r esent pu r po se all m ay
be d isregar d e d e x ce pt ni t r o gen an d oxygen w h ic h are
p resen t w i th cl o se a pp r oxi m at i o n as fo ll o ws : ni t r o gen
7 7 p er cen t by weig ht an d oxygen 2 3 p er cen t by weig ht
.

PRE LIMINARY C O NSID E RA T I O N O F F U E LS

Hence to s upp l y 2 3 weig ht u ni t s of oxygen 1 00 weig ht

u ni t s of air are nec e ssary ; th er efo re i t t akes
weig ht
u ni t s of air to s upp ly o ne weig ht uni t of oxygen Hence
fo r c omp le t e c om b u s ti on of one pou n d of pu re car b on th e
weig ht of air req u ire d eq u als
,

3% X

poun d s

l oo
gg
.

Th e res u l t in g gases w h en c om b u s t i o n is c omp le t e are

ni t r o gen an d carb o n d i oxi d e Th e ni t r o gen t akes n o p ar t
in th e c om b u s t i o n an d th e weig ht is 7 7 per cen t of th e
air s upp li ed o r
pou n d s X
pou n d s F o r
every poun d of carb o n (see eq u a t i o n ab o ve ) g;
poun d s of carb o n d i oxi d e are p r odu ce d

O n e pou n d carb on ( s o li d ) b u rne d in

S um m ar y
poun d s air ( gas) p r odu ces
pou n d s ni t r o gen (gas )
an d
pou n d s carb o n d i ox i d e (gas )
H eat c han g e s du rin g th i s c omb u sti o n
A ss um e th a t
th e air s upp lie d an d th e carb o n are a t a t e mp eratu re of
6 5 F befo re c om b u s t i o n
Th en t aking 0 F as t he
h ea t d atum o r t e mp erat u re a t w h ic h h e at begins to be
c onsi d ere d th e air w oul d bring to th e c omb u st i o n
X
65 X
B t u in w h ic h
is th e weig ht of
air 6 5 is th e t e mp eratu re range ab o ve th e h ea t d at u m an d
is th e s p ecic h ea t of air a t c o ns t an t a tmo s ph eric
p ress u re an d a t a t e mp era tu re of 6 5 F Th e h ea t th a t
o ne poun d of carb o n w ou l d bring to th e c omb u s t i o n eq u als
1 X 65 X
B t u
Th e c omp le t e c o m b us
t i o n of th e carb o n w oul d ev o lve
B t u
Hence t he
tot al h ea t available to rais e t he t e mp er atu re of th e p r od
u c t s of c om b u s t i o n ab o ve 0
F e q u als
,

B t
.

Th is h ea t w ou l d raise
poun d s ni t r o gen an d
poun d s oxygen to s om e t e mp erat u re t to be d e t er m ine d
T h e m ean s p ec i c h ea t of ni t r o gen wi th t h e t e mp er

MATE RIALS O F MACHIN ES

a tu re range 0 to 4 000 F is
an d of c arbo n d i oxi d e
fo r th e sam e range is
Th e h ea t abs o rbe d by t he ni t r o gen w h ile it s t emp eratur e
is raise d to t F eq u als
X t X
t ; th e
h ea t abs o rbe d by t he c a rb o n d i oxi d e w h il e i t s t em p eratu re
l 04 9 t B t u
is raise d to t F eq u al s
XtX

H ence
w h ence

t (2 54 3
.

4 1 00

T h e t e mper atu re pr o d u c e d b y b urn in g carb o n m o no xid e

a
s
h
m
ay
be
fou
n
d
by
t
e sam e m e thod
Th is c h e m i c a l
g
.

c om binat i on is re p r esent ed thu s ;

56

32

88

2C C

02

2 C 02

Th e w eig ht of air p er po un d of c arb o n mon ox i d e e q u al s

3
J oo
poun d s O f th i s air 7 7 p er c ent o r
2 % X yg
poun d s is ni t r o gen ; th e res u l t ing carb on d i ox i d e eq u al s
poun d s
3%

S umm ary
O n e poun d car b o n mo n oxi d e ( gas ) b u rn e d
in
poun d s air (gas) p r odu ces
po un d s ni t r o gen
poun d s carb o n d i oxi d e (gas)
( gas) an d
A s befo re ass u m e 0 F as a h ea t d atum an d 6 5 F
as th e t e mp eratu re of th e fu el an d air su pp ly be fo re c om
Th en th e air w ou l d bring to th e c omb u st i o n
bu st io n
B t u
X 65 X
an d th e f u el w o u l d
B t u
bring I X 65 X
Th e h ea t ev o lve d
by th e c omb u st i o n ( c al o ri c po w er of t he c arb o n mon ox i d e)
4 300 B t u
Henc e th e tot al h ea t available to raise
t he t emp era tu re of th e p r odu c t s of c om b u s t i o n ab o ve 0 F
'

4 354 B t

4 300

S ee

p age

8 65

Exp eri m en tal En g in eer in g

C ar p en ter

an d

D i ed er i ch s

PRE LIMINARY C O NSID E RA T I O N O F FUE LS

Th e m ean s p ecic h ea t of ni t r o gen (0 to 4 000 F )
an d of carb o n d i ox i d e

4 39 7

T h e t em pe r atu re

p r o d u c e d by t h e c o m b u st i o n o f
hydr o g en m ay al s o b e fo u n d : Th e c om b u s t i o n is repre
sent e d c h e m ically as fo ll o ws :
4

36

32

2 H2

Z E 20

02

F o r e v ery weig ht u ni t of h y d r o gen 8 weig ht uni t s of

o xygen mu s t be s upp lie d an d th e c o rrespo n d ing weig ht
of air
po un d s Hence th e c om b u st i on
X 8
of o ne poun d of h y d r o gen req u ires
poun d s of air of
w h ic h 7 7 p er cen t o r
po un d s is ni t r o gen T hewa t er
res ul t ing f r om th e c om b u s t i o n
9 pou n d s

O n e pou n d h y d r o gen ( gas ) b u rn e d in

S umm ary
poun d s air (gas ) p r od u ces
pou n d s ni t r o gen ( gas ) an d
9 poun d s wa t er ( s up er h ea t e d va po r )
*
Th e wat er p r od u ce d is raise d in t e mp eratu re to 2 12 F
an d c o nver t e d into st ea m w h ic h is s up er h eat e d to th e
t e mp eratur e res u l t ing f r om th e c om b u s t i on
,

Th e s p ecic h ea t of h y d r o gen a t 6 5 F
Th e s p ecic h eat of air a t 6 5 F
Th e s p ecic h ea t of wa t er a t 65 F
T h e m ean s p ecic h eat of ni t r o gen f r om
0 F to 4 000 F
T h e m ean s p ecic h ea t of s t eam f r om
2 12 F to 4 000 F

Th e h eat th a t is available to raise th e t emp eratu re of

th e p r odu c t s of c om b u s t i o n m ay be fou n d as fo ll o ws :
Wi th 0 F fo r a h eat d atum an d wi th 6 5 F as th e t e m
r
u
r
e
a
t
e
of
th
e
h
y
d
r
o
gen
an
d
air
be
fo
re
c
om
b
u
s
t
i
o
n
o
ne
p
A ssu m in g t he c o m b us t io n t o o c cur at at m o sp h eric pr essur e

MATE R IALS O F MACHINE S

poun d of h yd r o gen w ou l d bring h ea t to th e c omb u st i on

2 19 B t u
eq u al to 1 X 6 5 X
Th e air w oul d b ring
h eat e qu al to
X 65 X
th e h ea t
5 36
ev o lve d by th e c om b u s t i o n ( cal o ric po wer of h y d r o gen)
B t u
Th e sum of th ese val u es
B t u
Th is h ea t ho wever cann ot all be a pp lie d to raise th e t e m
p erat u re of th e p r odu c t s of c om b u st i o n beca u se th e h ea t
a pp lie d to v a po ri z e t he wat er do es n ot aff ec t t e mp erature
*
Th is h ea t
9 70 X 9
B t u
Hence th e h ea t
th a t really do es aff ec t t e mp erat u re eq u als
8 7 30
B t u
Th is h ea t raises th e t emp eratu re of 9
pou n d s of wat er f r om 6 5 F to 2 12 F it als o raises th e
t emp eratu re of 9 pou n d s of s t eam f r om 2 12 F to t th e
nal t e mp era tu re ; i t als o raises th e t e mp era ture of
poun d s of ni t r o gen f r om 6 5 F to t
Hence th e f o llo wm g
e q u at i on m ay b e wri tt en :
.

6 5)
(2 12

(t 6 5)

He n ce

(t

2 12 ) ( 9 x

x
1 3 23

13 6 8 t
.

an d

398 2

1 3 68

F o r th e ass um e d c o n d i t i ons th en th e th e o re t ical t e m

r
p
r
odu
ce
d
by
c
omp
le
t
e
c
om
b
u
s
t
i
o
n
are
fo
r
r
u
s
:
a
e
t
e
p
carb on 4 100 F ; fo r carb o n mon o xi d e 4 3 9 7 F ; an d fo r
hy d r o gen 39 82 F
I t m ay see m s t range th a t th e c om b u st i on of carb o n
mon oxi d e
w h ic h is p ar t ially b u rne d carb o n
s houl d
p r odu ce a h ig h er t e mp eratu re th an th e c om b u st i o n of th e
o riginal carb o n ; es p ecially in view of th e f a c t th a t th e cal o
Bt u
ri c po wer o r h ea t p r odu ce d p er pou n d is
fo r carb on an d o nly 4 320 B t u fo r c arb o n mon oxi d e
Insp ec t i o n of th e ill u s t rat ive ex amp les given ab o v e ho w
,

h ea t o f evap oratio n

T he

tm o sp h eri c pressure

o f s eam at a

PRE LIMINARY C O NSID E RAT I O N O F F UE LS

ever s ho ws th a t w h ile th e h ea t ev o l v e d in th e case of

carb o n mo n o xi d e is less th e weig ht of t h e p r odu c t s of
c omb u s t i o n is less in grea t er p r opo r t i o n an d h ence t h e
res ul ting t em perat ur e is h ig h er
Th e reas o ns w h y h y d r o gen wi th i t s h ig h cal o ric po wer
p r odu ces a t e mp era t u re l o wer th an ei th er of th e oth er
fu els are th e great er relat ive weig ht s of th e s ubs t ances
h ea t e d th eir great er h ea t cap aci ty an d th e abs o rpt i o n
o f h ea t fo r th e va po ri z a t i o n of th e wa t er p r o d u ce d by th e
c omb u s t i o n wi th n o res u l t ing c h ange of t e mp eratu re
Th e th e o re t ical t e mp eratu res foun d are never a tt aine d
in ac tu al c o mb u s t i o n fo r th e fo ll o wing reas o ns :
1 C om b u s t i o n is sel dom c omp le t e ;
nel y d ivi d e d
s o li d fu el f alls th r ou g h gra t es an d carb o n mo n o xi d e an d
m ars h gas oft en esca p e u nb u rne d to th e s t ack beca u se of
l o w t e mp era ture o r insuf cien t oxygen s upp ly ; h ence th e
th e o re t ical q u ant i ty of h ea t to raise th e t e mp eratu re is
n ot c omp le t ely e v o l v e d
2 In p rac t ice an e x cess of air is always s upp lie d in
th e e ffo r t to p reven t inc omp let e c om b u st i o n an d th is
increases th e weig ht of t h e gas to b e h eat e d an d thu s
re du ces th e res u l t ing t e mp era tu re F o r e x a mp le th e
t emp erat u re res u l t ing f r om t he c omp le t e c om b u s ti o n of
carb on wi th c on d i t i o ns as in th e e x amp le o n p age 4 an d
wi th 5 0 p er cen t e x cess of air is ab o u t 3000 F ins t ea d of
4 100 F wi th n o air e x cess ; wi th 1 00 p er cen t e x cess th e
th e o re t ical t emp eratu r e is ab o u t 2 300 F
3 Th ere are always ra d ia t i o n l o sses w h ic h increase
very ra p i d ly wi th increase of t e mp era tu re ; w h ile th ese
l o sses m ay be mu c h re du ce d by carefu l d esign an d c o n
s t ru c t i o n an d b y th e u se of h ea t ins u lat ing m at erials t h ey
cann ot be re du ce d to z er o
4 M o is tu re w h ic h is u s u ally p resen t in th e fu el an d
in t h e air s upp ly abs o rbs h ea t w h ile i t is h ea t e d v a po ri z e d
,

10

MATE RIALS O F MACHIN E S

an d s up er h eat e d an d th is h eat is t aken a way f r om t he

h eat th a t is available to raise t e mp eratu re
5 Th ere is als o a li m i t du e to t he f ac t th a t a t h ig h
t emp eratu res d iss o ciat i on of th e p r odu c t s of c omb u s ti on
m ay o cc u r ; th is m ay be e xp laine d as fo ll o ws :
In a s p ace like an o r d inary fu rnace c o nt aining carb on
oxygen carb o n mo n oxi d e an d carb o n d i o xi d e th ere are
p r o babl y t w o c o exis t ing t en d encies ; o ne fo r carb o n an d
oxygen to u ni t e an d an oth er fo r t he c ombinat i o ns of
carb o n an d oxygen to se p arat e A t a giv en t e mp era t u re
th ese t en d encies will b e in eq u ilibri um w h en a cer t ain
p r opo rt i o n e xist s a mong th e s ub st ance s p re sen t A S t he
t emp erat u re c h ange s ho wever th e p r opo r t i o ns c o rre
W h en t e mp era ture rises
spo n din g to eq u ilibri um c h ange
in a s p ace c o nt aining t he s u bs t ances s p ecie d ab o ve in
s om e of t he c arb o n d i ox i d e will d iss o cia t e
e q u ilibri u m
in o r d er to r esto re th e d is tu rbe d e q u ilibri um Th is dis
s o ciat i o n is ac c omp anie d by abs o r pt i o n of h ea t w h ic h
t en d s to c h eck th e rise in t emp era tu r e an d th ere fo r e
t o li m i t t h e t e m pe r atu r e of c omb u sti o n b y t h e d i s s o
c iat ion of com b u s t i o n pr o d u c t s
I t is i mpo s sibl e in th e p r esen t st at e of kn o wle d ge to
s t at e th e p r opo r ti o ns an d t e mp era tu res q u ant it a t iv ely b u t
i t is cer t ain th a t in o r d inary fu rnaces b u rning carb on f u el
a t e mp era tu re of 3000 F c an be p r odu c ed w h ile i t is
p r o bable th at d iss o ciat i o n of C 0 2 w ou l d p reven t th e
t emp eratu re ri sing mu c h ab o v e 3 500 F
S i m ilarly h ig h ly s up er h e at e d s t ea m f r om th e c o m b u s
t i o n of h y d r o gen w ou l d d i sso c i at e wi th ri sing t emp era tu re
to r e s to r e eq u ilibri um an d w o u l d th u s li mi t t he t emp era
tu re of c omb u st i o n of h y d r o g en to s om e val u e l ess th an t he
th e o re t i c al val u e d eriv e d ab o v e
In engine ering an d m et all u rgi c al p r o c esse s i t is oft en
re qui re d to p r odu ce t e mp eratures h ig h er th an 3000 F
,

11

PRE LIMINARY C O NSIDE RAT I O N O F F UE LS

A

w h ile g u ar d ing agains t inc omp le t e c omb u st i o n of carb o n

wi t h a 50 p er cen t (o r great er) ex cess of air o r w h ile u sing
a gas fu el d il ut e d wi th a large p r opo rt i o n of ni t r o gen
Th is can be acc omp lis h e d up to th e li m i t set by d iss o
by p re h ea t ing th e air s upp ly an d th e fu el als o
c iat io n
i f i t is gas o r vapo r
Wi t h th e m e thod of c omput at i o n u se d a b o v e i t is foun d
th a t in case of c omp le t e c om b u st i o n of carb o n wi t h 50
p er cen t e x cess of air th e p re h ea t ing of t h e air s upp ly to
1 2 00 F increases th e t e mp era tu re of c om b u s t i o n f r om
ab out 3 000 F to ab out 39 00 F ; w h ile wi th 1 00 p er
cen t air e x cess an d p re h eat ing to 1 2 00 F th e th e o re t ical
t e mp eratu re is ab out 33 00 F I f t he p re h eat ing is in
crease d to 1 500 F wi th 5 0 p er cen t air e x cess th e res ul t ing
th e o re t ical t emp era tu re bec om es 4 2 00 F an d wi th 100
p er cen t air e x cess i t bec om es 3600 F O f c ou rse th ese
v al u es w ou l d be s om ew h a t re du ce d by ra d iat i o n l o s s
S ince d iss o ciat i o n ( see p age 10 ) se t s a p r o bable li m i t a t
ab out 3 5 00 F i t w ou l d see m f r om t h e th e o r et ical t e mp er
a tu res j u s t given th a t p re h ea t ing of air to p r o d u ce h i g h
nal t emp era tu re m ig ht be o ver done
I f pu re oxygen were use d in st e a d of air fo r th e s u ppo r t
of c om b u st i o n of carb o n th e res u l t ing th e o re t ical t e m
perat u res w ou l d b e h ig h er Since th ere w ou l d be n o ni t r o gen
to h eat T h is t e mp era tu re cann ot be c omput e d beca u se
of th e u ncert ain t y as to th e val u e of th e s p ecic h ea t of
c arb o n d i oxi d e a t very h ig h t e mp era tu res B ut in t h is
c ase as in tho se p revi o u sly c o nsi d ere d th e d iss o ciat i o n
li m i t w oul d b e m e t thou g h i t s val u e m ig ht b e c h ange d
beca u se of t h e d i ff eren t c ompo si t i on of th e p r odu c t s of
c omb u st i on
I t fo ll o ws th a t i f t e mp era tu res mu c h ab o ve 3 5 00 F
are req uire d th ey mu s t be p r o d u ce d by ot h er m eans t h an
t he b u r n ing of car b o n fu el
,

12

MATE R I ALS

MACH I N ES

OF

Th ere are m any oth er s u bst ances in nature w h ic h

w h en th ey c om bine wi th oxygen p r odu ce t e mp eratures
h ig h er th an tho se th a t res u l t f r om th e b u rni ng of carb o n
o r h y d r o gen T w o s u c h s u bst ances silic on an d al u
m inum will be brie y c o nsi d ere d fo r ill u st rat i on
*
In th e B esse m er p r o cess Silic on w h ic h c on
S ili c o n
st it u t es o nly f r om 2 to 5 p er cen t of th e c h arge a t th e

beginning of th e bl o w is b u rne d to silica 8 10 2 an d

c h ie y as a res u l t of th e h ea t thu s ev o lve d th e ent ire
c h arge is raise d in t e mp eratu r e f r om ab out 2 500 F to
ab out 3 5 00 F a t w h ic h th e nearly pu re ir on is h el d in
a ui d s t at e O bvi ou sly i f th e silic o n were p resen t in
larger p r opo r t i o n i t s b u rning w oul d p r odu c e a h ig h er
t emp era tu re i f th e t e mp era t u re were n ot reac h e d a t
w h ic h va po ri z a t i o n of th e Silica o r th e ir o n w ou l d es t ab
lis h a t e mp era tu re li m i t
A l um i n u m
F inely d ivi d e d al um in um an d ir o n oxi d e

are int im a t ely m i x e d th e m ixtu re being calle d th er

m i t an d w h en th is m i xtu re is igni t e d th e oxygen of th e

ir o n o xi d e g o es o ver to th e al um in um fo r m ing al um ina
Th e c h e m ical c h anges
A 12 0 3 an d leaving pu re ir o n
o cc u r ra p i d ly an d very vig o r ou sly an d th e resu l t ing t e m
A t th is t e mp eratu re
perat u r e is sai d to be ab out 5 000 F
th e al um ina m ay be d r a wn o ff as a mo l t en slag leaving
th e pu re ir o n in a v ery u i d s t at e S om e t i m es th e p r od
u ot of th is p r o cess is u se d to m en d cracke d cas t ings
Th e hot liq u i d ir o n f r om th e p r o cess is all o we d to r un
into t he s p ac e b et w een th e c rack ed s u r f aces th e m et al
of th e s e s u r f aces is m el t e d t he s p ace is ll ed wi th mol t en
ir o n w h ic h c oo ls an d s o li d ies an d th e cracke d s u rf aces
are j o ine d
Th i s p r o cess is als o a pp lie d to th e p r odu c t i o n of m e t als
li k e tungs t en an d c h r om i um in a very pure s t a t e f r om
,

S ee

p age

60

PRE LI MINARY C O NS I D E RA T I O N OF F U E LS

13

th eir oxi d es Th e m e t allic ox i d e is m i xe d wi th pu re

al um in um b oth nely d i vi d e d an d th e m i xtu re is ig
n it ed ; t he p r odu c t s are pu re m e t al an d al um in um ox i d e
th e la tt er being re mo ve d as Slag
T h e u se of al um in um as a fu el is o nly j u st ie d by th e
p r odu c t i o n of e x c e pt i onal res u l t s beca u se th e fu el mu s t be
p r odu ce d by an a r t icial an d c o st ly p r o cess
N a ture do es n ot p r odu ce silic o n an d al um in um fu el ;
nat u re s p r o cesses h ave p r odu ce d vas t q u an t i t ies of
Silica 8 10 2 an d al um ina A 12 0 3 in w h ic h th e c om b inat i o n
wi th oxygen an d ev o l ut i o n of h ea t has alrea d y o cc u rre d ;
th a t is th ey a r e fu els th a t h ave been b u rn e d Th is is
t ru e of al mo s t all s ubs t ances th a t m ig ht be u se d as fu el ;
i t is t r u e of carb o n an d h y d r o gen w h ic h o cc u r
I n f ac t
in natu re c ombine d wi th o xygen as carb o n d i ox i d e
m ec h anically m i x e d wi th th e air an d as wat er in i t s
well kn o wn d ist rib u t i o n B ut th e energy of th e s u n s
rays th r o u g h th e a gency of p l an t gr o w th is c o n t in u all y
pulling away c arb o n f r om th e oxy g en of th e carb o n d i ox i d e
of th e air an d s to ring i t wi th hy d r o gen an d oxyg en f r om
th e sap in th e p r odu c t s of p lan t gr o w th In th e p as t
th ese h ave been c onver t e d by natu re s p r o cesses into
c o al p e t r ole um an d n atu ral gas an d s to re d u n d ergr oun d
S o li d fu e l s m ay be classie d as :
.

R
aw
fu
els
s
u
c
h
as
c
o
al
an
d
w
ood
)
(
;
a
A
r
t
ici
l fu els s u c h as c o ke an d c h arc o al
b
( )
a

R aw

fu e l s

o al is oft en cl assie d as fo ll o ws :

L igni t e
B i tum in ou s c o al
A nth raci t e c o al
.

C o al

P lan t

t iss u e i s really c o nver t e d in to c o al by gra d u al

c h ange ; h ence e ac h d i visi on of t h e classicat i o n c o v ers
,

MATE RIALS O F MACHIN E S

14

a wi d e range an d blen d s into th e oth ers D escri pt i on

of c o als is unnecessary h ere
Th e fo ll o wing t able of p ercen t age c ompo si t i ons S h o ws
t he c h e m ical c h anges w h ic h o c c u r w h ile p lan t t iss u e o r
w ood y ber is c h ange d to an th raci t e c o al
.

ue l

rb n

o mbu

st i n
o

Pe at
L i gn i t e
B i t um i n o us c o a l
A n th ra c i te c o al
D u ring th is

c h ange th e p ercen t age of available c o m bus

t ible increase s an d th e p ercen t age of wat er to abs o rb
h ea t d ecreases ; h ence th e t e mp erature of c omb u s t i o n
increases
*
A cc o r d ing to P r of ess o r T h o r p e
w o od y
Woo d
t iss u e w h en f ree d f r om s o l u ble an d oth er fo reign m att er
h as a p ercent age c ompo si t i o n as fo ll o ws : carb on
h y d r o gen
o xygen
S ince eig ht p ar t s by
weig h t of oxygen uni t e in c om b u st i o n wi th o ne p ar t of
h y d r o gen i t fo ll o ws th a t i f th e p ercen t age of h y d r ogen
p resen t were
th e oxygen an d h y d r o gen
8
w oul d be p resen t in j u s t th e rig ht p r opo r t i o n to fo rm
wat er an d n o h y d r o gen w o u l d be available fo r th e ev o
Th e amou n t of h y d r o gen r eally p resen t
lut io n of h ea t
is
p er cen t ; an d onl y th e d i ff erence
p er cen t of h y d r o gen is available Th is is p rac t ically
negli gible O nly 4 8 p er cen t of pu re w ood y t iss u e th ere
fo re is available fo r fu el T h e te mp eratu re of c o m bus
,

Co al : I t s H istory an d Uses pp
Pro fesso r Tho rp e Pub lish ed by M a cm illan

165
1 6 4

E di ted

by

PRE LIMINARY C O NSID E RA T I O N O F FU E LS

15

ti on is l o w fo r th is reas on an d als o beca u se th e wa t er

res u l t ing f r om th e b rea king up of th e w ood y t iss u e an d
th at p resen t as mo is tu re mu s t be v a po ri z e d wi th ab so rp
t i on of h ea t u nacc omp anie d by r i se in t e mp eratu re
Th ere fo re w ood cann ot be u se d d irec t ly as a fu el fo r t h e
p r odu c t i o n of very h ig h t e mp era tu res
A rt i c i al f u e l s
C ok e
B i tum in ou s c o al as s h o wn
in th e fo reg o ing t able c o nt ains carb o n h y d r o gen an d
o xygen Th ere is als o a sm all a moun t of ni t r o gen p resen t
W h en th is c o al is h ig h ly h eat e d in a cl o se d re to r t ,
d es t r u c t i v e d is t illa t i o n t a k es p lace Th e p r odu c t s of
th is p r o cess m ay vary wi th th e t i m e o cc up ie d t h e t e m
r
u
r
a
e
a
t
e
th
e
q
u
ali
t
y
of
th
e
c
o
al
p
nd oth e r c o n d i t i o ns
b ut in general are as fo ll o ws :
(a) C om binat i o ns of h y d r o gen an d carb o n in a very
wi d e range of p r opo rt i o ns res u l t ing in s o li d liq u i d an d
gase ou s h y d r o carb o ns
(6) C om binat i o n of h y d r o gen an d ni t r o gen into am
mo nia
(c) C om bina t i o ns of h y d r o gen ni t r o gen an d carb o n
in to aniline an d m any oth er c ompoun d s
(d) C ombinat i ons of carb o n h y d r o gen an d o xygen
i nto ph en o l an d oth er c ompo un d s
(6) C ombinat i o ns of carb o n an d oxygen into carb o n
mo n oxi d e an d carb o n d i ox i d e
P u re h y d r o gen
(g) A nearly pu r e resi du e of car b o n w h ic h i s calle d
c o ke
'
When su lphur is p resen t s u l phu r d i ox i d e an d oth er
c ompoun d s of s ul p h u r an d th e oth er ele m ent s p resen t are
p r odu ce d
W ood m ay als o b e s u bj ec t e d to d es t r u o
C harc o al
t ive d ist illat i o n th e p r o cess being essent iall y t h e sam e as
th at j u s t d escribe d Th e carb o n resi du e is calle d c h arc o al
,

M ATE RIALS O F MACHIN E S

16

Th e o b j ec t of th e p r o cesses fo r th e p r od uc ti o n of c o k e
an d c h arc o al is to p r odu ce a c oncen t rat e d fu el by re mo ving
all s ubs t ances e x ce pt th e available fu el ele m en t c arb o n
O b vi ou sly th is increases th e t e mp era tu re p r odu ce d by
c omb u s t i o n
Gase ou s h y d r o carb o ns carb o n mo n ox i d e an d h y d r o gen
are gas fu els w h i c h p as s o ff an d h ence unless th ese are
ut ili z e d th e p r o cess sacrices a po r t i on of th e fu el in o r d er
to increase th e t e mp era tu re of c om b u st i o n
Pul veriz ed c o al
F o r cer t ain serv i ce pu lveri z e d
c o al is u se d as fu el wi th grea t a d van t age B i t u min o u s
c o al is d rie d an d gr o un d so th a t ab out 9 0 p er cen t will
p ass th r ou g h a scr e en of 1 00 m es h es to th e inc h ; th is
c o al po w d er is bl o wn into a fu rnace in a cl oud w h ere i t
b u rns w h ile in s u s p ensi o n Th e s u r f ace of c ont ac t of th e
c o al wi th th e o xygen of th e air is vas t ly increase d b y
pu lveri z ing an d i t is u nnecessary to s upp ly e x cess of air
as in b u rning c o al in l ump s ; in f ac t th e air supp ly m ay b e
k e pt al mo s t a t th e t her o et ic al req uirem en t in b u rning
pu lveri z e d c o al wi th th e res u l t th a t th e t emp eratu re
p r odu ce d a pp r ox i m at es th e t e mp era tu re lim i t set by
d iss o ciat i o n of carb on d i oxi d e ; b ec au se o f t h is i t h as been
d i fc u l t to p r o vi d e r ef rac to ry lining th at will wi th st an d
th e t e mp eratu re of c om b u s t i o n of po w d ere d c o al Th is
fu el req u ires a very large c om b u st i o n c h am ber as th e c o al
po w d er mu s t be b u rne d w h ile in s u s p en si o n an d th e
car b on mo n ox i d e fo r m e d b u rns wi th a ver y l ong am e ; fo r
th is reas o n i t h as p r o ve d s u ccessfu l fo r u se in th e l ong
r ot ary k ilns u se d in th e m anuf ac tu re of ce m en t an d i t
h as f aile d as a b o iler fu el thou g h i t m ig ht po ssibly be
u se d w h ere t h e b o iler t yp e p ermi t s large c om b u s ti on
s p ace T h e t emp eratu re als o is too h ig h fo r b o iler ser
vice b ut t h i s c oul d be c ont r o lle d by increase in th e air
.

PR E LIMINARY

OF

C O NSID E RA T I O N

FUE LS

17

Th e pu lveri z e d c o al un d er cer t ain c on d i t i o ns fo r m s

a n e xp l o sive m i xtu re wi th th e ox ygen of th e air an d s om e
very d isas t r ou s e xp l o si ons h av e res u l t e d Th e c o al n o w
is gr oun d o nly as i t is nee d e d ; i t is never s to re d aft er
grin d ing ; an d i t is p r ot ec t e d f r om th e air w h ile in t ransi t
to th e fu rnace
L i qu i d fu el s
Th e liq u i d fu els of g rea t es t i mpo r
t ance are p e t r o le um an d al c oho l
C r ud e p e t r o le um c onsis t s of a c omp le x c om b ina t i o n
of h y d r o c a rb ons wi th grea t vari at i ons acc o r d ing to i t s
s ou rce to ge th er wi th s m all an d varying p r opo r t i o ns of
o xygen ni t r o gen an d s u l phu r Th e c ons t i tu en t h y d r o
carb ons of any cr ud e p e t r o le um vary in c ompo si t i o n
f r om C 4H m th r ou g h a l o ng serie s of p r opo r t i o ns to C 13H 23
wi th s t ea d ily re du ce d p r opo r t i o n of h y d r o gen an d wi th
increase d d ensi ty an d re du ce d t en d ency to va po ri z e
I f th e t emp eratu re of cr u d e p e t r o le um is s t ea d ily raise d
th e h y d r o carb o ns d ist ill o ff in an o r d er d e t er m ine d by th e
p r opo r t i o n of h y d r o gen p resen t ; rs t gas o line of vari ou s
gra d es th en k er o sene of vari ou s gra d es an d th en lu b ri
ca ti ng o ils of vari ou s gra d es leaving a resi du e of h y d r o
carb ons th a t are s oli d a t o r d inary t e mp era tu res Th ere
m ay be als o a resi du e of c o ke th a t is carb o n un c om b ine d
w i th h y d r o gen
C r ud e p et r o le um is u se d as a fu el in t h e fu rnaces of
s t ea m b o il ers an d in sever al ty p es of m e t all u rgical fu r
naces S p ecial b u rners are u se d an d p r o visi o n is m a d e
fo r (a ) p re h eat ing th e o il to increase u i d i ty ; ( b) s up
p lying th e o il u n d er p ress u re ; ( 6 ) d elivering th e o il fo r
c omb u st i on in a very ne s p ray by th e u se of s t eam o r
c omp resse d air T h e t e mp era tu re li m i t i s th e sam e as
fo r carb o n an d hy d r o gen in ot h er fo r m s ; b ut t h e air to
s uppo r t c omb u sti o n an d th e o il of th e s p ray can be so
in ti m at ely m i x e d th a t i t is unn ecessary to s upp ly an
,

18

MATE RIALS O F MACHIN E S

ex cess of air an d h ence th e th e o re tical li m i t of t e mp era tu re

can be app r o ac h e d mo re nearly th an wi th s o li d fu el
A lc oho l is n ot ye t an i mpo r t an t in du s t rial fuel an d i t is
n ot u se d a t all fo r m e t all u rgical pu r po se s ; b ut i t m ay
in th e futu re bec om e a v ery i mpo r t an t f ac to r in m e t al
l u rgy an d po wer d evel opm en t
Th e s upp lies of c o al o il an d natu ral gas will e ven tu ally
be e xh a u s t e d since th ere is c on t in u al d raft o n a s to r e
th a t is never renewe d an d th en i t will be n e cessary to
s upp ly h ea t energy fo r hum an u ses f r om th e s un s energy
s to re d by p l an t gr o w th of th e p r esen t t i m e A s alrea dy
s t a t e d w h er ev er p l an t s gr o w carb o n is t aken f r om t he
carb o n d i oxi d e of th e a tmo s ph ere an d h y d r o gen is t aken
f r om th e wa t er of th e sa p an d th ey are s to re d to ge t h er
wi th oxygen as cell ul o se s t arc h o r s u gar
C ell u l o se th e c h ie f c o ns t i tu en t of p lan t ber an d s t arc h
th e c h ie f c o ns t i tu en t of grains pot a to es e t c are is om eri c ;
t h at is th ey c ont ain th e sam e ele m en t s in t he sam e p r o
po r t i on C sH mO a b ut p r obably be c aus e of s om e d ifferen t
arrange m en t of atom s th ey are very d iff er ent s u bs t ances
S u gar c h e m i c ally C 12 H 22 0 1 1 is fou n d in s u gar cane s u gar
b ee t s an d oth er p r odu c t s of p lan t gr o w th S u gar o r
s t arc h m i x e d wi th w at er an d f er m en t e d wi th y eas t yiel d s
a wea k s o l ut i o n of alc oho l w h i c h m ay be c o n d ense d by
d ist illat i o n yiel d ing e th yl alc oho l C 2 H5 O H In s t arc h
C eH mO 5 h y d r o gen an d ox ygen are p resen t in p r opo rt i o ns
to fo r m wat er an d h ence o nly th e carb o n is available fo r
fu el w h ile th e wa t er Since i t mu s t be h eat e d vapo ri z e d
an d s up er h ea t e d w ou l d abs o r b a p ar t of th e h ea t of c om
b u st io n m a ki ng i t u navaila b le an d thu s re du cing t he
t e mp eratu re of c omb u s t i o n Th is is als o t r u e of s u gar
an d h ence t h ey are n ot g ood fu els B u t t he alc oho l p r o
d u c ed C 2H 5 0 H h as fou r a tom s of h y d r o gen available
fo r every t w o atom s of carb o n an d o nly o ne c o rrespo n di ng
,

PR ELIMINARY C O NSID E RA T I O N O F F U E LS

19

molec u le of wat er to abs o r b h ea t Hence th e p r o cess

th a t h as c h ange d s t arc h o r s u gar into alc oho l h as great l y
increase d th e fu el v al u e
W h en cell u l o se C sH mO s is s ubj ec t e d to d ry d ist illa
t i on at h ig h t e mp er atu r es i t yi el d s liq u i d p r odu c t s f r om
w h ic h m e th yl alc oho l o r w ood alc ohol C H gO H m ay be
se p arat e d Th is c h ange is als o acc omp anie d by an in
crease in fu el val u e
I f lack of oth er fu el an d re du ce d p rice of alc oho l m a d e
i t d esirable alc oho l c ou l d be b u rne d e ffec t ively by th e
m e thod u se d fo r b u rning cr ud e p et r o le um as a s ou rce
of h ea t fo r m e t all u rgical furn a ces o r fo r s t ea m b o ilers
A lc oho l c oul d als o re p lace th e mo re v o lat ile p e t r o le um
p r odu c t s in in t ernal c omb u st i on engin e s Th is w ou l d
ut ili z e energy c om ing f r om th e sun y ea r by y e ar in th e
p resent an d so th e d raft w ou l d be o n a s to re th a t natu re
c ont inu all y r enews Hence i t off ers a po ssible s o l uti o n
of th e fu el p r o bl em of t he futu re
Gas f u e l h as sever al a d van t ages o ver s o li d fu el fo r
m any m e t all u rgical p r o cesses
'
1 Inf eri o r s o li d fu el m ay be u se d fo r th e genera t i o n
of th e gas fu el
2 Th e fu rnac e fo r th e p r odu c t i o n of th e gas m ay b e
a t a d i st ance f r om th e fu rn a ce w h ere th e gas is u se d th e
t ransf er being m a d e th r ou g h p i p es wi th res u l ting saving
of val u able s p ace
3 Hea t m ay be mo re easily a pp lie d uni fo r m ly o v er a
given s u rfa c e o r c o ncen t ra t e d l o cally wi th gas fu el th an
wi th s o li d fu el
b u sti on can be mu c h
4 Th e air w h ic h s uppo r t s c o m
mo re c omp le t ely m i x e d wi th th e fu el an d th erefo re th e
e x cess of air o v e r th a t necessary fo r c omp le t e c omb u s t i o n
is re du ce d to a m ini mum wi th a resul tin g increase i n
t e mp era tu re
.

MATE RIALS O F MACHIN E S

20

I f th e mi xtu re of air an d gas is p r o perly reg ulat e d

th ere will be a c omp le t e absence of s mo k e an d soot a nd
th e la tt er will n ot be m ix e d wi th th e m at erial t r eat e d
Gas fu el m ay be ei th er n atu ral o r ar ticial
N atu ral
gas like c o al an d p e t r o le um is a p r odu c t of natu re s
p r o cesses ac t ing th r ou g h l ong p eri od s of t i m e upo n p r od
u c t s of p lan t gr o w th
N atu ral res erv o irs of th is gas
are t app e d by d rilling u s u all y in p e t r o le um regi o ns an d
are p i p e d to p laces w h ere th e gas is u se d N a tural gas
c o nsis t s c h ie y of m ar s h gas O H 4 wi th s m all amount s
of oth er h y d r o c a rb o ns h y d r o g en an d c arb o n mon oxi d e
A ll of th ese c o ns t i t u en t s ar e c om b u st ible an d h enc e th e
h eat v al u e is h ig h ; f r om 8 00 to 9 7 0 B t u per c ubic foot
of gas u n d er s t an d ar d c o n d i t i ons of p ress u re an d t e m
5

perat u re

*
.

N a tu ral g as i s a v ailable o nly in a f ew li m i t e d l o cali t ies ;

an d since i t is a s to re d p r odu c t of natur e s very sl o w
p r o cesses th e reserv o irs are eventu ally e xh a u st e d W h ile
i t las t s i t is a very v al u able fu el
Th ere are t h ree p r o cesses fo r th e p r odu c t i o n of ar t i
c ial gas fu els :
Th is p r o cess c o nsist s of
1 I llu m in atin g gas p rocess
t h e d est r u c t ive d ist illat i o n of c o al c on t aining a large p er
cent age of v o lat ile m att er I t is si m ilar to th e p r o cess
fo r p r odu c t i o n of c o k e wi th th e d i ff erence th at gas is n o w
th e p r odu c t an d c o ke th e by p r odu c t T he c ompo sit i on
of th e gas varies wi th th e fu el an d wi th th e c o n d i t i ons of
op era t i on b ut th e variat i o n i s n ot u s u all y very grea t
f r om th e fo ll o wing analysis :

Hy d r o gen H
M ars h gas O H 4
C arb o n mo n ox i d e
Eth ylene C 2 H 4
B en z ene C sH s
,

S ee

Gas

C O

Po wer by

49
34
8
4
1

H irshf eld

p er c ent by v o l um e
p er c en t by v o l um e
p er c en t by v o l um e
p er c en t by v o l um e
p er cen t by v o l um e
an d

Ulbri cht p age

,

15

PR E LIMINARY C O NSID E RA T I O N O F F U E LS

21

Th e gas als o c o n t ains sm all a moun t s of inc omb u s t ible

ni t r o gen carb o n d i ox i d e an d wa t er va po r
Th e a m e f r om th is gas is l um in ou s beca u se of t h e
p resence of th e h y d r o carb o ns C 2H 4 an d C 6H 6 W h en
th es e b u rn wi th res t ri c t e d oxygen s upp l y carb o n is sep
a r at e d as a nely d ivi d e d s o li d w h ic h bec om es incan
d es c en t an d l um in ou s a t th e am e t e mp era tu re , an d
w h ic h b u rns to C 0 2 o n reac h ing th e am e li m i t W h en
th e oxygen s upp ly is a d eq u at e a s in th e B unsen b u rner
c om b u s t i o n is c omp le t e n o s o li d carb o n a pp ears an d th e
am e is n ot l um in ou s Th e n o n l um in o u s a m e m ay of
c ou rse be u se d fo r lig ht wi th m ant le b u rners
2 Water ga s pro cess
In th is p r o c es s s t ea m is p asse d
th r o u g h a be d of in c an d escen t carb o n Th e reac t i o ns
ar e as fo ll o ws :
,

0 2 + 4 H 20

2 002 + 4 H2
= 4 C O

C O

H 2O

002

H2

Th ese reac t i ons p r o bably g o o n si mu l t ane ou sly an d w h en

th e p r o cess is p r op erly r eg u la t e d th e c ompo si t i o n of t he
res ul t ing gas is u s u ally wi th in th e fo ll o wing li m i ts :
,

arb o n d i ox i d e C 0 2
C arb o n mo n oxi d e C O
Hy d r o gen H
M ars h gas O H 4
C

to 1 5 p er c en t by v o l um e
2 0 to 4 0 p er cen t by v o l um e
5 0 to 6 5 p er cen t by v o l um e
4 to 8 p er c en t by v o l um e
2

Th ere is al s o p re sen t in s om e cases a s m all amo un t of

e th yl ene C 2 H 4 ; b u t th is is n ot u s u ally en ou g h to m ake
th e am e l um in ou s an d h ence i f th e gas is t o b e u se d fo r
ill um inat i o n i t is p asse d th r ou g h a sec o n d fu rnace w h ere
i t t akes up th e vapo ri z e d h y d r o c arb o n s C 2 H 4 an d O gH s
Th e breaking up of t he st ea m into it s c o ns t i tu en t h y d r o gen
an d oxygen abs o rbs h ea t an d th i s h ea t is j u s t eq u al to
th a t given out w h en t h e h y d r o gen of t h e gas is b urn e d
,

MA TE RIALS O F MACHIN E S

22

again Hence th ere is n o gain in h ea t f r om th e h y d r o gen

th a t c om es f r om th e s t eam ; in f ac t th ere i s a l o ss p er
poun d of s t eam c o rres pon d ing to th e d i ff erence in h ea t
carrie d by a poun d of s t eam a s i t c om es to th e wat er gas
fu rnace an d th e c o rres pon d ing pou n d of st eam ( su p er
h ea t e d ) as i t is p r odu c e d in th e fu rnace w h ere th e gas is
b u rne d Hence wat er gas in b u rning gives a li ttle l ess
h eat th an w o u l d res u l t f r om d ir ec t b u rning of th e c o al
u sed in t he wat e r gas fu rna c e ; b ut th e p r o ce s s p r odu c e s
a fu el of h ig h c om b u st i on t emp era tu re h aving th e advan
t ages of th e ga se o u s fo r m see p age 1 9
3 P ro du c er ga s pr ocess
Th is p r o cess th e mo s t im
po r t an t to th e m e t all u rgis t c on si st s of b u rn ing c o al wi th
inc omp le t e oxygen supp ly Th er e are m any fo rm s of
gas p r odu c ers wi th gre a t varia t i o n in d et ails ; th e p rin
c iples of op e r a t i o n ho w e v e r can b e e xp l a ine d by r e f erence
to th e fo r m s ho wn in F ig 1 I t c onsis t s of a c h am b er A
line d wi th r e brick an d h aving a s u i t abl e grat e a t t he
b ottom C o al is in t r odu c ed th r ou g h a hopp er B so
arrange d th a t c ommu nica ti o n wi th th e air n ee d n ot b e
m a d e w h en th e s o li d fu el is p u t in A ir is adm i tt e d
th r ou g h t he grat e an d a t D th ere is a st ea m bl o wer u se d
to fo rce c om b u s ti o n an d to in t r od u ce st eam Th e c h am
be r is c o nnec t e d wi th t he gas u e by th e p a ssage
A ir
T he mo s t ra p i d c om b u s t i o n o cc u rs near th e grat e
p asses th r ou g h th e grat e an d it s oxygen c om bin es wi th
th e in c an d escen t c arb on fo r m ing c arb o n d i oxi d e C 0 2 ;
th is in p assing up c om es in c o nt ac t wi th mo re in c an des
cen t carb o n w h ere t he air s upp ly is li m i t e d an d t aking
up mo re carb o n b e c om es carb o n mo n ox i d e w h i c h p asses
up into th e c h amb er In t he upp er p ar t of th e c o al
w h ere th e h ea t is less int ense t he v o lat il e c onst i tu ent s
d is t ill o ff ; in f ac t t he ac t i o n is th e sa me as in ill uminat
ing gas re to r t s w i th th e p r odu c t i o n of h y drogen h y d r o
.

PRE LIMINARY C O NSID E RA T I O N O F F UE LS

23

carb o ns c arb o n mon oxi d e e t c Th is leaves c o ke w h ic h

d escen d s sl o wly bec om ing incan d escen t an d u ni ting wi t h
oxy gen an d carb on d i oxid e to fo rm carb on mon ox i d e A ls o
s t eam f r om t he bl o wer p asses th r ou g h th e gra t es wi th
j u s t th e sam e res u l t as in th e wa t er gas p r o cess p r o d u cing
,

FI G

hy d r o gen an d carb o n mo n ox i d e S ince th is s t eam is d e

c ompo se d into i t s c o ns t i t u ent s wi th abs o rpt i o n of h ea t
it fo ll o ws th a t w h en th e h y d r o gen b u rns aga in i t can o nly
resto re a p ar t of th e h eat i t h as re c eived an d h ence th e
int r odu c t i o n of s t ea m do es n ot a dd to th e h ea t ev o lve d
in th e f u rn a c e ; in fac t i t d e c r e ases i t B ut tho u g h i t is
n ot a s ou rce of h ea t i t gi ves a c o nvenien t a ux iliary m eans
of t e mp eratu re c o nt r o l an d als o t en d s to p revent clink
.

24

MATE RIALS

MACHIN E S

OF

An

a v erage of th e res u l t ing gases f r om th is p r o cess

a s fo ll o w s :
CO
2 4 2 p er cen t by v o l um e
C om b u s t ible
H
p er cen t by v ol um e
C H4
p er cen t by v o l um e
C 02
p er c en t by v o l um e
I n co m b u st l ble
N
p er c en t by v o l um e
.

is

T h ere fo re
p er cen t of th is gas is c om b u s t ible
w h ile
p er cen t is inc om b u st ible an d h enc e i t s c om
b u st io n t emp era tu re m u s t be l o w
I t w o u l d see m

th erefo re th at p r odu cer gas

c ou l d n ot b e u se d fo r
h ig h t emp era tures I t bec om es available fo r th is pu r
po se ho wever th r ou g h th e r e g en e rativ e fu rn ac e , o rig
in ally inven t e d b y M essrs F re d erick an d C W S ie m ens
Th e gas ins t ea d of being a dmi tt e d to th e fu rnace d irec t ly

p asses t h r ou g h a c h a mber B ( F i g
lle d wi th c h eq u er
,

FI G

w o rk i e full of s m all in t rica t e p as sa ges s urr oun d e d b y

'
ref rac to ry m at erial s uit ab le f o r s to rage of h eat Th e air
als o p as ses th r ou g h a si milar c h a mber A an d m eet s th e gas
a t C th e ent rance to th e h ear th D w h ere th e m e t al is
,

PR E LIMINARY C ONSID E RA T I O N

OF

25

FU E LS

t reat e d Th e air is a dm i tt e d ab o v e th e gas so th at becau se

of i t s great er s p ecic gravi ty i t S h all m i x mo re c omp le t el y
wi th th e gas C omb u s t i on o cc u rs a t C an d th e p r odu ct s
of th e c omb u s t i on , h eat e d to a t e mp eratu re c o rres pon d ing
to th e c omb u s t i on t e mp eratu re of th e fu el p ass o v er th e
heart h w here th ey fu lll th eir func t i o n in th e t reatm en t
of th e c h arge wi th l o ss of h eat an d re du c t i o n of t e m
p
ass
o
n
s
t
ill
a
t
very
h
ig
h
t
e
mp
era
n
u
r
a
d
r
a
t
e
e
p
,
th en
tu res th r ou g h th e c h a mbers A 1 an d B I to th e s t ac k In
p assing th ey h eat up th ese c h ambers to th eir o wn t e m
f
i
f
th
e
p
r
o
cess
is
s
uf
i
c
ien
t
ly
l
o
ng
c
o
n
t
in
u
e
d
u
r
a
t
re
e
p
Th en t h e c onnec ti ons are c h ange d so th at th e gas c om es in
th r ou g h B 1 an d th e air s upp ly th r ou g h A I an d A an d B
are c o nnec t e d wi th th e s t ack Th e gas an d air p assing
th r ou g h th e h eat e d c h a mbers h ave th eir t e mp eratu r e
raise d be fo re c omb u st i o n t ak es p lac e ; th en th e t e mp era
ture is st ill fu r th er rais e d by th e c om b u s t i o n so th a t th e
p r odu c t s of c omb u st i o n n o w p ass to th e s t ack aft er u se
in th e h ear th th r ou g h A an d B unt il th e t e mp eratu re of
th ese c h ambers is raise d to th e h ig h er t e m p erat u re
Th en th e c onnec t i ons are again reverse d an d t he ent ering
gas an d air are h eat e d to th is h ig h er t e mp eratu re be fo re
c omb u st i o n an d so o n I t w ou l d see m th at an in de
n it ely h ig h t e mp era tu re c ou l d be p r odu ce d by th is m e thod
b ut i t cann ot be c au se a li m i t ab out 3 5 00 F is set by
d i s s o ciat i o n of C 0 2 into c arb on an d oxygen at h ig h t e m
e
w
i
t
h
abs
o
r
pt
i
o
n
of
h
ea
t
S
e
p
age
1
r
0
a
e
t
u
r
e
s
p
,

HA PTE R II

E LE C T RI C
E LE

F UR N A C

ES

fu rnaces are c onsi d ere d h ere becau se of th e

bearing th eir u se h as o n th e t emp eratu res a tt ainable fo r
in du st rial pu r po s es O th er typ es of fu rna c es will be
e xp laine d an d ill u s t rat e d in c onnec t i o n wi th th eir u se fo r
m e t all u rgical pu rpo ses
E lec t ric fu rnaces are u su all y classie d as ; arc resi st
ance an d in du c t i o n fu rnaces
A r c f u r n ac e
I f carb o n elec t r od es w h i c h h ave be en
br ou g ht into c o nt ac t to c omp le t e an el e c t ric circ u i t in
w h ic h a s u i t able c u rr ent is m aint ain ed are se p arat ed
slig ht ly th e carb o n of th e s ep ar at ed s u rf a c es an d t he
int ervening air are h eat e d by th e p assag e of th e elec t rici t y
a c r o ss th e ga p A s a res u l t of th is h eat ing th e oppo sing
s ur faces of th e elect r od es rs t gr o w re d an d th en w h i t e
an d s om e of th e s u rf ace carb o n is vapo ri z e d ; th e res u l t ing
carb o n vapo r lls th e gap th e elec t rici t y o ws th r ou g h
th e vapo r an d th e gap m ay th en b e in c re a se d becau se
th e resi st an c e of th e c arb o n v apo r is le s s th an th e r esis t
ance of th e air Th e el e c t ri c i ty th u s o wing rai ses t he
t emp eratu re of th e en d s of th e el e c t r od e s an d th e int e r
vapo r to in c an d e s c ence an d el e c t ri c al
v en in g c arb o n
energy is t rans fo r m ed into h eat an d lig ht Th e light
m ay be u se d fo r ill u m inat i o n as in th e arc lamp o r th e
h eat m ay be u se d as in th e arc t yp e el e c t ric furnace A
li mi t is se t to th e t e mp erature th a t can be p r od u ce d in
th is fu rnace ; th is li mi t d e p en d s o n th e s upp ly an d dis
po sal of h eat Th e h ea t s u pp lie d by t ransfo r m a t i o n of
elec t rical ener gy in th e arc is (a) ra d iat e d to th e furnace ,
C T R IC

26

27

E LE C T RIC FURNACE S

app lie d to th e vapo ri z at i o n of carb on (a) raises

th e t emp eratu re of th e c ont ent s of th e fu rnace b ut (b)
d isapp ears as sensible h eat an d th ere fo re do es n ot aff ec t
t e mp eratu re
A s th e t e mp eratu re rises t h e a moun t of
carb o n vapo ri z e d increases an d th ere fo re th e amoun t of
h eat abs t rac t e d f r om th e energy s upp l y fo r th is pu r po se
increases an d th e h eat le ft o ver to raise t e mp eratu re
gr o ws less A t emp era tu re w ou l d nally be reac h e d at
w h ic h an increas e in h eat ev ol v e d ( by th e increase in
elec t rical ener gy in th e circ u i t) w oul d be m e t by an eq u al
d isapp earance of h eat to m aint ain increase d v apo ri z a
t i o n of carb o n an d wi th th ese c o n d i t i o ns th e t emp era tu re
w oul d reac h a m ax i m u m Wi th an elec t ric arc be t we en
c arb o n elec t r od es th e t e mp era tu re p r o bably m ay reac h
ab out 6000 F an d h ence th e elec t ric f u rnace fu rnis h es
a mu c h h i g h er t e mp era tu re th an a fu rnace fo r th e c om
bu st io n of c ar b o nace o u s fu el
Th e vapo ri z at i o n of t he
s ubs t ances t reat e d in th e furnace m ig ht als o aff ec t th e
m ax i m u m t e mp eratu re
I n t h is t y p e of elec t ric fu rnace
R e s i stan c e typ e
elec t r od es h ave th eir t er m inal s u rf aces se p arat e d by a
c o nsi d erable d is t ance an d th e sp ace be t ween th e m is

lle d b y s om e s ubst ance th e resisto r th at o ffers s u i t

able resis t ance to th e p assage of th e elec t rici ty W h en
th e elec t rici ty o ws i t s energy is c h ange d into h ea t an d
lig ht in th e resis to r an d th e h ea t is p asse d o n to a s ub
s t ance th a t nee d s to be h eat e d fo r s om e u se ful p u rpo se
Th e s ub st ance t reat e d m ay i t sel f fo rm th e resis to r w ho lly
o r in p ar t Th e t e mp erat u re att ainable in th is fu rnace
is th e t emp eratu re a t w h ic h th ere is e q u ali t y be t we en
any increase in th e h ea t s u pp ly du e to increase d o w of
elec t rici ty i n t h e circ u i t and t h e c o rres po n d ing increa se
i n h eat abs o rpt i o n b y vapo ri z at i o n of t h e resi s to r o r th e
s ubst ance t re at e d
o r,

(b)

28

MA TE RIALS O F MACHIN ES

In du c tion typ e
Th e in du c t i o n c o il c o nsis t s of t w o
win d ings of ins ulat e d wire ab out a s ui t ab le soft ir on c o re
W h en al t ernat ing c urrent elec t ri ci t y o ws in o ne c o il
c alle d t h e p ri m ary an al t ernat ing c u rrent is in du ce d in th e
cl o se d sec o n d ary c o il Th e v o l t ages of th e p ri m ary an d
in du ce d c u rr ent s are nearly d irec t ly p r opo rt i o nal to th e
n um ber of turns of wire in th e resp ec ti ve c o ils Hence
i f th e p ri m ary has a large n um ber of tu rns an d th e sec
o n d ary a s m all n um ber of tu rns
a h ig h v o l t age c u rren t
in th e p ri m ary w ou l d in d u ce a l o w v o l t age c u rren t in
th e s e c o n d ary Th i s is of c o u rse th e p rinci p le of th e
al t e rnat ing c u rren t t ransfo r m er
N o w i f th e m at erial
to be t reat e d in th e fu rnace can rep lace th e sec on d ary
c o il a c u rrent will be in du ce d in i t by th e c u rr ent in th e
p ri m ary c o il an d i f th is c u rr ent is s ui t able th e req uire d
h eat ing eff ec t will be p r odu ce d In th is typ e i f t he sec
o n dary c o il is n ot cl o se d a c u rr en t in th e p ri m ary w ou l d
in du c e an elec t r omot iv e fo rce in th e sec o n d ary b ut
In s om e cases th e m at erial
e lec t ri c i t y w o u l d n ot o w
t reat e d is a s o li d w h ic h is li q u e e d by h eat f r om th e c u r
r en t
In th e in d uc t i o n typ e fu rnac e th e sec o n d ary is
c l o se d by th i s liq u i d an d t he c l o sing cann ot be effec t e d
u nt il th e s o li d is m el t e d an d th e s o li d c ann ot b e m el t e d
u nt il th e s e c o n d ary is c l o se d H ence in s t ar t ing th e
fu rnace i t is nec es sary to int r odu ce s om e oth er m at erial
u nt il w o rking c o n d i t i o ns are est ablis h e d Th is typ e is
th ere fo re be tt er tt e d fo r c o nt inuou s th an fo r int err upt e d
servic e Th e t emp erat u re is li m i t e d in th is fu rnace
e x ac t ly as in th e oth ers
C o m bin ati o n of t yp e s
In th e arc t y p e fu rnace th e
elec t r od es oft en p r o j ec t vert ically do wnwar d into th e
furnac e wi th s u i t able a r c ing d i s t an c e b et we en th eir t er
m inal s u rf aces an d th e m ate rial t rea t e d ; t w o arcs are
thus fo r m e d an d th e elec t rici ty als o p asses th r ou g h th e
.

29

E L E CT RIC FURNACE S

m at eri al t rea t e d , w h ic h thu s ac t s as a resi s to r Hence

th i s t yp e is reall y a c om binat i o n of arc an d resis t ance
fu rnaces Th e arc fu rna c e is vir tu ally a resis t ance fu rnace
w h ic h th e va po r be t ween t he elec t r od es is th e resis to r
In t he in d u c t i o n fu rnace h ea t is p r odu ce d by re sis t anc e
to t he o w of elec t rici t y in m at erial t reat e d an d h ence
th is t yp e really u ses a c ombinat i o n of th e in du c ti on an d
re sistan c e p ri n ci p les
.

H A P T E R III

RE F RA C T O RY M A T E RI A LS

an d th e linings of fu rnaces la d les an d oth er

a pp ara tu s fo r m e t all urgical pur po ses mu s t be m a d e of
m at erials h aving s ui t able resis t ance to fusi o n to c h ange
of fo r m a t h ig h t e mp eratu re an d to was t ing b y c h e m ical
o r er o si v e ac t i o n ; als o th ese ma t eri als mus t be so c o ns t i
t ut ed as n ot to i nt er f ere wi th d esire d c h e m ical c h an g
es
o r to ca u se u n d esirabl e c h e mical c h anges in th e m at erials
t reat e d by th e p r o cess
A c i d n eutr al o r b as i c linin g s f o r furn ac e s
Tem
perat u res of inci p ien t fu si o n of pu re r ef rac to ries are
app r oxi m at ely as fo ll o ws :
S ilica S iO z ( aci d )
32 00 F
A l um in um silica t e A 12 812 0 7 (ne ut ral )
3300 F
*
infu sible
C h r om ic o xi d e C r2 0 3 (ne ut ral )
C arb o n c o ke o r gra ph i t e
infu sible
3 600 F
A l um ina A 12 0 3 (basic )
4 5 00 F
L i m e C a O (basic )
4 5 00 F
M a gnesia M gO (basic )
C

R U C IBL E S

T h i s t ab le s h o ws silica to b e th e leas t sat isf ac to r y

m at erial fo r u se as a re frac to ry c o nsi d ering o nly th e t e m
of
fu
si
o
n
beca
u
se
of
oth
er
q
u
ali
t
ies
i
t
is
u
u
r
B
t
e
er
t
a
p
u se d very e xt ensi v ely w h ere th e t e mp eratu re to be su s
t ain ed is saf ely bel o w fu si o n po in t
L i m e C aO in c o nt ac t wi th al um in um silicat e a t h ig h
t e mp eratures yiel d s calci um silicat e an d calcic al uminat e
T his m ean s i nf usible at t he m axi m u m tem p eratures no w used
in in du str i al pro c ess es
,

30

RE FRAC T O RY MA TE RIALS

31

an d th e m i xture is fu sible a t a rela t ively l o w t e mp era tu re

p r o bably ab out 2 000 F I f m agnesia is s u bs t i tut e d fo r
li m e th er e is a si m ilar re du c t i o n of fu si o n t e mp eratu re
Hen c e li m e o r m agnesia w ou l d ac t as a ux upo n al um i
n u m silicat e ; an d c o nversely al um inum silicat e w oul d
ac t as a ux upo n li m e o r m agnesia Hence w h erev e r
sili c a an d li m e are in c on t a c t o r w h er ever
a l um in a
al u m ina Sili c a an d m agn esi a are in c o nt a c t i f th e t e mp er
a tu re is ab o ve 2 000 F uxin g will t ak e p lac e ; th a t is
th e m at erial will m el t In cer t ain cases th is m el t ing is
d esirable as fo r ins t ance w h en re f ra c to ry al um ina an d
silica are re mo ve d fr om th e bla st furnace as a u i d Slag
by th e u xin g a gency of li m e th a t is in t r odu ce d fo r th is
B u t fu rnace linings mu s t n ot
pu rpo se ( see p age
b e uxed away an d h en c e t he c om ing to ge th er of al um ina
silica an d li m e o r of al u m ina silica an d m agn esi a s hou l d
be p r ev ent e d w h ere t e mp erat u re s e x c ee d 2 000 E i f any
one of t he s u bst ances is an es sent i al p ar t of th e fu rn a ce
lining F err ou s ox i d e F e O als o ac t s a s a ux u po n
al um inum silicat e
I f a m e t all u rgical p r o cess th at p r odu ces a slag c o nt ain
ing li m e o r m agnesia o r f err ou s ox i d e is carrie d o n in a
f u rnac e line d wi th m at erial c o nt aining e x c ess of silica
th a t is wi th an aci d lining th e lining will be uxed
away A ls o wi th a basi c lining an d an a c i d slag th e
lining will be ux ed away H en c e a p r o c ess p r odu c ing
a n aci d sl a g s hou l d be c arrie d o n in a f u rnace h aving an
a c i d lining an d a p r o cess p r odu c ing a basic slag s hou l d
be carrie d o n in a furna c e h aving a ba sic lining
A ne ut ral lining w o u l d be b est bec a u s e i t w ou l d resis t
t he ux in g a c t i o n of ei th er an a c i d o r a b a si c slag ; b ut
wi th th e n eu t r al m at eri als a t p resent available i t is
d i fc ul t to p revent d es t r u c t i o n of t h e linin g s b y oth er
c au ses
,

32

MATE RIALS

M ACHIN ES

OF

Kao lin i s

a ne w h i te clay u se d as an ingre d i en t of
po rcelain an d oth e r w h i t e ware I t c onsis t s of a m i xtu re
of h y d ra t e d al um inum Silicat e wi th oth er s u bs t ances li k e
h y d r ou s al uminum oxi d es f el d sp ar q u ar tz an d m ica
I t has t he q u ali t y of bec om ing p las t ic w h en m i x e d wi th
wa t er an d i t th u s can be m o l d e d into req u ire d fo rm s
w h ic h m ay be d rie d a t l o w o r mod erat e t emp eratu res an d
c alcine d a t h ig h er t emp era tu res wi th th e remo val of th e
wat er of h y d rat i o n an d wi th p art ial fu si o n T h ere
res u l t s a h ar d s t r ong re frac to ry m at erial
F ir e c l ay is a clay th a t is ca p able of wi th s t an d ing
h ig h t e mp eratu res say a m ini mum of 3000 F Fire
clay in a dd i t i o n to h y d r at e d al um inum silicat e u su ally
c o nt ains v arying amoun t s Of li m e m agn esia an d iro n
ox i d e ; th es e th r ou g h th eir u xin g ac t i on increase th e
fu sibili ty of th e calcine d m a t erial ; an d h ence th e h igh er
th e t emp erat u re to be s u s t aine d th e great er th e ne e d
th at t h ese s u bs t ances s h ou l d be re du ce d to a m ini mum
F ire clays vary great ly in c ompo si ti o n an d in physical
p r op er t ies an d h ence mu s t be c ho sen wi th great care
acc o r d ing to th e serv i ce req u ire d ; w h e th er i t is resis t ance
to uxin g o r abrasi on o r to th e ac t i o n of gases o r cap ac
i ty fo r en du ring t e mp eratu re c h anges safely D u ring
th e calcining of re clay c onsi d erable s h rin k age o cc urs
w h i c h m ay be acc omp anie d by d is to r t i on an d cracking
T h i s s h rink age m ay be re du ce d by m i xing c o k e du s t
graph i t e o r silica san d o r mo re c ommo nly gr oun d re
bric k o r int clay wi th th e p las t ic clay Th e t ness of
clays fo r u se in refrac to ries fo r giv en service d ep en d s n ot
o nly upon th e c h e m ical c ompo si t i o n b ut als o upo n th e
ph ysical c o n d i t i on an d m anner of b u rni ng Thu s d ensi ty
p o r o si t y an d c o n d i t i o n res u l ting f r om variat i o n of t e m
perat ure an d du rat i o n of th e b u rning af f ec t r ef rac t o ri
n ess
.

RE FRAC T O RY MATE R I ALS

33

S ili c a w h en pu re cann ot be m a d e i n to re bric k o r

u se d in m a ss fo r fu rnace linings becau se a bin d ing m at erial
is necessary
S ilica r o ck ho wever oft en c o n t ains en ou g h
c lay to serve fo r bin d ing ; an d oft en a m i xture of gr ou n d
q u ar tz i t e o r silica san d wi th re c lay is u se d
S ilica bricks are als o m a d e by m i xing ne silica wi th
a very s m all p r opo r ti o n of li m e an d a dd ing wat er un t il th e
m as s is s om ew h a t c oh er en t w h en i t is mo l d e d u n d er
h ig h p r essu re d rie d an d re d D u ring th e ring th e li m e
c ombines wi th a s m all p ar t of th e silica an d wi th s u c h
sm all amoun t s of al um inum as m ay be p resent to fo r m a
fu sible Slag th a t a c t s as a bin d er fo r th e silica
A na tu ral o r ar t ici a l m i xtu re of a large p r opo r t i o n of
sili c e ou s m at erial
u su ally n ot less th an 9 0 p er cen t
wi th clay o r li m e o r b oth is u su ally calle d gain st er
'
C hr o m i te F C C I 2 0 4 a dou ble ox i d e of ir o n an d c hr o
m i um is ne ut ral an d v ery in fu sible I t o cc u rs in natu re

as c h r om e o re w h ic h c o nt ains al so al um ina m agnesia

li m e an d silica P r opo r ti o ns vary b ut are oft en ab out
a s fo ll o ws :
-

Pe r

h r omic oxi d e
F err ou s ox i d e
A l um ina
C

agnesia
Lime

50
0

0
9

c en

0
[

T h is b eing ne ut ral w ou l d b e al mo st an i d eal m at erial

fo r fu rna c e b ottom s i f i t were n ot fo r th e f ac t th at aft er
i t is mo l d e d into p lace i t is al mo s t i mpo s sible to p r odu ce a
t e mp era tu re h ig h en o u g h to ca u se i t to set tho r ou g h ly
an d th is leaves i t liable to d est r u c t i o n by m ec h anical
er o si o n Th e fu sibili t y of th e m at erial varies wi th th e
amoun t an d p r o po r t i o n of s ubs t ances ot h er t h an c h r o m i c
,

MA TE RIALS O F M A CHIN ES

34

oxi d e p resen t an d w h en p r op erly selec t e d i t i s a v ery

val u abl e m at erial fo r d au bing an d p at c h ing fu rnace
,

linings

o n in th e fo r m of c o k e o r gra p h i te is u se d as a
re frac to ry m at erial ei th er in bric k s o r cru cibles B u t
thou g h carb o n is n eut ral an d infu sible i t is su c h a s t r ong
re du c i ng agen t th at is i t has s u c h a st r ong t en d en c y to
uni t e c h e m ic ally wi th oxygen th at in th e p res ence of
oxygen o r ox i d e s of oth er sub st anc es c arb o n mo n ox i d e o r
carb on d i ox i d e is fo r m e d an d p asse s o ff as gas thu s
even tu ally d est r oying th e cr u cible o r t he f u rna c e lining
C arb o n th ere fo re can o nly be u se d as a re f rac to ry w h ere
oxygen is e x cl ud ed
In m aking carb o n refracto ry fo r m s t ar is s om e t im e s
u se d as a bin d ing m at erial fo r t he c o k e d u s t o r gr ou n d
graph i t e T he m i xtu re is m a d e fo r m e d an d d ri ed an d
th en re d wi th ex c l u si on of oxygen Th e t ar is c o ke d
an d th e p r odu c t is p ra c t i c ally p u r e carb on
C lay is al s o u se d as bin d ing m at eri al fo r nely d ivid e d
carb on A m i xtu r e is m ad e of c o k e o r graph i t e cl ay an d
wat er ; th e m ixt u r e is fo r m e d d rie d an d r ed C ru cibles
m a d e by th ese m e thod s are u se d fo r m el t ing s t e el in th e
cr u cible p r o cess
Bau xi te is a m i xtu re of a large p r opo r t i o n of h y d ra t e d
al um ina A 12 0 3 2 H 2 0 wi th clay silic a iro n ox i d e an d t i t anic
oxi d e ; an oth er h y d rat e d al um inu m ox i d e A 12 0 3 3 H 2 0 is
B aux i t e is u se d fo r m aking basic re
a ls o oft en p resen t
To be su i t able fo r
f r a ct o ry bricks fo r fu rnace linings
th is pu rpo se i t s hou l d c on t ain aft er calcining ab out 9 0
p er cent of al um ina Th ere is a large amo un t of c om bin ed
wat er in th e raw baux i t e a p r obable m ax i mum b eing 30
p er cent an d th e re mo val of th is wat er du ring c al c ining
cau ses great s h ri nk age an d mo l d s mu st th erefo re be m a d e
larger th an th e re q u ire d si z e of th e nis h e d bricks Th ese
C

arb

35

RE FRAC T O RY MATE RIALS

b ric k s are e xp ensive and i t is d i fc u l t to a tt ai n a t e mp era

tu re in rin g t h e m h i g h en ou g h to p r odu ce a b o n d th a t
insu res re q u isi t e s t ren gth Ex ce pt fo r th ese t w o o bj ec
t i o ns b aux i t e b ric k s p r ov i d e a very sat isf ac to ry b asic
refrac to ry
L i m e , C a O is p rac t icall y i nfu sible b ut w h en pu re i s
n ot sat isfac to ry as a refrac to ry b e ca u se of d ifc u l ty in
g ett ing i t to bin d an d al so b e c au s e i t slakes rap i d ly o n
e xpo su re to th e air a t o r d inary t e mp erat u res fo r m ing
calci um h y d r ox i d e C aH gO g w h i c h cr umbles an d wast es
o n re h eat ing L i m e ref rac to ries th erefo re cann ot be
m ad e up an d h el d in s to ck
M a gn e si a , M gO o b t aine d by calcining m agne si um
carb o nat e M gC O g is p r o bably t he bes t m at erial fo r basic
fu rnace lini ng s C omm er c ially th is r ef rac to ry is o b t aine d

f r om m agnesi t e a m ineral foun d in S tyria an d Greece

Th e calcine d m agnesi t e fo r m agnesi t e bricks c o nt ains

fr om 80 to 9 0 p er cen t of m agnesia ; f erric ox i d e al um ina
li m e an d silica are p resen t in varying p r opo r t i ons Th e
p last ici ty of calcine d m agnesi t e d e p en d s o n th e t e mp er
a ture of calc i ning ; i f th is t e mp era tu re is ab out 1 500 F
th e p r odu c t h as a sp ecic gravi ty of ab out 3 w h ile h ig h er
calcining t e mp eratu res give a sp ecic gravi ty of ab out
Th e fo r m er is p las t ic en ou g h to mo l d u n d er p ress u re
w h ile th e latt er lacks p last ici ty M agne si t e bricks m ay
be m ad e of a m i xtu re of fr om fou r to six p ar t s of th e
h eavier wi th o ne p ar t of th e lig ht er calcine d m agnesi t e
wi t h f r om t en to ft een per cen t of wat er Th is m ixtu re
is th en p resse d into mo l d s
Th e o nl y o bj e c t i o n to m agnesia fo r b asic re f rac to ries
is th at i t is e xp ensive becau se m agnesi t e is fou n d o nly in
f ew l o cali t ies f ar away f r om m e t all u rgical cent ers F o r

th is reas o n do l om i t e o r m agnesian li m e sto ne is oft en

u se d Th is c h eap er mineral aft er calcinin g c o n t ains f rom
.

MATERIALS O F MACHIN E S

36

to 60 p er cent of li m e 3 0 to 4 0 per cen t of m agnesia

an d s m all a moun t s of silica al u m ina an d f erric ox i d e
C alcine d do l om i t e is gr ou n d ne an d ei th er wi th o r wi thout
a dm i xtu re of cl ay is m a d e p last ic wi th wat er fo r m ed an d
re d A n oth er m e thod u ses t ar as a bin d ing m at erial
fo r cru s h e d calcin e d do l om i t e Plas t i c do l om i t e is e x
t en siv e ly u se d fo r d a u bing an d p a t c h in g
50

C
O

UT L I N E

HA P TE R

IV

ET A LLUR GY O F I R O N
A N D S T EE L

OF T HE M

I R O N o cc u rs in nat u re c ombine d wi th m any oth er su b

s t ances Th e w o rl d s s upp ly o f ir o n ho wever is o h
t ain ed al mo s t e x cl u siv e l y f r om th e o xi d es F e20 3 an d
F 8003
are r e du ce d be fo re
F e30 4
C arb o na t e o res
s m el t in g b y r o as t ing to F e O ; th is F e O t ak es up mo r e
oxygen f r om th e a tmo s ph ere bec om ing F 9 20 3 Th e
fo r m at i o n of th e se ir o n ox i d es by th e p ro c e ss e s of natu re
was acc omp anie d by ev o l ut i o n of h eat energy Th i s
energy p er uni t we i g ht of ox i d e was d eni t e in a moun t
an d in d e p en d en t of th e m e thod o r t i m e of fo r m at i o n
T o se p arat e th e ox i d e again in to i t s c o nst i tu en t s an e x ac t ly
eq u ival ent a moun t of energy mu s t b e s upp lie d In brie f
th e sep arat i o n is acc omp lis h e d as fo ll o ws : Hea t energy
is s u pp lie d to th e ir o n oxi d e w h ereb y it s t e mp erature is
r ai se d Th e b o n d w h ic h ho l d s t he ir on an d oxy gen
to ge th er w h at ever i t s c h arac t e r is weak en e d B u t th is
al o ne is ins uf c ient in th i s c as e to c a u se sep arat i on
Th ere fo re th e h eat ing is c a u se d to o c c u r in th e p r e sence
of carb o n (s o li d ) o r carb o n mo n ox i d e ( gas ) E i th er of
th ese s ubs t ances h as great er a fni t y fo r oxygen a t h ig h
t e mp eratu re th an th e ir o n ; h ence wi th th e h el p of th e
h eat is able to pull away th e oxygen f r om th e ir o n ox i d e
fo r m ing C 0 2 w h ic h b eing gase ou s p asses o ff leaving
th e ir on Th e h eat energy th a t is effe c t ive to weak en
th e b o n d p l u s th e energy e xp en d e d by th e carb o n o r
carb o n mo n ox i d e in pu lling away th e o xygen f r om th e ir on

37

38

MA TE RIALS O F MACHIN ES

is e x ac tly e q u al to t he h ea t energy th at w as ev o lve d b y

t he o riginal c ombin at i o n of t he oxyg en an d ir o n in to ir o n
*
oxi d e
Th e r ea l p r o ces s is mu c h mo re c omp le x becau se
of circ u m st ances n o w to b e c onsi d ere d
S o u r c e s of ir o n
Fu ll c o n si d er at i o n of th e o res of
i r o n is bey o n d t he sc op e of th is wo rk T
Ir on o res m ay be cl assi ed as fo ll o ws :
.

agne t ic oxi d e o r m agn et i t e F 8 30 4

2 F erric ox i d e o r r e d h e m at i t e F 8 2 0 3
3 Hy d ra t e d f erri c oxi d e o r br o wn h e m at i t e li mo ni t e
b o g o res e t c
4 F err ou s carb o na t e o r s p a th ic o re F 9 0 0 3
1

Th e se o r e s a lways c arry oth er s u b st ances an d th e p ro

po rt i ons v ary be t ween wi d e li m i t s S u l phu r an d a rsenic
an d th e se wi th carb o n d i oxi d e an d
a r e oft en p resen t
wat er m ay b e re mo ve d as va po r o r gas at c omp arat ivel y
l o w t e mp erat u re s by th e p r o c ess of c alcining o r ro as t ing
F o r c al c inin g o r r o astin g t he o re is p il e d in h ea p s out
of doo rs o r c h a rge d into kiln s wi th f u el in p r op er a moun t
m ix e d wi th i t Th e f u el is igni t e d an d t he m ass sl o wly
h eat e d Wat er is d riven o ff a s s t eam I f th e o re is car
b on at e F 9 0 0 3 t he C 0 2 is d riven o ff an d th e res u l t i ng
F e O is c h ange d to F 8 2 0 3 by c om binat i o n wi th o xygen of
I f any ir o n p yri t es E 8 8 2 is p re sen t t he s ul ph u r
t he air
w h il e th e ir o n is als o o xi
is oxi d i z e d p a ssing o ff as
d i z e d r em aining as F 8 2 0 3 A rsenic is ox i d i z e d an d vapo r
B y th e p r o c e ss of r o as t ing t he s t r u c tu r e
iz ed i f p r esen t
of th e o re is m a d e mo re op en an d h ence be tt er tt e d fo r
s m el t ing
,

B y t he law

D ep o si ts o f
r
Pu bl is h in g C o m p an y
L ippin c o tt C o m p an y

vat io n o f en er gy

J
t h e Un i t e d S ta t es

Iro n (t he M etall ur gy

o f c o n s er

O re

S c i en t i c
Turn er ; J B

K em p ;
T

39

M ET ALLURGY O F IR O N AND S TEE L

W h en r o ast ing is carrie d o n in th e kiln s i t is oft en a

c ont in uou s p r o cess Th e kiln is lik e a fo u n d ry c upo la
mu c h enl arg e d in d iam e t er T he o re an d f u el are c h arg e d
in a t th e top an d th e r o as t e d o re is wi thd rawn f r om
op eni ngs a t th e b ottom
Th e p r o cess is n o w u s u ally om i tt e d fo r ox i d e o res th e
r o ast ing b eing acc omp lis h e d in th e top of th e bla st fu rnace
Th e e ar ly m eth o d s fo r th e p rodu c t i o n of ir o n were
d irec t m e thod s i e th e p r od u c t was wr ou g ht ir on w h ic h
h a d n ot p a sse d th r ou g h t h e int e rm e d iat e s t at e of cas t ir o n
C h e m ically th ese m e thod s were as fo ll o ws : ric h o re
F eg0 3 o r F e30 4 was c h arge d wi th c h arc o al in to a re c
Th e c o al
t an gular h ear th an d air blas t was s upp lie d
was ignit ed an d th e oxygen of th e air c ombine d with th e
carb on of th e fu el to fo r m C 0 2 w h ic h p assing o n o ver
mo re incan d esc en t c arb o n w as re d u c ed to C O w h i c h
cam e in c ont ac t wi th th e F 8 2 0 3 w h en th e fo ll o wing rea c
t i ons too k p l a ce :
,

3 F e2 0 3
2 F e3 0 4

C O
2 C O

6 F eO + 6 C O

2 F 8 30 4

6 F eO

C OZ

2 C 02

3 F e2 + 6 0 0 2

e t alli c ir o n an d 0 0 2 were th ere fo re p r odu ce d Th e

sili c a an d al umm a of t he o re uni t e d wi th F e O fo r m e d in

t he p r o c e ss
s ee r e ac t i o ns ab o ve
to fo r m a do uble
alu m in o f e rr ou s silic a t e o r s lag w h ic h is fu sible a t a l o w
t emp era t u re an d w h ic h was p ar t ly d rawn off w h il e t he
ir o n re m aine d in th e h ear th a spongy m ass lle d wi th
mo l ten sl a g Th e m ass w a s th en h eat e d to a wel d ing
t emp era t u re an d t ak en to a h amm er o r sq u ee z er w h ere th e
sl ag was re mo ve d by i mp ac t o r p ress u re an d th e m ass
was wel d e d into a bl oom
T he d e t ail s of th is p r o cess vari e d in d iff eren t l o cal i t ies
R i c h o r e an d c h arc o al fo r f u el w e re req uire d an d th ere
I t was th ere fo re a
w a s gr e a t wa st e of ir o n in th e slag
M

40

MATE RIALS O F MACHIN E S

very e xp ens ive p r o ce ss an d was n ot available fo r th e pro

du c t i o n of large q u an ti t ies of ir o n
N early all t h e i r o n u se d to d ay is re du ce d f r om o re
in th e b last f u rnac e F ig 3 s ho w s a ver t i c al sec t i o n of
a blas t furnace T he h eig ht varies fr om 4 0 to 100 fee t
an d th e d iam e t er a t M varies fr om 1 2 to 2 5 f ee t T he
insi d e fo r m varies wi th th e kin d of o re an d fuel use d an d
wi th th e p ress ure an d q u ant i ty of air of th e bl as t
A bl o wing engine s upp l ies air a t a p ress u re of f r om 5 to
1 5 pou n d s p er sq u are inc h to th e large p i p e P w h i c h
s urr oun d s th e s t ack A t int erval s of th e circ umference
of this p i p e s m aller p i p es c o nvey th e air to th e t uyeres
T T w h ic h d eliver i t into th e fu rnace
Th e o xygen of
th e air c om bines wi th carb o n of th e fu el an d fo r m s carb on
d i ox i d e w h ic h is al mo s t i mm e d iat ely re d u ce d in th e
p re senc e of carb o n with rest ric t e d o xygen s upp ly to
carb on mon oxi d e Th er e is a c o ns t an t ly ascen ding c ur
rent of carb o n mon oxi d e an d ni t r o gen th r ou gh t h e c o n
st an t ly d e s cen d ing s o li d m a t erials

Th e bell B p revent s th e es c ap e of gas f r om th e top

of th e st ack an d ins ur es i t s d elivery into th e p i p e G
S o li d m at erials to be int r odu c e d in to th e fu rnace are
p lace d in t he ann u l a r sp ace ab o v e B an d th e la tt er
w h ic h is c ont r o ll ed by po wer is l o were d p eri od ically an d
th e c h arge d r op s into th e fu rna c e
Th e func t i o n of th e blast fu rnace is to c h ange ir on o re
i nto p ig ir on
Pig ir o n is ir o n carrying f r om 3 to 1 0 p er cen t of carb o n
sil i c on m anganese s ul phur an d pho s pho r u s ei th er c h e m
ic ally c ombine d o r m e c h anically m i x ed
T h e blast fu rnace th er efo re p r o vi d e s fo r :
,

Th e re mo v al of v o lat ile c on st i tu ent s of th e o re

Th e re d uc t i o n of th e ir o n oxi d e of th e o re
Th e re mo val of t he s o li d earthy c ons t i t u ent s of

( )
(b)
(c)
th e c h arge
a

M ET ALLURGY

OF

IRO N

A N D ST E E L

41

3
.

G
I

42

MATERI A LS O F MACHIN E S

I t als o p r o vi d es carb o n silic o n m angan ese Sul phur and

pho s pho r u s u n d er p r op er c o n d it i on s fo r a b so r pti o n by
th e ir on
In o r d er th at th e ear th y s o li d s of th e o re s h all c omb ine
wi t h th e ux into a r ea d ily f usible slag silica al u mina
a n d li m e mu s t b e p res en t
h
p
age
I
f
s
ee
t
e o re
(
c arries silica an d al um ina li m e will ac t a s a ux and i t is
s u pp lie d in th e fo r m of li m esto ne I f an o re c o nt ains
S ilica o nly al umina m ay b e int r odu ce d wi th li m e ; o r
s ilice o u s an d al um in ou s o res m ay b e m i x e d an d ux ed
wi th li m es to ne
C h em i c al c han g e s in t h e b l a st fu r nac e
O r e c o ke
an d li m es to ne ar e c h arge d into th e top of t he s t a c k an d
d esc en d sl o wly to t he cr u c ibl e 0 a t t he b ottom wi th
s t ea d ily incr easing t e mp era t u r e Th e o re is rst r o as t e d
an d w h en th e t e mp eratur e has rea c h e d ab o u t 4 5 0 F t he
r e du c t i o n of ir o n ox i d e by c a rb on mo n ox i d e begins sl owly
an d c ont inu es a t an increa sing r at e unt il t he t emp eratu r e
reac h es ab out 1 1 00 F w h en t he re d uc t i o n is p r obably
n early c omp l et e T he o r e h as n o w be c om e a sponge of
m et alli c ir o n m i x e d wi th sili c a al um ina et c B u t a t th is
latt er t e mp era tu r e th e ux w h i c h is li m estone 0 3 0 0 3 b e
gins to give o ff C 0 2 an d t he li m e C a O thu s p r odu c ed
c om es in c ont a c t wi th t he sili c a an d al u m ina of th e r e
du c ed o re an d th ey d escen d to g eth e r u nt il a t e mp era tur e
is reac h e d a t w h i c h th ey c ombine to fo r m a fu sible slag
w h ic h m el t s an d l eaves th e ir o n sponge
In tr o du c ti on of c arb o n
In th e m e an t i m e a d e po si
t i on of carb o n U pon th e ir o n sponge h as been go ing on
Th i s m ay be e xp laine d a s fo ll o ws : w h en c arb o n mo n
oxi d e p asses o ver m e t allic ir o n at a t e mp erat u r e of ab o u t
7 5 0 F th e c arb o n mon oxi d e is d e c ompo se d s o li d c arb on
is d epo si t e d an d c arb o n d i oxi d e an d f err ou s ox i d e ar e
fo r m e d Th is is w h a t o cc u rs in t he blast fu rnace w h en
,

M ETALLURGY O F IR O N AND S TEE L

43

th e t emp era tu re of ab out 7 5 0 F is reac h e d b y th e m e t allic

ir on s po nge Th en as th e t emp eratu re rises f err ou s
oxi d e thu s fo r m e d is re du ce d again by carb o n mo n oxi d e
o r b y s o li d carb o n ; th e carb o n d i ox i d e p asses o n up war d
wi t h th e gas c u rrent an d th e ir o n spo nge re m ains im
A s th is p asses do wn wi th in
pregn at ed wi th car b o n
cr easing t e mp era tu re ir o n carbi d e is fo r m e d w h ic h is
fu sible at a mu c h l o wer t e mp era tu re th an pu r e ir o n ; a
t emp eratu re w h ic h is rea c h ed bel o w M in th e blas t
fu rnace Th erefo re th e d escen d ing ir o n carbi d e is raise d
to i t s fu si o n t e mp eratu re an d m el t s an d f alls in to th e
cr u c ib le 0
In tr o du c tio n of sili c o n
A t v ery h ig h t e mp era tu res
in th e l o wer p ar t of th e fu rnace w h ere c arb o n an d silica
an d m e t allic ir o n are in c on t a c t a po r t i o n of th e silica is
re du ce d an d th e res u l t ing sili c on is t ak en u p by t he iro n ;
th e re m aining silica g o es out wi th t he slag Th is c h ange
is f av o re d by (a) h ig h t emp era tu re (b) e x cess of silica in
th e c h arge an d (c ) d ecien c y of li m e in th e Slag U s u
ally n ot mo re t h an 5 p er cent of th e silica of th e c h arge
is re du ce d

Intr o du c ti o n of m an gan ese

Th e m angan ou s ox i d e
of th e o re is n ot re du ce d by carb o n mon ox i d e b ut is in
p ar t re du c e d by carb o n a t h ig h t e mp e ra tu res an d th e
re su l t ing m anganese c ombine s wi th th e ir o n T he un
re du ce d m angan ou s ox i d e p a sses into th e slag C ert ain
o r e s like N ew Jersey f ranklini t e c o nt ain v e ry large
p ropo r t i ons of m angan ou s oxi d e an d th e p r odu c t of th eir
o r f err o m anganese c on t aining
s m el t ing is s p iegeleisen
f r om 5 to 25 p er cen t m anganese
O nly a s m all p ar t of t h e
In tro du c tio n o f sulphur
s u l phu r in th e c h arge w h ic h i s c h ie'
y in th e c o k e as ir o n
F eS a pp ears in th e pig iro n t he res t p a s sing
su l ph i d e
into t h e Slag as calci um s u l p h i d e Th e a mount of sul

MA TE RIALS O F MACHIN E S

44

phu r th a t th e ir o n can t ake up d e p en d s u po n th e cap aci ty

of th e ir o n i t self fo r s ul phu r and als o upo n th e a moun ts
of si lic o n an d m anganese p resent (see p age
Hig h
fu rnac e t e mp era tu re t en d s to re du ce th e a moun t of sul
ph u r in th e p ig ir o n A ls o basic Slag i e slag wi th e x cess
of li m e c ombine s rea d ily wi th s u l phu r th ereby re du cing
th e amount abs o rbe d by th e ir o n
In tr o du c ti on of ph o sph o ru s
Th e pho s pho r u s of
th e c h arge is u s u ally in t he o re in t he fo r m of calci um
pho sph at e Th i s is n ot c h ange d by carb on mo n oxid e
B u t w h en t he p ar t of th e f u rn a ce is rea c h e d w h ere th e
slag is fo r m e d th e calci um pho s ph at e is re du ce d in th e
p res ence of s o li d c arb o n Th e li m e g o e s to t he slag ;
t he pho s pho ric an h y d ri d e is br o ken u p wi th fo rm a t i o n of
carb o n mon oxi d e an d ir o n pho s ph i d e Prac tically all
of t he pho spho r u s of th e c h arge a pp ears in th e p ig ir on
D e s c e nt of c o k e
C o ke is th e fu el al mo s t u niv e r

sally u se d in hot bl ast fu rnac es A s th e c o ke d escend s

i t is d rie d an d raise d in t emp era tu r e I t me et s carbon
d i ox i d e w h ic h m ay c om e f r om t he re du c t i o n of ir o n
ox i d e o r f r om t he r o as t ing of c a rb o nat e o re o r f r om th e
r o ast ing of li m esto ne Th e c arb o n d i oxi d e is r edu c e d to
carb o n mo n ox i d e wi th abs o rpt i o n of h eat Th e res ul t
ing carb o n mon ox i d e m ay t ak e p ar t again in re du c t i o n
o r i f i t is near th e top of th e s t ac k m ay p a ss o ff unc h anged
wi th th e gas c u rren t Th e c o k e m ay als o s upp ly p art
of th e carb o n fo r fo r m at i o n of carb u r et ed ir on an d i t
als o h el p s in t he re du c t i o n of silica an d pho spho ri c an
h yd ri d e W h en it re a c h e s th e vi c ini ty of t he tuyeres
i t b u rns to C O an d evo lves th e h ea t n e c es sary fo r th e
op era ti o n of th e fu rnace A ll of th e c arb o n of th e c o k e
a pp ears ei th er in t he p ig ir o n o r in th e gas es iss uing fr om
th e top of t he s t a ck
T h e c om binat i o n of i r o n carb on silic on m anganese
,

45

M ET ALL U RGY O F I R O N AND S TEE L

s ul p h u r an d pho s pho r u s is fu sible a t a t e mp era tu re w h ic h

Hence
is reac h e d a li tt le bel o w M in th e blas t fu rnace
fu si o n o cc u rs and th e m el t e d s u bs t ance f a lls into th e
cr u cible 0 to ge th er wi th th e ui d slag Th e ir o n an d
slag se p arat e bec a u se of th eir d i ff erence in s p ecic grav
i ty th e slag o at ing o n th e top W h en a s ufficien t
a moun t h as acc umu lat e d th e slag is t a pp e d out th r ou g h

th e cin d e r n ot c h all o we d to c oo l an d t ransferre d to

th e cin d er dump
Th e ir o n is t a pp e d out th r ou g h a ho le
l o w do wn in th e cr u cibl e an d all o we d to r un out th r oug h
p r op erly fo rm e d san d c h annels w h ere i t c oo ls as p ig iro n
Fig 4 gives Pr ofess o r D ie d eric h s d iagramm a t ic s um
m ary of blas t
furnace op erat i o n W h ile th is do es n ot
p re t en d to give e xh au st ively all c h anges th a t o cc u r i t
do es give th e c h ange s th a t are fu n d am ent ally i mpo r t an t
Th e g u re is sel f e xp lanato ry
O bvi ou sly a c o nt in uo u s c u rren t of gas o ws f r om th e

h
top of t e blas t fu rnac e s t ack Th e c h ie f c o nst i tu ent s
of th is are ni t r o gen carb o n d i oxi d e an d carb o n mo n ox i d e
W h en th e f urnac e is p r op erly reg u lat e d th e carb o n mo n
o xi d e eq u als ab out 25 p er cent of th e iss u ing gas I t is
th ere fo re a gas fu el A po rt i o n of th is is oft en b u rne d in
th e b o iler fu rnaces to m ake s t eam to r u n th e bl o wing
engines an d oth er a u x iliary m ac h inery In s om e mod ern
blast furnace p l an t s t he st a c k gas is u se d as a fuel in in
t ernal c omb u s t i o n engin e s w h i c h d ev el op po wer fo r th e
ent ire p lant Th e res t of th e s ta ck gas is u se d fo r h ea t ing
th e blast
In early blas t fu rnaces th e blas t en t ere d th e fu rnace
nearly a t th e t e mp era tu re of th e out si d e air C o l d blas t
is s t ill u se d in fu rnaces fo r th e s m el t ing of s om e s p ecial
gra d es of ir o n
Hea ting th e blas t o n i t s way f r om th e bl o wing en gine
to th e tuyeres res u l t s in :
-

46

MA TE RIALS
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M ET ALL U RGY

47

IRO N AND S TEE L

OF

i gh e r te mp er atur e ( see p age

E c o n omy of f u el , be c a u se th e blas t i s h ea t e d b y t h e
wast e gas fu el fr om th e top of th e blas t fu rnace s t ack
an d less fu el nee d s to be b urne d in th e fu rnace to m ain
t ain a given t e mp era tu re
In c r eas ed c apac ity b e c a u se since less c o ke is c h ar g e d
o re an d ux m ay t ak e i t s p lace

Th e h ig h er t e mp era tu re i n t h e hot
Grayer p i g ir o n
b last fu rnace f av o rs th e r e d u ct i o n of silica an d th e p res
ence of silic on in th e ir o n ca u ses a large p ar t of th e carb o n
to crys t alli z e out as graph i t e i e i t ren d ers th e ir o n gray
Th e rs t m e thod of h ea t ing th e blast w as to p ass it
th r ou g h cas t ir on p i p es w h ic h were encl o se d in a fu rnac e
an d m ain t aine d a t th e h ig h es t t emp era t u re th a t is saf e
fo r th e m at erial of th e p i p es Th e t e mp era tu re ho wev e r
i s onl y ab out 900 F In o r d er th a t a h ig h er blast t e m
r
a
u
r
sp ecial hot blas t sto ves h ave
e
t
e m ay be reac h e d
p
been d esi gne d Th e C o wp er ty p e is s ho wn in F ig 3
I t c onsist s of a cylin d ric al sh ell of ir on p lat es line d wi th
re bric k s
C is a c om b u s t i o n c h am b er an d D is a

c h amber lle d wi th c h eq u er w o rk
Th e gas fu el f r om
th e top of th e s t a ck p a sses th r ou g h th e p i p e G th e du st
sep arato r H an d into th e c omb u s ti on c h amber a t J
Here i t m e et s air w h ic h ent er s a t A an d c omb u s t i o n
t akes p lace Th e h eat e d p r odu ct s of c omb u s t i o n p ass
do wn th r o u g h D an d o n th r ou g h E to th e c h i mney Th is
p r o cess is c o nt in u e d u nt il th e c omb u st i o n c h amber an d t he
c h eq u er w o rk are raise d to th e t e mp eratu re of c o m b u s
t i on In th e m eant i m e th e air f r om th e bl o wing engine
ent ers th e oth er sto ve (w h ic h h as been p revi o u sly h eat e d )
a t K p asses u p th r ou g h th e c h eq u er w o rk c h amber an d
do wn th r ou g h th e c omb u st i o n c h amb er Th e air gains
h e at f r om th e c h eq u er w o rk an d is th er eby raise d to a
t e mp erat u r e s om ew h ere be t ween 1000 an d 1 5 00 F
H

MATE RIALS O F MACHIN E S

48

'

I t th en p a sse s th r o u g h L an d P to th e t uy eres T w h ere i t

ent ers th e f u rn a c e W h en th is s to v e is c oo le d s o th at th e
blas t is ins uf c i en t ly h ea t ed p r op erly a rrange d valves are
c h anged an d t he gas b Urn s in t he sto ve a t th e le ft w h il e
t he bl a st en t e r s th r o u g h t he sto ve a t t he rig ht
S ince th e a c t i o n of th e bl as t fu rna c e is c o nt inuou s
th er e mu st be at lea st th ree sto ves s o th a t any one m ay
b e put out of servic e fo r c le aning o r re p a irs
Th ere are st ill s om e bl a st f u rna c es th at u se c h ar c o al
a s fu el
wi th c o l d blast Th e p r od u c t is w h i t e ir on
B ec au se of th e l o wer t e mp era t u re in t he fu rn a ce less sili c a
is re d u ce d an d less silic o n is a bs o rbe d by th e ir o n
Be
c au se of t he sm all amoun t of silic on th e carb on c om bin es
wi th t he ir o n ins t e ad of sep ara ting as graph i t e an d t he
ir on frac tu r e is w h i t e Th i s ir o n is u se d fo r c h ille d car
w h eels m all eabl e cas t ir o n e t c
*
D ry b las t
I t h as been kn o wn fo r m any years th a t
th e variat i on of mo is tu r e in th e air seri ou sly aff ect s t he
op era t i on of th e blast fu rnace T he air bl ast en t er s t he
fu rnace an d s t rik es t he w h i t e hot m at eri al of th e d es c en d
ing c h arge incl u d ing th e c o ke Th e h ea t in th is p art of
t he fu rnace is increa s e d by c om binat i o n of o xygen of th e
air wi th c arb o n of th e c o k e ; bu t i t is d e crease d by
th e sensibl e h e at req u ire d to raise th e t emp era t u re of t he
bl as t to th e fu rnace t e mp era tu re I f t he air is free fr om
wat er v apo r o nly ni t r o gen an d oxygen (in i t s c ombinat i o n
wi th carb on) abs o rb h e at ; b u t i f t he air c arri es wat er
vapo r th is als o h as to be h eat e d A l thou g h t he p ercent
a ge by weig ht o f th e va po r in th e air is s m all ye t i t s h ea t

is mo r e th an t wice as grea t
c ap aci t y
spe c i c h e a t
as th a t of ni t r o gen an d h ence h ig h hum i d i t y of th e air
m ay c h ill th e fu rnace an d int er f er e wi th sat isfac to ry
,

S ee J ou rna l I r on

p age

27 4

an d

S teel I ns ti tu te, V o l

LXV I

1 90 4,

P ar t

1 1,

M ETALLURGY O F IRO N

AN D

49

S TEE L

op era ti on O f c ou rse wi th any amo un t of vapo r t he

t e mp era tu re in th e fu rnac e c o u l d b e m a in t aine d i f th ere
were c o ke en ou g h in th e po r t i o n of th e c h arge w h ere th e
blas t en t ers ; b ut th e wat er vapo r in th e air is s ub j ec t to
s udd en an d irregular v ariat i ons an d i t is i mpo ssi b le to
a d j u s t th e q u an t i t y of c o k e a t t h e tuyeres to m ee t th es e
variat i ons becau se of th e l ong t i m e req u ir ed fo r th e d e
Sc ent of th e c h arge T he i d eal c o nd i t i o n is wi th air fo r
th e blas t wi th a u nif o rm m ini mu m of wat er vapo r
M r Jam e s Gay ley d esign e d a p lan t fo r fu rnis h ing

d ry air blas t w h ic h w as c onst r u c t e d an d app li ed to

th e Isab ella fu rnaces of th e C arnegie S t eel C omp any a t
Etna Pa an d st ar t e d A u g u s t 1 1 19 04 M r Gay ley s
s ch e m e is as fo ll o ws : Th e air o n it s way to t he bl o wing
engine p ass e s th r o u g h a c h a m ber c o n t aining c oils of p i p e
th a t are k ept a t a l o w t e mp era tu re th r o u g h t he agency
of an a mmonia c omp ressi on r efrigera t ing p lan t Th e
mo istu re in th e blas t air is d epo si t e d o n th e c o ils a s wat er
o r f r o st ; an d aft er t he acc umulat e d f r o s t has re a c h e d a
c er t ain th i c kn ess th e re frigerat ing m e d i u m o wing in th e
c oils is s hut off an d a hot m e d i u m w h ic h m el t s t he fr o st
is fo rce d th r ou g h in i t s s t ea d Th e res u l ting wat er is
d rawn o ff t he r ef riger a ting c o n d i t i ons a r e res to re d an d
f r o st begin s to fo r m again Th e f r o s t m el ting p r o ce ss is
a pp lie d to a f ew c o ils a t a t i m e an d do es n ot in t er f ere
wi th c ont inu o u s r unning
Th e int r od uc ti o n of th is d ry air blas t m ak es it po ssibl e
to increase th e b u r d en
th e weig ht of o re p er ton of
c ok e
by an amoun t eq u al to 2 0 p er c en t o r mo re wi th
p r opo r t i o nat e d ecrease in c o s t of fu el p er to n of p r odu c t
A ls o s i nce th e ai r a ft er p assing th e d rying c h am ber
r eac h es th e bl o wi ng engines a t a re du ce d t emp era tu re
an d in c rease d d ensi t y th e wei g ht of air d elivere d p er
en gi ne st r o ke is increase d an d th e en gine sp ee d is re d u ce d
.

MATE RIALS O F MACHIN E S

50

wi th c o rrespon d ing gain in po wer c o st In t h e experi

m en t al p lan t th is gain in po w er in th e bl o wing engines w a s
gre at er th an th e po wer req u ire d to d rive th e refrigera t ing
p lan t B u t th e great es t gain f r om M r C ayley s inven t i o n
r esul t s f r om th e po wer of c o nt r o l th at i t gives o ver c on
d it io n s of op erat i o n
I t bec om es po ssibl e as never h er e
tofo re to tu rn out d i ff eren t gra d es of p ig ir o n a t will an d
thu s to c omm an d th e mo st p r o t able m arke t
P ig ir o n f r om th e blas t fu rnace g o es ei th er (a) to t he
foun d ry to be c o nver t e d into cas t ings o r (b) to th e pud
d lin g m ill to be c o nver t e d in to wr ou g ht ir o n o r (c) to
th e B esse m e r m ill to be c o nvert e d into B esse m er s te el
o r (d) to th e op en h ear th fu rnac e to be c onv ert e d in to
op en h ear th st e el
In t he fo u n d ry p ig ir o n is m el t e d w i th v ery li tt le
c h e m i c al c h ange an d po u re d in to san d mo l d s w h ere i t
s o li d ies in th e req u ire d fo r m Th is m at erial is calle d
c ast ir o n
T he p ig ir o n is m el t e d in a c upo la fu rnace
S ee F ig
Th i s c o n sis t s of a p l at e ir o n s h ell lin ed wi th re
5
brick an d s u ppo r t e d upo n s t an d ar d s D ouble doo rs A
op ening do wnwar d ar e cl o se d an d h el d in po si t i o n by a
p r op P an d a sand b ottom i s ra mm e d in to p la c e wi th a
sl op e to w a r d th e t app ing ho le T Th e top of th e c upo la
is op en
A f an o r bl o wer s upp lies air blas t a t a p ress u re of fr om
T he air ent ers th r ou g h
5 to 1 0 o u nces p er sq u are in c h
t he p i p e B an d p asses in to th e fu rnace by way of th e c h am
ber C an d th e op enings E
Th e c h arge is eleva t e d to a p latfo r m ind icat e d a t F
an d is int r odu ce d into th e f u rnac e th r ou g h th e c h arging
doo r D K in d ling an d w ood are r st lai d upo n th e san d

b ottom U po n th is th e be d of c o ke is c h arged an d
th en al t ernat e layers of ir o n an d c o ke un t il th e lev el of th e
.

M ETALLU RGY O F IR O N AND S TEE L

51

c h arging doo r is reac h e d Th e re is lig ht e d an d th e

blas t tu rne d o n Th e c o ke b u rns an d th e ir o n m elt s ;
an d as th e top of th e c h arge se ttles gra du ally mo re ir o n

an d c o ke are c h arge d o n
T h e m el t e d ir o n c o llec t s in th e b ottom an d is d rawn o ff
p eri od ically at T i nto a rec eiv
ing la d le f r om w h ic h i t is d is
t rib ut e d S ince th e hot ir o n
c om es in c o n t ac t wi th t he
air blas t th ere is always silica
p r odu ce d by th e o xi d at i o n of
s om e of th e silic o n A ls o a
c onsi d erable a mo un t of Silica
san d is int r odu ce d into th e
c upo la a dh ering to th e p ig
ir o n I f th e c upo la o nly r uns
o ne o r t w o hou rs a d ay as in
s m all foun d ries th e Silica do es
n ot int er fere wi th op erat i o n
B ut fo r l o ng o r c o n t inuou s r un
ning i t is necessary to incl ud e
li m estone wi th t he c h arg e fo r
a ux an d to t ap o ff slag a t S
A ft er all th e ir o n to be m el t
e d h as b een c h arge d into th e
c upo la t h e d rawing o ff of m el t
e d ir o n c o nt inu es an d th e
c h arge se tt les do wn un t il th e
F IG 5
c upo la is e mpty e x cept fo r Slag
an d a li tt le ir o n Th e blas t is t h en s topp e d t h e p r o p P
is kn o cke d out th e doo rs A swing do wn an d th e resi du e
of slag an d ir o n d r op s out
P u d dlin g pr o c ess
B ot h p ig ir o n an d wr ou g h t ir o n
c o nt ain silic o n m an g anese carb o n s u l phur an d p h o s
-

M A TE RIALS O F MACHIN E S

52

h
p o ru s ; b ut in pi g ir o n th e su m of th ese is u s u all y f r o m
3 to 10 p er cen t , w h ile in wr ou g h t ir o n th eir sum do es n ot

u s u all y e x cee d 1 p er cen t Th e o bj e c t of p udd ling is to

c h ange p ig ir o n in to wr ou g ht ir o n T h e p r o cess mu st
th erefo re p r o vi d e m eans fo r t h e re mov al of a p art of th e se
s ub st ances T h e rem o v al i s eff ec t e d b y oxi d at i o n an d th e
pudd ling p r o cess i s carrie d o n in a rev erb era to ry fu rnace
Th i s fu rna c e req u ires d escript i o n
S ee F ig 6
A is a re-box p r o vi d e d wi th a gra t e upo n
w hi c h s o li d f u el is b u rne d H is a h ear t h in w h ic h t he
m e t all u rgical op erat i o n is carri e d on E i s a p assage
.

FI G

c onnec t ing wi t h t h e s t ack F is th e ash p i t an d B an d D

are doo rs fo r t he in t r od u c t i o n of fu el an d t he m a t eri al
to b e t reat e d in th e h ear th T he m at erial in t he h earth
is h ea t e d by t he hot gases w h i c h p ass o v e r i t an d a ls o by
h ea t r e e c t e d f r om th e h ig h ly h e a t e d r ef ra c to ry m a t eria l
of th e fu rnace r oof S o li d fu el b u rns o n th e grat e an d
th e air s upp ly th r ou g h th e as h p i t is u nd er c ont r o l I f
air s upp ly were j u s t s ufcien t fo r p erf ec t c omb u st i on
t he res u l t ing c arb o n d i ox i d e an d ni t r o g en a t t he t e mp er
a tu re of c om b u s t i o n w ou l d p a ss o ve r t he h ear th an d give
up p ar t of th e i r h ea t to t h e fu rnace walls an d to th e ma
-

M ET ALL U RGY O F IRO N AND S TEE L

53

in th e h earth an d th en g o o n at l o wer t e mp era tu re

to t he s t ack B u t if air s upp ly is mo re res t rict e d carb o n
mon oxi d e will res u l t w h ic h will b u rn in th e h earth wi th
air a dm i tt e d ab o v e th e re o r th r ou g h th e bri d ge wall L
In th is case t he re
b ox bec om es a gas p r odu cer an d th e
gas b u rns in th e h e a r th
T h e a m e w h i c h p a ss es o v e r t he h earth of th is fu rnac e
m ay be m a d e an o xi d i z ing a n eu tral o r a r e du c ing
am e Th u s by a f ree a dm iss i o n of air th r o u g h th e re
o r ab o v e i t c omp le t e c omb u s t i o n of all carb o n mon ox i d e
is insu re d an d an e x cess of o xyg en is c a rrie d o ver t he
h earth wi th th e p r odu ct s of c om b u s t i o n Th is res u l t s i n
a t en d en c y to ox i d i z e m at eri als in th e h ear th I f t he ad
m issi o n o f air is s o regu la t e d as to s u pp ly o nly j u s t en ou g h
oxygen to c omp le t e th e c om b u s t i on of all c arb o n mon ox i d e
th e am e will be ne u t ral i e i t will n ot t end e ith e r to
give out o r to t ake up oxygen I f th e air
s upp ly is r e
'
s t ric t e d b elo w th e re carb o n mo n ox i d e will r e s u l t f r om
th e inc omp l et e c omb u st i o n ; an d i f n o air is a dm i tt e d
ab o ve th e re th is c a rb o n mo n ox i d e will t en d to t ake u p
oxygen f r om th e m a t erials in th e h ear th o r to r e du c e
th e m
In th e fo r m of r everberato ry f u rna c e u s ed fo r pudd ling
th e b ottom of th e h ear th is m a d e u p of c a s t ir o n p lat e s
w h ic h are c o vere d to a d e pth of ab o ut th ree inc h es wi th

a lining o r f e tt ling c ompo se d of silica an d ox i d e of

ir o n Th e f e tt ling is put in as fo ll o ws : t ap cin d er ( w h i c h
m ay be re p resent e d thu s : 2 F eO 8 10 2) i s c h arg ed in upo n
th e ir o n p lat es sp rea d evenly an d s ubj e c t e d to a t e m
e
h
ig
h
en
ou
g
h
to
s
oft
n
i
t
in
th
e
p
resence
of
ox
ygen
r
a
t
u
r
e
e
p
Th e F e O t akes up oxygen an d b e c om e s F 9 2 0 3 Th is will
n ot re m ain in c omb inat i o n wi th th e silica an d h ence th e
f u sible s i l i cat e i s c o nv e rt e d into inf us ible f erric ox i d e an d
Silica T h e n scra p i r o n i s c h arge d in an d s ubj e c t e d to
t erial

54

MATE RIALS O F MACHIN E S

an oxi d i z ing a m e I t is th ereby c h ange d to m agne t ic

ox i d e w h ic h is raise d to a wel d ing h ea t an d s p rea d s mooth ly
o ver th e h ear th b ottom
I f th e h earth were line d wi th Silica th e lining w oul d be
uxed away by th e f err ou s ox i d e fo r m e d d u ring th e pud
d lin g p r o c ess wi th c o nsi d erabl e l o s s of ir o n
A ls o i t is
i mpo ssibl e to re mo ve pho spho r u s in th e p r e sence of f ree
*
Silica
Th ere are t w o pudd ling p r o ce s ses : dry pu d dlin g an d
w et pu d dlin g
In th e r s t a n d les s u s e d p r o cess w h i t e
p ig ir o n is h eat e d in th e h ear th of th e rev e rbera to ry fu r
nace an d s u bj e c t e d to t he ac t i o n of an ox i d i z ing am e
W h i t e ir o n d i ffers f r om gray ir o n in p a ssing th r ou g h an
int er m e d iat e p as t y c o n d i t i o n b efo re m el t ing D u ring
t he p assage th r ou g h th i s c o n d i t i o n th e ir o n is c o ns t an t ly

s tirre d wi th a rabbl e o r ir o n bar w h i c h is insert e d

th r o u g h a ho le in th e doo r D Th e o r d er in w h ic h oxi d a
t i o n of s ubs t ances o cc u rs is silic o n m anganese carbo n
ir o n A c o nsi d erable p ar t of th e sili c o n an d m angan es e
is ox i d i z e d d uring th e m el t ing an d f err ou s ox i d e als o is
fo r m e d T h e Silica an d m anganese ox i d e c om bine to
fo rm sili c at e of m anganese a f u sible slag an d i f Sili c a is
s t ill le ft f ree i t c om bines wi th f err ou s oxi d e to fo r m silicat e
of ir o n als o a fu sible Slag W h en th e s ili c o n an d m anga
n ese are c omp le t ely ox i d i z e d t he oxygen att ack s th e car
b o n an d ir o n at t he s u r face of t he b ath of m et al Th e
r esu lt ing c arb o n d i ox i d e p as ses o ff to th e s t ack an d ferr o u s
ox i d e ac t s as a carrier of oxygen i e i t is m i x e d wi th th e
bath an d gives up i t s o xygen to c om bine wi th th e carb o n
of th e ir o n c arbi d e an d th e re s u l t is th a t c arb o n mon
ox i d e b ubbl es u p to t he s u r f a c e of th e ba th an d b urns
th ere to carb o n d iox i d e w h ile th e ir o n of t he ox i d e an d
carbi d e re m ains in t he h ear th Th is c o nt inues un t il th e
S ee p age 6 1
.

M ETALLURGY

OF

IRO N

55

S TEE L

AN D

carb o n is al mo s t ent irely re mo v e d Th en becau se of th e

raising of th e fu sing po in t th e ir o n begins to s o li d i fy an d

is c o llect e d in a pudd le ball w h ic h is really a s po nge

of ir o n wi th i t s int erst ices lle d wi th slag Th is is raise d
to a wel d ing t e mp era tu re an d put th r ou g h a s qu eez e r ,
w h ere th e Slag is sq u ee z e d out an d th e ir o n is wel d e d into

a bl oom
Th is bl oom is th en put th r ou g h a r ou g h ing

t rain
of r o lls an d is th ereby c onver t e d in to mu ck

bar w h ic h is c ut u p p ile d re h eat e d wel d e d u n d er a

h amm er an d r o lle d in to m erc h an t bar

Th is p iling
h eat ing an d r o lling is s om e t i m es r ep e at e d wi th a res u l t
ing p r odu c t of ner ber an d increase d s t ren gth an d
du c t ili t y
In we t pudd ling th e mo re c ommonly u se d p r o cess
gray ir o n is u se d an d i t is all o we d to be c om e en t irel y

u i d befo re i t is rabble d
T he ox i d e of ir o n in th i s
p r o cess ins t ea d of being fo r m e d in th e fu rnace is d e
rive d fr om th e f e tt ling o r is int r od u ce d in th e fo r m of

m ill scale
o r f r om Slag of p r evi ou s h eat s th at is ric h
in ferr ou s ox i d e o r f r om s om e kin d of ric h o re
Th e c h ie f d ist in c t i o n th en b et ween th e t w o pudd ling
p r o cesses is th a t in d ry pudd ling t he oxygen is s upp lie d
by th e air w h ile in we t pudd ling t he oxygen c om es fr om
th e oxi d e of ir o n w h ic h is in t r od u c e d wi th t he p ig ir o n
In o r d er th at th e pho s pho r u s m ay be re mo ve d i t is
nece ssary th at th ere s ho u l d be an e x cess of ferr ou s ox i d e
in th e f ett ling an d th e slag
Th en pho s pho r u s is o xi
d i z e d to P2 0 5 an d th is c om bines wi th F e O to fo r m f err ou s
pho sph at e F en O g Th is is th e fo r m in w h ic h th e pho s
a
pp
ears
in
th
e
slag
I
f
th
er
h
a
d
b
en
h
r
u
e
e
u
o
s
n
co m
p
bin ed silica p resen t in th e slag th e pho spho ric an h y d ri d e
w ou l d h ave been re du ce d again to ir o n pho s ph i d e an d
,

T he
o r ro

lled

iro n o xi de th at

s ca es o ff

ro m

iro n wh en i t

is

ham m ered

MATE RIALS O F MACHIN E S

56

th e pho s pho r u s w o u l d h av e a pp eare d in th e ir on inst e ad

of in t he slag
S u l phu r is r emo ve d in t he pudd ling p r o c e ss b ut t he
m an ner of i t s r emo val is n ot cle a rly un d erstood Th e
s u l ph u r e x ist s in th e p ig ir o n a s ir o n s u l ph i d e an d i t
a pp ears in t he slag in t he s am e fo r m A b asi c sl ag
slag wi th e x c ess of fe rr ou s oxi d e) an d a l ong p eri od of
c ont ac t of ir o n wi th th e slag are f av o rable to th e re mo val
of s u l phu r
A p r o ce s s is s om et i m e s u se d w h ic h is in t er m e d ia t e
be t ween th e blas t fu rnace p r o c es s an d th e pudd ling
p r o cess I t is c alle d re ning I t re mo ves mo s t of th e
silic o n an d m angane se b ut s top s th e p r o c ess of re mo val
befo re th e ir o n bec om es too inf u sible to be cas t T he
fu rnace fo r th is p r o cess is a rec t angu lar h earth wi th
t u yeres o n t w o si d e s bringing air u n d er p r es s u re M el t e d
ir o n f r om th e blas t f u rna c e m ay b e r u n into th i s f u rnac e
an d s ubj ec t e d to th e ox i d i z ing air blast o r p ig ir o n m ay
In ei th er case ir o n
b e c h arge d in wi th c o k e to m el t i t
ox i d e m ay be int r odu c e d to h as t en t he re mo val of silic o n
an d m anganese T he ir o n aft er c omp l et i on of th e t r eat
m ent is d r a wn out into san d mo l d s w h er e i t c oo ls in
th e fo r m of p lat e s Th ese p lat es are br o ken up an d
c o nvert e d into wr ou g ht ir o n in th e pudd ling fu rnace Th e
renery c h anges gr ay p ig ir o n in to w h i t e p ig ir on becau se
i t remo ves th e silic o n w h i c h c au ses mu c h of th e carb o n
to c h ange into graph i t e du ring c oo ling
- te el f r o m
r
o
i
n
too
l
f
o
r
a
k
s
wro u ght iro n
e
m
P c es s s
g
Th e d if f erence be t we en wr ou ght ir on an d too l-s t eel is
c h ie y in th e a moun t of carb on c on t aine d
er
Wr ou ght ir o n h as fr om
cen t to
p er cen t
p
Too l st eel h as f r om
p er cen t to
p er cen t
-s t eel is
c
h
ange
f
r
om
wr
ou
g
ht
ir
o
n
to
too
l
th erefo re ,
h
T e
to b e eff ec t e d b y a dd i t i o n of carb on
.

M ET ALLU RGY O F IR O N AND S TEE L

57

e m en t a t i o n P r o cess
B ars of v er y p u re wr ou g ht
ir on ab o u t ginc h by 5 inc h es b y 12 f ee t l o ng are p acke d
in r e frac to ry b oxes ab out 3 f ee t wi d e by 3 f ee t d ee p
wi th al t erna t e layers of ra th er nel y d ivi d e d c h arc o al
Th ese b ox es w h ic h are seale d up to e x cl ud e th e air are
p l a c ed in a f u rnace w h e re th e t e mp era tu re is gra d u ally
raise d to a m ax i mum of 2 000 F ; th is t e mp era tu re is
m aint aine d fo r several d ays an d th en th e f u rnace is al
l o we d to c oo l do wn Ir o n in c o n t ac t wi th carb o n a t a
h ig h t e mp era t u re t en d s to abs orb carb o n Sl o wly an d i t is
fo un d th a t th e bars aft er t r ea tm en t as d escribe d are
c h ange d to s t eel T h e carb o n ho wever is n ot uni fo r m l y
d is t rib ut e d th e s t r u c tu re is c o arse becau se of l ong c o n
t in u ed h ig h t e mp era tu re an d th e m a t erial is bri tt le
Th is m at erial ( calle d blis t er s t eel ) is c h ange d to too l
s t eel by th e cr u cible p r o cess as fo ll o ws :
T he blis t er s t eel is br o ken u p
C ru c i b l e p r o c e ss
into s m all p ie c es an d c h arge d into r efra c to ry c r uc ibl es
ab out 2 fee t h ig h wi th an aver a ge d iam et er of ab o u t
Th es e cr u cibles are p lace d in a fu rnac e
10 inc h e s
u su all y of th e S ie m ens regenera t ive t yp e w h ere t he
m el t ing t e mp era tu re of s t e el c an b e a tt aine d an d th eir
c ont ent s c an b e fu se d Th is u i d s t eel is th en cas t into
an ing ot w h ic h is homo gene o u s c h e m ically b ut of c o arse
cryst alline st r uc t u re b e c a u se of it s h eat treatm ent
I t is th en re h eat e d an d h amm ere d into s t an d ar d si z es
an d th e m e c h anical w o r k ing gives i t a ne
a n d fo r m s
homo gene ou s s t r u c tu re
Th e ce m ent at i o n p r o cess is oft en om i tt e d an d wr ou ght
ir on is c h arge d into th e m el t ing c r uc ibl e s to geth er wi th
cast ir o n free f r om s u l phu r an d pho spho r u s to fu rni sh
carb o n C o ke o r c h ar c o al m ay b e c h arge d als o to pre
v en t ox i d at i o n at t he su r f a c e an d to serve as a s ou r c e
of carb o n S om e carb o n m ay b e abs o rb e d f r om th e cru
C

58

MA TE RIA L S O F MACHI N E S

cibles w h ic h c on t ain e i th er graph i t e o r n ely d ivi d e d

c o ke E i th er f err om an gan ese o r s p i egele is en is in t r o
du c ed in to th e cr u cibl e b e cau se th e m anganese re d uc es
any ir o n oxi d e th a t m ay be p resen t an d re mo ves gas o r
cau ses i t to g o in to s o l ut i on thu s p r even t ing po r o si t y
Th e carb on of th e f err o o r s p iegel in c reas e s t he carb o n
of th e s t eel Th e m el t er regu lat es th ese s ou rces of car
b o n s o as to ins u re c l o se app r ox i m ati o n to th e req uir ed
gra d e of th e p r od u c t
T h e B e ss e m e r pr o c ess
B esse m er s t eel is very
sim ilar to wr ou g ht ir o n in c h em ical c ompo si t i o n b u t
u su ally c on t ains a li tt le mo re carb o n Th e st r u c tu re
ho wever is d i ff eren t becau se of th e d i ff erence in th e
m e thod of m anuf a c tu re Th u s wr ou g ht ir o n is b u il t u p
f r om s m all p ar t icles of ir on c ov er e d wi th slag T he slag
is n ot en t ir ely re mo ve d an d th e p r o cess of r o lling d r aw s
o u t th e p ar t icle s in t O th rea d s th a t are st ill su rr ou n d e d by
slag Th i s giv e s wr ou ght ir o n th e a pp earan c e of a br ou s
s t r u c tu re B u t B esse m er s t eel is cast into a so li d ingot
an d th en d rawn do wn to th e req uire d s h ap e an d Si z e
I t th ere fo re S ho ws th e cryst alline s t r u c tu re of t he ir o n
i t sel f
Th e B esse m er p r o cess c h anges p ig ir on into s t eel c on
t aining f r om
p er cen t to
p er cen t of carb o n Th i s
c h ange is acc omp lis h ed in a v essel calle d a co nvert er
S ee F ig 7
Th e V essel is m a d e up of rive t e d ir o n o r s t eel p lat es
an d is line d wi th
Th e c o nv er t er is mo un t e d
upo n t r unni o ns A A an d c an be t u rne d a b o u t t he axi s of
th e t r unni ons in to any req u ir e d po si t i o n C o l d air fr om
a bl o wing engine a t a p ressu re of fr om 2 0 to 25 poun d s
p er s q u are inc h ent ers a t E fo ll o ws th e p assage s ho wn
.

S ee

S ee

p ag e 4 3
p age 33

M E T ALLURGY O F IR O N AND S TEE L

59

to F ,

w h ence i t p a sses into th e c o nver t er th r ou g h ho l es

1
ab out ; inc h d i am e t er th at p i er c e t he c o nical re bricks
-

Th e B es sem er p lan t in c l u d es c u po las fo r m el t ing th e

i
e
I
r
o
n
Th
e
m
el
t
d ir o n is c o nv eye d to th e c o nv e rt ers
pg
e i th er th r o u g h p r op e rly fo r m e d c h an n els wi th r ef r a c to ry
o r in lad le-cars r u nning u po n a t rack S om et i m e s
.

FI G

th ese cars t ranspo r t t he u i d ir o n d ir e c t l y f r om th e bla st

fu rnace to t he c o nv ert er
Th e c o nver t er is t u rne d o n i t s Si d e an d a c h arge of
ir o n is r un in I t is th en t u rne d into a v er t i c al po si t i on
a v alve op ens au tom at ically to t u rn o n th e blast an d
th e air is fo r c e d th r ou g h th e ba th of ir o n Th e res ul t s
are as fo ll o ws :
Th e oxy gen of t he air c ombines wi th th e ox i d i z able
s ubst an c es of th e bath ; an d ir o n b eing in e x c ess f err ou s

ox i d e is fo rm e d th r o u g hout th e ent ire

bl o w
B ut
f err ous o xi d e i s re d u ce d by silic o n th a t is p resen t wi t h
.

60

MATE RIALS O F MACHIN ES

S ilica is als o fo rm e d by d irec t

fo r m at i on of Silica
c om binat i o n of sili c on wi th oxygen of th e air M anga
nese als o is p resen t an d ox i d e of m anganese is fo rm e d ;
th is c om bines wi th silica to fo r m Silicat e of m an ganese
a fu sible slag I f th e silica is in ex cess s om e fu sible
silicat e of ir o n is als o fo r m e d D u ring th is p eri od bril
lian t sp ar k s of Slag are th r o wn f r om th e mouth of t he
c onver t er
W h en all th e silic o n an d m an ganese are remo ve d t he
carb o n b egins to be ox i d i z e d , d irec tly by th e oxygen of
th e air an d in d irec t ly by th e oxygen of t he f err o u s ox i d e
C arb o n mo n ox i d e is fo r m e d w h ic h p a sses o ff f r om th e
bath an d o n reac h ing th e mouth of th e c o nvert er b u rn s
to carb o n d i oxi d e in a l ong am e W h en th e o xi d at i on
of th e carb o n is c omp let e th er e is n o s ubst ance left to
re du c e th e ir o n ox i d e fo r m e d re dd is h fum es a pp ear a t
n d th e p r o cess is imm edi
t he mouth of th e c o nver t er a
:
a t ely s topp e d by t u rning th e c o nver t er o n i t s si d e
T he c o nver t e r n o w c on t ains nearly p ur e ir o n an d
al tho u g h i t s f u si o n t emp erat u re is ab o u t 29 00 F i t
rem ain s u i d Th e fu el w h ic h by i t s ox i d at i o n o r c om
b u st io n h as rai se d th e t e mp era t u re of th e c o nvert er f r om
th e m el t ing po in t of p ig ir o n to th at of wr ou g ht ir o n is
th e Silic o n m anganese an d carb o n of t he p ig ir o n
W h en th e rs t e xp eri m ent s w er e m ad e o n th e B esse m er
p r o cess i t was thou g ht th at th e bl o w c ou l d be s topp e d
a t th e rig ht po in t to leave th e a moun t of c arb o n n ec es
sary to m ak e s t eel ; b ut i t was i mpo s sible to get a uni
fo r m p ro d u c t an d th e res u l t ing m et al was bri tt le an d
w o r th less
Th is was becau se ir o n oxi d e re m ain e d in th e m et al
an d becau se gas was o c c l u d e d c au sing po r o si ty To
o verc om e th e se d i fc u l t ies th e bl o w is c ont in u e d unt il th e
carb o n is c omp le t el y re mo ve d , an d a kn o wn p r opo rt i on
.

61

M E T ALL URGY O F IR O N AND S TEE L

of sp iegeleisen o r f err om anganese is a dd e d to e ff ec t th e

recarb u ri z at i o n T h e m anganese re du ces th e ir o n ox i d e
an d in s om e n ot very well un d erstood way re mo ves th e
o ccl ud e d gases o r c au se s th e m to g o into s o l ut i on A ft er
th e a dd i t i o n of t he sp iegel o r f err o th e s t e el is pou re d
f r om th e c o nver t er into a la d le f r om w h ic h i t is c a s t in to
ingot s w h ic h are r o lle d into rails o r p lat es o r into bl oom s
w h ic h are to be r o lle d o r fo rge d in to req u ire d fo r m s
D u ring th e bl o w as
T h e b a s i c B e s s e m er p r o c es s
d escribe d pho s pho ric aci d an d f err ou s oxid e are fo r m e d
Simu l t ane ou sly an d th ese c ombine to fo r m pho s ph at e
P2 0 5
of ir o n o r f err ou s pho s ph at e ; thu s 3 F e O
B ut th is is re d u ce d aga in to ir o n pho s ph i d e
F C 3P2 0 3
b y sili c on an d c arb o n , an d th er efo re li tt l e o r n o pho s
can
b
e
re
mo
ve
d
u
n
t
il
a
ft
er
th
e
c
omp
le
t
e
re
mo
val
h
r
u
s
o
p
of th ese s ubst ances f r om th e m et al in th e c o nv e rt er
F err ou s pho s ph at e is als o re du c e d by sili c a , becau s e th e
Silica h as gr eat er afni t y fo r f err ou s ox i d e th an pho spho ric
aci d h as an d s o f err ou s silicat e is fo r m e d an d pho s
aci
d
is
le
ft
w
h
ic
h
is
p
r
o
bably
r
du
ce
d
to
ir
o
n
h
r
i
e
o
c
p
p ho s ph i d e by th e m e t allic ir o n wi th fo r m at i o n of f err ou s
o xi d e
Th e li nin g of th e B esse m er c o nvert er d escribe d is
largely silica an d th er efo re silica is always p resen t an d
n o pho spho r u s can be re mo ve d in a c o nvert er wi th a
ganist er o r aci d lining I t is necessary th er efo re to u se
fo r th is p r o cess p ig ir o n w h ic h is ver y l o w in pho spho r u s
Since th e p resence of pho spho r u s in th e p r odu c t in any
c on si d erable amount is very un d e sirab le
Th e f ac t th a t a large p r opo rt i o n of th e ir o n o re of th e
w o rl d c on t ains pho spho r u s w h ic h is n ot re mo ve d in th e
blast fu rnace m a d e i t d esirable to n d a way to eli m inat e
p h o s p h o r u s in th e st eel m ak ing p r o cess T h is le d to t h e
.

S ee p a

ge 4 3

MATE RIALS O F MACHINE S

62

invent i o n o f t he b as ic B es sem er p r o c ess in w

h i c h a linin g
of li m e an d m a gn esi a is s ub st i tut e d fo r g ani st er in t he
c o nv ert er Th e o nly fr ee sili c a th en is th at w h i c h
resu l t s fr om th e oxi d at i o n of th e sili c o n in t he p ig ir o n
Th i s c om bin es with li m e w h ic h is c h arg ed in to t he c on
vert er be fo re th e bl o w an d fo r m s a st able Sl ag t he S ili c a
being th er eby ren d ere d po werl ess to r edu c e t he ferr ou s
pho sph at e
Th e li m e o r m a gnesia p resen t th en r ep l a ces th e f err o u s
ox i d e of th e f err ou s pho sph at e fo rm ing c al c i u m o r m ag
n esiu m pho s ph a t e
w h ic h is p r o b ably th e fo r m in w h i c h
th e pho spho r u s c h ie y exi st s in th e slag
In th e a c i d p r o c ess ir o n is n ot u s u ally u se d w h ic h c on
t ains le s s th an 2 p er c en t of silic on b e c au s e th e c omb u st i o n
of a t least th a t a mo un t of silic o n is ne c essary to p r odu c e
a sufci ent ly h ig h t emp eratu r e in th e c o nvert er
In th e basic p r o c ess Silic o n is an un d esirable ele m en t
since all t he sili c a p r od uc e d m u st be n eu t r ali z ed by li m e
in o r d er th at th e p r o c e ss s h all s ucc eed . F o r th is reason
ir o n wi th
p er cen t silic o n is bes t an d
p er cen t is
th e h ig h es t all o w able li m i t Th is m ake s i t n e c essary to
s ubs t i tut e s om e oth er f u el an d th ere fo r e p ig ir o n h ig h
in m anganese is u se d Th e pho spho r u s u s u ally p resen t
f r om a m i ni mum of
p er cen t to 3 per c ent is als o a

fu el an d raises th e t e mp eratu r e du ring th e a ft erbl o w

In th e basic p r o c e ss li tt le o r n o pho spho r u s is remo ve d
un t il aft er th e c omp le t e r emo val of t he carb on an d t he

bl o w h as to be c on t inu e d a ft er t he d r opp ing of t he

carb o n a m e T he durat i o n of th e aft erbl o w is d et er
m ine d f r om a kn o wle d ge of th e amoun t of pho spho r u s in
th e p ig ir o n u se d o r b y t aking s amp les a t in t ervals d u r
ing th e aft erb l o w an d m aking ph y si c al t est s
Th e st eel aft er t he aft erbl o w of th e basi c besse m er
p r o cess must n ot be rec arbu riz ed in th e c o nvert er be
,

63

M ETALLURGY O F IR O N AND STEE L

ca u se in t he p r esen c e of th e sp iegeleis en o r f erro m an ga

n ese t he pho spho r u s c ompo un d s of t he ba sic Sl ag t en d
to b e r e d u c e d t he pho spho r u s lib erat e d re t u rning to th e
ir on H enc e th e ir o n an d sl ag in t he c onver t er are sep
a ra t e d a s c omp l e t ely as po s s ibl e by ( 1 ) po u ring o ff th e
liq u i d sl ag fr om t he ir o n an d th en (2 ) pou ring th e ir o n
into a la d l e l eaving t he p ar tly s o li d ie d ba si c sl ag in
Th en t he u i d ir o n in t he l a d l e f r e e d f r om
t he c o nv e rt e r
Sl ag is rec arb u riz ed in t he u s u al way by t he a dd i t i o n of
o r f err om angan ese
Th e ir o n is oxi d i z e d
s p i eg el ei sen
*
to a gr e at er ext en t in t he b a si c th an in t he aci d bl o w
mo r e m angane s e is r e qu ire d to d eox i d i z e th e
an d h en c e
ir on
T he b est p ig ir o n fo r t he ba s i c p r o c es s c o n t a in s :
,

P er

P ho s pho r u s

nganese
S ilic o n
S ul ph u r
M

ab out
o v er
ab o u t
le ss th an

c en

3
2

Th is is w h i t e ir o n be c au se of h ig h m ang anese an d l o w
sili c o n w h er ea s th e h ig h silic o n ir o n u sed in th e a c i d
p r o cess is gr ay
C o ntr o l of t e m pe r at ur e in t h e B e s s e m er c o n v e rt er
E ith er too h ig h o r too l o w t emp eratu re of th e st eel a t
pou ring res u l t s in po r o si ty an d th ere fo re th is t e mp era tu r e
,

P o ssibly b ec au se in t he a c i d pr o c ess t he t i m e f o r sto pp in g t he

blo w is in di c at ed d en it ely by t he app ear an c e o f t he r ed fu m es o f
ir o n o xi d e w h er eas t he t i m e f o r s to ppin g t he blo w in t he b asi c p r o c ess
c a n o n ly b e d e t er mi n e d by t h e kn o w l e d g e o f t h e a m o u n t o f p h o s
pho ru s in t he c h ar ge a n d kn o w l ed ge o f t he ra t e o f r e m o val c h ec ked
by t est s o f t he b ath f o r p h o sp ho r us H en c e t he t en d en c y t o o ver
blo w in t he b as i c is great er than in t he a c i d p ro c ess w i th t he pro b a
b il it y o f a great er am o un t o f fr ee o x yg en an d ir o n o x i d e in t he blo w n
m et a l
,

64

MA TE RIALS OF MACH I N ES

mu s t b e carefu lly regu lat e d I f ir o n too h ig h in silic on

is u se d in th e aci d p r o cess too h ig h t e mp era ture res ul t s
an d c o nversely
In th e basic p r o cess th e d i fc u l ty is u s u ally to k ee p
th e t e mp eratu re h ig h en ou g h I f th e t emp eratu re is too
h ig h i t m ay be re du ce d by c h arging in scra p st eel f r om
th e m ill w h ic h is thu s re m el t e d abs o rbing s u rp l u s h eat
an d is ren d ere d available fo r u se Th e t e mp eratu re is
als o s om e t i m es re du ce d by a dm itt ing a sm all a moun t of
s t ea m in to t h e b last p i p e
.

FI G

I f t h e t e mp erat ure b ec om es too l o w t h e c o nv ert er m ay

b e incline d as s ho wn in F ig 8 du ring th e b u rni ng out
of th e carb o n W h en th e c o nv ert er is vert ical th e carb o n
mon oxi d e fo r m e d b u rns a t t h e mout h of th e c o nv ert er
an d th e h eat e v o lve d is l o s t as f ar as raisin g t h e t emp era
ture insi d e of th e c o nv ert er is c oncerne d In th e in
cl ine d po si t i o n ho wever a p art of th e air of th e b las t
p asses th r ou g h th e m et al bath an d fo rm s car b o n mon
o xi d e an d a p ar t p asses th r ou g h th e un c o vere d tuyere
h o les an d fu rnis h es o xygen to th e carb o n mo n oxi d e an d
carb on di oxi d e i s fo r m e d ; i e c omb u st i on o cc urs insi d e
,

65

M E TALL URGY O F IR O N AND S TEE L

t h e c o nv ert er an d th e h eat d evel op e d raises th e t e m

of
th
e
m
e
t
al
ba
th
a
u
r
t
re
e
p
Graph ical re p resen t a t i o n of th e b asic B esse m er p r o c

F ig 9 is c op ie d f r om W e dd in g s B asic B esse m er
e ss

p age 14 3 Th e d iagra m is p l ott e d f r om th e

P r o cess
res u l t s of exp erim en t s an d s ho ws th e h isto ry of a b l o w
in a b asic c o nver t er H o ri zo n t al d ist ances fr om 0 re p
resen t t i m e eac h d ivi si o n c o rrespo n d ing to o ne m inut e
h
e
t
e
er
t
ical
d
is
t
ances
f
r
om
r
p
r
e
s
n
t
p
ercen
t
ages
of
e
0
V
s ubs t ances to be re mo ve d Th ere fo re th e c u rv e s re p re sen t
th e c h ange in p erc en t age of th e s ubs t anc e s d u ring t he
bl o w
p er cen t a t
T he Silic o n is re du ce d ver y rap i d ly f r om
th e b e gi nn ing of th e bl o w an d aft er six min ut es o nly
Of

T IM E , M IN U T E S .

H
O
D
G

FIG 9
.

Tran slat ed by Phillip s

lisher s L o n do n
,

an d

Pro c haska ;

Sp o n

pub

MATE RIALS O F MACHIN E S

66

p er cen t re m ain s F r om th is po in t o n th e Silic o n 1s

sl o wly re d u c ed to z er o
Th e m angan e s e is r e du c e d le s s rap i d ly th an t he Silic o n
c h anging f r om
p er c en t a t th e beginning to
p er cen t aft er nine m inu t es I t re m ains n ea rly c o n st an t
du ring th e c a rb o n re d u c t i o n an d th en b e c om e s less th an
pe r c en t
Th ere is b ut li tt le c h ange in th e carb o n un t il mo s t of
t he silic o n is re mo ve d w h en th e c u rve d r op s r a p i d ly
an d th e re mo val is p ra c t i c ally c omp l et e in si xt een m in
ut es U p to th i s t i m e th ere h as be en li tt le c h ange in th e
pho spho r u s Th is is of c ou rs e bec au s e t h e f err o u s pho s
ph a te is r e d uc e d by c arb o n F r om th is po in t t he re mo val
of pho s pho ru s is very rap i d b eing p ra c t ically c omp le t e
a ft er th e bl o w has c on t inu e d t w en ty m in u t es
T he cu rv e of s u l ph u r was s ho wn o n t he o rigin a l d iagra m
b ut i t w as n ot c op i e d a s th e q u an t i t y of s u l phu r rem a ine d
ne arly c o ns t ant it s v al ue b eing l ess th an
p er c en t
Th e bl o w en d s at th e t wen t y m in u t e line an d th e cu rves
bey o n d S ho w t he eff e c t of int r odu c ing sp i egelei sen
F ig 10 give s th e h i sto ry of an a c i d B e ss em er bl o w
T he a mo u n t of s ilic o n is very l o w fo r th e a c i d p r o cess
P ho s pho r u s re m a in s p r a c t i c ally c o n st an t a t
p er c en t
F igs 9 an d 1 0 ar e p l ott e d
an d s u l phu r a t
p er c en t
o n th e s am e s c ale fo r c omp aris on Th e bl o w en d s a t
9 m in ut es 10 sec o n d s an d th e res t of th e c u rve re su l t s
f r om th e int r od uc t i on of sp iegelei sen

-h
S t eel is als o m a d e f r om
O p en ear t h pr o c e sse s
p ig ir o n in t he h e ar th of a S i em ens regener at ive fu rna c e
F
ig
Th
e
silic
o
n
m
ang
a
nese
an
d
carb
o
n
are
see
(
re mo ve d by ox i d at i on a s in th e p u dd ling o r in t he B es
.

P lo tt ed fro m exp er im en ts o f
w o rk s o f I ll in o is S t eel C o m p an y
.

an d

S teel I n s ti tu te, V o l 1 1, 1 8 90 ,
.

Ju l i an

S ee H

p age

10 2

at
.

t he

S o u th C h i c a go

Ho w e

J ou rn al I ron

M ET ALLURGY O F IRO N AND S TEE L

67

e m er p r o cess T w o p r o cesses were fo r m erly carrie d

o n in op en h earth fu rnaces : rs t S ie m ens o r p ig an d

o re
p r o ce s s ; sec o n d S ie m ens M ar t in o r
p ig an d

scrap p r o cess Th ese are c ombine d in to a single p r o ce ss

in mod ern p rac t i c e an d b oth scrap an d o re are u se d
In th e S ie m ens p r o cess p ig ir o n is c h arge d into th e
h eart h and m el t e d p ar t of th e sil i c o n an d m anganese

ms , M I N UT E S

me
.

e
g
a

9
9

9 M
9 H

FI G

10

b e in g o xi d i z e d d u r ing th e m el t in g an d t h en ric h o re i s
a dd e d to s upp ly th e o xygen to c om bine wi th th e re m ain
ing silic o n an d m anganese an d th e carbo n of th e ir o n
carbi d e W h en th e a c t i o n is c omp l et e th e b ath of nearl y
pu re ir o n is rec a rb u riz ed by th e a dd i t i o n of s p iegeleis en
o r f err om anganese an d th e m anganes e r e d u ces th e f er
r ou s ox i d e p resen t an d re mo ves o ccl ud e d gases o r cau ses
th e m to be d iss o lve d as in th e B essem er p r o cess
In th e S ie m ens M art in p r o cess p ig ir o n is c h arge d into
th e h ear th an d m el t e d wi th p ar t ial re mo v al of t h e silic o n
,

68

MATE RIALS O F MACHIN ES

an d m an ganese an d t hen st eel scrap is c h arge d into th e

bath w h ic h m el t s an d thu s th e p ercen t age of silic on
m anganese an d carb o n is re du ce d by d ilu tio n
Th e
re m aining p art of th e se s u bs t ances is r emo ve d by th e
d irec t ac t i o n of t h e o xi d i z ing am e an d th e in d ir e c t
act i o n of th e ferr ou s o xi d e fo r m e d a t th e s u r f ace of t he
ba th an d m ix e d wi th i t S p ieg el o r f err o are a dd e d
a s in th e S ie m ens p r o cess
F err o silic o n an d f err o alum i
n um are s om et i m es u se d in p lace of f err om angane se
fo r th e recarb u ri z at i on th e re mo val of ir o n ox i d e an d th e
p revent i o n of po r o si ty
E i th er aci d o r basic lining m ay b e u se d in th e furnace
in w h ic h th e op en h ear th p r o cesses are carrie d o n Wi th
th e aci d lining n o pho s pho r u s is re mo ve d an d h ence l o w
pho s p h o r u s p ig mu s t be u se d Wi th th e basic lining
th e pho s pho r u s is re mo ve d as in th e basic B esse m er
p r o cess
Du pl e x pr o c ess
In mod ern p rac t ice in large s t eel
p lan t s t heB ess em er c o nver t er an d th e op en h eart h fu rnac e
are s om et i m es op er a t e d in c om binat i o n A c h arge is

bl o wn in an aci d c o nver t er to re mo v e silic o n an d

m an g anese an d a po r t i o n of th e carb o n ; th e c h arge is
th en t ransf erre d to a basic op en h ear th w h ere th e r e
m ain der of th e carb o n an d th e pho spho r u s are r emo ve d
Th is re du ces th e t i m e in th e op en h ear th an d in c rease s
th e output an d th e c onver t er m ay b e line d wi th ganist er
w h i c h is mu c h c h eap er an d mo re du rable th an a basic
lining A n oth er a d vant age is th at th e silica fo rm e d by
b u rning th e silic o n of th e c h arge is e x cl u d e d f r om th e
basic fu rnace w h ere pho spho r u s is re mo ve d an d h ence
do es n ot nee d to be uxed wi th li m e ; th e res ul t is ec o n om y
of li m e and increase d du rabili ty of th e op en h ear th lining ;
th is m e tho d als o m ak es i t po ssible to u se a p ig i r o n
hi g h b ot h i n si lic o n an d p h o spho r u s w h ic h w ou l d be un
,

69

M ET ALLURGY O F IRO N AND S TEE L

d esirable ei th er in th e basi c c o nvert er o r basic op en h ear th

u se d sep ara t ely beca u se of e xp ense fo r li m e an d d i fc u l ty
of Slag d ispo sal
Du c til e c asti n g s
M any m ac h ine m e m bers of s om e
w h at c omp licat e d fo r m nee d to be s t r o ng an d du c t ile
I f s u c h p art s were re q u ire d in large n umbers th ey c ou l d
u s u ally be p r odu ce d by th e p r o cess of ca st ing mu c h
c h eap er th an by th e p r o cess of fo rging F o r th is reas o n
m u c h a tt en t i on h as been given to th e p r odu c t i o n of
d u c t ile cas t ing s Th e mo s t i mpo r t an t res u l t ing p r o cesses
a r e tho se fo r th e p r odu c t i o n of m alleable cas t ings an d
s t eel cast ings S om e of th e gra d es of brass an d br o n z e
give cas t ings w h ic h are s t r o ng an d du c t ile b ut th e h ig h
c o s t put s th e m out of c omp e t i t i o n fo r m any pu rpo se s
M all eab l e c astin g s
C as t ings of th e req u ire d fo r m
are m a d e of ir o n th a t c oo ls wi th all of i t s carb o n in th e
c om bine d st at e Th ese cas t ings w h ic h h ave a w h i t e
f rac ture an d are h ar d weak an d bri tt le ar e p a c k e d in
cast ir o n b ox e s s u rr o u n d e d wi th c o arsely d ivi d e d ox i d e
of ir o n u s u ally h e m at i t e o re o r h amm er scale Th ese
b ox es are seale d an d br o u g ht to a t e mp er at u re of fu ll
r edness fr om 1 5 00 to 1 6 00 F as q u ickly as po ssible in
a reverberato ry o ven an d are h el d a t th is t e mp eratu re a t
least 6 0 hou rs an d are th en c oo le d very S l o wly th e Sl o w
c oo ling being q u i t e i mpo r t ant C as t fo r m s are thu s p r o
d u c ed th a t are very mu c h like wr ou g ht ir o n in s t reng th
du c t ili ty resilience an d s oft ness Th is p r o cess is calle d
T wo c h anges o cc u r to p r odu ce
m allif y in g o r ann ealing
th is res u l t : rs t th e tot al carb o n is re d u ce d ; sec o n d
th e c ombine d carb o n is nearly all c h ange d to gra ph i t ic

carb o n o r t e mp er graph it e as i t is calle d

Th e re du c t i o n of tot al carb o n in th e
F irst chan ge
m allif y in g p r o cess o cc u rs c h ie y near th e s u r f ace of th e
cast ing I t is p r o bable th a t a t th e t e mp era tu re of
,

70

MATE RIALS O F MACHIN E S

carb o n of t he su r f a c e ir o n unit es wi th oxygen

of th e ir o n ox i d e o r wi th oxygen of t he i mp ris on e d air
fo rm ing ga se ou s carb o n mon ox i d e o r carb o n d i oxi d e w h ic h
p asses o ff ; th ere is th en a t en d ency to mo vem en t of
carb on f r om th e inner po r t i ons of th e c ast ing to war d th e
s u rf ace w h ere i t in tu rn m ay combine Wi th oxygen an d
*
be r emo ve d
Th e q u ant i ty of carb o n thu s remo ve d
mu s t b e a func t i o n of t emp era ture t i m e of e xpo s u re to
th e d ecarb o ni z ing c on d i t i ons an d of d i st ance f r om th e
s ur f ace of th e cas t ing to th e m i dd l e Th er efo re wi th a
given t i m e fo r an nealing th in cast ings m ig ht be q u i t e
t ransfo r m ed as to ph ysi c al q u ali t ies w h ile th ic k cas t ings
m ig ht be o nly slig ht ly c h ange d Th e re mo val of carb o n
by th is m eans r esu l t s in th e fo r m at i o n of a s ur f ace layer
w h ic h s ho w s a wr ou g ht ir o n like f rac t u re w h ile th e res t
of t he f ra c tu re is black beca u se of th e sec on d c h ange
I t is p r o bable th a t m igrat i o n of carb on o cc u rs to o nly a
slig ht e xt ent in th e o r d inary A m erican m allif y in g p r o ces s

W h en mo l t en cas t ir o n wi th h ig h bar
S eco n d chan ge
b o n c on t ent c oo ls u n d er o r d inary c o n d i t i o ns p ar t of th e
c ombin e d carb o n bec om es graph i t ic carb on a pp earing
as akes d is t rib ut e d th r ou g hout th e c oo l e d gray ir o n
Th e p r opo r t i o n of carb o n thu s bec oming graph i t ic ln
c rea ses wi th th e increa s e o f tot al carb o n wi th th e increase
in t i m e of c oo ling wi th increase in silic o n an d d ecreases
wi th incr e ase in m anganese ; see p age 12 7 B ut w h en
ir o n c o nt ains less th an 3 p er cen t of carb o n wi th o r d i
nary rat e of c oo ling an d wi th l o w silic o n th e mo l t en ir o n
c oo ls w h i t e all c arb o n being in c om bina t i o n I f th is
w h i t e ir o n is rais ed to a t e mp era tu re of f r om 15 00 to
1 600 F as in th e m allif y in g p r o cess th e c om bine d carb o n
m allif y in g,

T he

f t
ac

of

tures is sho w n by t he c as e

pro c ess ;

s ee

li d iro n at h i gh t em p era
h ard en i n g pro c ess an d by t he c em en tati o n

m o vem e n t

p ages 1 7 2

an d

o f c ar

57

bo n

in

so

M E TALLURGY O F IR O N AND S TEE L

71

t en d s to c h ange into t e mp er gr aph i t e an d i f th e t e mp er a

tu re is m ain t ain e d l ong eno u g h t he c h ange m ay be q u i t e
c omp le t e Th e graph i t e thu s p r odu ce d t ak es th e fo r m
of very m in u t e p ar t icles n e arly uni fo r m ly d ist rib ut e d
w h ic h int err u pt th e c on t inu i t y of th e ir o n s t r u c tu re
m uc h less th an t he graph i t e ak es in gray ir o n ; i t s p r e s
ence th er efo r e has less eff e c t to re du c e s t r ength an d
du c t ility th an th e gr aph i t e of th e gray ir o n cast ing s
D u ring th e c h ang e of c ombine d c arb o n into t e mp er
graph it e th e res u l t an t e ff ec t is to in c rea se s t rength an d
d u ct ili ty be c a u se r e du c t i o n of c ombine d carb o n h as
m u c h great er in u ence in in c reasing th ese q u ali t ies th an
th e p resenc e of th e t emp er gr aph i t e h as to re d u c e th em
Th e r st c h ange is p r o bably mo r e e ff e c t iv e in in c rea sing
d u c t ili ty b ut i t can o nly be s at isf a c to ril y ac c omp lis h e d
in lig ht cast ings Th e sec o n d c h ange o c c u rs in h eavi er
ca st ings an d increases d u c t ili ty tho u g h in l ess d egree
th an th e rs t c h ange Th is m ay be m a d e c l ear er by an
*
e xp eri m ent ; a cast ing h aving o n e po r t i o n ab out inc h
3
th ick an d an oth er po r t i o n ab o u t T 3 inc h th i c k wa s put
th r ou g h th e m allif y in g p r o cess T es t s of th e m alli ed
c as t ings fo r carb o n s ho we d re su l t s as fo ll o ws :
-

Fo m

of

c rb n
a

T hi k pa

P er

G r a ph i t e
C o m b i n e d c ar b o n
T o t a l c ar b o n

rt

T hi

ce n t

n p rt

P er

ce n t

1 72
.

Th ere w a s a m uc h gr e at er r e du c t i o n of tot al c arb o n in th e

th in p ar t b ut a mo re c omp le t e c o nver si o n of c ombine d
carb o n into t e mp er gra ph i t e in th e th i c k p ar t Th e th in
p ar t was mu c h mo re d uc t il e th an th e th i c k p ar t
,

T h is exp er i m en t
M alleable Ir o n C o
.

w as m a

de

at

t he w o rks

of

t he

West m o relan d

72

MATE RIALS O F MACHINE S

early years of d evel opm en t and u se of t h is

p r o cess t he ir o n fo r th e cast ings was w h i t e p ig ir o n f r om
c o l d bl as t c h arc o al fu rnaces beca u se l o w carb o n an d l o w
silic o n were necessary fo r s u ccess in th e m allif yin g p r o cess
Th is ir o n was m el t e d in re gu lar fou n d ry c u p o las wi th
very li tt le c h e m ical c h an g e B ut i n p resen t p rac t ice gray
p ig ir o n f r om c o k e f urnaces is m el t e d in a reverbera

to ry fu rnace calle d an air fu rna c e an d th e u i d ir on

is s ubj ec t e d to an ox i d i z ing am e un t il silic on m anganese
an d carb o n are re du ce d as l o w a s is c onsi st en t wi th u i d i ty

necessary fo r th e p r odu c t i o n of s h ar p cas t ings

Th e c h anges th at o cc u r in very lig ht cas t ings du ring
th e m allif y in g p r o cess are s h o wn by th e fo ll o wing av erage
resu l t s of several analyses :
D uring th e
-

n d it i n
o

of

c s t i n gs

P er

B ef o r e m allif y in g
Af t er m allify in g

n ly se s
ers ity

U ni v

m ad

o al

(j

c rb n
a

ce n t

Pe r

ce nt

ed
agg
Per

ce nt

0 175

by M

r.

c C o r d at

t he

c he m i c

al

lab o

at o

ry

of

St

an f o

rd

R e du c t i o n of tot al carb o n in th e cas t ings fo r th e m alli

f yin g p r o cess is s om e t i m es acc omp li s h e d by c h arging

s t eel o r wr ou g ht ir o n scra p into th e c upo la o r air

fu rnace ; th is re du ces th e carb o n by dil uti o n
L o ng e xp erience h as S ho wn th a t th e ir o n c h arge d in to
th e air furnace s hou l d c o nt ain ab out th e fo ll o wing per
cent ages of th e s ubs t ances given :
Per c en t
S ilic o n
-

anganese
P ho s pho r u s
S u l phu r n ot o v er
C arb o n
M

t0 0 2
.

73

M ET ALLU RGY O F IR O N AND S TEE L

In th e furnace th e silic o n is re du ce d to f r om
p er cen t
to 1 p er cen t ; m anganese an d s u l p h u r are o nl y slig h t l y
c h ange d w h ile carb o n is re du ce d to ab out
p er cen t
Th e pho spho r u s is n o t re mo ve d b ut i t s p resence in nearl y
th e sp ecie d a moun t is d esirable becau se i t ren d ers th e
mo l t en ir on mo re u i d fo r cast ing an d do es n ot h ar m th e
p r odu c t
I f i t is necessary to h eat m alleable cas t ings fo r any
pu rpo se as fo r st raig ht ening o r ben d ing gr ea t care is
necessary becau se i f th e t e mp eratu re is rai se d mu c h
ab o ve th e m allif yin g t e mp eratu re f r om 1 5 00 to 1 600 F
th e t e mp er graph it e c ombines again wi th th e ir o n an d th e
cas t ings bec om e b ri tt le as th ey were befo re m allif y in g
S om e cas t m ac h ine m e m bers nee d
S teel c astin g s
to be st r onger an d mo re du c t ile th an m alleable cast ings ;
oth er cas t m ac h ine m e mbers are too th ick to m allif y
sat isf ac to ril y To m ee t su c h cases st eel cast ings are m a d e
by :
pou ring mo l t en st eel into mo l d s d irec t ly f r om th e
st eel m aking p r o cess W h en th i s is done t he s t eel foun
d ry incl ud es ste el m akin g as well as st e e l fou n din g
C o nv ert ers an d op en h ear th fu rnac es are u se d in s t eel
fou n d ries thou g h th ey are u s u ally s om ew h at s m aller th an
tho se p r odu cing st eel ing ot s in st eel m ills S p ecial c o n
*
v ert ers are u se d li k e th e T r o p en as o r th e S tou g hto n t y p es
In th ese c onvert ers all o r p ar t of th e air ent ers ab o ve th e
s u r face of th e m e t al bat h an d ox i d at i o n of th e s ubs t ances
to be re mo ve d o cc u rs by d irec t c ombinat i o n wi th oxygen
of th e air an d by in d irec t c om binat i o n wi th th e oxygen
of th e ir o n ox i d e w h ic h is fo r m e d an d m i x e d wi th th e
bath an d re du ce d again th r ou g hout t h e bl o w O b viou sly
th e carb o n is b u rne d to carb o n d i ox i d e ( see p age 64 )
an d th e ent ire h ea t of c om b u st i o n of th e c arbo n j s ut i l
.

S ee
M

M et allur gy o f Iro n an d S teel by B radley S to u ghto n ;

H ill B o ok
p age 2 72

Graw-

T he

74

M ATE RIALS O F MACHIN E S

to h el p x th e t e mp era tu re of th e ba th t hr ou g h th e
necessar y range
R e h eat ing an d w o r k ing of s t eel ingot s by m ill p ro cesses
i mp r o ves s t rength an d du c t ili ty ; b ut st eel ca st ings do n ot
ge t th e ben e t of th i s i mp r o ving p r o c ess an d h ence th e
p ig ir o n u s e d fo r m aking s t eel fo r c as t ings mu s t b e l o wer
in s ul phu r an d in pho s pho r u s als o if t he aci d p r o ces s is
u se d th an th a t u s e d fo r ing ot s in o r d er th at th e c ast ings
m ay eq u al th e fo rgings m a d e f r om t he ing ot s in st r ength
a n d d uc t ili t y
Th i s m e ans a mo r e e xp ens ive p ig ir o n
w h i c h add s to th e c o st of th e s t eel ca st ings

B a sic s t eel is mo r e a pt to h av e po r ou s s pot s an d bl o w

*
ho les w h en c a s t th an a c i d s t eel an d th e se d e f ec t s are
e sp e ci ally u n d e sir abl e in st eel c ast ings b ec au se t hey cann ot
be w el d ed u p as in ing ot s Th ey m ay b e a h i dd en sou r c e
of w e akn ess in st r ess m emb ers ; an d oft en m u c h u sel e ss

e xp en se fo r l ab o r is in cu rr ed w h en a last out r ev eal s

po r o u s d efe c t s th at l ea d to t he rej e c t i o n of a n early
ni sh ed c ast ing T he p r e s en c e of m angan es e o r silica
t en d s to p r even t po r o si ty an d one o r oth er of th ese su b
s t ance s is int r od u c e d in t he recarb u ri z at i o n ; b ut i t is

d i fc u l t to ho l d s ili c on f r om ox i d i z at i on du ring t eem

ing o r c a st ing w h i c h o ccu p i e s mo r e t i m e fo r s t eel c ast
ings th an fo r ing ot s an d i f m ang an ese is int r odu c ed in
s u fcien t q u an t i t i es to p r ot e c t th e ir o n fr om ox i d at i on i t
m ay a pp e ar in th e p r od uc t in s u fficien t q u ant i ty to c au se
w eakne s s an d bri tt len es s
To av o i d po r o si t y an d bri tt l eness d u e to th e p r esen c e
of oxygen o r ir o n ox i d e a sm all amoun t of p u re al u m inu m
is s om et i m es int r odu ce d into t he m el t b efo r e po u ring ;
th e al um in um c ombin e s wi th th e oxygen an d is almo st
ent irely r emo ve d in th e Slag
S t eel fo r cas t ings is s om et i m e s o b t aine d b y m el t ing
iz ed

'

S ee

p age

63

M ET ALLURGY

75

I RO N AND S TEE L

OF

p r op er mi xtu res in c ru c i b l e s O bvi ou sly th e fu el an d

lab o r c o s t is h ig h er b ut in th e cast ings th ere is less lia
bilit y of fo r m a t i o n of bl o w ho les an d i t is easier to c o nt r o l
th e c ont en t of s u bst ances oth er th an ir o n th an in t h e op en
h earth o r t h e c o nver t er
S t eel th a t is c oo le d f r om a mo l t en s t at e h as a ra th er
c o arse crys t alline s t r u c tu re ; th is can be t rans fo r m e d in to
a n e st ru c tu re wi th acc omp anying gain in s t rengt h a n d
du c t ili t y by re h eat ing an d r o lling o r h amm ering a t s u i t
able t e mp eratures ( see p age 1 7 1 ) o r by s ui t able h ea t
t reatm en t wi thout m ec h anical w o r k ing ( see p age
In case of s t eel cast ings th e rening of s t r u c tu re mu s t
of c ourse be acc omp lis h e d wi thout m ec h anical w o r k ing
S t eel fo r cas t ings mu s t be pou re d hott er th an s t eel fo r

ingot s since in th e fo rm er case th e m e t al mu s t r u n

S h arp in o r d er to t ake th e req u ire d fo r m in th e mo l d

w h ereas th is is of li tt le i mpo r t ance in th e case of ing ot s
B ecau se of th is h ig h er gra d e re f rac to ry m at erial is nee d e d
fo r th e linings in t he st eel fo un d ry an d c o s t of fu rnace
re p airs is h ig h er th an in th e s t eel m ill

Th e mo l d s fo r st eel c ast ings are m a d e b oth of green

san d an d of d ry san d
b u t th e san d in ei th er case
mu s t be mo re re frac to ry th an th a t u se d in mo l d s fo r
ir o n cast ings becau se th e cast ing t e mp eratu re of s t eel
is p r obably f r om 2 800 F to 3 000 F w h ile t h a t fo r
cas t ir o n is ab out 2 400 F
Th ere is p r o bably a d iff erence of ab out 4 00 F o r 5 00 F
bet ween th e t e mp eratur es of s o li d icat i o n of st eel an d
cast ir on an d Sinc e s o li d s h rink age be gins w h en s o li d i
c at io n is c omp le t e i t fo ll o ws th a t s h rinkage is great er
in st eel an d th ere fo re great er care mu s t b e t aken b oth in
th e d esign of th e st eel cast ings an d in th e regu lat i o n of
th e rat e of c oo ling of d iff eren t p art s of th e cast ing th a t
h av e di eren t th ic kn ess of cr o s s sec t i on Th e s h rink
.

76

M A TE RIALS O F MACHIN ES

age s t resses are re mo ve d i f th e cas t ing l S re h eat e d fo r h eat

t reatm ent to re n e st r u c tu re S ee p age 16 8
S t eel cas t ings like st eel ing ot s are m a d e wi t h varying
carb o n c on t en t to m ee t th e varying d e m an d fo r s t rength
du c t ili ty an d cap aci t y fo r s ho ck resist ance Increase in
s t r en gth o b t aine d b y increase in c arb o n is acc omp anie d
by re du c t i o n of du c tili ty ; th e c o nverse als o is t ru e
S ho c k re s i stan c e increases b oth wi th s t rength an d du c
t ilit y b ut th e increase is grea t er wi th du c t ili t y th an wi t h
st ren gth an d th ere fo re th ere is u su ally a resu l t an t increase
in s ho ck resist ance wi th re du c t i o n of carb o n
p er cent to
per cent
S t eel cas t ings c on t ain f r om
of carb on acc o r d ing to th e req uir e d serv ice A b out
p er cen t to
p er cent O f si lic o n is u s u ally p re sent
th e l o wer val u e fo r s oft ca st ings an d th e h ig h er val u e fo r
h ar d cast ings Th is a moun t of silic o n do es n ot d i mi nis h
tou g hne s s of th e m e t al i t sel f an d i t s p resence see m s to
re du ce th e amoun t of ir o n o xi d e an d free oxygen p resen t
wi th th eir u n d esirable e ff ec t s S u l phu r an d pho s pho ru s
s hou l d be k ept bel o w
p er cen t in cast ings th a t are
to be s u bj ec t e d to se v ere s t ress
.

HA P TE R

O UT L I NE O F T H E M ET A LLUR GY O F C O PP E R ,
LE A D, T I N , Z I N C A N D A LUM I N U M

pp er is fou n d in na tu re as na t i ve o r pu re c opp er
an d in c ombinat i on wi th m any oth er s ub st ances Th e
o nly c ombinat i ons th at are of c omm ercial i mpo r t ance
are s u l ph i d es o xi d es carb ona t es an d silicat es W h eth e r
th e c opp er is pu re o r c ombine d i t is u s u ally m i x e d wi th

earthy gan gu e th e a moun t of c opp er p resen t varying

f r om less th an o ne p er cen t to 15 p er cen t o r mo re

C opp er is o b t aine d f r om i t s o res ei th er ( 1 ) by

w et

m e thod s o r h y d r om e t all u rgy o r ( 2 ) by d ry m e thod s

o r s m el ting In ( 1 ) th e c opp er is t aken up by s om e s o lven t
an d leac h e d out of th e o re th e gangu e re m aining pra c
t ically u nc h ange d ; in (2 ) th ere is p ar t ial se p arat i o n of th e
m e t allic c ombinat i ons f r om th e gangu e by re a s o n of
s p e c ic gravi t y (a) wi thout a pp licat i on of h eat ; o r (b)
wi th th e o re in a mo l t en s t at e O nl y d ry m e thod s
w h i c h p r od u ce o ver 9 0 p er c en t of th e c opp er of c omm erce
will be c onsi d ere d h ere
Th e c opp er th at is p r odu ce d by th ese m e thod s is u s u ally
q u i t e i mpu re an d mu st be rene d ei th er by th e s m el t ing
r ening o r th e elect r o lyt ic r ening p r o cess o r by b oth
N ati ve c oppe r
Th e o re of th e L ake S up eri o r d is
t ri ot c on t ains f r om
p er cen t to 4 p er cent of c opp er
C

F or

S m elt in g
M etals

fulle t
r

tm en t

rea

by P eters
b y Aust in

of

an d

th is

su

T he

77

b j ec t s ee P rac t ic e o f C o pp er
M et all ur gy o f t he C o mm on

78

MA TE RIALS O F MACHIN E S

rath er nely d ivi d e d an d d i st rib ut e d th r ou g hout th e

earth y m at erial of wi de l od es Th is o re is c o ncent rat e d
wi thout h ea t un t il th e c opp er be c om es f r om 30 p er cen t

to 9 0 p er c en t o r mo re of th e m ineral a s th e c o n een
t rat e i s calle d O re f r om t he m in e is cr us h e d an d p ass e d

t h r ou g h s t ea m s t amp s an d th en th r ou gh a series of j igs

w h ere i t is S h aken to h el p se p arat i o n by gravi ty an d
w h ere a st ream of wat er was h es away th e lig ht er po rt i on s
f r om th e upp e r su rf a ce leaving th e c onc ent rat e d m ineral
Th is m ineral is s m el t e d in a reverberato ry furnace
w h ere a f u sible slag is fo r m e d ei th er by p r op er mi xture
of m iner al wi th d iff e rent gangu e c on t en t o r by in t ro du c
t i o n of a s u i t able ux A gain gr avi ty c a rrie s th e h e avier
m e t al do w n an d th e u i d slag is re mo ve d an d th e c opp er
is cast into ing ot s
T h ese
O xi d es c arb o n at es an d s ili c at e s o f c O pper
o res are fou n d in th e upp e r po rt i o ns of min eral d e po si t s
h aving been fo r m e d by th e d e c ompo si t i o n of c opp e r su l
Th e s m el t
phid es th r ou g h th e agen c y of air an d wa t er
ing of s u c h o res m ay be ac c omp li sh e d in a fu rnace of th e
blas t furnace t yp e t he carb o n d i ox i d e of carb o nat es being
d riven o ff by h eat th e oxi d e of c opp er being re d u c e d by
carb o n mo n oxi d e f r om th e fu el an d t he Silica of silicat es
being re mo ve d in th e Slag Th e gan gu e en t ers t he slag
w h ic h is m a d e fu sible by p r op er m i xtu re of o res o r by t he
i nt r odu c t i o n of a ux M o l t en sl a g an d mo l t en c opp er
are d rawn o ff a t p r op er in t ervals Th e c opp er l o ss in th e
Slag i n t h is p r o cess is large beca u se c opp er ox i d e c ombin e s
wi th th e sili c a an d becau se s om e m e t allic c opp er is carrie d
away m ec h anically Th is p r o c ess is n ot very e xt ensively
u se d n o w beca u se of gr o wing scarci t y of oxi d e o res an d
als o becau se i t is a d vant age ou s to c h arge oxi d e o res wi th
s u l p h i d e o res to h el p s upp ly th e necessary o xygen fo r t h e
re mo val of su l phu r as s u l p h u r d i ox i d e
.

M ETALLURGY O F C O PPE R ET C
.

C opp e r

79

Th e

l p hi d e o r e s
s ul ph i d e o res of c opp er
c on t ain n ot only c opp er s u l ph i d e b ut als o ir o n s u l p h i d e
to geth er wi t h th e gangu e I f s u c h o re is m el t e d in a
ne ut ral o r re d u cing a tmo sph ere th e c opp er an d ir o n su l

m att e w h ic h se tt les out of th e

phide will m el t i n to a
o re by gravi ty leaving th e g ang u e w h ic h i f p r op erly
N o sul phu r i s re mo ve d by
uxed m ay be d rawn o ff
th is t reatm en t ; b ut i f th e o re is rs t r o ast e d in an o xidiz
i ng atmo s ph ere a t a t emp eratu re too lo w to m el t th e
s ul ph i d es p ar t of th e su l ph u r will b u rn an d p ass o ff as
th e gas S O 2 C opp er ho l d s s u l phu r mo re st r ongl y th an
i r o n d o es an d h en c e th e ir o n su l ph i d e yi el d s i t s s u l phu r
rs t an d th e ir o n d e p rive d of i t s s ul ph u r t akes u p oxygen
T h e p r odu c t of c are fu ll y regu lat e d r o a s t ing c on t ains
c o pp er s ul ph i d e ir o n o xi d e an d silici ou s gang u e ; p r o babl y
s om e c opp er ox i d e has been fo r m e d an d s om e ir o n s u l ph i d e
re m ains W h en th is p r od uc t is s m el t ed t he c opp er an d
ir o n s u l ph i d es m el t carrying do wn any p reci o u s m e t als
t h at m ay be p resen t ; th e ir o n ox i d e ac t s as a ux fo r th e
sili c i ou s gang u e th u s fo r m ing a fu sible re mo v ab l e slag
w h ile an y ir o n s u l ph i d e p r esen t ent ers th e m att e w h ic h

i s d rawn o ff an d c oo le d as c o arse m e t al
In th is p r o c
es s silica s om e t i m es h as to be a dd e d as a ux w h en th e
o re carri es e x c e ss of ir o n an d th e gang u e is d ecien t in
sili c a Th e r o ast ing an d s m elt ing are re p eat e d u nt il all
ir o n an d gangu e ar e re mo ve d an d onl y c opp er s ul ph i d e

o r ne m e t al re m ains Th is ne m e t al is c oo le d in
p r op er fo r m an d si z e an d is r o ast e d in an ox i d i z ing atmo s
phere ; a p ar t of th e s u l ph u r b u rns w h ile th e c opp er thu s
f ree d f r om s ul phu r t a k es up oxygen fo r ming c opp er ox i d e
W h en th is r o as t ing h as c o n t in u e d l o ng en ou g h to p r odu ce
th e rig ht p r opo r t i o ns of c opp er ox i d e an d c opp er s ul ph i d e
t he c h arge is m el t e d an d c opp e r o xi d e gives up i t s ox ygen
to c ombine wi th th e s u l phu r of th e c opp er s ul ph i d e p r o
su

80

M A TE RIALS O F MACHIN E S

s ul phu r d i ox i d e w h ic h p asses o ff as a gas leavin g

m et allic c opp er
B lis t er c opp er o r b lac k c opp er th e p r odu c t of th e
th ree p r o cesses d escribe d st ill c ont ai ns s ubst ances th at
re du ce val u e fo r in du st rial pu r po ses ; su l phu r ir o n an d
c opp er ox i d e are p r esen t ; an d th ere oft en are p reci o u s
m e t als g ol d silver o r p lat in um th at m ay be re mov e d
wi th p r o t ; an d oft en an t i mon y arseni c bismu th
seleni um an d t ell u ri um Th ese ve s ub st ances i f p resen t
in th e o re are n ot en t irel y re mo ve d by th e r o as ting o r
s m el t ing p r o cesses Th ere are t w o rening p r o ce sse s :
fu rna ce rening an d elec t r o lyt ic rening I f i t is foun d
f r om analy sis th a t p rec i ou s m e t als are p resen t in a mount s
th at will m ak e th eir rec o very p r o t able t he fu rnace
rening m ay be om i tt e d an d t he c opp er cas t into an od e
p lat es w h i c h are t ransf erre d to th e ele c t r o lyt ic ren ery :
h ere th ey are s u sp en d e d in an elec t r o l yt e c onsist ing of a
s o l ut i o n of c opp er s ul ph at e i n d il ut e s ul phu ri c aci d A
s u i t able c u rren t is m ain t aine d th r ou g h th e s o l ut i on and
th e c opp er i s t ransf err e d th r ou g h th e agenc y of th e
elec t r i c ener gy f r om t he an od e to th e cathod e w h ere i t
is d e po s i t e d f ree fr om i mpu ri t ies Th e p reci ou s m e t als
to ge th er wi th th e oth er s ubst ances carrie d by th e an od e
p lat es f all to th e b ottom of th e t an k c on t aining th e el e c

w h ic h are t reat e d fo r th e r ec o v
t ro lyt e fo r m ing sli m e s
ry of th e p reci ou s m e t als w h ile th e pu re c opp er f r om th e
catho d es i s p re p are d fo r th e m ar k e t
B ut i f th ere is n ot a p r o t able c o n t en t of p reci ou s
m e t als t h e ren i n g m ay b e do ne b y th e fu rnace m e thod
Th e b l i st er c opp er is m el t e d do wn in a reverb erato ry fu r
nace a sla g fo r m ing d uring th e m el t in g w h ic h is p r o bably
c ompo se d of silica p resen t an d ir o n o xi d e fo r m e d d uring
t h e m el t ing ; th is sla g i s ski mm e d o ff an d c omp resse d air
i s fo rce d th r ou g h th e b a t h of mo l ten m e t al ; th e res ul t i s
du c in g

ME TALL U RGY O F C O PP E R ET C
,

81

t h a t s u l phu r , arsen i c i r o n an d c o p p er are o xi d i z e d ; th e

ox i d i z e d s u l phu r an d arseni c p ass o ff as g as an d t h e ir o n
ox i d e c om bines wi th th e re m ai ni n g si li ca to fo r m a d d i
S om e of th e c op
t io n al fu sible slag w h ic h is re mo ve d
p er ox i d e fo r m e d ac t s as a carrier of oxy g en yiel d ing i t s
o xygen to c om b ine wi th s u l phu r of any c opp er s ul ph i d e
th a t rem ains ; b u t a c onsi d erable a moun t of c opp er ox i d e
is left in th e bath aft er th e re mo val of i mpu ri t ies is c om
Th e ox i d i z ing a tmo sph ere is n o w c h an ge d to a
plet e
re du cing a tmo s ph ere an d green po les branc h es of t rees
are inser t e d so th a t th e en d s d i p b eneath th e s u r face of
th e bath of mo l t en c opp er ; th e ev o l ut i o n of st ea m an d
h
e
a
a
s
agi
t
t
e
s
th
e
ba
th
a
n
d
th
e
carb
o
n
of
t
e
c
h
arre
d
po
l
s
g
c om bines wi th th e o xygen of th e ox i d e of c opp er an d fo r m s
c arb o n mo n oxi d e leaving th e pu re c opp er w h ic h is cas t
in to ing ot s

L e ad
M any c om binat i o ns of lea d wi th oth er sub
s t ances o c cu r in na tu re
b ut al mo s t th e en t ire s upp ly of
lea d of c omm erce is o b t aine d f r om th e o re gal en a w h i c h
c o nsist s of l ea d s u l ph i d e m i x e d wi th varying p r opo r t i o n s
of gang u e S om e t i m e s t he gal ena als o bears silver an d
mo re rarely g o l d w h ile c opp er ant i mo ny an d a r senic
are c ommo nly p resen t I f th e o re do e s n ot c o n t a in p aying
p r opo r t i o ns of silver o r g o l d i t m ay b e c o ncen t rat e d
wi thout h ea t by st a mp ing an d was h ing be fo re m el t ing
B u t i f th ese prec io II s m et als are to be e xt ra c t e d n o p re
li min ary c o ncent r at i o n is all o wable beca u se of l o ss of th e
p reci ou s m et al s in th e gang u e re mo ve d
T r e atm e n t of Gal e n a
R o as tin g
C r u s h e d o re i s
c h arge d into a reverbera to ry f u rnace an d a l o w t e mp era
tu re is m aint ain e d in an ox i d i z ing a tmo sph e re Th e
s ul phu r of a p ar t of th e lea d s ul ph i d e Pb S is ox i d i z e d
an d p asses o ff as s ul p h u r d i ox i d e 8 0 2 w h ile th e lea d t h a t
i s left t a k es up o xygen fo r m ing lea d o xi d e , Pb O ; als o
,

82

MATE RIALS O F MACHIN ES

s om e lead s u l ph at e PbS O 4 is fo r m e d by o xi d at i o n of lead

s ul ph i d e Th ese ch anges m ay be re p resent e d t h u s :
,

S m el tin g

P bS

30

PbO

PbS

40

P hS O 4

80 2

A f ter t h e

r o as t i n g h as c o n t i n u e d l o ng
en ou g h to p r odu ce p r op er p r opo r t i ons th e lea d oxi d e an d
s ulph at e are m i x e d wi th th e re m aining lea d s u lp h i d e
th e t e mp era tu re is rai se d in a ne ut ral atmo s ph ere an d t h e
fo ll o wing reac t i on s t a k e p lace :
.

P bS

2 P bO

3 Pb

S 02

P bs

P bS O 4

2 Pb

2 80 2

Th e m e t alli c lea d m el t s an d se tt les in a l o w p art of t he

fu rnace w h enc e i t is c ast into ing ot s Th e re m ain d er of
th e c h arge st ill c on t ains a large a mo un t of l ea d an d th e
r o asting an d s m el t ing are r ep eat e d sever al t i m es ; u l t i
m at ely n o lea d s u l ph i d e is left to re du ce th e re m aining
le ad ox i d e an d s u l ph at e Th en ne carb o n ( c o al ) is int r o
d u c ed wi th th e c h arge to t ake away oxygen in g ase ou s
C 0 2 f r om th e l ea d ox i d e an d to re du ce lea d su l ph at e to
s u l ph i d e thu s ren d ering th e su l phu r als o available as a
re a c t ing agen t Thu s an a dd i t i o nal amoun t of l ea d is
f ree d m el t e d an d cast in to ing ot s D u ring th e s m el t ing
li m e is a dd e d to ren d er th e c h arge mo re re si st an t to m el t
ing Since i t is d esirabl e to m el t th e l ea d out fr om th e s o li d
resi du e In th is resi du e th ere s t ill re m ains a c onsi d erable
a mount of lea d p r o bably as ox i d e o r su l ph at e w h ic h
cann ot be re mo ve d by re p e t i t i o n of r o ast ing an d sm el t ing ;
th e amoun t m ay r u n as h ig h as 30 p er cen t T ransf er
m ay th en be m a d e to a blast fu rnace fo r lead s m el t ing
w h ere mo s t of th e lea d m ay be rec overe d E ac h of th e
s u ccessive s m elt ing p r o cesses has a h i gh er t emp era tu r e
th an th e p rece d in g on e an d p r odu ces less pu re lea d
.

M ET ALL URGY O F C O PP E R ET C
,

83

T h is p r o ce s s is n ot s u i t e d to o res c on t aining mo re th an
5 p er cen t of silica sinc e silica u ni t es wi th lea d ox i d e ca u s
ing l o ss of le a d in th e slag O th er fo r m s of fu rnace are
u se d fo r s m el t ing lead b ut th e C h e m ical c h anges are t h e
s am e as tho se given th e d i ff erence being i n th e d e t ails of
op er at i on
O res c o n t ai n n lea d silver an d g o l d an d u s u ally c opp er
an
n d an t i mo ny are s m el t e d in a blas t fu rnace
arsenic a
i mpo r t ant fun c t i o n of th e lea d being to c o llec t an d carr y

do wn th e p reci ou s m e t als in to th e base b u lli o n

O xi d e
o res of lea d m ay be u se d d ir e c t ly b ut s u l ph i d e o res are
r o as t e d so th a t th e res ul t ing ox i d e m ay be re du ce d b y
C 0 of t h e bl a s t fu rnace ; s om e s u l ph i d e r em ains ho wever
in th e r o ast e d o re Th e ux u se d is ir o n o re an d li m e
stone an d th e ferric ox i d e re du c e d to ferr o u s ox i d e als o
act s w i th carb o n to re du ce th e lea d s ul ph i d e as fo ll o ws :
,

an d als o to re du c e

t he

l ea d su l ph at e

Pb S O 4 + F e O + 5 C

as

fo ll o ws :

P b + F eS + 5 C O

Th e mo l t en lea d n ot o nly carries do wn g o l d an d silver b ut

als o c opp er ar senic an d an t i mo ny Th e re m aining F eO
uni t es wi th li m e of th e ux an d th e silica of t he gang u e to
fo r m a fu sibl e slag
S oft en in g
Th e b ase b u lli o n f r om th e b las t fu rnace
is t reat e d rst in a S h all o w reverberato ry fu rnace w h ere i t
is m el t e d an d s u bj ec t e d in an o xi d i z ing a tmo sph ere , to
h eat a t a t emp eratu re th a t j u st m el t s th e lea d A t th e
sur f ace lea d c opp er an t i mo ny an d arsen i c ox i d i z e an d

c omb in e into a d r o ss w h ic h o at s upo n th e mo l t en

lea d T h is p r o cess is c o nt in u e d un t il t est s S ho w c om
re
mo
val
of
th
e
c
opp
er
arseni
c
an
d
an
t
i
mo
ny
l
e
t
e
p
T h en th e c h arge is c oo le d j u st en ou g h to h ar d en t h e d r o ss
,

84

MATE RIALS O F MACHIN E S

w h ic h is ski mm e d o ff ; th e l ea d n o w c on t ains o nly Silver

an d g o l d an d is t rea t e d by th e P a tt ins o n p r o ce s s
T h e P attin s o n pr o c e ss d e p en d s upo n th e f ac t th a t
w h en a mo l t en m i xture of le ad an d silver is c oo le d Sl o wly
wi th c onst ant s t irring crys t als of lea d very l o w in sil ver
will fo r m an d re mo val of th ese cryst als leaves lea d h ig h
in silver Th is p r o cess is carrie d out in a s eri es of cast
ir o n pot s set in m as o nry wi th p r op erly arrange d f urnaces
fo r h eat ing L ea d c o nt aining silver is m el t e d in th e
r st pot an d th en th e s o u r c e of h e at is wi thd rawn ; as
t he s t irre d m e t al c oo l s th e crys t als of l e a d v e ry l o w in
silver are d i pp e d into th e sec o n d pot by m eans of a ski m
m er th at all o ws th e mo l t en m et al ric h er in Silver to r un
back into th e rs t pot Ext ensi o n of t he p r o cess even t u
ally gives le ad very h ig h in silv er in t he rst pot an d lea d
very l o w i n silver in th e last pot Th e latt er g o es to th e
lea d m ar k e t w h ile t he fo r m er is t reat ed in th e c up ell ati o n
f u rn ac e w h ere th e lea d is all ox i d i z e d in to P b O li th arg e
l eaving p u ri ed silver Th en th e Pb O is re d u ce d by car
b on mon ox i d e in a reverberato ry furnace leaving pu r e
lead
Th e Pa tt ins o n p r o cess leaves c opp er arsenic an d ant i
mony wi th th e silver an d h en c e p r odu ces a v ery pu r e
s oft lea d
N early all th e t in of c omm erce i s e xt rac t e d
T in

f r om th e o re call ed t instone
o r cassi t eri t e w h ic h
c onsist s of a st anni c o xi d e S n O z m i x e d wi th g an gu e c on
t ainin g ear th y an d m e t allic s ubs t ances
F o r re mo val of th e ear th y po r t i o n of th e gangu e th e
o re is s t amp e d ne an d was h e d o n rac k s w h ere a s t ream of
wat er carries away th e lig ht er m at erial f r om th e s ur f ace
leavi ng t h e t in oxi d e an d oth er h eavy m at erial Th is
c o ncent rat e d o re w h i c h u su ally c on t ains ir on an d c opp er
py r i t es F 8 8 2 an d C U F C S z an d arsenical p yri t es F eS A s is
,

M ET ALLURGY O F CO PP E R ET C
,

85

r o as t e d in an ox i d i z ing atmo sph ere in a reverberato ry

f urnac e S ul phu r is re mo ve d as gase ou s S O 2 ; arsenic
fo r m s th e ox i d e A 82 0 3 th e w h i t e ar s enic of c omm erce
'
w h ic h is cau g ht in l ong u es ; w h il e th e c opp er b ec om es
c opp er ox i d e an d c opp er s ul ph at e an d th e ir o n bec om es
ir o n ox i d e Th e s o l u bl e c opp er s ul ph at e is re mo v e d f r om
th e r o ast e d o re by wa sh ing T he was h e d o re w h i c h st ill
c on tains c opp er ir o n arsenic an d sul phu r is th en r edu c ed
by sm el t ing w it hc arb o n in s m all s h aft f u rna c e s o r in r ev er
In ei th er ca se oxygen of th e t in oxi d e
b er at o ry fu rnaces
c ombines to fo r m carb o n d i ox i d e ei th er wi th c arb on m i x ed
d irec t ly wi th th e o re o r wi th c arb on mon oxi d e f r om
p ar t ial c omb u st i on of c o al u sed as a s ou rce of h eat A
sm all amo un t of li m e is u sed a s a u x to remove sili c a
th at m ay rem ain Th e ing ot s of cr ud e o r raw t in f r om
th e sm el t ing p r o cess s t ill c arry n ot only c opp er ir on
arsenic an d sul phu r b ut oft en al so lea d an t i mony an d
tungst en w h ic h mu s t be r emove d by r e n ing Th i s re n
ing u su ally c onsis t s of t w o p r o c ess es liq u at i on an d b o iling
Th e ingot s of crud e t in are p il ed o n th e h ear th of a rev er
b er at o ry fu rnace an d t he t em p er a t u re is sl o wly incr e a sed
to a po in t w h ere th e tin m el t s o u t l eaving th e u nfu se d
i mp u ri t i es Th e mol t en t in st ill wi th s m all amo u n t s of
ir on ar senic an d s ul phu r is led in to a rece pt a c l e w h i c h
h as a se p arat e s ou rce of h e at w h er e gre en t wigs in b u nd l es
o r we t st icks are h el d sub m erg ed in t he b ath of t in E v o
lu t io n of st ea m an d gas c au se s bri sk agi t at i o n of t he t in
w h ereby all p ar t s are br o u g ht in c on t a c t wi th th e air an d
th e i mpu ri t ies are ox i d i z e d A s cu m of a po rt i o n of th e
o xi d es thus fo r m e d c o llec t s o n t he s u rf ace A ft er th e
b oiling th e st ill mo l t en m e t al is all o we d to st an d fo r ab out
an hou r w h en t he sc um is re mo ve d an d th e t in is la d le d
o u t into ing ot mo l d s A p ar t of t he oxi d i z e d i mp u ri t i es
g o es out w i th th e sc um b u t an oth er p ar t w h i c h is of h igh er
.

MATE RIALS O F MACHIN ES

86

s p ecic gravi t y th an th e t in se tt les to war d th e b ottom

Thu s w h en th e t in is l a d le d o ut th at w h ic h c om es f r om

th e top calle d rene d t in is p u rer th an th e so calle d

c ommo n t in
f r om th e l o wer po rt i ons of t he m a ss
Th e m at erial at th e b ottom is oft en c oo le d an d liq u at e d
an d b o ile d again
T he resi du e in th e liq u at i o n furnace wi th increase d
t e mp eratu re yi el d s mo re t in of l o wer gra d e

S om e t i m e s a p r o c ess c all e d
to s sing
is s ubs t i tut e d
fo r b o iling ; th e mo l t en t in is d i pp e d in la d l es an d all o we d
to r un back in to th e bath f r om a c onsi d erabl e h eig ht
Th ere ar e e ff ec t ive m e thod s fo r rec o vering a l arge po r
t i on of th e t in w h ic h r em ains in t he s m el t e r Slags an d in
r ening d r o ss

Z in c
T he o r e s f r om w h ic h z inc of c omm erce is
ext ra c t e d are :
Z in c b l e n d e w h i c h c o n si s t s of z in c s u l ph i d e Z n S
m i x ed wi th e ar th y gan gu e an d u s u ally wi th m angane se
ir on c adm i um an d silver ; mo re rarely i t b ears m er c u ry
go l d l ea d an d t in
C ala m ine , m a d e up of z in c carb o n a t e Z D C O 3 wi th
c admi u m ir on an d m an ganese as c arb onat es an d wi th
l ead su l ph i d e an d ir o n ox i d e an d earth y gangu e Z inc
silicat e a S iO 4 is al so s om e ti m es p r esen t
F r an kl ini te w h ic h is m a d e up of ox i d es of ir on m an
ganes e an d z inc wi th e art hy gangu e
Z in c va po ri z es a t a t emp erat u re of ab out 1 7 25 F an d
a d van t ag e is t aken of th is f ac t in sm el t ing Z in c ox i d e
an d c o al b oth nely d ivi d ed are m i x e d an d h eat e d in
muffl e s o r re to r t s w h er e th e z inc ox i d e is re du ce d by th e
carb on wi th fo r m at i o n of carb o n mon ox i d e an d w h ere
th e m et allic z inc is vapo ri z e d le d awa y an d c ond ense d
S ince th e o re fo r th is pu r po se mu s t be in th e fo rm of
z inc oxi d e i t is ne c essary to r o as t th e o res c o nt aining
.

M ETALLURGY O F C O PP E R ET C
,

87

z inc s ul ph i d e
z inc blen d e
in an ox i d i z ing a tmo s
phere to ox i d i z e an d re mo ve th e s ul phu r as S 0 2 an d to
oxi d i z e th e z inc
Z inc carb o nat e o r e
c ala m ine
is u s u ally r o ast e d to
re mo v e mo i stu r e an d to d rive o carb o n d i ox i d e fr om t he
carb ona t e in o r d er to p r od u ce th e z inc ox i d e fo r s m el t ing
Th e B e l gi an pr o c e ss fo r s m el t ing z inc is c h ie y u se d
in th e U ni t e d S t at e s R e to r t s w h ic h are re frac to ry
c ylin d ers ab o u t 8 % in c h es in d iam e t er an d fou r f e e t l ong
( se e F ig 1 1) are set in t iers in a c h amb e r h aving a
s o u r c e of h eat Th e inner en d of t he r eto r t is cl o s ed an d
a re f ra c to ry c o ne C
is ins ert e d in t he o u t er O p en en d
Th e re to r t s ar e c h a rge d
wi th t he ne m i xtu r e of
c o al an d z in c o re u s u
ally mo i st ene d so as to
c oh ere an d th e h ea t fr om
t he f u rnac e r a i ses t he
t e m p e r a t u r e of th e
c h arge Wat er is d riv en
o ff as s t ea m w h i c h p a sse s
o u t th r o u g h th e c one
T he carb o n of th e c o al
u ni t es wi th t he oxygen of
t he z in c ox i d e fo rm ing
FI G
c arb o n mon ox i d e w h i c h
p asse s th r o u g h th e o ut e r op ening of t he c on e w h er e i t

m
b u rns wi th a bl u e a e to c arb o n d i oxi d e Th e z in c
th u s is o lat e d is vapo ri z e d an d th e v apo r p a s s e s to th e c one
w h er e o n m e et ing th e c oo l er wall s i t is c o n d ens ed an d th e
liq u i d z in c is withd rawn at p r op er int erval s W h en th e
c h arge is exh a u st e d th e c o ne is re mo ve d t he r e si du e is
withd rawn th e re to r t is r e c h arge d th e c one is re p lace d
an d th e p r o cess b egins again
.

MA TE R IALS O F MACHIN E S

88
A l uminum

l um in um o cc u rs v ery ab un d an t l y in
natu re b ut i t is always in c om binat i o n wi t h oth er sub
s t ances s u c h as oxy gen s od i um uo rine an d Silic on
In i t s c om binat i o ns wi th Silic o n an d oxygen al umin um
is use ful fo r re frac to ries an d in th e ceram ic art s S ee
C h apt er III
M e t allic al um in um m ay be p r odu ce d by se v eral m e t h o d s
b ut th e mo st i mpo r t an t p r o cess c omm ercially is elec
t r o ly sis o r d ec ompo si t i o n by an elec t ric c u rrent of al u
m ina A 12 0 3 P u re al um ina is very infu sible ; an d Sinc e
a s ubst ance mu s t be ui d fo r elec t r o lysis i t was necessary
to n d a s o lven t fo r al um ina th a t w ou l d m el t a t a rela
t ively l o w t e mp era tu re an d th a t w o u l d all o w th e d e c o m
po si t i o n o f th e al umina wi thout being a ffec t e d i t sel f
In 1 889 a p at en t was grant e d to C h arles M Hall c o vering
th e u se of cry o lit e a uo ri d e of al um inum an d s od i um
3 N aF A 1F 3 as a s o lven t ba th fo r elec t r olysis of al um ina
Th is s ubst ance m el t s a t a re d h eat an d w h en m elt e d
d iss o lves al um ina th u s fo r m ing an elec t r o lyt e w h ic h can
be d ec ompo se d b y a s u i t able elec t ric c u rren t
Th e p r o cess is carrie d out in rec t angu lar cast ir o n pot s
h avin g a lining of h ar d bake d carb o n ab o u t 3 inc h es
th ick w h ic h fo r m s th e negat ive el e c t r od e o r cathod e
Th e po si t ive elec t r od es o r an od es c onsis t of cylindrical
carb ons ab out 3 inc h es in d iam e t er an d o riginally ab ou t
1 5 inc h es l o ng ; th es e are s u s p en d e d wi th ax e s ver t ical
by g inc h r od s of c opp er w h ic h in t u rn are c lamp e d to a
c opp er bar th at e xt en d s ab o ve th e pot th r o u g hout i t s
ent ire length Th is bar an d t h e carb on lining of th e pot
are c o nnec t e d in to a c u rren t to w h ic h elec t rical ener gy
is s upp lie d at l o w v ol t age T h e an od es are l o were d unt il
th ey tou c h th e cathod e w h ic h is th e lining of th e pot
Th is c omp le t es th e circ u i t an d elec t rici t y o ws T h e
an od es are th en wi thd rawn Sli g ht l y to fo r m an air ga p
.

M ET ALLURGY O F C O PP E R ET C
,

89

thu s p r o vi d ing an elec t ric fu rnace of th e arc ty p e C ry o

lit e fo r t he s o lven t bath i s th en in t r odu ce d an d i s m el t e d
P u re
by th e h ea t f r om th e elec t rical ener gy s upp lie d
al um ina i s t h en s t irre d in to th e b ath an d elec t r o l y sis
be gins Th e A 12 0 3 i s d ec ompo se d b y t h e ac t i o n of th e
c urren t al um in um being d e po sit e d o n th e ca thod e o r
p ot linin g w h ile oxy g en app ears a t th e s u r f ace of th e
an od es c ombines wi th th e an o d e carb o n an d p asses o ff
a s gas e ou s carb o n d i ox i d e
thu s c au sing t he an od e s to
wast e away an d to req u ire p eri od i c al r enewal T he m e
t alli o al um in um i s d i pp e d o r sy pho ne d out a t i n t ervals
an d cast into ing ot s
Th e al um ina fo r th is p r o cess mu s t be f r e e f r om oth er
s ubst ances ; an d since p u re al um ina is n ot fou n d in na tu re
a puricat i o n p r o c es s is n e c essary Th e s o u rc e of th e
al um ina is u s u ally ba ux i t e w h ic h has alrea d y been d e

scribe d (see p age 34 ) as a m i xtu r e of a l arge p r opo rt i o n

of hy d rat e d al u m ina A 12 0 3 -2 H 2 0 wi th c lay silica ir o n
oxi d e an d t i t ani c ox i d e an d oft en wi th an oth er h y d ra t e d

al um in um ox i d e A 12 0 3 -3 H 2 0
T he sep a ra t i o n of th e
a l u m ina f r om th e oth er s ubs t ances of th e ba uxi t e is
e ffe c t e d a s fo ll o w s :
Th e bauxi t e is gr oun d ne an d m i x e d wi th ne s od i u m
c arb onat e ; t he m i xt u re is st irr e d an d h e at e d in a fu rna c e
an d th e al um ina d isp l a c e s t he c arb o n d i ox i d e of th e s od i u m
c arb onat e d riving off th e g ase o u s c arb o n d i ox i d e an d
fo rm ing al um inat e of s od a Th is m ay be e xp resse d c h em
ic ally as fo ll o ws :
.

A 12 0 3 3

= A l2 0 3

H 20

Th e al um inat e of s od a th u s fo r m e d is s o l uble in wa t er
w h ile t he oth er s ubs t ances in th e ba ux i t e re m ain un
c h ange d an d are in so l uble W h en t he r ea c t i o n is sho wn
by c h e m ical t est s to be c omp le t e t he c h arge is wi thd raw n
,

MA TE RIALS O F MACHIN E S

90

an d c oo le d an d t he al um ina t e of s od a l s t aken into so l u

t i o n in war m wa t er an d thu s se p ara t e d f r om t he un d e
sirab le s ub s t ances Th en carb o n d i o xi d e is fo rce d th r ou gh
th e s o l ut i o n of al um inat e of s od a an d so l uble s od i um
carb on at e is fo r m ed an d t he al um ina w h ic h is prec'
ipi
t at ed is l t er e d o u t w a s h e d an d d rie d an d is r eady f o r
e lec t r o l y sis
T he s od i um carb o nat e is rec o vere d to u se
again i n th e p r o c ess
A l um ina is als o o b t aine d by m a k in g an in t i m at e m ix
t ure E
o f very n e c ry o l i t e wi th c alci um carb o na t e ( c h alk )
an d r o as t ing th e m i xt u r e ; th e c h e mi cal reac t i o n is as
fo ll o ws :
.

(M

E, 3 N

aF

6C

aC

03

A 120 3 3 N
6 ( 3a

3 20

6 C O2

p r odu c t s are gase o u s c arb o n d i oxi d e ins o l uble calci um

uo ri d e an d al u m inat e of s od a w h ic h m ay be d iss o lve d
an d t reat e d as in t he las t p r o c ess to p r odu ce pu re al um ina

T he


PA R T S E C O N D
PH Y S I C A L

P R O PE R

TI E S O F M ATE R I A L S
C
T

H A P TE R

VI

E S T I N G M A T E RI A L S

m e m bers in service are s u bj ec t e d to th e

ac t i o n of e xt ernal fo rces w h ic h t en d to break o r d is to r t
th em S om e m em ber s li k e sp rings fu lll th eir fu nc t i o n
by yiel d ing p eri od ically th r o u g h c onsi d erable s p ace to
app lie d fo rces ; b ut a large p r opo r t i o n of m e mbers re qu ire
rigi d i ty th at is th e y iel d ing un d er app lie d fo rces mu s t
be ke pt v er y sm all In any c ase p erm an ent d is to r t i o n
an d break age mu s t b e p reven t e d
Th e d esigner of m ac h ines mu s t kn o w th e e ff e c t of
e xt ernal fo rces app lie d to t he m at erials of m ac h ine s
Th is kn o wl ed ge is d erive d f r om t e st s A t e s t p iece of
s ui t abl e d i m en si ons m ay b e m a d e of any m at erial an d a
st ea d ily increasing fo rce m ay be a pp lie d to i t un t il i t
break s o r is very mu c h d e fo r m e d Th e fo rce a pp lie d to
th e t est p i e c e m ay t en d to c r u s h i t a c omp re s sive fo rc e
o r to pu ll i t a p ar t a t ensile fo rce o r to ben d i t a t rans
verse fo rc e o r to t wist i t a to rsi onal fo r c e o r th e ext ernal
fo rces m ay p r od u ce som e c om binat i o n of th e s e t en d encies
A s o li d resis t s c h ange of fo r m ; fo rces a pp lie d to a s o li d
t end ing to c h ange i t s fo r m in du ce st r ess wi th in i t ;
s tr e s s m ay be d ene d as t he ac t i o n an d reac t i o n be t ween
a d j a cen t p ar t s of a s o li d du ring resist ance to c h ange of
fo r m
M

A C H IN E

91

MA TE RIALS O F MACHIN E S

92

In F ig 1 2 s u ppo se th e t ensile fo r c e P
is a pp li ed to a cylin d ric al t es t p i e ce ; in an y c r o ss sec t i o n
like A A th ere will r es ul t an ac t i o n an d r ea c t i o n be t w een
a d j acen t f ace s of th e s e c t i o n re si st ing sep arat i o n ; th is
ac t i o n an d rea c t i o n is c all ed t en sil e st r e s s I f P eq u als
F irst illu stration

F ix d
E

nd

FIG

12

pou n d s th e total s tr e ss in th e sec t i o n A A is 5 000

poun d s ; i f t he c r o ss se c t i onal a rea of A A eq u als one
sq u are inc h th e u ni t str e s s in th e sec t i on is 5 000 po un d s
p er sq u are inc h I f th e a rea of c r o ss se c t i on were sq u are
inc h th e uni t st ress w ou l d eq u al 5000
po un d s
p er sq u ar e in c h R eversal of th e d irec t i o n of t he e xt ern al
fo rce P w o u l d c h ange i t f r om a t en sil e fo r c e to a c omp r es
sive fo rc e t en d ing to c ru s h t he t est p ie c e an d in all sec
t i ons lik e A A a c ompr e s s ive str e s s w ou l d res u l t

5000

FI G

13

In F ig 1 3 suppo se a t ransverse
fo rc e P a pp lie d t en d ing to ben d a t est p i e c e of r e c t ang u l a r
cr o ss sec t i on I f t he t es t p i e c e is b ent by th i s fo r c e t he
bers bel o w a ne ut ral ax is X X w o u l d b e s tr et c h e d w h ile
S eco n d i llu stration

93

TE ST ING MATE RIAL S

tho se ab o ve w o u l d b e s ho r t ene d ; h ence th e ben d ing fo rce

w oul d p r odu ce in any sec t i o n b oth t ensile an d c omp ressive
s t ress
A ls o th e fo r c e P t en d s to ca u se th e a d j acen t
s u r f aces in an y se c t i o n like A A to Sli d e o ver eac h oth e r an d
thu s th er e is p r od u c e d sh e arin g s tr e s s in th e se c t i on
T hird i llu strati o n Th e t es t p i e c e m ay be s u bj ec t e d to a
fo rce th a t t en d s to t wis t i t ab o u t i t s a xis as in F ig 1 4
Th en in any s ec ti o n A A th ere is a t en d ency fo r o ne s ur f a ce
to sli d e o v er th e a d j ac en t s u r f a c e ab o u t t he a x is of th e
t es t p iece an d h enc e s h earin g s tr e ss is in du c e d
T es t ing m ac h ines h ave been d es ign e d an d c ons t r u c t e d
.

A ppl i d

ngl e

a t ri gh t a

t o p ap

F ix d
E

nd

F I G 14
.

nd

V iew

cap able of a pp lying d eni t e fo rces to t es t p ieces in th ese

*
s everal ways wi th d evices fo r m eas u ring t he d ef o r
m ati on c o rres po n d ing to any a pp lie d fo rce
I n w hat ev er
way th e fo rce is a pp lie d to th e t es t p iece th e o bj ec t of
th e t e s t is to rec o r d s i m u l tan e ou s valu e s of str e ss an d
d efo rm ati o n beca u se a kn o wle d g e of th e rel a t i o n of th ese
v al ues enables th e d esigner to p r opo r t i o n m a c h ine p ar t s
fo r saf e ty f r om bre akage fo r necessary rigi d i ty in op era
t i o n an d fo r ec on om y of m at eri a l
A t ensi o n t es t of du c t il e m a t erial will n o w b e c o n sid
ere d fo r ill ust rat i o n Th e increa sing t ensile fo r c e P is
,

'

S ee

Ch ap t er

E xp erim en t al E n g in eerin g by C arp en ter an d D iederi c hs

IV

94

MA TE RIALS O F MACHIN ES

a pp lie d as in F ig 12 an d th e res ul t ing c h ange of fo rm

d e fo r m at i o n
is el ongat i o n acc omp anie d by c o rres po n d
ing re du c t i o n of sec ti o n area A ss um e th at P is app lie d
in s u ccessive increm ent s ; th ere will be c o rres po n d ing
val u es of p re p resent ing uni t s t ress in any cr o ss sec t i on
an d i f th e ori gin al s ec t io n ar ea is re p resen t e d by F
th e s u c c essive v al u es of p will e q u al th e c o rres po n d ing
*
v al u es of P
F
A ss um e als o th a t aft er eac h incre m ent of s t ress an
acc u rat e m eas u re m en t of el ongat i o n is m ad e In t he
early p ar t of th e t es t th e el ongat i o n is p r opo rt i onal to
s t ress ; b ut aft er p as sing a c er t ain li m i t c alle d th e c las
t ic li m i t th e el o nga t i o n bec om es in c r e a singly grea t er fo r
a given increase in s t r ess T he law m ay be s t at e d th u s :
d efo rm ati o n is p rop o rt i o n al t o s tr es s w i thi n t h e elastic
.

I f b efo re reac h ing th e elas t ic li m i t th e s t ress i s gr a d

u ally re du ce d to z er o th e el o n g a t i o n bec om es z er o als o ;
th at is th e t es t p iece re tu rns to i t s o ri ginal d i m ensi ons
Wi t hin th is li m i t th e m at erial m ay be c onsi d er ed p er
f ec t ly elast ic T since elasti c it y m ay be d ene d as t he
pr op ert y wh ereby a m ate ri al ret urn s t o it s o riginal
I f ho wever th e elas t ic
dim en s i o n s o n r eli ef of str e ss
l i m i t is p asse d b efo re relie f of s t ress t he t es t p iece will
be p er m anen t ly el ongat e d Th is p er m anent el ongat i o n
,

Sin c e F d ecreases w i th in crease o f P t he su c c ess i ve valu es o f p

s tr i c tly sh o u ld e q ual t he c o rr es p o n din g val u es o f P di v i d e d by t he
I n p ra c t i c e h o w ev er F is c o n
c o rr esp o n din g v al u es o f var y i n g F
sid er ed c o n st an t an d e q u al t o t he o r i gi na l s e c t i o n ar ea
n w i th i n t he el as t i c li m i t t he m at er i al
p
b
bl
th
t
v
a
e
e
i
a
e
I
r
o
t
s
1
V ery r e n e d m easu r em en ts S h o w th a t
is n o t perf ec t l y el as t i c

T he
e v en u n d er r el a t i v ely s m all s t r ess
s et
m at eri als t ak e so m e
valu es o f this set h ow ev er ar e so v ery sm all th at th ey m ay b e
s af ely di sr eg ar d ed in t he o r di nar y t es t in g o f t he m ater ials o f en
.

gin eerin g

95

TE ST ING MATE RIALS

is calle d s et
Th e el o nga ti o n th at d i s app ears o n relie f
of s t ress is calle d el a sti c d ef o rm at ion
A ft er p assing th e elas t ic li m i t th e el o nga t i o n a c c o m
p anying a given in c rem en t of s t r e ss increas e s s t ea d ily
unt il nally t he m axi m u m s tr e s s th at t he t es t p iece is
cap ab le of s u s t aining is re a c h e d an d r uptu re o cc u rs
Th is m ax i mum s t r es s is a m eas u re of th e u l ti m ate st ren gt h
of th e m at erial
I f th e t es t p iece were d ivi d e d into e q u al uni t s of length
as in F ig 1 5 an d if th e m at erial were
say o ne inc h
ab so l ut ely homo gene ou s an d of e q u al s t reng th i n all
s e c t i ons i t w ou l d fo ll o w th at wi th in c reasing s t ress all
uni t s of length w ou l d s h ar e eq u ally in th e el ongat i o n
.

E
e

nd

f o r f as t

ening

l = P o rt io

FIG

>l<

n t e t ed
s

15

nd

f o r f ast

ening

and o n reac h ing a s t ress c o rres po n d ing to t h e u l t i m at e

st reng th of th e m a t erial all sec t i o ns w ou l d yiel d a t o nce
B ut n o s u c h m a t e rial is available fo r m a c h ine p ar t s an d
w h en th e u l t i m at e s t reng th of th e weak est sec ti o n is

reac h e d l o cal yiel d ing o cc u rs a nec k fo r m s an d th e

p iece break s
F ig 1 6 s ho ws a t ensi on t es t p iece b e fo re an d a ft er t es t
ing Th e o riginal p iece is s u b d ivi d e d eq u ally by punc h
m arks into h alf inc h uni t s of length Th e t est e d p iec e
s ho ws th e incre a se in len gth of th ese uni t s an d als o th e
l o cal re du c t i o n of area an d f r a c t u re a t m ini mum sec t i on
A s th e t es t g o es o n th e eq u a l d ivisi o ns s ee F i g 1 5
xi mum s t ress
s h are t he el o nga t i o n al mo s t eq u ally u n t il m a
is reac h e d
A t any po in t in th e t es t th ere is a tot al
el ongat i on re p resen t e d by A e xp resse d in inc h es an d t h ere
,

TE ST ING MATE RIALS

97

i s a c o rrespon d ing uni t el ongat i o n (o r el o ngat i o n of eac h

of th e o ne inc h d i v isi ons ) rep resent e d by e an d exp resse d
in in c h es p er inc h of o riginal length l of th e t es t e d sec t i o n
I t fo ll o ws th en t h a t
-

A ft er

p as si n g t h e m ax i mum st ress t h e el ongat i on an d

re du c t i o n of sec t i on area are l o cali z e d a t o r near th e

neck

Th e si mu l t ane ou s val u es of uni t s t ress p an d of relat ive

el o ngat i o n e m ay be p l ott e d wi th re f erence to rect ang ular
a x es (p val u es being lai d o ff ver t ically up war d an d 6
val u es being lai d o ff ho ri zon t ally to war d th e rig ht ) an d
th r ou g h th e po int s thu s l o cat e d a c urve m ay be d rawn
calle d th e stre ss-d e fo r m ati o n d i ag ram
In w h at fo l
l o ws th is nam e will be abbrevi at e d to s - d d i agram
F ig 1 7 s ho ws s d d iagram s fo r m il d st eel D iagram I
is p l ott e d o n s u c h a s c ale fo r X val u es th a t th e en t ire
d iagram up to br eaking f alls wi th in th e lim i t s of th e
gure Th e yiel d ing ho wever o n th is scale is too sm all to
s how unt il a uni t st ress of nearly
poun d s is reac h e d
Hence d iagram II is p l ott e d wi th great ly increase d scale
fo r v al u es of e an d th is d iagram S ho ws th e t es t o nly as
f ar as M d iagram I Th is d iagram is u sefu l as S ho wing
mo re clearly w h at o cc u rs in th e early p ar t of th e t es t
S t ar t ing f r om A wi th s t ress an d de fo r m at i o n eq u al to
z er o th e line of th e d iagram is st raig ht un t il 8 1 is reac h e d
Th is po in t B 1 is th e elast ic li m i t w h ic h is s t ric t ly d ene d
as t h e po in t wh e r e p r opo rti o n ali ty of str e s s an d d ef o r
m ati o n c e as e s ; o r oth erwise e xp resse d i t is th e po in t
w h ere th e d iagram line ceases to be a s t r aig ht line U s u
ally in du c t ile m at erial s th e d iagram line th en c u rves to
th e rig ht u nt il th e yi el d po int is reac h e d w h ere i t bec om es
.

98

M ATE RIALS

OF

MACHIN E S

8
r
f

N
IO

53

8%

a:

11011 1 ar e n b s .I ed spu n o a II I sesseaqs

G)

T E S T I N G M AT ER I ALS

ho ri zo n t al

99

ind icating a c onsi d erable y i el d ing

*
wi thout increase o f s t ress
At 0 1 fu rth er el o ng at i o n
re q uires increase o f s t ress an d th e d iagra m lin e rises in a
c u rve to M
I n engineering t es ting th e yi el d p o int is
u s u ally t aken a t th e elas t ic li m i t
I f o n reac h ing s om e po in t wi th in th e elast ic li m i t N f o r
e x a mp le s t ress h a d been re du ce d gra du ally to z er o th e
po int t racing th e d iagram line w oul d h ave re t race d th e
line to A an d th e t es t p iec e w oul d h ave rec o vere d i t s
o riginal d i m ensi o ns
B ut i f th e relie f o f s t ress h a d been d elaye d u nt il s om e
po int bey o n d th e elas t ic li m i t R was reac h e d th e t racing
po int w ou l d re tu rn to th e X a x is o ver th e line R T nearly
p arallel to 8 1A
D u ring th is re tu rn a cer t ain po r t i o n o f
th e el o ngat i o n ( el a s t i c d efo rm ation ) S T w ou l d d isa pp ear
w h ile an oth er po r t i o n T A w ou l d re m ain as perm an en t s et
Th e p h ysical p r op er tie s th a t app ear o n t h e s d d iag ra m
a bo u t

a re

S t rengt h a t elas t ic li m i t
S t reng th ,

D u c t ili ty

u l ti m at e

E las t ici t y

S ti ff ness

esilience elas t ic
R esilience u l t i m a t e

Th e stren gt h at elas tic l imit i s p r opo r t i o nal t o t h e

o rd inat e A B W ho s e val u e m ay be rea d in poun d s p er
sq u are inc h
2 Th e u l t i m a t e s t reng t h is p r opo r t i o nal t o t h e m a x i
mum o r d inat e DDl w ho se val ue in poun d s p er s q u are
inc h m ay als o be rea d
1

an e xplan at i on of th e p robable reas on for th e h or iz on ta l

th e di agram li ne see p age 1 55

F or

p art

of

1 00

M A TER I ALS O F M A C H I NES

m at erial is d u c t ile th a t st re t c h es un d er an in c reas

ing t ensile fo rce be fo re i t breaks D u c tility is th ere fo re
p r opo r t i o nal to t h e amoun t of s t re t c h ing H ence i t is
p r opo r t i o nal to th e length o f th e s d d iagra m o n th e axi s
I f s d d iagram s of d i fferen t m at erials are p l ott e d
of X
wi th th e sam e scale f o r val u es o f e th e relat i o n o f th eir
du c t ili ties can be foun d by c omp aris o n of th e length s o f
th e d iagra m s o n th e X axis Th e val u e of e a t r uptu re
m ig ht be t aken as a m easu re o f du c ti li t y ; b ut in engineer
ing t es t p rac t ice i t is c u stom ary to m eas u re th e e l onga
t i o n o f th e t est e d sec ti o n o f th e t es t p iece aft er r u ptu re
an d t o c omp are th is wi th th e o riginal length of th e t est e d
sec t i on D u c t ili ty is thu s e xp resse d as p er cen t el onga
t i o n in l inc h es l being o riginal lengt h of t es t e d sec t i o n
I t is necessary to s p ecify th e o riginal length becau se
fr om th e m axi mum s t ress un t il r u ptu re th e el o ngat i on is
l o cali z e d an d is n ot s h are d by all one inc h sec t i ons alike
h ence th e ave r age el ongat i o n d e p en d s o n ho w m any of
th e un n ec ked sec t i ons are incl ud e d wi th th e necke d sec ti on
in n d ing th e average F o r e x amp le th e average el onga
t i o n d erive d fr om th e necke d sec t i o n t aken wi th t w o oth er
sec t i o ns w ou l d be great er th an th e val u e d erive d fr om th e
*
necke d sec t i o n wi th any great er n umber o f oth er sec t i o ns
W h en th e ini tial p ar t o f th e S d d ia
4 E la s ti c i ty
gra m is a st raig ht line i t is an in d icat i o n th at th e m at erial
is p rac t ically p er f ec t ly elast ic fo r th e c o rrespo n d ing
range Thu s in d iagram II F ig 1 7 i f th e m at erial is
p er fec t ly elas t ic fo r th e range c o rres po n d ing to A B i t
c ou l d be s t resse d wi th in th ese li mi t s an in d e n i t e n um ber
3

Th e val ue o f e for t h e p oint E in di agram I is deriv ed from

th e perm an e n t el o n gati o n after r u p t ure ; w h ereas for all p re v iou s
p oints o f t h e diagram t h e elas ti c elongation is in c lu ded w it h t h e
p ermanent e longation for th e c omp u tation Th e error due to t hi s
h o wev er is s mall eno u gh t o be neg li gible
.

t i m es an d eac h t i m e i t w ou l d re tu rn to i t s o riginal d i
B u t in an s d d iagra m like A C B F ig 1 8
m en sio n s
w h ic h is a rec o r d of a t es t of c ast ir o n
th ere is n o elas ti c
of

G
I

u n o d 11 ;

oxe n

range an d even s m all s t ress p r odu ces set

I n th is t es t
s t ress w as relie v e d at C an d th e d iagra m line t race d th e
p a th C DE s ho w ing a set a t E p r opo r t i o nal to E 0 Th en
.

Stress w as not red u c ed to z ero be c aus e o f diff i c ulties t h at

w o uld r es ult in ma n i p u lation o f t h e a pp arat u s for mea suring elo n

1 02 1 2

M AI EI

H LS

OF

M ACHIN ES

s t ress was again increase d u ntil r uptu re o cc urre d an d th e

d iagram line fo ll o we d th e p ath E F C B I t is e v i d en t th at
upo n relie f an d reapp licat i o n o f s t ress th e line is n ot
s t raig ht f r om C to E an d again fr om E to C
Th e disap
r
n
ea
a
c
e
f
o
elast ic d e fo r m at i o n o cc u rs a t p rac t i cally a
p
u ni fo r m ra t e f r om C to D
o r C D is a s t raig ht line
an d f r om s om e po in t D th e rat e of d isapp earance of elas tic
d e fo rm ati o n increases to E ; th at is DE is c u rve d Th e
line o f reapp licat i o n o f s t ress E F C si m ilarly is st raig ht
f r om E to s om e po int F w h ile F 0 is a c u rve en d ing a t
*
th e s t ar ting po int C
I t is o bvi o u s th a t th e rs t app licat i o n o f st ress h as
p r odu ce d an arti c i al el a s tic lim i t F to ge th er w i th a c o r
respon d ing e l a s tic ran g e E F an d th e st resse d m at erial
m ay be c onsi d ere d as ar t icially elast ic th r ou g h th is
range
Th e w i dth of th e l oop C DE F C is only slig ht ly aff ec t e d
by th e t i m e o c c up ie d in c h anging st ress fr om C t o E an d
back again to C ; an d h ence th e l oop ph en om en o n mu s t be
a func ti o n o f s om e q u ali t y o f th e m at erial Very care fu l
m eas ure m ent s lea d to th e c o ncl u si o n th at th e sam e ph e
b u t th e c o rr e
n o m en o n o cc u rs wi th du c t ile m a t erial
spo n din g val u es are too s m all to be d e t ec t e d by th e
m eas u ring ins t r um ent s o f o r d inary t es t ing p rac t ice o f
engineering
5 S ti n e s s of a m a t erial is a f u nc t i o n of th e a moun t of
yiel d ing u n d er given fo rc e I t is m eas u re d by th e rat i o
w i th in th e elas t ic li m i t o f u ni t s t ress to rela t ive el o nga
.

ti o n

B, an d th is ra t i o is calle d th e m o d u l u s

of

e la

I f relief of stress h ad been c om p lete th e c u r v e DE w ould h av e

c ont i n u ed to t h e X a x i s and w o u ld h a v e ret u rned at t h e left of E F
b ut a nal c ur v e w o u ld h a v e bro u g h t t h e line to t h e same de s tination
Th us t h e loo p w o ul d be made w ider
0 a s in s tarting from E
,

103

T E S T I N G MA TERIALS

S ince fo r th e m at erial re p resent e d

fo r t ensi on E t
by F ig 1 7 p is p r opo r ti onal t o 6 wi th in th e elast i c li m i t i t
fo ll o ws th at any c o rrespon d ing val u es o f p an d 5 be t ween
tho se at N fo r e x amp le
m ay be t aken to
A an d B
Th e variat i on in st i ffness h as
c omput e th e val u e o f E
mu c h narr o wer li m i t s th an t ensile st ren g th ; thu s l o w
carb on op en h ear th s t eel m ay h ave a t ensile st rength o f
ab out
po u n d s p er sq u are inc h w h ile h ig h carb on
cru cible st eel m ay h ave a t ensile st reng th ab o ve
poun d s p er sq u are inc h a variati on o f 1 00 p er cent p r oba
bly ye t th e val u es o f E t c o rres po n d ing m ay be
an d
a m ax i m u m increase o f ab out 1 4 p er cent
o f w h a t ever gra d e
P rac t ically all val u es of E f o r s t eel
f all wi thin th e li m i t s j u s t given
I n th e t ensi o n s
d d iagra m fo r cas t ir o n F ig 1 8 A B C
th e s t ress d e fo r m at i o n line is c u rve d c on t inu ou sly fr om

t ic ity

t.

s t ar t to r u ptu re an d h ence th e val u e

of

P
;

varies

c ontin uo u sly an d th e o riginal m at erial cann ot be sai d to

h ave a d eni t e mod ul u s o f elas t ici t y B u t since th e
m at erial by relie f an d reapp licat i o n o f st ress f r om s om e
po int
as fo r e x amp le 0
is given an ar t icial elast ic
range i t fo ll o ws th a t th e s t resse d m at erial w o u l d h a v e an
ar t icial val u e o f E t m eas u ring s ti ffness c o rrespo n d ing to
.

2 fo r any po int in th e s t raig ht line E F

Th is val u e

of

rti c i al m o du l u s o f e l asti c i ty , E t f o r cas t ir o n p r o bably

a v erages ab out
po u n d s p er sq u are inc h
Th e modu lus of elasti c it y E t is qu alitativ el y th e s ame as unit
s tre ss p ; t h at is it is a v al u e e x p re s s ed in p o u nd s p er s q u are in ch ;

for

p
p

in w h i ch

being a ratio of linear dimen s ions

i
i
is an ab stra c t q u antit y ; h en c e E t e q u al to p o u nds p er s qu are in ch
mu ltip lied b y an ab stra c t n u mber mus t als o e qu al s ome valu e
exp ress ed in th e same u nit s as p
,

104

MA TE RI A LS O F MACHIN ES

s ili en c e i s th e na m e given to th e wo rk d o n e w i th i n
a m a t erial w h ile i t s fo r m i s c h ange d by e xternal fo rces
I t i s th ere fo re th e s umm a ti o n o f th e p r odu c t of all
s t resses p r odu ce d mul ti p lie d by th eir yiel d ing B u t
th is s umm a ti o n i s eq u al to th e w o rk d o n e by ext ern al
f o rc e s in pro du c in g c han g e o f f o rm ; h ence th is w o rk
i s a m eas u re of resilience
I n s d d iagram I I F ig 1 7 w o rk i s done by th e uni t
fo rce w h i c h is ini tially z er o an d w h ic h increases uni fo rm ly
to th e elast ic li m i t L e t uni t fo rce a t th e elas ti c li m i t be
re p resen t e d by I n; th en th e average uni t fo rce up to th e
1

elast ic li m i t eq u als
Th is u ni t fo rce ac t ing upo n o n e
R

sq u are inc h sec ti o n area has cau se d an el o ngati o n eq u al

to e in eac h o n e inc h sec ti o n o f length o f th e t es t piece
-

an d h ence

te s t

eq u als t h e w ork d o n e

o n o n e c ub c

in c h

of

i t t o t h e e l asti c li m i t Th is
val u e is s om e ti m es calle d th e modu l u s of resilience o f th e
m at erial an d is re p resent e d by U t
Th e tot al e l a s ti c re s ili en c e , eq u al to th e w o rk done
o n th e t es t e d po r t i o n o f th e t es t p iece up to th e elas t ic
t he

pi e c e in b rin gin g

li mi t is eq u al to th e tot al fo rc e
,

th e tot al el ongat i o n

or

2 F

P
is

eq u al to

mu l t i p lie d by
2

PA

Fl

Th is val u e is p r opo r t i onal to th e area o f th e t riangle A B I G

an d is eq u al to th e mod u l u s o f resilienc e mu l t i p lie d by
F l th e v o l u m e o f th e t es t e d po r t i o n o f th e t es t p iece
Th e u l timate r e sili en c e i s th e w o rk do ne in breaking
d d iagra m I F ig 1 7
th e t es t p iece C o nsi d er s
Th e
m ean h eig ht o f th e d iagra m Ym m eas u res th e m ean uni t

fo rc e ac t ing th r ou g ho u t th e t est ; w h ile A E l

th e nal

val u e o f e
m eas u res th e average el ongat i o n o f eac h
H ence th e p r odu c t
o n e inc h sec t i o n o f th e t es t e d p iece
.

1 05

TE ST IN G MA TE RIALS

b oth e xp resse d in inc h es

gives an

an d A E l
area in sq u are inc h es th a t is p r opo r ti onal to th e u l t i m at e
resilience p er c u bi c inc h o f th e m at erial Th is val u e is
o bvi ou sly eq u al to t he area o f th e d iagra m N um eri
cally th is val u e in inc h p oun d s p er c u bi c inc h eq u als th e
average val u e of p in po u n d s p er sq u are inc h m ul t i p lie d
by th e nal val u e o f e in inc h es p er inc h o f t es t p iece
A m ac h ine m e m ber m ay be s u bj ec t e d to s ho ck in u se
an d i t is necessary to kn o w th e s ho ck resis ting ca p aci t y
o f m a t erials o f m ac h ines
I f a t ensile s ho ck were d elivere d to th e piec e who se
t es t is rec o r d e d in F ig 1 7 an d i f th e energy of th e s ho ck
were eq u al to th e energy re p resent e d by th e area A Bl G
i t fo ll o ws th a t th e s ho ck w o ul d s t ress th e p iece to i t s
elas tic li m i t H enc e th e area A B l G is p r opo r t i onal to
th e s ho ck resist ing cap aci t y of th e m at erial a t th e elas t ic
li m i t I f s d d iagram s o f d i fferen t m at erials were p l ott e d
areas o f t riangles u n d er th e elas t i c
o n th e sa m e scales
li m i t c oul d be c omp are d to d e t er m ine relat ive mod u li

f
r
o
resilience o elast ic s ho ck resis t ing cap aci ty
S i m ilarly areas u n d er th e c omp le t e s d d iag ra m s m eas
u r e th e ca p aci t y o f th e m a t erials to resis t r upt u re by s ho ck
an d c omp aris o n o f th ese areas
in d iagra m s o n th e sam e
scales
gives relat ive u l ti m at e s ho ck resis t ing c ap aci ties
I n F ig 19 d iagra m I is a re p r od u c t i o n o n an enlarge d
scale o f th e ini t ial p ar t o f th e s d d iagra m o f m il d s t eel
given in F ig 1 7 D iagra m I I F ig 1 9 is th e s d d iagra m
Th e
o f s t resse d cas t ir o n like th a t re p resen t e d in F ig 1 8
elas t ic li m it o f th e m il d s t eel is a t B w h ile th e arti c ial
elas t ic li m i t o f th e cas t ir o n is a t B 1 Th e modul u s o f
resilience o f th e st eel is p r opo r t i o nal to th e area A B C ,
w h ile th a t o f th e cas t iro n is p r opo rt i o nal to th e area
A B I C I O bvi o u sly th e s t eel h as grea t er elas t ic resilience
th an th e s t resse d cas t ir o n
of

Ym

M A TER I ALS

1 06

OF

M A CH I NE S

36 000

3
8

h 9
c

n
I

e
r

u
q
3
$

S
r

p
s

u
o

P
n
i

e
s
s

e
r
t

3 000

e t

n t n in inch es pe

R l a i v e E l o g a io

in c

F IG

o r i g in a

19

l l eng th

of th e elast i c p r op er t ies o f m il d s t eel an d s t resse

cas t ir o n can n o w be c omp are d by re f erence to F ig 1 9
A ll

S t reng th

a t elast ic li m i t of m il d st eel
S t rength a t elas t ic li m i t o f s t resse d cas t ir o n
for

th is case

BC

B IC

s ti ff n e s s is p r opo r t i o nal to 22 wi th in th e

e las t i

li m i t an d since th is ra t i o is c onst an t wi th in th e

e last i

S ince
,

1 07

TE ST IN G MA TE RIALS

li m i t i t fo ll o ws th a t any val u e o f e less th an A C m ay be

c ho sen fo r th e c omp aris o n ; as f o r e x amp le A K
,

KN
S ti ffness

of m il d s t eel
S t i ffness o f s t resse d cas t ir o n

Th en

AK

KN

KM

KM

1 95

A K

or

th is case

Th e relative el ongat i o n a t elast ic lim i t is m easu re d by

th e

w ho

A C
A 01

odu l u s o f resilienc e o f m il d s t eel

odu l u s o f resilienc e o f s t resse d cas t ir o n
M

area A B C
area A B 1 0 1

fo r th is case Th is m easu res th e c omp arat ive s ho ck

resis t ing cap aci ty a t th e elas tic li m i t o f th e t w o m at erials
t est e d
Th e u l t i m at e resilience o f th e s t resse d cas t ir o n is p r o
po rt i onal to th e area A E G; w h ile th e ul t i m at e resilience
o f th e s t eel is p r opo r t i o nal to th e tot al area u n d er th e
st eel d iagram w h ic h e xt en d s far bey o n d th e li m i t s o f
F ig 1 9 ( see d iagra m I F ig
C o mpr e s s i o n
I n s d d iagra m s o f c omp ress i ve t es t s
u ni t s t ress is p l ott e d do w n w ar d an d rela t ive d e fo r m a t i o n
is p l ott e d to war d th e le ft F ig 2 0 s ho ws d iagra m s o f
m il d an d h ig h carb o n s t eel an d o f cas t ir o n b oth in t ensi o n
an d in c omp ressi o n E ven i f th e s t rength o f a given
du c t ile m at erial were th e sam e in t ensi o n an d c omp ressi on
th e c omp ressi o n d iagram w ou l d h ave grea t er val u es o f
uni t st ress fo r th e fo ll o wing reas o n :
I n a t en si o n t es t el o ngat i o n is acc om p anie d by re du e
.

M A TER I ALS

1 08

q ouI

sp a n o d

OF

U O IS S GJ d UJ O O

M ACH I NES

Ho u r em n b s

1 9 d spu n o a

m
m
.

a.

m
8

m
.

5
0

m n
m
6
1
.

2
1
.

0
.

0
.

0
.

8
0

n
I

r
e

2
1
0

0
2
.

1 09

TE ST IN G MA TE RIALS

ti o n o f sec ti o n area sinc e th e d ensi ty re m ains unc h ange d

Th e t r u e uni t s t ress a t any po int o f th e t est w ou l d be
tot al t ensile fo rce d ivi d e d by th e c o rrespo n d ing sec t i on
area ; b ut i t h as been d eci d e d fo r engineering t es t s to u se
th e o riginal sec t i o n area as a d ivis o r th r ou g hout th e t es t
an d h ence all val u es of u ni t st ress in t ensi o n are really
t o o s m all
O n th e oth er h an d in a c omp ressi o n t es t th e
sec ti on area in c re a s e s wi th re du c t i o n in leng th an d
h ence all val u es o f u ni t s t ress in c omp ressi o n g u re d o n
th e o riginal sec t i o n area are really t o o l arg e I n th e
c omp aris o n o f t ensi o n t es t s wi th eac h oth er th is w ou l d
n ot lea d to err o r n o r w ou l d i t lea d to err o r in case of
c omp aris on o f c om p ressi o n t est s wi th eac h oth er ; c om
p aris ons o f t ensi o n w i th c omp ressi on t es t s are p r o bably
Th is d iscre p ancy in th e S d d iagram s is of
u nnecessary
n o i mpo r t ance wi th in th e elas t i c li m i t sinc e th e c h ange
in sec t i on area u p to th at li m i t is negligible
A du c t ile m a t erial like m il d s t eel f ails u n d er c omp ressi v e
fo rce ei th er by sp li tt ing p arallel t o it s ax is o r by at t en
ing out wi th a c o nt inu ally increasing sec t i o n area h ence
i t is i mpo ssible to l o cat e a d eni t e breaking po int
A bri tt le m at erial f ails in c omp ressi o n by s h earing o n
p lanes at ab out 4 5 d egrees to th e ax is of t he t es t p iece
d d iagram s m ay als o be p l ott e d f r om th e d at a o f
S
t est s in w h i c h th e ext ernal fo rces p r odu ce to rsi onal o r
t ransverse s t ress as well as fr om th e d at a o f t ensile an d
c omp re s sive t est s
.

VI I

C H A PT E R
THE E

IBR
I
M
U
I
L
U
Q

DI A GR A M

O F IR O N

A N D C A R BO N

pu re c h e m ical ele m ent s o c c u r in t w o o r mo re

so calle d all ot r op ic fo r m s w ho se ph ysical p r op er t ies are
q ui t e d i ff eren t Thu s d iamon d graph i t e an d c h arc o al
are all ot r op i c fo r m s o f carb o n ; oxygen o c c u rs in t w o
a ll ot r op ic fo r m s 0 2 an d 0 3 ( ozo ne )
I n general c h ange
f r om o n e all ot r op i c fo r m to an oth er is ac c omp anie d by
abs o r pt i o n o r release o f energy Th e c h ange m ay be d ue
to rearrangem en t of mo lec u les o r o f a tom s o r to s om e
oth er u nexp laine d cau se
I r o n h as th ree all ot r op ic fo r m s calle d al ph a (a ) i ron
be t a (6) ir o n an d gamm a ( 7 ) ir on E ac h fo r m is s t able

th a t is i t resist s c h ange into th e oth er fo r m s

w i th in
cer t ain t e mp eratu re li m i t s Th is is s ho wn in F ig 21
T e mp erat u re val u es in d egrees F a h ren h ei t are lai d o
ver t ically up war d H o ri z ont al s p aces re p resen t c o n v en
B e t ween any
t io n ally th e t i m e o f h ea t ing o r c oo ling
a tt ainable l o wer t emp erat u re an d 1 4 1 8 F ir on t akes th e
fo r m of s o li d a ir on ; a t 14 1 8 F i t c h anges to s o li d 6
ir o n an d ho l d s th is fo r m unt il 1 6 60 F i s reac h e d w h ere
i t c h anges to s o li d 7 ir o n w h ic h m el t s a t 2 7 8 6 F
Th e d iagra m re p resent s h eat ing b ut th e c h anges begin
a t th e sam e t e m p eratu res w h e th er th e t e mp eratu re c h ange
is u p war d o r do wnwar d ; w h e th er th e ir o n is h eat e d o r
c oo le d A l ph a ir o n is s oft an d du c tile wi th t ensile uni t
s t rengt h o f ab ou t
poun d s a t air t e m p erat ure I t
C

E R T A IN

1 10

E Q U ILI B RI U M O F IR O N

AN D

111

C AR BO N

is very m agne ti c b ut l o s es th is p r op er t y en t irely o n c h ang

ing into B ir o n Th e crys t al st r u c tu re o f ( 1 ir o n is like th a t
ir
o
n
A
f
o
B
ir
o
n
b
ut
is
q
u
i
t
e
d
i
ff
eren
t
f
r
om
th
a
t
7
o f
,

1400

1000

H E A T I N G C U R VE O F PUR E I R O N

F I G 21
.

cert ai n s m all amount o f h ea t bec om es lat ent du ring th e

c h ange o f a to B ir o n an d a larger a moun t bec om es lat en t
during th e B to 7 c h ange Th ese an d oth er f ac t s S ho w
,

1 12

MA TE RIALS

OF

MACHIN E S

th a t a B an d 7 ir o n are all ot r op ic fo r m s wi th d is tinc t

physical d iff erences
L iq ui d ir o n will t ake freely int o liq ui d s o l ut i on m any
m e t allic elem ent s s u c h as m anganese nickel c o bal t
c h r om i um tungst en vana d i um an d c opp er as well as
n o n m e t allic ele m ent s s u c h as silic on carb on pho s pho ru s
an d ni t r o gen ; cer t ain q u an t i t ies of th ese re m ain in s oli d
s o l u t i o n w h en th e ir o n s o li d ies in th e 7 fo r m W h en
th e c oo li ng p r o gresses into th e B ir o n el d thou g h th e
m e t allic ele m ent s are p r o bably h el d in s o li d s o l uti on
th e n o n m e t allic elem ent s see m n ot to be re t aine d Wi th
furth er c oo ling into th e a ir o n el d mod era t e amount s o f
th e m e t allic ele m ent s are h el d in s o li d s o l ut i o n w h ile th e
n on m e t allic ele m en t s are h el d o nly slig ht ly o r n ot a t all
C arb o n is th e mo s t i mpo r t an t ele m en t w ho se p resence
e x er t s a mod i fying in fl uence u po n ir o n I t m ay be ass o
c iat ed w i th s o li d ir o n in s o l ut i o n in c h e m ical c om binat i o n
Th e ph en om ena acc omp anying
o r in m ec h anical m i xt u re
c h anges of t e mp erature o f ass o cia t e d ir o n an d carbo n
can be bes t e xp laine d by u se o f th e so calle d e qu ili bri u m
d i agram
S u c h a d iagra m is given in F ig 22 ; i t is d ra wn
o nly w i th a pp r ox i m at e acc u racy T e mp eratu res are
lai d o ff ver t ically u p war d o n th e ax is of Y an d p ercent ages
of carb o n p resen t wi th th e ir o n are lai d o ff ho ri zont ally
to war d th e rig ht o n th e axis of X A t A is th e so lidic a
t i o n t e mp erat u re o f pu re ir o n an d s o li d icat i o n bec om es
c omp le t e a t th is t e mp eratu re ; b ut as carb o n is a dd e d to
th e ir o n th e s o li d icat i o n begins a t l o wer t e mp era tu res as
s ho wn by th e line A D M o re o ver w h ile p ure ir o n b e
c om es c omp le t ely s o li d a t th e t e mp era tu re A ass o ciat e d
ir o n an d carb o n begin to s o li d i fy a t t e mp erat u res d ene d
by A D b ut s o li d icat i on do es n ot bec om e c o mpl ete
until s om e l o wer t e m p eratu re d ene d by A B is reac h e d
F o r ill us t ra ti on th e p o in t h re p r esen t s liq u i d ir o n c o n t ain
,

EQ U IL I B R IU M

OF

IR O N

F IG

i ng ab out

22

AN D C

AR B O N

1 13

f
o
p
er
cen
t
f
carb
o
n
a
t
a
t
e
mp
era
t
u
re
o
1
D u ring c oo ling th e po in t mo ves f r om h ver t ically
3000 F
do wnwar d an d w h en i t reac h es d o n th e line A D so lidi c a
t i o n begins b ut is n ot c omp le t e d u n til th e po int mo ving

vert ically
wi th f alling t e mp eratu re
reac h es b o n t he

line A B

1 14

A TE RIALS

MACHIN ES

OF

Th e rs t crys t als th a t fo r m do n ot c o nt ain t h e p r opo r

t i o ns c o rrespon d ing to d b ut a s m aller a moun t o f carb o n ;
in fac t th e c ompo si t i o n is in d icat e d by t h e po int b2 w h ere
a ho ri zont al th r ou g h d c ut s A B A s d d escend s th e c om
p o si t i o n o f th e fo r m ing crys t als is c o ntin uou sly in d icat e d
by th e int ersec ti o n wi th A B o f th e ho ri zo nt al th r oug h
th e mo ving p o int ; thu s wi th th e po in t a t dl th e c om po si
ti o n o f th e fo r m ing crys t als is in d ica te d by b1 ; a t th e
sam e t i m e th e c ompo si t i o n o f th e resi du al liq ui d w h ic h
gro ws c o nst an t ly ric h er in carb on is in d ica t e d by d; w h ere
th e ho ri zo nt al c ut s A D Th u s crys t als fo r m c o ntinuou sly
wi th increasing carb o n c o nt en t an d th is res ul t s in fo rm at i on
of cryst al gr oup s wi th c o res l o w in carb o n s urr oun d e d by
layers o f crys t als h aving increasing carb o n c o nt ent
N o w since th e rst fo r m e d crys t als h ave lo w carb o n
an d since th e av er ag e carb o n c o nt ent cann ot c h ange i t
fo ll o w s th at th e lat er fo r m e d crys tals mu s t be h ig h in
carb o n an d h ence th e out er mo s t layers of th e crys t al
gr oup s mu s t h ave carb o n c o nt ent m u c h ab o ve th e a verage
v al u e an d h ence th e po in t b2 o n A B ins t ea d o f s topp ing
a t b c o ntin u es to war d B to s om e po int th a t ho l d s th e
average at b
O bvi ou sly th e s o li d cann ot be homo gene ou s unless i t
is m a d e s o du ring o r aft er s o li d ic at i o n by re d ist rib ut i o n
D i ffu si o n th r o u g h t he s o li d is a
o f carb o n by di u sio n
sl o w p r o cess an d h ence c oo ling mu s t be very sl o w th r oug h
o ut t h e s o li d ica t i o n range an d a ft erwar d s i f a homo
gen eo u s s o li d is to res u l t

I n c ase o f s t eel ing ot s w h ic h are st ri pp e d

an d

t ransf erre d to s o aking p it s f o r sl o w c oo ling an d h eat

eq u ali z at i o n w h ile th e ing ot int eri o r is still liq ui d un
doub t e d ly th ere is t i m e fo r d iff u si on o f c arb o n to p r o
du ce u ni fo r m d ist rib ut i o n B ut in st eel cast ings th e
c oo ling is t o o q ui ck t o p er m i t this res ul t an d th ere i s
,

EQ U ILI B R IU M

IRO N

OF

AN D

1 15

CAR BO N

micr o photo graph s s ho w a lack o f u ni fo r m i t y of c arb o n

c ont ent in th e crys t als
W h ile th e p o in t is ab o ve A D th e liq u i d ir o n ho l d s th e
D
A
B
A
p
er
cen
t
carb
o
n
in
liq
u
i
d
s
o
l
ut
i
o
n
be
t
ween
an
d
;
i
th e carb on is p ar t ly in liq ui d an d p ar t ly in s oli d s o l uti on
and bel o w A B th e m ass is s oli d th e carb o n being in s o li d
s o l uti on in th e ir o n Th e res ul t s o f c o o lin g w ill be si m ilar
fo r any amoun t o f c arb o n up to ab out
p er cent o r
wi th th e c oo ling po in t l o c at e d anyw h ere ab o ve A D an d a t
th e le ft of N N 1 I r o n w ill ho l d c arb o n in liq u i d s o l ut i o n
in amount ac c o r d ing to t e mp era tu re as s ho wn by th e
p er
lim i ting line DE
Thu s a t 2 600 F ir o n w ill ho l d
cent carb o n c o rrespo n d ing to th e po int M ; a t 2 8 00 F
th e liq u i d s o l ut i o n is satur at e d w ith
p er cen t carb o n ;
B ut
p er c en t seem s t o be ab out th e li m i t
see po in t E
of carb o n in s oli d s o luti o n in ir o n Th ere fo re if th e
mol t en m ass c on t ains mo re th an 2 1 p er c ent carb o n th e
ex cess mu st se p arat e o n s oli d ic at i on Th is m ay be
ill u st rat e d o n th e d iagram Th e po int j re p resent s
3 p er cen t c arb o n in liq ui d s o l u t i o n in 9 7 p er c en t ir o n a t
A s th is liq u i d c oo ls th e po in t mo ves ver t ically
3 000 F
do wnwar d an d w h en j l o n A D is reac h e d s o li dicati on
begins ; b ut th e s o li d cryst als rs t fo r m e d c an o nly c o nt ain
th e amoun t in d icat e d by b3 ab out
p er cen t carb on
an d h enc e i t m u s t h ave given u p th e resi du e o f i t s o riginal
3 p er cen t w h ic h is a dd e d to th e resi du al l i q u i d w h ereby
th at liq ui d is en r ic h e d in c arb on Thu s th e c oo ling po int
re p resen ting t h e C o mpo si ti on o f th e re s i dual li quid
moves to war d th e r i g h t : in f ac t i t moves al ong th e line
AD
M eanw h ile th e po m t re p resen ting th e c om po s i t i o n
o f th e crys t als mo ves al o ng th e line A B f r om
t o war d B
an d th e resi du al liq ui d gr o ws ric h er in carb o n un til th e
c ooling poin t th at st ar t e d f r om j l reac h es j z ; th e resi du al
liq u i d c om p o si ti o n c o rrespon d s to D an d th e m a ss s o li d i
-

as

'

'

1 16

MATE RIALS O F MACHIN E S

es w it hout furth er d r op in t emp eratu re Th e p r odu c t

o f t h i s nal s o l ut i o n is 7 ( C )
ass o ciat e d wi th w hatever
is cro wd ed out du r i ng th e en t ire c h ang e f r om liq ui d t o
s o li d S ince by ass um pti on th e oth er s ubst anc e p resen t
is carb on i t fo ll o w s th at o nly c arb o n o r c ompoun d s of car
b o n an d ir o n c ou l d be ass o ciat e d wi th th e 7 ( C ) Th e
s o li d ie d m ass really do es c onsis t o f int i m at ely ass o ciat e d
cryst als o f 7 ( C ) carb o n as graph i t e G an d ir o n c arbi d e
.

F O 30

th e s t ar t ing p o int o f c oo ling m ig h t h ave been a t

s om e po in t a t th e rig ht O f mD fo r e x amp le l re p resent ing
a liq u i d s o l u ti on o f 5 p er cen t c arb o n in ir o n Th e po in t
1 mo ving ver t ic ally do wn w ar d d u ring c oo ling reac h es th e
line DE w h ere th e liqu i d ir o n is s at urat e d wi th carb o n
an d w h ere fu r th er f all in t e mp eratu re res ul t s in se p ara
t i o n o f s o li d cryst als p r obably F 8 3 0 w h ic h m ay c h ange
in p ar t t o graph i t e in th e e ffo r t to est ablis h e q u ilibri um
Th e rem aining li q ui d is thu s i mpo veris h e d in carb o n an d
h ence th e po int re p resent ing c ompo si ti on of resi du al
liq ui d mo ves to war d th e le ft ; in f ac t i t fo ll o ws th e line
E D to D an d during th is p r o gress F e3 C se p ara t es c o n t in u
A t D th e r e s i du al li qu i d c ont ains
p er c en t
o u sly
carb o n in liq u i d s o l ut i o n an d du ring nal s o li d icat i o n
a t c o ns t an t t e mp era tu re th e e x cess O f carb o n o ver
p er cen t is cr o w d e d out as F e3C an d gra p h i t e Th e
p r odu c t o f s o li d icat i o n a t D fr om ini tial c o n d i ti o n j an d
a t l are si m i lar b u t o f c ou rse wi th d if ferent p r opo r ti ons
o f 7 ( C ) an d G
F eaC
Wit h 77 a s t h e s t ar t ing po in t o f c oo ling t h e liq u i d c o n
sist s o f a
p er c en t s o l ut i o n o f carb o n in ir on an d th e
c oo ling line c ut s A D an d ED a t th eir int ersec t i o n D
B ut

I t seems to be a cc ep ted as a fa c t t h at w h en t w o form s may

se p arate f rom a s o lu tion t h e form t h at is un s tab l e u nder t h e c on

E Q U ILI BRI U M O F IRO N

CAR BO N

AN D

11 7

n o p reli m inary se p arati on of 7 (C ) o cc u rs as wi th

th e line O f c oo ling a t th e le ft o f mD n o r p reli minary sep a
rati o n O f F 8 30 an d graph i t e as wi th th e line o f c oo ling a t
th e rig ht of n D b ut th e s o l ut i o n re m ains c o nst an t u nt il
D is reac h e d an d s o li d icat i o n begins an d en d s a t t h a t
t e m p erature B e fo re s o li d ic at i o n th e m ass is all liq u i d
p er cent c arb o n ; aft er s o li d icat i o n
s o l u t i o n w i th
th e ir o n ho l d s
p er cen t carb o n in s o li d s o l ut i o n b ut
th e ex c ess o f c arb o n ab ove
p er cen t se p arat es as c e
m enti t e ( unst able ) o r graph i t e ( st able) H ence th e s o li d
p r odu c t o f c oo ling fr om n c onsis t s o f int i m at ely m i x e d
cryst als of 7 ( C ) F 8 30 an d G wi th th e tot al carb o n p resen t

eq u al to
p er cen t Th is s o li d is calle d e ut ec t ic

an d D is th e e ut ec t ic po int
Wi th c oo ling fr om j th e s o l i d p r odu c t c onsist s o f e ut ec tic
fo r m e d a t D m ix e d wi th e x cess o f 7 (C ) wi th varying
carb o n c ont ent fo r m e d during t e mp eratu re c h ange f r om
j l to j z Wi th c oo ling f r om Z th e s o li d p r odu c t c o nsis t s
O f e ut ec t ic fo r m e d a t D m ix e d wi th e x cess o f G an d F 8 30
fo r m e d du ring t e mp era tu re c h ange f r om II to lg
C er t ain c h anges in c ompo si t i o n of ass o ciat e d ir o n an d
carb o n als o o cc u r as t e mp eratu re f alls aft er c omp le t e
s o li d icati on
Th e lines K N 0 B 0 L N an d M 0 (F ig 22 ) h ave been
l o cat e d o n th e d iagram by care ful e xp eri m ent s A t K
is th e t emp erature of int erc h ange be t ween th e B an d 7
fo r m s O f pure ir on Th e sl op ing line K N in d icat es th e
d r op in t e mp eratu re o f B 7 int erc h ange du e to increasing
p r opo r ti o n o f carb on A t L is 14 20 F th e t e mp era tu re
o f in t erc h ange be t ween a an d B f o r m s of pu re ir o n an d
be t ween L an d N any f r e e ir o n in th e m ass w oul d int er
c h ange be t ween B an d a a t th e c onst an t t e mp eratu re L N
Th e sl op ing line N 0 in d icat es th e d r op in t e mp erat ure o f
a
7 in t erc h ange du e to increasing p r opo r t i o n o f c ar b o n
H ence

MATE RIALS O F MACHIN E S

1 18

Th e line B 0 d enes th e l o w es t t emp eratu res at w h ic h

7 ( C ) s o li d s o l u ti o ns can e x is t wi thout se p ara t i o n of
ce m en t i t e o r graph i t e o r i t is th e line of s o li d satu rati on
F irst illu str a tion
Th e po int 6 rep resent s a s o l uti o n
of
p er cent carb on in liq u i d ir o n a t 3000 F A s th is
point moves vert ically do wn war d o n th e line eel du ring
sl o w c oo ling i t p asses th e line A D w here s oli d icat i on
begins an d th e line A B w h ere s o li d icat i o n en d s Th e
po int c o nt in u es to mo ve ver t ically do wnwar d th e c oo ling
m at erial re m aining 7 ( C ) an d wi th sl o w c oo ling p r o bably
bec om ing homo gene o u s by d i ffu si o n u nt il th e line K N
is reac h e d a t 6 1 ; a t th is po int s om e o f th e ir o n c h anges
f r om th e 7 ( C ) t o th e B fo r m an d sinc e B ir on cannot
ho l d carb o n in s o l u t i o n th e 7 (C ) th at is thu s le ft is
i mpoveris h e d in ir o n ; h enc e th e c oo ling po int mo ves in
th e d irec t i o n o f increase d carb on to w ar d th e rig ht ; in f ac t
i t mo ves al ong th e line K N unt il th e po int N is reac h e d ;
a t th is t e mp erat u re 1 4 2 0 F th e B i r o n th at h as sep a
rat e d O u t as p u re ir o n c h anges
as any p u re ir o n w ou l d

a t th at t e mp erat u re
into th e a fo r m w h ile mo re ir o n
se p arat es fr om th e 7 ( C ) as a ir o n cau sing fur th er ir o n
i mpo veris hm ent o f th e re m aining 7 (C ) ; th en th e c oo ling
po int mo ves al o ng th e n ew sl op e N 0 un t il th e po in t 0 is
reac h e d a t th e l o w est t e mp erat u re a t w h ic h ir o n can e xis t
in th e 7 fo r m an d th e re s i d u e o f 7 ( C ) c han g e s into a
e ut e c t i c mix tu r e c all e d p ear li t e c o n s i s tin g o f a ir o n an d
.

F e 3C

L e t f be th e st ar t ing po in t of
c oo ling w i th
p er cent carb o n A s befo re th e c oo ling
po int p asses th e lines A D an d A B w h ere s o li d icat i o n of
7 ( C ) is c omp le t e d an d arrives a t f 1 o n th e line N 0 w h ere
7 ir o n c h anges in to 0 :ir o n ( po ssibly p assing th r o u g h th e
int er m e d iat e B fo r m ) i mpo veris h ing th e re m aining 7 (C )
i n ir o n an d cau sing th e po int to mo ve al o ng th e line N 0
S econ d i llu str ation

EQ U ILI B RIU M O F IR ON

1 19

CAR B O N

AN D

t o t h e po in t 0 w h ere th e e ut ec t ic p earli t e i s f o r m e d as in
th e rs t ill u strat i o n
T hird i llu stratio n
Wi th 9 as th e s t ar t i ng po in t o f
c ooling th e c arb o n equ als
p er c ent w h ic h is j u s t th e
p r opo r ti on c o rrespo n d ing to th e e ut ec tic ; th e po int g o es
ver tically do w nwar d p assing A D an d A B th e range of
s o li d icati on an d c o nt in u ing to 0 w h ere sinc e th is is
th e e ut ec t ic po int th e 7 (C ) c h anges d irec t ly into th e
e ut ec t ic p earli t e

Wi th h as th e s t ar t ing po in t of
F ourt h i llu stra tion
c oo ling th e c arb o n eq u als
p er c en t an d th e po in t
mo ves th r ou g h th e s o li d ic at i o n range an d nally reac h es
H ere th e c o n d i t i o n is th a t o f a s o li d
h o n th e line B 0
s atu rated s o l ut i o n of carb o n in ir o n an d h ence furth er
re du c ti o n in t e mp eratu re res u l t s in se p arat i o n of F e3 C
Th e res ul t is th at th e re m aining 7 ( C ) is i mpo veris h e d
in carb on an d h enc e th e po in t mu s t mo ve to th e le ft ;
i t really do es mo ve al ong th e line B 0 an d nally reac h es 0
w h ere th e 7 ( C ) c h anges in to th e e u t ec t ic p earli t e as be fo re
I f th e c oo ling po in t st ar t s a t th e le ft O f 9 ir o n se p arat es
fr om th e 7 (C ) al o ng th e line K N 0 to leave th e e ut e c t i c
p r opo r t i on a t 0 an d th e res ul t ing m ass c onsist s O f crys
t als o f or ir on int er m ix e d wi th e ut ec tic p earl it e
Wi th g as th e s t ar t ing point o f c oo ling all 7 ( C ) c h anges
d irec t ly into e ut ec t ic an d h enc e th e res u l ting m ass will
c onsis t o f th e e u t ec t ic al one
Wi th th e st ar ting po in t o f c oo ling a t th e rig ht of 9
F 9 30 se p ara t es fr om th e 7 ( C ) al o ng th e line B 0 to leave
th e e ut ec t ic p r opo r t i on a t 0 an d th e res ul ting m ass c o n
sist s o f e ut ec tic p earli t e wi th crys t als of F 8 3 0
Upo n th e el d s o f th e d iagra m F ig 2 2 are given th e
fo r m s th ere t aken by ass o ciat e d ir o n an d carb o n Thu s
ab o ve th e lines A D an d DE th ere can be o nly liq u i d s o l u
t i o n To th e rig ht o f DE ( sinc e th e line DE gives th e
.

MATE RIALS O F MACHIN ES

12 0

saturat i o n li m it ) carb o n in e x c ess o f satu rat i on mus t e x is t

se p ara t ely
u s u ally as gra ph i t e in f ac t in t his el d
gra ph i t e se p ara t es by gravi ty an d o at s o n th e s ur face
thu s c arrying th e resi dual m ass back t o th e satu rat i o n
line F e3 C is als o p resen t in this el d sinc e i t se p ara t es
rs t an d sinc e c h ange in to th e mo re s t able gra ph i t e o c c urs
very sl o wly
C oo ling lines f r om th e el d A DE en t er th e el d F B P R
th r oug h th e e ut ec tic po in t D carrying e ut ec t ic wi th
a mount s of graph i t e an d c e m en ti t e th a t vary acc o r d ing
to th e l o c at i o n of th e st ar t ing po in t o f th e c oo ling c urve
Th e line P R h as been c are fu lly l o c at e d w h ere gra ph i t e
A b o ve th is
G an d ce m ent i t e F egC int erc h ange s t abili t y
line c e m en t i t e t en d s to rap i d c h ange into gra phi t e ( giving
up i t s c om bine d ir o n) w h ile bel o w th is line graph i t e t en d s
to bec om e c em en t it e sl o wly t aking up th e re q u ire d ir o n
B el o w th e line M S ir o n c ann ot e x is t in th e 7 fo r m b ut
c h anges in to th e a fo r m c arrying gra p h i t e ( unst a ble ) an d
ce m en ti t e (s t able)
,

V III

C H AP T E R

C A S T IR O N

bla st-fu rnace p r odu c es d ifferen t gra d es o f p ig

ir on th at are u s u ally n umbere d fr om 1 to 6 al thou g h
th e n umbering sc h e m e varies in d if feren t c ount ries an d
in d ifferent l o c ali t ies in th e sam e c ount ry W h en t he
p r odu c t o f th e blas t fu rnac e h as been m el t e d in a f oun d ry
c upo la o r a reverbera to ry fu rnace cas t in to san d mo l d s
an d c oo le d i t is c alle d c a s t iro n
C as t ir o n u s u ally c o n t ains c arb o n silic o n m anganese,
s ul phu r an d pho spho r u s ; i t s physical p r op er t ies d i ffer
f r om tho se o f pu re ir o n bec a u se o f th e p resenc e an d int er
ac ti on o f th ese s ubst anc es
C arb o n is u s u ally p resen t in cas t ir o n in t w o fo r m s :
(a) as pu re c arb on in th e fo r m o f d is t rib ut e d cryst als of
graphi t e an d (b) as c om bine d c arb o n in th e fo r m of d is
t rib ut e d cryst als of ce m ent i t e F 8 30 Th ese fo r m s are
us u ally calle d graphi te an d c o m b in e d c arb o n
C em e n ti te is an in t ensely h ar d an d very bri tt le s u b
s t ance an d th e in u enc e upo n ir o n o f a very sm all p r opo r
t i on o f c arb o n in th is fo r m is very great Th is i s par t ly
du e to th e f ac t th at a s m all weig ht O f carb o n m akes a
large weig ht o f F 8 30
T aking th e atom ic weig ht o f c arb on
as 1 2 an d of ir o n as 5 6 th e rat i o o f weig ht o f c e m ent i t e
56 x 3)
12
(
to th e c ont aine d carb o n eq u als
1 5 h enc e
T

HE

12

ir o n th a t h as o ne p er cent by weig ht o f c om bine d c arb on

m ay really h ave 15 p er c en t by we ig h t of F esC
S ince
.

12 1

MA TE RIALS O F MACHIN E S

12 2

th e sp ecic gravi ty o f I r o n is
an d o f F e3C is
it
fo ll o ws th at th e volu m e o f F 6 30 i n t h e c as e j u s t ci t e d is
p er cent
P ercen t ages b y we i g ht and b y v o l um e o f F e3C in ir o n
wi th varying carb o n m ay be t ab ul at e d as fo ll o ws :
.

Th ese val u es res ul t f r om th e assu mpt i o n th a t only ir on

an d carb o n are p resent an d th ey w oul d o f c ou rse be mod i
ed in th e case o f ac tu al cas t ir o n ; b u t th ey s ho w ho w
great an in u enc e a s m all a moun t o f c om bine d carb o n
m ay h ave o n cast ir o n
S inc e c e m en t i t e is h ar d an d bri tt le i t s p resence in large
p r opo r t i o n gives si m ilar q u ali t ies to cas t ir o n I n f ac t
W h i t e c as t ir o n , in w h ic h carb o n is c h ie y in th e c om bine d
s t at e is w eak in t ensi on thou g h st r o ng in c o m pr essI O n ;
i t is s o h ar d th at i t can only be m ac h ine d by grin d ing ;
i t is als o bri tt le th at is i t h as very l o w du c t ili ty an d
resilience ; b ut i t h as grea t resist ance to wear an d h ence

i t is p r odu c e d by c h illing in th e su r f aces o f r o lls f o r

r o l ling s t eel an d in th e t rea d s o f cas t ir on car w h eels
Graphi t e is an all ot r op i c fo r m of carb o n an d w h en i t
is p resen t in c as t ir o n i t p r odu c es a gray frac tu re an d int er
r u pt s th e c o n t in ui t y o f th e ir o n s t r u c tu re an d th u s re
du ces th e st rength o f th e ir o n wi th w h i c h i t is ass o cia t ed
C o nversi o n of th e c arb o n of th e F 6 3 0 o f w h i t e cas t ir o n
into th e gra ph i t e o f gray c as t ir o n leaves th e ir o n of th e
F eaC ( w h ic h m ay be a large p r o p o r ti o n o f th e m as s ) in
.

12 3

AS T IR ON

th e a fo r m an d thu s s ubs ti tu t es a du c tile m a terial s t r ong

in t ensi o n fo r a bri tt le o n e ; mo re o ver b oth th e ir o n an d
grap h i t e are s oft an d h ence th e c h ange f r om w h i t e ir o n to
gray i r o n e x ce pt i n e x t re m e cas es is acc omp anie d by in
crease d t ensile s t ren gt h an d du c t ili ty an d s oftness ; th e
c omp ressive s t rength is d ecrease d H en c e m ean s f o r
c o n t r o l o f c ar b o n b e tw een t h e s ta t e s o f c e m en ti t e an d
graphit e are o f gr eat i m po rtan c e
Th e t o t al carb o n in cas t ir o n is al mo st always wi th in
th e li m i t s
p er cen t an d
p er cen t ; th ere fo re in
F ig 2 3 th e lines Q Q I an d H H I b oun d th e cas t -ir o n el d
o n th e eq u ilibri um d iagra m
M o l t en ir o n ass o ciat e d o nly wi th carb o n rea d y fo r
casting w ou l d be re p resent e d by s om e po in t in th e el d
ab o ve q a t ( say ) 2 4 00 F
I f du ring m el ting in c ont ac t
wi th carb o n fu el th e ir o n h a d bec om e satu rat e d wi th car

bo n
as oft en o cc u rs
th e c oo ling po in t w oul d be a t
w an d du ring c oo ling ei th er in th e la d le o r mo l d F e3 C
w ou l d se p arat e an d wi th suf cien t t i m e th e carb o n w ou l d
c h ange to grap h i t e w h ic h w oul d o at as l o ng as th e m ass
re m aine d ui d en ou g h fo r gravi ty to cau se th e se p arat i o n
an d aft erwar d w ou l d be irreg ularly d is t rib ut e d th r oug hout
th e m ass Thu s th e c oo ling po in t w ou l d fo ll o w wD t o D
*
w h ere th e e ut ec t ic
w oul d be fo rm e d an d th is e u t ec tic
w ou l d be mo re o r less un ifo r m ly m i x e d wi th th e g ra ph i t e
th at se p arat e d al ong wD th r ou g h th e F 8 3 0 fo r m D oub t
less als o s om e F 8 30 w o u l d re m ain unc o nvert e d
A s very sl o w c oo ling g o es On th e line P R is reac h e d
w h ere t h e st abili t y o f G an d F e3C int erc h ange an d th ere
is a t en d ency fo r th e graph i t e fo r m e d to t ake up ir o n an d
,

it h
c arbon in li qui d solu tion ch angi ng into c ry stals
o f A (C ) wit h
p er c ent c arbon in soli d s o lu ti on intimatel y as
s o c iat ed w i t h c r ys tal s o f gra phi te c orresp ondi ng t o t h e res i du e o f
th e
p er c ent c ar bon
A

(C )

MATE RIALS O F MACHIN E S

1 24

1800

mHs

T Ha

1000

erce t o f C ar b on
n

F IG

23

to bec om e F 8 30 Th is t en d enc y ho wever i s l e ss if a large

amoun t o f graph i t e is p resen t an d esp ecially i f i t is p resent
in large akes At th e line M S since th is re p resent s th e
l o wes t t e mperatu re a t w h ic h 7 ir o n is s t able 7 (C ) wi th
sl o w c oo ling t en d s t o c h ange into a ir o n an d F egC ; b ut
h ere als o t h e p resence o f graph i t e esp ecially in large
.

CAST IRO N

12 5

akes t en d s to oppo se th e c h ange an d m ay c omp el th e

d ec ompo si ti o n O f 7 ( C ) into a ir o n an d t e mp er graph i t e
I n th is case th e res u l t ing m ass w ill h ave wi th th e a ir o n a
large amou nt of gra ph i t e as akes an d t e mp er graph i t e
an d a relat ively s m all amount of ce m ent i t e I t w o u l d
th ere fo re be a gray ir o n
B u t su ppo se th a t th e c oo ling po in t ins t ea d o f s t ar t ing
f r om w s hou l d st ar t fr om s om e po int 2) c o rrespo n d ing to
3 p er c en t of carb o n an d 2 4 00 F
Th e po in t w o u l d d e
scen d ver t ically to 221 an d fo ll o w l
w i th se p ara t i o n of
s o li d 7 (C ) w h ic h w ou l d be mo re o r less u ni fo r m ly dis
t rib u t e d th r o u g hout th e m ass ; on reac h ing D th e resi d u al
liq u i d w o u l d be d ec ompo se d into th e e u t ec t ic ( as be fo re
int i m at ely ass o ciat e d 7 ( C ) an d G) Th e res ul t ing m ass
th ere fo re w o u l d c o nsist O f e u t ec t ic w i th e x cess o f 7 (C )
an d wi th very sl o w c oo ling in t he absence o f e x cess O f
large ake graph i t e o n reac h ing P R th e graph i t e w ho lly
o r in p ar t w o u l d t ake up ir o n an d bec om e F 6 3 0
H ence
be t ween P R an d M S th e m ass c onsist s of 7 ( C )
F C 3C
s om e graph i t e At M S th e 7 ( C ) is d ec ompo se d (in th e
absence O f large ake gra ph i t e ) i nto a ir o n an d F e3 C
Th is m ass w o u l d h ave large ex cess of F 8 3 0 an d li tt le
graph i t e an d h ence w o u l d be a w h i t e o r lig ht gray ir o n
C h il lin g
Th e c h anges j u s t c o nsi d ere d are a c c o m
l
h
i
s
ed S l o wly an d h ence ra p i d c oo ling m ig ht ren d er th e m
p
inc omp let e w h ile su dd en c oo ling m ig ht su pp ress th e m
ent irely I f mo l t en cast ir o n w ere po u re d into an a mp le
bath of c o l d wat er c oo ling w o u l d be s udd en an d th e c oo le d
ir o n w o u l d h ave a large p r opo rt i o n of i t s carb on in s o l u
t i o n 7 (C ) becau se of lack O f t i m e fo r th e c h ange w h ile
a sm all p r opo r t i o n w oul d be c om bine d in F egC
B e t w een
th is ext re m e o f su dd en c oo ling an d th e oth er ext re m e of
,

T emp er graph ite is graph ite v er y nel y di v ided ; in fa c t it is a

mi cros c o p i c d u s t u niforml y di s trib u ted a s in malleablei z ed c as tings
,

M A TER IALS

126

OF

M ACH INES

very sl o w c oo ling th e c oo ling rat e can be varie d wi th th e

p r odu c t i o n of int er m e d iat e resu l t s
I n cast ing c h ille d car w h eels th e po r t i o n of th e mo l d
th at fo r m s th e t rea d is of ir o n w h ic h c o n d u c t s h eat aw ay
ra p i d ly w h ile th e po r t i o n th at fo r m s th e rest of t he w h eel
is of sand w h ic h c on du c t s h eat away sl o w ly Th u s th e

t rea d is c h ille d and w ith p r op er gra d e o f ir o n c oo ls

w h i t e w h ile th e res t O f th e w h eel is gray wi th an in t er
m e d iat e t erri to ry o f mott le d ir o n Th is gives a w h eel
wi th a very h ar d t rea d to resis t wear a st r o ng w eb an d a
hu b th at is n ot o nly s t r o ng b ut s oft f o r m ac h ining S ee
,

F ig 2 4
.

FIG

24

olin g of cas t ings m a d e in san d mo l d s

varies Th e ra t e O f ou to w o f h eat is p r o p o r t i onal to
th e ext ern al s u rf ac e O f th e cas t ing w h ile th e h eat to be
re move d to effec t c oo ling is p r opo r t i onal to th e vo l um e of
th e cas t ing ; h ence th e rat e O f c oo ling d e p en d s upon th e
rat i o o f su rf ac e to vo lu m e o f th e casting an d i t fo ll ow s
t h a t th ick cast ings c oo l mo re sl o w ly th an th in castings
T he

rat e o f

co

12 7

CAS T IR O N

th e sam e ir o n c ast into th ick an d t h in fo r m s w ou l d

gi ve cast ings O f d ifferen t c ompo si t i o n st r u c t ure an d
p r o p er t ies
I f it is d esire d to acc elera t e c oo ling th e san d o f th e mo l d
w h ic h ac t s as h ea t ins u la t i o n m ay be re mo ve d as s oo n as
th e ir o n is c oo l en ou g h to ho l d i t s fo r m
T h e f o rm o f c arb o n in cas t ir o n m ay be c o n tr o ll e d b y
regu lat i on o f th e qu ant i ties o f oth er s ubs t ances p resent
M an g an e s e is h el d in s o li d s o l ut i o n by ir o n in a w i d e
range o f p r opo r t i o ns ; i t als o m ay c ombine c h e m ically
w h ic h g o es into
w i th carb o n to fo r m a carbi d e M n gC
s o li d s o l ut i o n wi th F esC to fo r m w h a t m ay be calle d
ir on m anganese c arbi d e Th e carbi d e M n gC is h ar d an d
bri tt le an d i t s ass o ciat i on by s o l ut i o n wi th F egC w h ic h
is o nly a li tt le less h ar d an d bri tt le w oul d p res um ably
p r odu ce a c ompoun d with sim ilar q u alit ies w h ic h i t
w ou l d g i ve in less d egree to th e m ass w i th w h i c h i t m ig ht
be ass o ciat e d M o re o ver since th e m anganese mu s t t ake
up carb o n to p r odu ce th e carbi d e i t w oul d re du c e th e
carb o n w h ic h in i t s absenc e w ou l d a pp ear as gra ph i t e ;
thu s gray ir o n w oul d bec om e w h i t er
Autho r it at ive t est s seem to s ho w th a t a dd i t i o n o f m an
ganese t o mi l d st eel increases t ensile s t ren gth an d th a t
du c tili ty thou g h li tt le c h ange d up to
p er cen t is
re du ce d wi th fu r th er a dd i t i ons o f m anganese u nt il a t
S inc e th ere is a very
2 p er cen t th e st eel is q u i t e bri tt le
s m all amoun t o f carb o n in th is m il d st eel i t is p r obable
th at th ese e ffec t s are du e to m angane s e in s o l uti o n wi th
th e ir o n i t sel f
Wh at ever th e th e o ry m ay b e i t i s c ert ain th at m anga
nese up to 1 p er cen t in cas t ir o n increases st ren gt h an d
p r obably re du c es du c t ili t y and th at in larger a moun t s i t
t end s to c h ange graph it e into c ombine d carb o n
I f s ulphur i s p re s en t in ca s t i r o n i t s fo r m is F es an d
H ence

12 8

MA TE RIALS O F MACHI N E S

i t h as a very d eci d e d t en d ency t o cau se grap h i te t o be c om e

c om bine d carb o n Th is t end ency of s ul phu r is mu c h
great er th an th a t o f an eq ual amoun t o f m anganese t o
p r odu ce th e sam e res u l t W h en m anganese is a dd e d t o a
cas t ir o n c ont aining s u l phu r i t t akes s ul phur f r om th e F eS
to fo r m M n s C onsi d er n o w th ree s ubst ances : (a) ir o n
su l ph i d e (b) m anganese s ul ph i d e (0 ) ir o n m anganese car
bi d e (a) h as great es t po wer to c o nver t graph i t e in to
c ombine d carb o n ; ( 0 ) is ne xt in o r d er an d (b) h as leas t
po wer to p r od u ce th is resu l t Wi th a given a moun t of
F eS p resen t th e a dd i t i o n o f m anganese in a moun t th a t
w ou l d j u s t t ake all s u l ph u r to fo r m M n S w ou l d c o nvert
a s ubs t ance F eS wi th great po wer t o m ake gray ir o n
w h i t e in to a s ubs t anc e M n s wi th s m all po wer fo r th is
res ul t ; an d thu s th e graph i t e w oul d in c r e a s e a t th e e x
p ense o f c ombine d carb o n an d th e ir o n w oul d bec om e
grayer F u r th er increase in m anganese w oul d n o w p r o
du ce an increasing a moun t of ir on m anganese carbi d e
w i th increasing t en d ency to m ake th e gray ir o n w h i t e
unt il nally th is t en d ency w oul d j u s t eq u al th at o f th e
s u l phu r be fo re any m anganese was a dd e d an d furt h er
increase w ou l d m ake th e ir o n w h i t er s t ill O bvi ously
th e li m i t s o f th is reverse d ac ti o n d e p en d o n th e amoun t
Wi th n o s ul phu r th e eff ec t o f in c reas
o f s u l phu r p resen t
ing amoun t o f m anganese w ou l d be increasing t en d ency
to w h i t en th e ir o n ; w h ere as w h en s u l phu r is p resent th e
e ffec t o f increasing a moun t o f m anganese w ou l d be rs t
to ne ut rali z e th e s ul phu r wi th increasing grayness o f th e
ir o n an d th en to tu rn th e gray ir o n w h i t er Th is e x
plains w hy a s m all a dd i ti o n o f f err omanganese to mo l t en
s ul p hu r ir on m ay ac t as a s oft ener S ul phu r is un d esirable
in cast ir on cau sing h ar dness weakness an d bri tt leness ;
i t s houl d n ot e x cee d
p er cen t an d thu s i t s ho u l d n ot
be us e d as a m eans f o r regulati o n o f th e s t a te o f car b o n
.

12 9

AS T IRO N

th e oth er h an d wi thin li m it s h as a d esir

upo n s t rengt h an d h enc e m ay be u se d t o reg

M anganese ,

on

ble eec t
n lat e carb o n
S il i c o n is h el d in s o li d s o l ut i o n by 0 :ir o n up t o ab out
2 p er cen t an d up to th is li m i t i t see m s to increase th e
s t ren gth an d to re du c e d u c t ili t y of ir o n ; bey o n d th is li m i t
F 8 281 fo r m s in increasing a mount an d th e p resence of
th is sili ci d e re du c es s t rength , du c t ili ty an d s ho ck resist
ance o f c as t ir o n S ilic o n als o t en d s to re du ce ir o n o xi d e
to re mo ve gas th at c au ses po r o si ty an d to increase th e
ui di ty o f th e mo l t en ir on s o th at s t r o nger d enser an d
s h arp er cas tings are p r odu ce d S il i c o n al s o ten d s t o
f o rc e c arb o n fr o m t h e c o m b in e d t o t h e graph i tic f o rm ,
o r t o m ak e ir o n gr ay er
P o ssibly silic o n th a t fo r m s F C gS i
t akes th e ir o n f o r th is pu r po se fr om F 8 30 thu s leaving
th e carb o n to t ake gra ph i t ic fo r m O bvi ou sly silic o n
w oul d t en d to ne ut rali z e th e e ff ec t o f m anganese an d
s u l phu r t o m ake ir o n w h i t er
F err o silic o n as h ig h silic o n p ig ir o n is calle d is n o w o n
th e m arke t an d i t s u se in th e foun d ry c upo la c h arge gives
c ont r o l o f th e silic o n in c as tings an d thu s wi th in li m i t s
gi ves c ont r o l o f th e st at e o f th e carb o n in th e cas t ir o n
T o d e t er m ine th e eff ec t o f a varying p r opo r t i o n o f silic o n
upo n cast ir o n Pr ofess o r Thom as Tu rner m a d e a series

o f exp eri m en t s w h ic h were re po r t e d u n d er th e t i t le

In
in th e
uen c e o f S ilic o n o n th e Pr op er t ies o f C as t I r o n
J ou rna l of the C hemic a l S oc iety in 188 5 H e u se d ir o n
wi th as nearly as p o ssible 2 p er c ent carb o n an d wi th
s ul phur pho spho r u s an d m anganese q u i t e lo w an d by
int r odu cing ferr o silic o n h e was able to p r odu ce t es t
pieces wi th d esire d p r opo r t i o ns o f silic o n Th ese were
t est e d an d resul t s in t ensile an d c omp ressive s t rength
an d h ar d ness are p l ott e d in F ig 25
Pr o gre s s f r om 0 to war d t h e rig h t , wi th increa sin g
a

1 30

A TE RIALS O F MACHINE S

t ens ile st rength an d d ecreasing h ar dness p r obably c o r

resp o n d s to t h e c ombine d e ff ec t o f s o l ut i o n o f silica in
i r on an d th e inu enc e o f fo r m at i o n o f F e2S i t o
gr ap h i t e a t th e e xp ense o f c ombine d carb on
,

H
C
N

E
R

A
U

Q
S
R
E
P
S

D
N
U

O
P

D
N

O
H
T

F I G 25
.

10

s w oo u

A s h as alrea dy b een st at e d w h i t e ir on i s st r on ger in

c omp ressi on th an gray ir o n an d h ence th e c omp ressi o n
c urve s houl d f all f r om th e st art w h ereas i t rises up to
p er cent Th is m ay be du e to th e d irec t ao
ab out
ti o n o f t h e silic on upon th e ir on o r to th e f ac t th at sm all
amount s o f silic o n t en d to re du ce th e po r o si ty th at is
c ommo n in w h i t e cast ir o n an d t o gi ve s oun d er an d
henc e s t r o ng er c a stin gs
,

13 1

AST IRO N

I t i s clear fr om th ese t e st s th at by varyi ng th e silic on

c o n t en t i t is p o ssible to c o n t r o l very m at erially th e ph ysi
I t w ou l d be very h el pfu l to
c al p r op er t ies o f c as t ir o n
kn o w w h at th e e ffec t O f increasing silic o n w ou l d be wi th
t h e t o t al carb on h i g h er th an 2 p er cen t t o c o rrespo n d
mo re nearly t o f oun d ry p rac t ice
P ho s ph oru s p r o bably g o es in t o s o l i d s o l ut i o n in i r o n
i n amount s s u c h as are u s u ally p resen t in st eel ; b ut as i t
increases to th e val ues c ommo n in cas t ir o n a large p ar t
o f i t bec om es F egP
P ho spho r u s m ay a ff ec t cas t ir o n in
th ree ways : (a) d irec t ly by s o l ut i o n in th e ir o n ; (b) in d i
r e c t ly by i t s po wer to ca u se gra ph i t e to bec om e c om bine d
carb o n ; ( c) in d irec t ly beca u se i t s p resence ca u ses c oo ling
ir o n to p ass th r ou g h a p asty s t at e thu s d elaying so lidi
cat i on Th is d elay m akes i t po ssible fo r t en d encies th a t
a re ac t ive in t h e c oo ling m ass to p r odu ce mo re c omp le t e
res ul t s Thu s wi th h ig h silic o n th e p resence o f pho s
h
o
r
u
s
by
d
elaying
s
o
li
d
ica
t
i
o
n
m
ig
ht
enable
th
e
p
silic on to p r odu ce a larger p r opo r t i o n o f graph i t e t hu s
giving a s oft er i r o n st r o n g er in t ensi o n in s p i t e o f th e o p
i
t
f
o
s
e
e
f ec t o f th e p ho sp ho r u s i t sel f O bvi ou sly th e re
p
su lt an t e ff ec t w ou l d d e p en d o n th e rela t ive a mou n t s o f
th e silic o n an d pho spho r u s p resent an d wi th l o w silic o n
an d h ig h p ho sp ho r u s th e e ffec t w oul d u n dou b t e d ly be to
w h i t en t h e ir o n (a) an d (b) p r odu ce h ar mf ul increase in
h ar d ness an d br itt leness ; (c) i n th e p resence o f silic o n
m ay p r odu ce a d esirable i ncrease in s t rength an d s oft
ness A gain w h at ever th e o ry m ay be rig ht i t is a f ac t
th at al t hou g h pho spho r u s is a very d e t ri m ent al c o n st it u
en t in st eel i t is n ot h ar mfu l in cas t ir o n O ft en being
p resen t up to
p er cen t P ho spho r u s is u se fu l in cas t
ir o n becau se i t increases th e ui d i t y o f t h e mo l t en m ass
s o t h at s h arp cast ings can be m a d e wit h l o wer cast ing
t e mp era t u re
.

132

A TE RIALS O F MACHIN ES

Th ere is an oth er m e thod o f car b o n

c ont r o l th a t give s e x cellen t c as tings I n c ase o f c as t ir on
wi th l o w tot al c arb o n if all o r nearly all o f th e carb o n
c o u l d be c au se d t o app ear as very n ely d ivid e d grap hi t e
like t e mp er graph i t e in m alleablei z e d cast ings
th ere
w ou l d be very l o w ce m enti t e an d relat ively sm all int er
f erence wi th th e c on t in ui ty o f th e ir o n by th e graph i t e
an d h ence th e ir o n w oul d be s t r o ng an d soft
I n m any foun d ries i t is n o w c u s tom ary t o intr odu ce
wi th th e reg ular c upo la c h arge ab out 2 5 p er cent o f s t eel
scra p w h ic h m i x es wi th th e cas t ir o n an d m el t s N e
l
t
i
n
th
e
c
arb
o
n
of
th
e
s
t
eel
an
d
a
s
s
u
m
ing
th
e
tot
al
e
c
g
g
carb o n o f th e res t o f th e c h arge t o be 4 p er cent i t fo ll o ws
th at th e t ot al carb o n w oul d be re du ced by d il ut i o n t o
O r in F ig 2 3 th e s t art ing po in t o f c oo ling
3 p er c en t
w o u l d be mo ve d f r om s to
C oo ling sl o wly f r om v wi th
o nly carb o n an d ir o n p resen t w o u l d give a w h i t e ir on
A dd i ti o n of s u l phu r pho s pho r u s an d m anganese in c u s
t o m ary a mou n t s w o u l d leave th e ir o n s t ill w hi t e ; bu t
a dd i t i o n o f silic o n in s ufcien t q u ant i ty c oul d cau se mo s t
o f th e carb o n to a pp ear as nely d ivi d e d gra p h i t e ( since
th e tot al carb o n is l o w ) gi ving a s oft st r ong ir o n I t is
int erest ing to n ot e th a t th ere is a po ssible i d eal relat i o n
O f q u anti ty of th ese s ubst ances ; vi z wit h a cert ain n ec es
sary amoun t of s ul phu r th ere s houl d be en ou g h m anga
nese to c o nver t all o f th e F es to M n S
Th e tot al carb o n
s houl d be ke pt l o w en oug h by d il ut i o n s o t h at w h en th e
great est po ssible p r o p o rti o n is c o nvert e d in to graph i t e
i t s h all app ear as very ne g rains i ns t ea d o f as akes
Th e amoun t o f silic o n s houl d be s ufcien t t o p r o vi d e fo r
th e uxin g th a t re mo ves ir o n oxi d e c omp le t ely and p re
vent s po r o si ty an d als o b y s o l ut i o n o r c h e m ical c ombi
nat i o n to cau se th e m ax i mum c h ange of c ombine d carb o n
in t o nel y d ivi d e d grap h i t e Th ere s hou l d be j us t en oug h
S e mi-s t e el

13 3

AST IR ON

p ho spho r u s t o d elay s o li d icat i o n f o r th e silic o n t o p r odu ce

i t s bes t res ul t wi thou t t o o grea t p ho s p ho r u s eff ec t o n
carb o n an d ir o n I t w o u l d p r o bably be i mpo ssible to
p r odu c e th is i d eal res u l t b ut i t is t r u e th a t th e so calle d
se m i st eel O ft en h as t ensile st ren gth ab o ve
p oun d s
p er s q u are inc h to g e th er wi th cl o se grain an d g ood wear
ing resist ance an d softness f o r easy m ac h ining
A lu min u m i n t r odu ce d i n t o mo l t en cas t ir o n p r odu ces
t w o resul t s A p ar t c ombines with ox ygen to fo r m al u
m ina t hu s re du cing u n d esirable O xi d e o f ir o n an d abs o rb
ing gas th a t w ou l d cau se p o r o si ty Th e al um ina thu s
fo r m e d c ombines w i th oth er wast e an d fo r m s ei th er a
fu sible slag o r an i nf u sible cr u s t w h i c h is re mo ve d A n
oth er p ar t o f th e al um in um
i f th ere is an e x cess
m ay
c ombine wi th th e i r o n an d w h en i t do es as s ho wn by
*
i t s in u ence upo n th e d ist rib ut i o n of
M r J W K ee p
carb o n is si m ilar to th at of silic o n B ut al thou g h f err o
al um in um is o n th e m arke t i t is n ot u se d as a s oft ener o f
cast ir o n bec au se i t is mo re e xp ensive th an f err o silic o n
w h i c h p r odu ces th e sam e resu l t ; mo re o ver w h en al u
min um is u se d a skin th at fo r m s o n th e su r f ace of th e

mo l t en i r o n t end s t o cau se c o l d s hut s an d d ef ect ive

cast ing su r faces
M all e ab l e c a s t ir o n
Th e o ry o f m allif y in g p r o cess
fo r p r odu c ti o n of m alleable cas t ir o n
A n average c ompo si t i o n Of cas t ings f o r m allif y in g i s as
fo ll o ws :
Per c ent
Tot al carb o n
S ilic o n
M anganese
P ho s pho r u s
S u l phu r u n d er
See T ransactio ns A m I ns t M i n i n g E n gineers Vo l XV III
.

10 2

1 34

MATE RIALS O F MAC HIN E S

Th ese cast ings wi th l o w carb o n l o w silic o n an d relati vely

h ig h m anganese an d pho s pho r u s an d wi th th e relat ively
q u ick c oo ling w h ic h c o rrespo n d s to m alleable ir o n foun d ry
p rac t ic e ho l d all carb on in th e c om bine d s t at e ; th at is
t h e cast ing f rac tu res w h i t e I n th e m allif yin g p r o cess th e
castings p acke d in ir o n oxi d e o r oth er m at erial are raise d
to a t e mp eratu re o f fr om 1 5 00 t o 1600 F Th is brings
th e m into th e l o wer p o r t i o n of th e el d ( F ig 2 3 ) b oun d e d
by th e lines Q Q I H E ; an d B F P R w h ere graph i t e is
s t able an d w h ere F e3C is uns t able I n p assing th e line
O S up war d th e or ir o n c h anges into 7 ir o n an d t akes carb o n
i nto s o l u t i o n to fo r m 7 ( C ) ; b ut th e amo u n t O f carb o n
available is sm all sinc e F e3C is s t able in th is el d an d
h ence p r o bably 7 ( C ) ho l d s less th an 1 p er cent o f carb o n
in s o l ut i o n Th e c ast ings are h el d in th e el d ab o ve P R
f o r ab o u t 60 hou rs an d th is t i m e is s ufcien t f o r th e
s t abili ty t en d encies to reac h equ ilibri u m an d mo s t O f th e
F e3C gives up i t s carb o n to fo r m t e mp er gra ph i t e wh ic h
*
a pp ears as u ni fo r m ly d ist rib u t e d m icr o sc op i c du s t
Th e
ir o n thu s is o lat e d in th is el d by d'
ec ompo si t i o n o f F 9 3 0
is in th e 7 fo r m an d i t t akes silic o n an d carb o n into s o l u
t i o n fo r m ing 7 (S i C ) I f n o silic on were p resen t 7 ( C )
w oul d be fo r m e d b ut w h en silic on is p resen t i t cr o w d s out
an d re p lac es a p ar t o f th e c arb o n o f 7 ( C ) giving 7 (S i C )
H ence th e grea t er th e a mou n t o f silic o n wi th in li m i t s th e
great er th e a moun t of carb o n th a t app ears as t e mp er
gra ph i t e Th e res u l t th ere fo re O f ho l d ing th e cast ings
in th is el d is p r odu c t i o n o f 7 (S i C ) wi th l o w carb on
ass o ciat e d wi th t e mp er graph i t e and un doub t e d ly wi th
a s m all amoun t o f unc h ange d F 8 30
,

Probab ly

t h e c arbon tak es t h is form h ere be c au s e t h e mass is

res is tant to th e migration of t h e c arbon W h en t h e eu te c ti c is formed
at D t h e s o lidify ing mass being l ess resistant p ermits th e sep arat ing
gra ph ite to migrate t hro ug h t h e mass and to u nite into gra phi t e
a k es
.

13 5

AS T IR ON

W h en th e s l o w c oo ling t akes p lace o n passm g US th e

a ir o n
c
h
anges
back
releasing
t
o
i
S
C
ir
o
n
of
th
e
7
7 (
)
th e carb o n b ut ho l d ing th e silic o n in s o li d s o l ut i o n a
Th e release d carb o n in th e p resence o f th e a (S i) an d o f
th e t e mp er gra ph i t e alrea d y fo r m e d is fo rce d in oppo si t i on
to th e eq u ilibri um t end ency of th is el d to bec om e t e mp er
graph i t e and thu s th e m a llif y in g p r o c ess is c omp le t e and
th e c oo le d cast ings are s t r o ng an d d u c t ile wi th a f rac tu re
th a t is blac k wi th t e mp er gra ph it e w i th a th in w h i t e skin
Th e reas o ning given app lies o nly to th e Int eri o r po rt i o n
o f th e c as t ings since th e w h i t e skin th a t is fo r m e d o n th e
cast ings du ring m allif y in g h as i t s tot a l c arb on n ot ably
re du ce d by ox i d at i o n ei th er by th e oxy gen o f th e air
t rapp e d in th e p acking o r by th e oxygen o f th e oxi d e
p acking i t sel f th u s bec om ing a skin o f s om e th ing like
m il d s t eel Th e d u c t ilit y of th is skin is of grea t i mpo r
t anc e in th e m alleable cas t ings an d i t s re mo val sensibly
d i minis h es th eir val u e as s t ress m e mbers O f m ac h ines ;
h ence th e st ress p art s of m alleable cast ings are s el dom
m ac h ine d

Th e w h i t e h ear t m alleable cas tings o f E nglan d an d

th e c ont inent of E u r op e c o nsis t of lig ht o r very th in cast
ings th at are al mo s t c omp le t ely d ecarb oni z e d like th e skin

o f th e A m erican
black h ear t c ast ings by h ig h er m alli
f y in g t e mp era t u re an d e xt ensi o n of th e t i m e o f m allif y
I ng

S hrin kag e
W h en mo l t en cas t ir o n i s po u re d in to
a mo l d i t t akes th e fo r m of th e mo l d an d c oo ls gra d u ally
to th e t e m pe ratu re o f th e su rr oun d ing air S h rinkage
w h ic h acc omp anies c oo ling m ay be d ivi d e d into ui d
s h rinkage an d s o li d s h rinkage
A s th e mo l t en ir o n in th e mo l d a ft er cast ing begins t o

c oo l i t s h rinks in v o l um e Th is s h rinkage m ay be fe d
,

Some sil i c on

is

als o i n s olid s ol u tion w it h t h e rema i ning

F 8 30

136

MA TE RIALS O F MACHIN ES

f r om a riser

unt il th e c onnec ti o n is f r o z en u p Th e
walls o f t he c ast ing s o li d i fy b u t at rs t are w eak an d
yiel d to th e s h rinkage o f th e st ill ui d ir o n w ith in th e
casting ; i f th e v o l um e O f th e cast ing is large d e p ressi ons
in th e walls resu l t L at er th e walls bec om e rigi d en ou g h
to resist s h rinkage O f th e rem aining u i d w i th in an d
sinc e th e v o l um e c ann ot be re d u c e d fu rth er po r t i ons of
th e m ass p u ll ap ar t an d th e cast ing bec om es spongy A
spongy cr o ss sec t i o n is nec essarily w eaker th an o n e O f
s o li d ir on an d is th ere fo re u n d esirable in a m ac h ine
s t ress m e m ber E vi d en t ly th e t en d ency t o fo r m spongy
ir o n becau se o f unsu pp lie d u i d sh rinkage increases wi th
th e v o l um e o f th e c as ting
E xp erienc e po in t s to th e c oncl u si o n th a t cast ings of
s m all cr o ss sec ti on s h rink mo re th an tho se of large cr o ss
sec t i on To t est th is c oncl u sion M r Thom as D Wes t
m a d e an e xp eri m en t w h ic h h e d escribes in h is b oo k

A m erican F o u n d ry P rac t ic e
H e cas t t w o bars 1 4
f ee t l ong f r om th e sam e ir on an d as f ar as po ssible m ad e
th e c on d i t i ons O f cast ing th e sam e fo r b oth Th e cr o ss
sec t i ons w ere rec t angu lar one being 4 inc h es by 9 inc h es
an d th e oth er inc h by 2 inc h es Th e tot al s h ri n kage
fo r th e larger bar was inc h an d fo r th e sm aller one was
Th is m ay po ssibly be exp laine d as fo ll o ws
1 % inc h es
as M r Wes t s u gges t s : A cast ing c oo ls fr om th e su r face
an d th ere fo re d u ring th e c oo ling th e su r f ac e will be th e
c oo les t p ar t an d th e h eat w ill increase to w ar d th e cent er
Th e ext ernal po r t i ons are h el d f r om th eir n o r m al s h rin kag e
,

A riser is formed b y mak ing a v ert i c al cy lindri c al O p ening

in th e sand w h i ch c onne c ts w it h th e main p ortion o f th e mold
Th e molten iron du ring p o uring ri s es in t h is cylindri c al o p ening to
form t h e ris er I f t h e ri s er is large in p ro p ortion to t h e c asting it
remains ui d f o r some time and a c ts as a res erv oir to s upp ly u id
M olten iron from a la dle ma y be fed in to maintain
s h rin k age
th e le v el in t h e r iser

13 7

CAS T IR O N

by th e resis t anc e O f th e hott er int ernal p o r ti ons w h ic h

are n o t ye t rea d y to s h rink as m u c h Th is g o es o n u n til
th e su r fac e h as reac h e d th e t emp era tu re of th e su rr oun d
ing air an d s to p s s h rinking ; th e hott er po r ti ons nearer
th e cent er n o w t ry to s h rink as th ey in t u rn c oo l do wn
b ut are p revent e d by th e e xt ernal p ar t w h ic h h as s topp e d
s h rinking o r i t m ay be th at sinc e th e th icker po r t i o n
c oo ls mo re sl o wly th an th e th inner po r t i o n i t will be grayer
an d th e fo r m at i o n o f graph i t e re du ces th e natu ral s h rink
age O f th e ir o n W h at ever th e o ry is c o rrec t th e f ac t
rem ains th at castings o f sm all sec ti o n s h rink mo re th an
c ast ings of large sec t i o n I t fo ll o ws th at castings h aving
th ick an d th in p ar t s att ac h e d to eac h oth er will s h rink
uneq u ally an d be in a s t a t e o f in t ernal s t ress w h i c h
ren d ers th e m less able to wi th st an d th e ac t i on of ext ernal
fo rces
S uppo se i t is req u ire d to p ut a st reng th ening rib B o n A
F ig 2 6 ( a ) an d th at i t is m a d e of th e fo r m s ho wn i e
th in relat ively to A an d h aving p arallel si d es B w oul d
s h rink mo re th an A an d s h rinkage s t resses (t ensi o n in
B an d c omp ressi o n in A ) w o u l d res u l t w h ic h w o u l d be
c oncent rat e d al ong th e j unc tu re o f A an d B , an d yiel d
ing w ou l d o ccu r u n d er a less e xt ernal fo rc e I f th e fo r m
s ho wn in (b) w ere u se d w h ere th e rib t ap ers f r om th e
th ickness o f B t o th e th ickness o f A th e s h rinkage st resses
w ou l d be d is t rib ut e d an d th e cast ing w oul d be s t r o nger
Th e less o ns to be learne d f r om th ese f ac t s are as fo ll o w s :
( 1) A ll p ar t s of all cr o ss sec t i o ns o f c ast ings fo r m ac h ine
m e mbers s hou l d be as nearly o f th e sam e th i ckness as
po ssible to av o i d c o ncent ra t e d s h rinkage st resses wi th
th eir ac c omp anying weakness (2) I f i t is necessary to
h ave th ick an d th in p ar t s in th e sa m e cast ing c h ange o f
fo r m f r om o n e to th e oth er s ho u l d be as gra d u al as po ssible
as
t
ings
s
hou
l
d
be
m
a
d
e
as
th
in
as
is
c
o
nsis
t
en
t
w
it
h
3
C
)
(
,

138

ATE RIALS O F MACHIN ES

s t ren gth st iff ness an d resis t anc e t o vibrat i on t o av o i d

th e s h rinkage s t resses an d s po ngy m e t al d u e t o th e s h rink
age O f large m asses ( 4 ) S inc e s om e s h rinkage s t resses
always mu s t e x is t i n cas t m ac h ine m e m bers t h e y s hou l d
be t aken into ac c oun t in d esigning
S p ecial c are s hou l d be t aken in th e d esi gn o f w h eels
becau se th ey are p ec u liarly liable to ex cessive s h rinkage
s t ress o n acc oun t o f th eir fo r m I n a pu lley th e th in
ri m t en d s to s h rink mo re th an th e h eavier arm s an d th e
ri m is th ereby p ut in t ensi o n an d th e ar m s i n c omp ress i on
I t is n o t unc ommon to see a ri m r u p tu red in th is way
I f th e sam e p ulley h as a relat ively h eavy hub th e latt er
will re m ain u i d unt il th e ar m s an d ri m h ave so li d i e d ;
th e t ensi o n o n th e ri m will th en fo rce th e ar m s into th e
ye t ui d hu b w h ic h in tu rn s h rinking will pu t th e arm s
in t ensi o n Th e ar m s o f y-w h eels t en d t o s h rink away
f r om th e h eav 1er ri m an d are th ere fo re in t ensi on
W h i t e ir o n s h rink s mo re th an gray ir o n an d th e reas o n
is Obvi ou s W h en gra ph i t e is fo r m ed fr om th e 7 ( C ) o r
F esC a s u bs t anc e o f l o w d ensi t y re p laces a s ubs t ance o f
h ig h d ensi ty an d th e v o l um e o f th e m ass is th ereby in
crease d
T A B L E O F D E N S I T IE S O F D I F F E R E N T G R A D E S O F C A S T I R O N
,

Gr a

e of

iron
Wh i te c a s t I ron
M ottled c a s t I ron
Lig h t gra y c a s t iron
D ar k gra y c a s t iron
P u re

g ra v i t y

Sp

ec i c

i ro n

A b ri

dg d
e

( M c Gra w -H i

ll

f ro m

T he M

t ll

e a

ur

gy

7 35
.

of

I ro n

an d

t l
ee

b y B ra

dl

ey

t g ht
ou

on

Boo k

Th e w h i t e cast ings f o r m allif yin g s h rink mo re th an gray

c as t ings ; b ut du ring m allif yin g as a res u l t of th e a pp ear
,

1 39

CAS T IR ON

ance o f lo w-d ensi ty graph i t e th e c as tings e xp an d Th e

resu l t an t s h rinkage du e to th e en tire p r o cess fo r p r odu c ti o n
o f m alleable c as t ir o n is abo ut th e sa m e as th e s h rinkage
o f gray cas t ings
E e c t o f in t ern al s t r e s s u po n t h e s tren gt h o f c a s t

in g s
S uppo se th a t a cas t ing is m a d e of th e cr o ss
sec ti onal fo r m sho wn in F ig 2 6 ( a ) Th e p ar t B t en d s to
s h rink mo re th an A an d th ere fo re B is p ut in t ensi o n
an d A is put in c omp ressi on W h ere th ere is c omp ressive
s t ress an d t ensile fo rc e is a pp lie d th e rs t e ff ec t is th e
.

(a )

F IG

26

re du c ti on o f th e c omp ressive s t ress t o z er o N o t ensile

st ress can be in du ce d un t il th e c omp ressive s t ress is en t irely
ne ut rali z e d I f a t ensile fo rce is app lie d to th e cast ing
u
a
i
t
fo
ll
o
ws
th
a
t
n
o
t
ensile
s
t
ress
will
res
l t in
F
i
2
6
( )
g
th e p ar t A an d th ere fo re th at all th e s t ress will be c o n
To ill u st ra t e th is s uppo se th a t
c en t r at e d o n th e p ar t B
a t ensile fo rc e is ap p lie d t o a r op e an d th at h al f o f th e
s t ran d s are t ig h t an d th e oth er h al f are slack S t ress
will res ul t in th e st ran d s w h ic h are t ig ht un t il th ey are
s t raine d s o mu c h th at th e oth ers are br ou g ht in to p lay
an d t h en th e t ensi o n i s s u st aine d by th e w ho le cr o ss
sec t i o n p r ovi d e d th e st ran d s o riginally t ig ht are n ot
br o k en I n th e cast ing th e p ar t B s u s t ains t h e st ress
unt il th e c omp ressi on in A is ne ut rali z e d an d i t s t ensile
resist ance is br ou g ht into p lay B ecau se o f th is th e uni t
st ress ( s t ress p er uni t o f cr o ss sec t i o nal area s u st aining
th e s t ress) is very grea t in th e early p art o f th e t est an d
t h e d e fo r m at i o n h aving a p r opo rt i onat e val u e is als o
.

MA TE RIALS O F MACHIN E S

14 0

mu c h grea t er th an i t w ou l d be i f th e w ho le area o f cr o ss
sec t i on s u s t aine d th e st re ss Th e s tress d e fo r m ati o n
d iagram th ere fo re t akes th e fo r m sho wn in F ig 2 7 ; th e
ini t ial p ar t of th e c u rve re p resenting th e c oncen t ra ti on
o f s t ress o n s om e f rac t i on of th e cr o ss sec t i o nal area
I f th e s t ress had been gradu ally r e
liev ed a t A th e c u rve w ou l d h ave
re turne d o ver A B an d 0 B w ou l d be

th e p er m anen t d e fo r m ati on o r se t
I f th e int ernal st ress in B F ig 2 6
h ad been su f cien t ly grea t i t m ig ht
h ave been ru ptu re d be fo re th e t en sile
resist ance o f A c ou l d be br ou ght in to
ac t i on I n any c ase th e p iece c ou l d
n o t s u s t ain as grea t e xt ernal fo rce as
F IG 2 7
i f th ere h a d been n o int ernal s t ress
b ecau se th ere w o u l d be n o t i m e dur ing th e app licati on O f
fo rce w h en th e w ho le area of cr o ss sec t i o n w ou l d O ffer resis t
ance wi tho u t s om e p ar t h aving been p revi ou sly we ak ene d
A vari e d q u ali ty o f pr o d u c t is req u ire d f r om a fou n d ry
Th e mo s t i mpo r t an t req uire m en t fo r s om e cast ings th a t
are n ot s ubj ec t e d to any c onsi d erable st ress is th at th ey

s h all r u n s h ar p
th at is th at th ey s h all t ake an d ret ain
th e fo r m o f th e mo l d ac c u rat ely A very gray silic on
ir o n wi th it s l o w s h rinkage an d wi th pho spho r u s en ou g h
to give ui d i ty a t cast ing t e mp eratu re w ou l d serve
O th er c as t ings req u ire to be as s t r o ng as po ssible in
t ensi o n b ecau se tho u g h cast ir on is sel dom u se d in d irec t
t ensi on m ac h ine m e mbers are oft en s ubj ec t e d to ben d ing
fo rces w h ic h ca u se b oth t ensile an d c omp ressive s t ress
S t ill oth er cas t ings req uire great c omp ressive s t rength o r
great c omp ressive s ho ck resist ing cap aci ty ; as fo r in
st ance anvil bl o cks fo r po w er h a mm ers
Pr ofess o r Thom as Tu rner in a p a p er in th e T rans
-

14 1

CAS T IR ON

f the I ron an d S teel I n stitu te 18 8 5 rec o r d e d a

stud y o f all available d at a to d e t er m ine t h e b es t c o m p o s i
ti on o f cas t ir o n fo r gi ven req uire m ent s Th is s t ud y
see m s to in d icat e th a t f o r great es t s oftness c om bine d
carb on s hou l d eq u al
p er c en t gra ph i t e
p er cen t
T o o b t ain th is d is t rib ut i o n wi th oth er s ubs t ances O f
average val u es req u ires
p er c en t silic o n F o r great
es t general an d t ensile s t rength c om bine d carb o n s hou l d
eq u al ab out
p er c en t graph i t e f r om
to 3 p er c en t
w h ic h c o rrespo n d s to silic on fr om
to
p er c en t F o r
great es t cr u sh ing s t rength c om bine d carb o n s hou l d be
o ver 1 p er cen t graph i t e un d er
p er cen t w h ic h c o r
respon d s to silic o n ab ou t
p er cen t
I n foun d ry p rac t ic e i t is d esirable to u se a large amoun t

of
scrap ; p ar t ly beca u se sp r u es
gat es
risers
e t c are a necessary p r odu c t o f every h ea t an d p ar t ly
becau se a g ood d eal o f scrap is offere d fo r sale a t a l o w
p ric e Th e effec t o f rem el t ing ir o n is to h ar d en i t an d

th ere fo re scrap is always o f h ar d er gra d e th an th e p ig

f rom w h ic h i t was o riginally cas t
Th e h ar d ening e ffec t o f re m el t ing is very clearly s ho wn
by s om e e xp eri m ent s m a d e a t th e Gleiwi t z fou n d ry in
S ilesia an d q uot e d by M F er d Ga ut ier in a p ap er rea d
be fo re th e I r o n an d S t eel I nst i tut e (see J ou rn al o f
Th e resu l t s are given in t h e fo ll o wing t able :
a c ti o n s

S ub

st

an c e

s W th t h
i

Graph iti c c arbon

C ombined c arbon
T otal c arbon
Sili c on
M angane s e
S u l ph u r
P h o sph or u s

e I ro n

ri

n a pig
i
g

I ro n

1 09
0 04

Af

f o ur
in g

er

st

ca

0 10
.

th

Af

t s i th
s ti g
er

ca

MA TE RIALS O F MACHIN E S

14 2

Thu s th e s ix su c cessive m el t ings res ul t e d in a d ecrease

in th e amoun t o f silic on an d m anganese an d an increase
in th e amoun t o f s u l phu r (Th is latt er p r o bably w as ah
s o rbe d fr om th e fu el ) Graph i ti c c arb on is d ecrease d an d
c om bine d carb o n is i ncrease d ; th ere fo re th e c om bine d
e ffec t o f d ecrease O f silic o n an d increase o f su l phu r was
great er th an th e e ffec t o f th e d ecrease in m anganese Th e
c h ange necessary to c onvert th is again in to s oft gray ir o n
is th e a dd i t i on o f silic on p r o vi d e d th e amoun t o f su l phu r
Th e reas ons fo r th e h ard ening e ffec t
is n ot t o o great
O f re m el ting are : (a) th e re du c ti o n o f th e silic on resu l ting
in th e re d is t rib u ti o n o f c arb on ; (b) th e increase o f su l
phu r O f th e su bs t ances w h i c h are fou nd in c om binati on
wi th ir o n sili c on is rs t ox i d i z e d m anganese being next
in o r d er Th ere fo re w h en ir o n is m el t e d in th e p resence
s om e o f th e silic o n is always oxi d i z e d
o f an air bl as t
an d u s u ally s om e o f th e m anganese I r o n is m el t e d in
th e p resence of anth raci t e c o al o r c o ke an d h ence th ere is
th e po ssibili ty o f abs o r pt i on o f su l phu r I f th e t Ot al
c arb o n is s ufcient ly h ig h th e s oft ening o f ir on can be
acc omp lis h e d very s at is fac to rily by th e a dd i ti on o f a
p r op er a moun t o f f err o silic on w h ic h u su ally c ont ains
ab out 1 0 p er c en t o f silic on B u t i f tot al carb o n is l o w
p ig ir on h ig h in silic o n an d c arb o n w ou l d serve be tt er
becau se i t w oul d c arry a large amoun t o f carb on p er uni t
o f silic o n

is cas t ir o n w hic h h a s been e xpo se d

B u rnt scra p
du r ing u se to th e ac ti on o f oxygen a t h ig h t e mp eratures ;
as fo r inst anc e O ld grat e bars sal t-ke ttles e t c A po r
t i o n o f th e ir on bec om es ir o n oxi d e W h en s u c h ir o n is
m el t e d th e ir o n oxi d e gives up i t s oxygen to th e silic on
m anganese o r carb o n p resent in o be dience to th e law of
a fni ties ; an d th e res ul t s are silic a an d ox i d e of m anganese
s o li d s w h ic h app ear as slag an d th e gas carb o n mo noxi d e
,

,
,

14 3

CAS T IR O N

c arb on d i ox i de Th e re du c ti o n o f th e t o t al c arb o n
will res ul t in h ar d er ir o n an d th e re du c ti o n o f th e silic o n
will res u l t in th e a p p earance o f all th e carb o n p resen t as
c om bine d c arb on Th is res ul t is s o very d eci d e d th a t a

w hole h ea t m ay r un h ar d becau se of th e int r odu c t i o n

o f a c omp ara t ively s m all a mou n t o f

b u rn t scra p
If
th e eec t o f b u rnt scra p is du e si mp ly to th e f ac t th a t
th e silic o n h as been remo ve d by th e oxygen o f th e ir o n
oxi d e th en i f i t were m el t e d to ge th er wi th a s ufcien t
amoun t O f f err o silic on th e resu l t w oul d be gray s oft ir on
B u t th ere m ig ht be ir o n ox i d e en o u g h p resen t to re du c e
th e tot al carb on t o o m u c h ; th en th e silic o n c oul d n ot
p r odu ce gray ir on becau se i t w o u l d n ot h ave en ou g h
carb on to w o rk wi th ; in th is case carb o n as well as sili
c on w oul d h ave to be a dd e d an d p ig ir o n h ig h in carb o n
an d silic o n w oul d serve be tt er th an f err o silic o n
Th e
ir on oxid e w h ic h is seen as r u s t o n th e s u r f ace o f scrap is
e ffec t ive in th e re du c t i on o f silic on e t c u po n m el t ing ;
i t s e ffec t is o f li tt le i mpo r t anc e ho wever as i t is s m all in
amount relat ively I t mu s t n ot be c o ncl ud e d fr om th i s
th a t silic o n will m ake g ood ir o n o u t o f all kin d s o f scra p
S om e scra p i s hop eless bec a u se O f th e p resenc e o f s u l ph u r
o r pho s pho r u s I t mu st be re m e mbere d th at th e a dd i t i o n
o f silic o n to very gray ir o n can p r odu ce n o g
ood res u l t s
b ut rath er th e reverse becau se th e carb o n is alrea d y
graph i tic an d th e o nly e ff ec t of th e a dd i t i o n o f silic o n is i t s
u n d esirable e ff ec t o n t h e ir o n i t sel f

or

C H A PT E R I X
ST EEL

h as been s ho wn th at s t eel is essen tially a c om binati on

o f ir o n an d carb on
w h ic h als o c on t ains sm all amoun t s
m anganese s u l phu r an d pho s pho r u s S t eel
o f silic o n
als o m ay c ont ain oth er su bs t ances su c h as c opp er nickel
c h r om i um tungst en an d vana d i u m ei th er fr om th e sm el t
ing p r o cess o r in t r odu ce d becau se O f d esirable e ff ec t o n
p h ysic al p r op er ties
Th e c h em ic al di eren c e be t ween cas t ir on an d s t eel
is in th e amo u nt p resen t o f s ubst ances oth er th an ir on
Th e fo ll o wing t able gives a c h e mical c omp aris o n o f cas t
ir on th e s t eel u se d in st r u c tu res an d m ac h ines an d too l
st eel
IT

S b st

an ce

C arbon

$3223?
3

Sili c on
M angane s e
S ul ph u r
P h o s ph or u s

0
0
0

to
to
to
to
to

hi
l

gpg i

ac

st ru

n er y a n d

t ee l ,

to
to
to
to
to

ggggz

to
to
to
to
abo u t

Th e c h ange f r om c ast ir o n to m ac h ine st eel is e ffec t e d

by re mo ving by oxi d at i o n all s ubst ances oth er th an ir on
as c omp le t ely as po ssible c omm ercially an d th en re du cing
ir on o xi d e re moving o c cl u d e d gas an d int rodu cing th e
req uire d amount o f carb on Too l st eel is m a d e ind irec tly
fro m cas t ir o n by mo re c omp le t e pu rica ti o n an d in t r o
,

1 44

14 5

S TEE L

du c t i on o f a larger p r o po rt i o n o f carb on S om e o f th e
c h anges in p h ysical p r op er ties th at acc omp any th ese
c h e m ical c h anges m ay be s ho wn by re f erence to F ig 2 8
A D is th e s t ress d e fo r m at i o n d iagra m o f cas t ir o n ; A B 2D2
o f xm a c hin e s t eel ; A B 1D1 o f hi g h carb o n o r t oo l s t eel
C h ang e f r om cast ir o n to m ac hine s t eel h as increase d
.

ul t im at e st rength in th e rat i o

{3
1%

du c tili ty i n th e ra t i o

M 2N

DE

i t h as increase d

i t h as increase d ul t i m at e

area A B zDzE z
s ho ck resist anc e in th e rat i o
i t h as
area A DE
c h ange d a m at erial th a t m ay be easil y fo r m e d by cast ing
into o n e th at i s mu c h mo re d i ff ic u l t to cas t an d th at is
u s u ally fo r m e d by fo rging M o re c omp le t e pu ricat i o n
an d increase in c arb o n w ou l d c h ange m ac h ine st eel into
too l st eel an d st rength w oul d be increase d in th e rat i o
.

M 1N

du c tili ty w oul d be re du ce d in th e ra t i o

A EZ

ul ti m at e s ho c k resist ance w oul d b e c h ange d in t h e rat i o

A B I DI E

Th is last c h ange in s ho ck resist ance m ig ht be

A B zD2E

ei th er an increase o r a d ecrease d e p en d ing o n th e a mount

o f carb o n c h ange
Th e el d o f st eel o n th e equ ilibri um d iagr am F ig 2 9
m ay be ass um e d as limit e d o n th e ri g ht by th e line J J 1
at
p er cent carb on althou g h in sp ecial cases th e carb on
c ont ent is h ig h er L ines o f sl o w c oo ling o f st eel m ay
no w be fo ll o we d o n th is d iagram fr om a 0 1 an d b as on
p age 1 1 3

S o lidi c at io n begi ns a t a2 an d
F irst C o olin g f r om a
is c omp le t e a t C 3 Th e s o li d 7 ( C ) th en f alls in t e mp erature
until a1 is reac h e d w h ere se p arat i o n of B ir o n be gi ns an d
c o n t in u es ca u s in g th e p o int of c oo lin g t o f o llo w a1N t o N
,

14 6

M A TER IALS

OF

M A C H I NES

8
2

14 7

STEEL

At N B ir o n c h anges int o or ir o n an d wi th fur th er c oo lin g

mo re of th e 7 ir o n o f th e re m aining 7 ( C ) c h anges into or
On
ir on cau sing th e po int o f c ooling to fo ll o w N 0 to 0
reac h ing 0 th e m ass c onsist s o f a
7 (C )
(p r o bably)
s om e F 9 30
At 0 th e 7 ( C ) is c h ange d into th e e ut ec t i c
very int im at ely ass o ciat e d cryst als o f or ir o n an d F 8 30
th e m ix ture c ont aini ng
p er cen t carb o n
w h ic h is
a ss o cia t e d less reg u larly an d less int i m a t ely wi th th e or
i r o n th a t h as fo r m e d f r om N to 0 A n y st eel wi th less
th an
p er cent carb o n will h ave th is q u ali t at ive c om
po si t i on b ut th e great er th e p r opo r t i on o f carb o n th e
u
f
rea
t
er
th
e
p
r
opo
r
t
i
o
n
o
e
t
ec
t
ic
in
th
e
c
oo
le
d
s
t
eel
g

Th e c oo ling po int mo v es
S eco n d C o o lin g f rom 0 1
vertically f r om 0 1 to 0 w h ere th e ent ire s o li d m ass
p er cent
c h anges d irec t ly into e ut ec t ic
7 ( C ) wi th
Th is c oo le d s t eel is a homo g ene o u s m ass
F egC ) o 9 c
(a
o f in t i m at ely ass o cia t e d s m all crys t als o f 0 :ir o n an d F 8 3 0
T hird C o olin g f ro m b
Th e c oo ling po int mo ves
th r ou g h b2 an d b3 an d th e m ass bec om es s o li d 7 ( C ) At b1
F e3 C s e p ara t es an d re du c t i o n O f carb o n in 7 ( C ) ca u ses th e
c oo l ing po int to f o ll o w bl 0 w i th c ont inu ance of th e ce m ent
i t e se p arat i o n
O n reac h ing 0 th e m ass c o nsis t s o f
th e 7 ( C ) 09 0 c h anges into eu t ec tic an d
7 ( C ) o g o an d F e3 C
t h e c oole d m ass is m a d e up O f e ut ec tic p l u s F e3 C
S l o w ly
p er cent carb o n c onsist s o f
c oo le d s t eel wi th less th an
S l o w ly c oo le d st eel
a p l u s e ut ec t ic in varying p r opo r t i o n
wi th
p er cent carb o n c onsist s w ho lly o f e ut ec t ic
p er c ent carb o n
S l o w ly c oo le d s t eel wi th mo re th an
c onsist s o f e ut ec t ic p l u s F 8 30 in varying p r opo r t i o ns
sinc e l o w carb o n
R e f erence n o w to F ig 2 8 s ho ws
s t eel is re p resent e d by th e d iagra m A B2D2E 2 an d h ig h
carb o n st eel is re p resent e d by th e d iagra m A B l Dl E l
th at th e p resence o f f erri t e a ir o n in large p r opo r t i on
c o rrespon d s to h ig h du c t ili t y an d m e d i um t ensile st rengt h ;
.

14 8

MATE RIALS O F MACHIN E S

an d th a t th e p resence o f c e m enti t e F esC c o rresp o n ds t o

hig h st rength an d m e di um du c tili ty A ls o th e p r esenc e
O f f erri t e c o rrespon d s to great er s oftness w h ile th e p res
ence o f c e m ent i t e c o rrespo nd s t o grea ter h ar d ness o f th e
m a ss
,

F I G 29
.

14 9

STEE L

W h en c arb o n in s t eel is ab out

p er c en t o r mo re
th e st eel h as th e q u ali ty o f h ar d ening ; th at is o n q u enc h
ing in c o l d wa t er f r om a fu ll re d h eat th e st eel bec om es
int ensely h ar d an d q ui t e bri tt le ; th is h ar dness m ay be
re du c e d by raising th e s t eel to c er t ain t e mp eratu res (th e
p r o cess o f t emp ering) th at all o w s t abili t y t en d encie s to
a pp r o ac h eq u ilibri um Thu s too ls can be m ad e o f varying
h ar d ness s ui t able fo r c utting vari ou s m at erials Th e
q u ali ty o f h ar d enin g i s in t ensi e d b y i ncreas e in carb on
S ee als o p age 1 6 7
W h ile c arb o n is th e c h ie f f ac to r in th e c o n t r o l o f th e
physical p r op er ties o f st eel th ese p r op er ties are als o
modie d by oth er su bst ances p resent
Th ere h as been mu c h d isc u ssi o n o f th e
S il i c o n
e ff ec t o f sili c o n o n st eel an d th e c oncl u si o n seem s to be
th at in amou nt s u su ally p resent i t i s n ot a seri o u sly inj u
r io u s ele m en t ei th er to s t reng th o r du c t ili t y
I t is n ot
an i mpo r t an t q u esti o n sinc e wi th p resen t m e thod s o f
s tr u c tu ral an d m ac h ine st eel m anuf ac tu re sili c on i s u su ally
p resen t o nly as a t race o r as a m axi mum of
p er cent
I n st eel c asti ngs silic o n is O ft en foun d up to
p er cent
wi thou t eff ec t o n du c tili ty al thou g h t ensile st ren gt h is
c onsi d erably increase d ; i t is h ere dou b tless beca u se o f i t s
cap aci ty to re du ce oxi d es like C O F eO an d F 6 2 0 3 fo r m e d
du r ing m elting an d thu s to m ake th e castings s ou n d an d
homo gene ou s I n too l st eel silic o n is O ft en p resent u p
to
p er cen t B ut al thou g h silic o n in relat ively sm all
a mount s in s ol u ti o n in ir o n h as s m all e ffec t wi th in c r eas
ing amount th e d u c t ili t y is re du ce d wi th increase in bri t
Th e f ac t th at f erri t e is very du c t ile in mil d
t len e ss
s t eel less du c t ile in m alleable castings an d very mu c h
,

Th e p ro p erty o f h ardening reall y a pp ear s w h en c arbon e qu al s

abou t
p er c ent bu t t h e eff e c t w h i ch in c rea s es w i t h t h e c arbo n
is not of p ra c t i c al im p ort an c e wi t h c arbon le ss t h an
p er c ent
,

MATE RIALS O F MACHIN ES

1 50

less du c tile in cast ir o n is p r obably du e t o th e increas ing

a mount o f silic o n in s o li d s o l ut i o n
M an gan e s e
W h en s t eel f r om t h e B esse m er o r O p en
h earth p r o cess is read y t o p our m anganese i s a dd ed
in th e f o r m of f err om anganese o r sp iegeleisen an d i t s
func ti o n as alrea dy explaine d is li ke silic on to re du ce
C O F e O F e2 0 3 an d t o t ake up f ree oxygen t o fo r m m an
ganese oxi d e Th is oxi d e is re move d wi th th e slag ; b ut
a cert ain amoun t o f m anganese g o es into s o l u ti o n wi th
th e ir o n an d in p resen t p rac t ice in s tr u c tural an d m a
c h ine st eels th is amou nt is fr om
In
t o 1 p er cent
s u c h amoun t th e m anganese p revent s cracking o f th e
s t eel w h en i t is w o rke d hot Wi th m anganese up t o
p er cen t th ere seem s to be n o effec t o n t ensile st rength
o r du c t ili t y ; f r om
to 1 p er c en t th e t ensile s trengt h is
increase d wi thout c h ange o f du c tili ty I n too l s t eel
m anganese mu st be ke pt l o w becau se i t t end s to cau se
cracking w h en th e st eel is q u enc h e d in wat er fo r pu rp oses
o f h ar d ening
I f m anganese in st eel is increase d to 2 per
cen t th e st eel is e xt re m ely bri ttle an d c ontinu es br itt le
up to ab out 7 p er c en t w h en wi th fur th er increase O f m an
ganese st rength an d du c tili ty b oth increase until a t
p er cen t carb on t ensile
1 4 p er cen t m anganese wi th
st rength bec om es ab out
t i m es an d du c tili ty ab out
t i m es th at o f g ood mil d s t eel Th e m at erial c an be
forge d hot b ut is so h ar d w h en c o l d th a t i t can o nly be
m ac hine d by grin d ing Th is sp ecial m anganese s t eel is
u se d fo r m ac h ine p ar t s req u iring grea t resis t ance t o wear
an d to s ho ck

re d s ho r t ; th a t i s i t ca u ses
S u lphu r m akes s t eel
i t to crack wh en r o lle d hot ; i t als o m ake s wel d ing d i fc ul t
Th e e ec t o f s ul phu r o n st eel w h en c o l d h as been i n doub t
becau se o f c on ic t ing evi d ence O f c ou rs e i f i t s p r odu c
t i on o f br ittlene s s w h en ho t h as res ul t e d in th e st eel
.

15 1

STEE L

c oo l ing w i th cracks s t rength an d general tne s s fo r u se

w ou l d be less I f th e c oo le d st eel is s oun d t h e effec t O f th e
s u l p hu r m ig ht d e p en d o n w h e th er i t was p resen t as ir o n
s ul p h i d e o r m anganese s ul ph i d e I t s ee m s p r o bable th at
t h e p resenc e o f ir on s ul ph i d e w ou l d t en d to war d re du ce d
du c t ili ty an d increase d h ar dness an d i t als o see m s p r o b
able th at m anganese s u l ph i d e w ou l d h ave less u n d esir
able eff ec t I t cer t ainly w ou l d be d esirable to sp eci fy
s u l phu r a s l o w as po ssible wi tho u t h ar d s h i p to th e st eel
m anuf ac tu rer
P h o s ph o ru s t en d s to ca u se th e fo r m a t i o n o f c o arse
*
B ec a u se o f
cryst alline st r u c tu re during c o o lm g o f st eel
th is o r fo r oth er reas ons th e c oo le d st eel al thou g h i t s
st at ic st ren gth m ay be s om ew h a t increase d yiel d s mo re
easily to s ho cks an d is unsaf e as St r u c tural m at erial th a t

B oth s u l phu r an d pho s pho r u s are

is i t is c o l d s ho r t
very un d esirable in too l s te e l sinc e th e t en d ency t o crack
ei th er hot o r c o l d m ay d est r o y e x p ens i ve too ls during
o r a ft er h ea t t rea tm en t
A r S enic an d c 0 ppe r are oft en p resen t i n s t eel b ut
wi th mod ern m e thod s o f st eel m aking th e a mount of
th ese s ubst ances is al mo s t always f ar wi th in th e h ar mf u l
li m i t
N i c k el
Th e i n t r odu c ti o n o f n i c k el in t o s t eel up to
ab out 8 p er cent increases th e elast ic li m i t an d ul t i m at e
st rengt h an d als o slight ly increases du c tili t y N ickel als o
see m s to increase th e h ar d ening effec t of a given a moun t
B eca u se o f th is nickel st eel is e xt ensively u se d
o f carb o n
as ar mo r p lat e
I n c er t ain cases st eel wi th q u i t e l o w
carb o n h as ab out
p er cent nickel a dd e d ; th is g i ves
a du c t ile st eel wi th a t ens ile s t reng th o f from
to
,

ib ly th i

be c au se ph o sph oru s c a uses e xt en si on o f th e t i me

c ooling and th us g i v es o pp ort unity f o r more c om p lete c rys ta l
P o ss

of

liz at io n

is

1 52

MA TE RIALS O F MACHIN ES

p ou n d s p er s q u are inc h Th e ar mo r p lat es m a d e

f r om th is st eel are H arveyi z e d

th at is th ey are h eat e d
t o full re dness fo r a l o ng p eri od w i th th e out er s u r f ace
p ac k e d wi th c arb on ace ou s m at erial ; th e st eel abs o rbs
carb o n an d th e sur face t o th e d e pth O f fr om 1 inc h to
1 inc h es bec om es h ig h -carb o n s t eel
w h ic h h ar d ens o n
:
q u enc h in g Thu s th e b od y o f th e p lat e h as th e toug h ness
an d s t ren gt h
an d t h ere fo re t h e s ho ck-resist ing c ap aci t y
O f l o w-carb o n nickel s t eel w h ile th e s u r f ac e h as th e
h ar d ness o f h ar d ene d h ig h carb o n s t eel wi th th e in t en si
cat i o n o f h ar dness du e to th e p resence O f nickel N ickel
s t eel is O ft en u se d fo r s t r u c tu ral an d m ac h ine pur p o ses
in p lace s re q uiring great st rength an d s ho ck resist ance
W h en wel d ing is necessar y nickel s houl d be ke pt bel o w
2 p er cent
T u n gs t en a dd e d to s t eel ren d ers i t h ar d an d bri tt le
a n d i t s c h ie f u se is in s p ecial s t eels f o r c utt ing too ls
.

S ee

17 5

C hr o mi u m

F err o c h r om e

wi th wi d e varia tio n of
c h r om i um an d carb o n c o nt ent is re du ce d f r om c h r om e
o re in th e blas t fu rnac e o r in carb o n line d cr u cibles by
c h r om i u m
st r o ngly h ea t ing ox i d e O f ir o n an d o xi d e o f
to ge th er C h r omi um see m s to u ni t e wi th ir o n in s o li d
s o l ut i o n an d als o in a c h e m ical c ompoun d o f ir o n c hro
m i um an d carb o n th at is ex cee d ingly h ar d C h r o m i um
s ee m s n ot o nly to c onf er h ar d ness o f i t se lf b ut als o to
int ensi fy th e h ar d ness du e to carb o n ; i t als o as s ho wn
*
by care fu l e xp eri m ent s increases th e amoun t o f carb o n
th a t ir o n c an ho l d Thu s i t m ay cau se a th reefo l d in
crea s e in h ar d ening o f st eel B ecau se o f th is c h r om e st eel
wi th C r ab out 2 to
p er cent and C
to 1 p er cent
i s u se d in p r oj ec t iles d esigne d fo r p iercing ar mo r p lat es
.

See Stee l and I ron for A d v an c ed Students

M a cmi l lan p 309
,

by

H io rn s ,

15 3

S TEE L

h ese p r o j ec tiles req uire very carefu l h eat t reatm ent

C h r om e st eel is als o u se d f o r ar mo r p lat e f o r j aws O f
c r u s h ing m ac h i ne s an d f o r o t h er m ac hine p ar t s re q ui r in g
grea t h ar d ness

Van ad i u m
F err o vana d i um i s o b t aine d f r om o res c o n
t aining vana di um oxi d e This o xi d e purie d by c h e mical
p r o cesses is m ix e d wi th ir o n oxi d e an d po w d ere d pure
al um inum in a cr u cible wi th m agnesi t e lining an d i gni t e d ;
th e al um inum c ombines wi th th e oxygen o f th e ox i d es an d
th e resu l t ing ir o n an d vana d i um a t th e h ig h t e mp era ture
p r odu ce d by c omb u st i o n o f th e al um in um c ombine to
fo r m ferr o vana di u m Th is is int r odu ce d into th e st eel
in th e la d le aft er t reatm ent wi th sp iegel o r f erro m an ga
nese an d any req uire d c o nt ent o f vana d i um can thu s be
Ob t aine d
Vana d i um h as a very po wer ful inuenc e upo n th e phys
ical p r op er t ies of st eel ei th er th r oug h i t s d irec t in u ence
o n th e ir o n o r th r ou g h i t s in d irec t in u ence upo n th e oth er
subst ances p resent Th e elastic li m i t u l t i m at e s t reng th
an d s ho ck resist anc e O f st eel are very great ly increase d
by th e p resenc e of vana d i um in amo u nt s be t ween
p er cent an d
p er cent Th e st eel u s u ally c o n t ains
m anganese an d c h r om i um in a dd i ti o n to th e carb o n an d
freq u ent ly nickel als o
A st an d ar d vana d i um st eel h as th e fo ll o win g c om p o s i
t i on :
T

Per

C arb o n

anganese
C h r om i u m
V ana d i um
M

c ent

to

1 54

MA TE RIALS

OF

MACHIN E S

This st eel gives val u es ab out as fo ll o ws :

H ea

t t tm t
rea

E las t l c hm l t
lb pe r s q 'in

en

lt im t
st g t h lb
U

re n

per

sq

in

E o n g a io n
in 2 in c he s

a e

pe r

Annealed
O il tem p ered
F o r mild c arbon s teel c orre
s po n d in g v al u e s

c en

28
18

32

I mp ac t t est s als o s ho w very distinc t gain in s ho ck

resist ance du e to th e p resence o f vana d i um

V ana d i um ni ckel an d vana d i um c h r om e nickel st eels

are als o u se d w h ere great st rength lig htness an d s ho ck
f esist an c e are p ri m e req uirem ent s ; th e latt er st eels h ave
a p ercent age range ab out as fo ll o ws :
.

Pe r

C arb o n

c ent

to

anganese
N ickel
C h r om i u m
V ana di u m
M

to

to
to
ab out
1

Th ere m ay be in tern al s tr e s s e s in f o rg ed material

si m ilar t o t ho se resu l t ing in c ast m at erial fr om une q u al
s h ri nk age Th ey are u s u ally th e resu l t o f w o rking th e
m at er i al too c o l d To ill u st rat e : w h en a th in p iece o f
du c til e m at erial is lai d o n an anvil an d st r u ck wi th a
h amm er th e p iec e i s m ad e th i nn er an d l onger an d br o ad er
S uppo se n o w th a t th e p iec e is th ick inst ea d o f th in an d
th at i t receives a bl o w as be fo re : th e inu ence of th e
bl o w e xt en d s only a li tt le way into th e m at erial an d th e
sur f ac e i s m a d e l onger an d br o ad er S ince i t s ext ensi o n
is resist e d by th e p ar t w h ic h is u n in u en c ed by th e bl o w
th e m at erial at th e su r face is put in c omp ressi on an d th e

15 5

S TEE L

i nner p o r ti on i n t ens i o n Th e ini t ial p ar t of th e st ress

d e fo r m at i o n d iagra m w ou l d be as s ho wn in F ig 2 7 I f
th e w o rking is do ne a t a re d h eat th e m at erial is s oft
an d weak an d th ere fo re yi el d s to th e st resses int r odu ce d
by th e h a mm ering o r r o lling an d eq uilibri um resu l t s
E ff ec t o f l ac k o f h o m o g en e o u s n e s s o f m at eri al o n
t h e s tr e s s -d e fo rm ati o n d i agram
I n th e m an uf ac tu re

mu ck bar
o f wr ou g ht ir o n th e ele m en t s o f th e p iles o f
o r scra p are d rawn out in r o lling in to l o ng lines o f crys t als
w h ic h are se p ara t e d by mo re o r less slag o r ox i d e o f ir o n
S ince th e p ile m ay be m a d e u p O f bars o r scra p O f ent irely
d i fferen t q u ali t y th e s t r u c tu re m ay lack homo gene ou s
ness Th is h as a t en d ency to mod i fy th e fo r m o f st ress
d efo r m at i o n d iagram S u ppo se f o r ex amp le th a t a t es t
p iece o f wr ou g ht ir o n h as h al f o f i t s area o f cr o ss sect i o n
o f a m a t erial w ho se elas t i c li m i t is a t E
F ig 3 0 an d th a t
th e oth er h al f o f th e cr o ss sec t i on is of m at erial w ho se
elast ic li m i t is a t E
L e t a c onst ant ly
'
5
increasing t ensile fo rce be app lie d to th is
t est p iece W h en th e st ress reac h es th e
E
val u e rep resent e d by th e o r d inat e E th e
weaker p ar t of th e m at erial begins to yiel d
mo re rap i d ly th an th e st r o nger p art an d
th e un i t s tress on t h e st r o nger p ar t is very
greatly increase d i t s elast ic li m i t is e x
c eed ed i t als o yiel d s an d th e c u rve t akes
F I G 30
th e fo r m s ho wn r unning nearly p arallel
to th e ax is of X unt il th e st ress is again d ist r ib ut e d over
t he ent ire s u r f ace o f th e cr o ss sec t i o n ; th en th e c u rve rises
c ont inuou sly until th e m axi mum st ress is reac h e d S t eel
m ay als o S ho w th is irregu lari ty since d i ff eren t p ar t s O f th e
fo rging m ay h ave d i ff eren t elastic li mi t beca u se o f d iff er
en t h ea t t reatm en t di fferen t hot w o rki ng o r su p ercial
c o l d wo rking
.

MA TE RIA LS O F MACHIN E S

1 56

l d wo rkin g
W h en a p ie ce o f du c t ile
m at erial is st raine d bey on d it s elas t ic l i mi t t h e c h arac t er
of th e m at erial i s great l y c h ange d I f af t er a s ho r t
int erval o f rest , it is t est e d again it s elast ic li m i t an d
elast ic resilienc e wi ll be f oun d t o be h ig h er i t s t ensile
s t rengt h great er an d i t s du c t ili ty an d ul t i m at e resilienc e
less Th e st i ffness will be b u t slig ht ly c h ange d i f a t all
B y c o l d w o rking i e by any m eans th at gi ves p er m anen t
set t o c o l d m a t erial th e elas t ic range is increase d th e p iec e
i s m a d e s t r onger an d be tt er able to resis t s ho cks wi th in
th e elastic li m i t b ut less du c t ile an d less able to resis t
s ho cks e x cee d ing th e elas tic li mi t Th ese c h anges are
s ho wn g raph ic ally in F ig 3 1 Th e s t ress d e fo r m at i o n
d iagram O E A B C D is s u c h as w oul d u s u ally resu l t fr om a
t est o f a du c tile m at erial like m il d st eel o r wr ou g ht ir o n
O n reac h ing s om e p o in t as E s t ress is gra du ally relieve d
an d th e c u rve d escen d s to th e X ax is a t 0 1 O n r eappli
cati on O f t ensile fo rce th e c u rve rises al ong th e line O IE I
nearly p arallel t o C E
Th e e l ast ic li m i t is n o w a t E 1 a
p o int mu c h h ig h er th an th e o riginal elas t ic li mi t E
Th e
c u rve t h en c o ntinu es a li ttle h ig h er th an i t w oul d i f th e
s t ress h a d n ot been d isc ont inu e d unt il th e m axi mum
is reac h e d a t H
I f th e fo rc e c oul d h ave b een ins t ant ly reapp lie d a t 0 1
th e line GE J w oul d p r obab l y h ave c o inci d e d wi th A B C
becau se th e c h ange is a func t i o n o f th e t i m e O f resting
a ft er relie f O f st ress O E A B C D m ay be c onsi d ere d th e
d iagram o f o n e m at er i al an d O l E l GH J th e d iagra m o f
E ect

of

co

Th at t h e ma ximu m s trengt h is in creas ed has been demon

He rs t bro k e a long tes t p ie c e b y ten sile
s t rat e d b y B au s c hin ger
for c e I t w as o f u niform c ro ss s e c tion and h en c e all of it s p arts
mus t h a v e been strained w ell p as t th e elas ti c limit He th en bro k e
Th is w as re peated
o n e o f t h e p ie c es and fo u nd in c reas ed s trengt h
s ix times and ea ch re p etition resulted i n in c reas ed s trengt h
.

15 7

n oth er m at erial I t is as i f a new t e s t began

a re p re s en t th e rs t d iag ra m an d
Th e elast i c range
b th e s ec o n d
of
b re p re s en t e d b y O l E l i s
great er t h an th at o f a r epre
s ent e d by 0 E
Th e e l a st i c resili
enc e o f b re p resent e d b y th e area
O l E l F l , is great er th an th at o f a
rep resent e d by O E F E xp eri m ent
h as p r ove d th a t th e po int s B an d
C are n o t c h ange d in th eir rela
t i on t o th e axi s o f Y by th e relie f
o f s t re s s ; an d th ere fo re th e d u c t il
i t y o f a re p resent e d by C D i s
great er t h an th e du c tili ty o f b
re p re s ent e d by 0 1D Th e u l t i
m at e re silience p r opo r t i onal t o
th e to t al area u n d er th e c urve
is evi d ent ly great er in a t h an in
b
0 1E 1 is nearly p arallel to C E
an d h ence ri gi d i ty is nearly th e
sam e fo r b oth
I f inst ea d o f t h e al mo s t im
m e diat e reapp licati o n of fo rce a
c onsi d erable int erval o f res t h a d
been all o we d say t wenty fo u r
hou rs th e elast ic li mi t an d u lt i
a

m at e st r en gt h w o u ld hav e b een st ill

f u r th er raise d , an d

th e d iagram
w oul d be like 0 1E 2 L M N I f s t ress
were n ot d isc o nt inu e d unt il th e

m axim u m ha d b een n early reac hed ,

th e s t raine d m at erial w o u l d rese m

ble a very bri tt le m at erial
.

at

01

Let

158

MATE RIALS O F MACHIN E S

I t m ay be s t at e d as a c oncl u si o n w arrant e d by exper

i m cnt (see T ran s A m S oc C ivi l E ngin eer s Vo l X X I V
p
th at st ress o f any c h arac t er bey o n d th e elast ic
li m it will ren d er a du c t ile m at erial s t r o nger an d less du c
t ile un d er st ress of any oth er c h arac t er A n n ealing
r e m o ve s th e s e e ff e c t s al m o s t c o mpl et e ly
Th e p r o cess

of
c o l d r o lling by w h ic h s h aft ing is p r od u ce d ill u s
t rat es th e alt erat i o ns o f th e q u alit ies O f du c t ile m at erial
du e to st ress bey o n d th e elast ic li mi t I n th is p r o c ess
ir o n is p asse d c o l d th r o u g h h ig h ly nis h e d r o lls un d er
int ense p ress u re Th e r o lle d p iece h as i t s length increase d
an d i t s cr o ss sec t i o n re du c e d an d th ere fo re sinc e th e

m at erial t akes a s et i t m u s t be st raine d by th e t reat

m ent p as t i t s elast ic li mi t
P r ofess o r Thurs to n m a d e a series o f t est s to d e t er m ine
th e effec t o f c o l d r o lling upo n ir o n H is e xp eri m ent s
s ho w th at th ere res u l t s fr om th e p r o cess :(a) an increase
in t ensile s t rength o f f r om 2 5 to 4 0 p er c ent ; (b) an ele
va t i on o f th e elast ic li m i t o f fr om 8 0 to 1 2 5 p er cent ;
f
4
an
increase
f
elas
t
ic
resilienc
e
o
f
r
om
3
to
p
er
0
o
00
00
( )
cent ; (d) a d ecrease in d u c t ili ty of ab out 7 5 p er cent ;
an d (e) a d ecrease of u l t i m at e resilienc e of ab out 4 0 p er
cent I f th ere fo re th e p r odu c t O f th e p r o cess is requ ire d
to w i th s t an d st ress (an d esp ecially s ho ck) w h ic h cann ot
e x c ee d th e elast ic li m i t i t is f ar be tt er th an th e un t reat e d
ir o n ; b ut i f th ere is a p ossibili ty O f s ho ck e x c ee d ing th e
elast ic li m i t th e un r o lle d ir o n m ig ht be be t t er

Th e p r o cess of wire d rawing i e re du cing th e si z e

O f wi re wi th increase d length by draw mg i t c o l d th r ou g h
d ies p r odu ces th e sam e res ul t as c o l d r o lling th e wire
requ iring freq u ent annealing to resto re du c tili ty

B e t ween th e years
T h e eff ec t o f repeat e d s tr e s s
1 859 an d 1 8 7 0 A Woh ler p lanne d an d e x ec u t e d a series
o f e xp eri m en t s f o r th e Pr u ssian Go vernm en t to d e t er mine
.

ST EE L

159

th e laws go v erm n g th e be h avi o r o f m e t als un d er re p eat e d

st ress B y m eans o f h is m ac h ines fo rc es of kn o wn val u e
p r odu cing t ensile c omp ressive to rsi onal o r t ransverse
st ress c ou l d be a pp lie d wi th ind e ni t e re p e t i t i o n un t il
r uptu re o c c urre d o r unt il i t was c onsi dere d p r ove d th at
in d e n i t e re p e t i t i o n o f st ress c oul d n o t p r odu ce r uptu re
H e fo r mu la t e d a law f r om th e e xp eri m en t al w o rk w h ic h
in s ubs t anc e is as fo ll o w s :
M a t erial m ay be br o ken by re p ea t e d a pp lica ti o n O f a
fo rc e w h ic h w oul d f ail to p r odu c e r uptu re by a single
a pp licati on Th e breaking is a func t i o n of range of s t ress ;
an d as th e rec u rring st ress increases th e range necessary
to p r odu c e r upt u re d ecreases I f th e st ress is reverse d
th e range eq u als th e su m o f po si t ive an d nega tive
st ress
Th e e xp eri m ent al w o rk of Woh ler was amp lie d an d
s upple m ent e d by P r ofess o r B au sc hin ger o f M uni c h H e
d rew th e fo ll o wing c o ncl u si o ns f r om h is e xp eri m en t al
w o rk :

(a) Wi th re p ea t e d t ensile st resses w ho se l o wer li m i t

w as z er o an d w ho se upp er li m i t was near th e o riginal
elast ic li m i t r uptu re d i d n ot o c c u r wi th f r om 5 to 1 6

H e cau t i ons th e d esigner th a t

milli o n rep e ti ti ons
th is w ill n ot ho l d fo r d e f ec t ive m at erial i e a f ac t o r o f
safe ty mu st st ill be u se d fo r th is reas o n ; an d th a t th e
elastic li m i t o f th e m at erial mu st be care fully d e t er m ine d
becau se i t m ay h ave been ar t icially raise d by c o l d w o rk
ing in w h ic h case i t do es n ot ac c u rat ely re p resen t th e
m a t erial Th is o riginal elast ic li mi t m ay be d e t er m ine d
by t esting a p iece o f th e m at erial aft er care fu l anneal
,

ing

(b) Wi th O ft en re p ea t e d st resses varying be t ween

z er o an d an upp er s t ress w h ic h is in th e neig h b o r hood of
o r ab o ve th e o riginal elas t ic li m i t , th e la t t er i s raise d even
.

1 60

MA TE RIALS O F MACHIN E S

ab ove oft en f ar ab o ve th e upp er li m i t o f st ress an d i t

is raise d h ig h er as th e n um ber o f re p e t i ti o ns of st ress
increases wi thout ho wever a kn o wn li mi t ing val u e L

being ex cee d e d

(0 ) R e p eat e d st resses be t ween z er o an d an u pp er

li m i t bel o w L do n o t c au se r uptu re ; b ut i f th e u pp er
li mi t is ab ove L r u ptu re will o cc u r aft er a l i m i te d n um ber

o f re p e t i t i o ns
F r om th is i t w ou l d fo ll o w th a t kee p ing th e ran ge o f
re p eat e d st ress wi th in th e o ri ginal elast ic li m i t w ou l d
insu re safe ty agains t r uptu re wi th any n umber o f re p e
B u t th ere is a q u est i o n w h e th er th e
t it io n s w h at ever
e xp e ri m en t ers h ave p r ove d th eir case since th ey d eal t
necessarily w it h a ni t e n um ber of s t ress cycles Th e
c oncl u si o n th a t r up t u re wi th re p eat e d s t ress is a func t i on
o f range o f s t ress see m s to be s o u n d ; b ut P r of ess o r B a u
sc hin ger s c o ncl u si o n th a t th ere is a li m i t o f range wi th in
w h ic h th ere is abs o l ut e sa f e ty f r om re p eat e d st ress r up
tu re seem s q u esti onable A p er fec tly elastic m at erial
is o n e th at re tu rns e x ac t ly to i t s ini tial c o nd i ti on a ft er
d e fo r m ati on u nd er st ress ; th ere is q u esti on w h e th er any
en gineering m at erial is p er fec tly elasti c f qr any range
w h at ever even u nd er sm all sl o wly app lie d st ress
Th ere is evi d ence th at any c h ange O f st ress in ir on
cau s es th e m agne t i c an d th er mo elec t ric p r op er ties to
c h ange in an irreversible way an d to q uot e Pr ofess o r

ry variati on leaves i t s m ark o n th e qu ali t y

E win g :T E v e
o f th e p iece ; th e ac tu al q u ali t y a t any t i m e is a fu nc t i on
o f all t h e s t a t es o f s t ress in w h ic h th e p iece h as p revi o u sly
been p lace d I t can scarcely be dou b t e d th a t s uf c i ent ly
rene d m e thod s o f exp eri m ent w oul d d e t ec t a si milar

want o f reversibili ty in th e m ec h ani cal e ff ec t s o f st ress

,

See p a p ers b y Prof J A E w ing P hil T ra ns 1 8 85

o f M ateria ls
See
e
x
c
ellent
bo
Th
e
Streng
h
t
ok
i
h
s
T

1 8 86
p

55

16 1

STEE L
Pr of ess o r E

wing als o ci t e s e xp er i m ent s by Lo r d Kelvin

*
w hi c h s ho w th a t
re p eat e d c h anges O f s t ress h ave a
c um ulat ive e ff ec t in re du cing elas tici ty w h ile Woh ler s
e xp eri m ent s s ho w th at th ey als o h ave a c umu lat ive e ff ec t
in re du cing st rength I t m ay be c onj ec tu re d th at re
peat ed s t rains in d u ce a c h ange in mo lec u lar s t r u c tu re o f
w h ic h th e f a tig u e in s t ren gth an d th e f a t ig u e in elast ici t y

are t w o m ani fest ati ons

A nnealing resto res b oth o riginal st rength an d elas
t ic it y ; rest resto res o riginal elast ici t y an d as recent ly
p r ove d T resto res s t ren gth als o
I n th e s t ress el o ngati o n d iagra m o f cast i r o n F ig 18
st res s was relieve d a t C an d th e p ath of d i m inis h ing s t ress
is C DE w h ile th e p ath O f reapp lie d st ress is E F C
Th ese
t w o p ath s encl o se an area w h i c h o n th is d iagra m o f fo rce
s p ace c o or d inat es re p resent s w o rk I f th e up an d do wn
p ath s were i d ent ical th ere w oul d be n o encl o se d area an d
th e w o rk done by th e increasing fo rc e w ou l d be c omp let ely
resto re d o n relie f of s t ress in th e sam e ener gy fo r m and
th ere w ou l d re m ain i n th e m at erial n o p er m anen t resu l t
of th e w o rk done ; th e m at erial w oul d be in e x ac t ly th e
sam e c o n d i ti o n be fo re an d aft er th e app li cat i o n o f fo rce
an d h ence w ou l d be p er fec tly elast ic Th is is w h at is
calle d a reversible p r o cess B ut i f th e up an d do wn
p ath s encl o se an area th e p r o cess is irreversible th e
m at erial is n ot p er fec t ly elasti c an d an amoun t o f w o rk
p r opo r t i o nal to th e area fails o f re tu rn in i t s o riginal
energy fo r m ; i t is c o nver t e d into h ea t by resist anc e o f
th e m at erial to mo lec ular c h ange th e h eat is ra d iat e d
away an d th e res ul ting mo lec u lar c h ange re m ains R e p e
t it i on O f th is cycle
calle d th e h yst eresis cycle
do es
,

Ewing s Th e Strengt h o f M aterials p 5 6

b y Pro f essor George

1 See M ateri al s o f C on stru c tion

Up ton

Jo hn

Wile y

Sons

16 2

ATE RIALS O F MACHIN E S

mo re int ernal w o rk t o caus e mo lec ular c h ange and wi th

c ont in u e d re p e t i t i o n th e m at erial w ou l d be d est r oye d
W h erever th ere is a hyst eresis l oop wi th re p eat e d st ress
th e w o rk o f d est r u c ti on is un d er way Th e leng th o f th e
l oop c o rrespon d s to th e range of st ress ; th e wi dth o f
th e l oop c o rrespon d s to a mp li tud e of mo lec u lar d isp lace
m ent ; an d th e area o f th e l oop p r opo r ti onal to lengt h
an d wi dth c o rrespon d s to th e w o rk done to p r odu ce mo
lec ular c h ange an d h ence t o th e d est r o ying agency
Th ere fo re increase in range o f rep eat e d st ress increases
th e d est r oying agency an d h ence re du ces th e n umber
o f cycles to ca u se f rac tu re
I t is foun d e xp eri m ent ally
th a t th e wi dth o f th e l oop increases wi th th e n umber o f
cycles an d h ence th e d est r oying agency h as an in c reas
ing val u e
Thou g h th e o r d inary m e thod s o f t es t do n ot S ho w a
h yst eresis cycle wi th in th e so calle d elastic li mi t o f s t eel
*
ye t mo re rene d m e thod s d iscl o se s u c h a l oop an d m ake
i t ext rem ely p r o bable th at re p eat e d s t ress even wi th in
th e o riginal elasti c li mi t w o u l d ca u se r uptu re wi th a
O r d inarily m ac h ines
su m
c ien t n u mb er o f r epet i ti o n s
gr o w Obs ole t e o r wear o ut an d are d iscar d e d l ong be fo re
f atigu e fail u re o cc u rs
Th ere is an oth er effec t o f re p eat e d st ress th a t is in d e
p en d en t o f th e effec t o n molec u lar st r u c tu re I f very
m inut e aws exi s t in th e m at erial o r i f c o ntinui ty is
br ok en by s m all p ar t icles O f fo reign s ubs t ance th e t en
d en c y o f re p ea t e d s t ress is t o increase th e si z e O f th e im
p er fec ti ons an d a number o f th ese e xt end ing m icr o aw s
might j o in to p r odu ce a large crack an d event u ally to
cau se f rac tu re
L arger h i dd en aw s mig ht o f c ou rse
be ext en d e d si m ilarly wi th th e sam e resul t
,

Th e ph enomenon k nown to phys i c is ts

as

e las t i c after e ff e c ts
-

16 3

S TEE L

te mperatur e o n s t ee l M any e xp eri m en t s

by vari ou s care ful Observers s ho w th at w h en st eel is h eat e d
t o ab out 5 00 F it s t ensile s trength begins to d ecrease
an d th at at th e t e mp erature O f inci p ient re d ness ab out
i t s val u e is less th an h al f th e val u e a t air t e m
1000 F
n
I
t
is
als
o
k
o
wn
th
a
t
p
r
o
l
o
nge
d
an
d
re
p
ea
t
e
d
r
a
t
u
r
e
e
p
e xpo s ure to t e mp eratu res o f 1 5 0 F o r h ig h er p r odu ces
re du c t i on O f d u c tili ty s o th at to ins u re safe ty p eri od ical
a nnealing is necessary as in case o f c h ains o f crane s fo r
l ifting la d les o f mo l t en st eel o r hot ing ot s
M ac h ine s t ress m e m bers m ay
F ac to r s o f s af ety
f ail n ot only becau se o f rep eat e d s t ress b ut als o becau se
of

E ec t

of

(a)
b
( )
(c )
(d)
( e)

F laws ,

or

oth er i mp er fec ti ons in th e m at erial ;

I nt ernal st resses ;
U n homo gene ou s m a t erial ;
S ho cks ;
S t resses w h ic h cann ot be est i m a t e d

To c over a ll th ese a f ac to r o f saf e ty is u se d ; i e th e

w o rking uni t st ress is eq u al to th e ul t i m at e uni t st reng th
o f th e m a t erial d ivi d e d by a n umber w h ic h is calle d th e
fac to r o f saf e ty
M at erials are s o var i ou s i n th eir q u ali t ies an d th e
c on d i ti ons to w h ic h t h ey are s ubj ec t e d as m ac h ine s t ress
m e mbers are so d ifferent th at i t is i mpo ssible to give any
val u e fo r a f ac to r o f saf e ty to c o ver all cases
F o r du c t ile resilien t m at erial like m il d s t eel u se d in
b uil d ing f ram es r oof t r u sses bri d ges e t c a l o w val u e
m ay be u se d fo r th e fac to r O f saf ety becau se b c an d d
given ab ove m ay be p rac tically eli minat e d by p r op er sp eci
c at io n s an d care ful insp ec t i o n an d beca u se th e l o a d s are
kn ow n
B ut in m ac h ines th e c o n d i t i o ns are d yna m i c an d i t i s
m o re d i fc u l t to e sti m at e st resses esp ec ially w h en acc i
.

MATE R I ALS O F MACHIN E S

1 64

d ent al increas es o f vel o city are po ssible o r w h en l o s t

mot i o n du e to wea r o r i mp er f ec t a d j u stm ent enable
m o vi ng p ar t s to d eliver bl o ws to oth er p ar t s
F o r u nresilient o r bri tt le m at erials like cas t i r o n th e
f ac to r o f sa f e ty nee d s t o be larger n o t o nly becau se
o f less s ho ck resis t ing ca p aci t y
b ut bec au se sh rinkage
s t resses are always p resen t an d t h ere is in m any cases
d anger o f bl o w ho les o r sp on gy sec ti ons Th e weaken
ing e ff ec t o f th ese varies wi th th e si z e an d fo r m of th e
m e mber an d with th e c o n d i t i on s o f c ast ing H ence th e
f ac to r o f saf e ty mu s t be d e t ermi ne d in eac h cas e b y
th e j ud gm ent o f th e d esigner
,

C H A PTE R X
HE AT

T R E AT M EN T

OF

ST EEL

WH E N mo l t en st eel c oo ls sl o wly to air t e mp eratu re i t s

st r u c tu re is c o arsely crys t alline ; th e si z e o f th e cryst als
increase s s om ew h a t wi th th e t i m e o f c oo ling an d wi th th e
amoun t o f carb on p resent Th e st eel of a too l s t eel
i ng ot is c o arse bri t tle an d un t fo r service Th e st eel of

a m il d st eel ing ot
thou g h th e c o arse s t r u c ture is less
m ar k e d
als o nee d s t reatm ent to c h ange st r u c tu re t o
g i ve req uire d s t ren gth an d du c t ili t y Th e nes t po ssible
du c
st r u c t u re o f s t eel c o rres po n d s to h ig h es t s t rength
t ilit y an d s ho c k resist anc e ; th is s t r u c tu re m ay be p r o
du c ed by h eat tr eatm en t , w h i c h c o n s i s t s o f h eatin g an d
c oo lin g t hr o u gh c er tai n t e m perat ur e ran g e s an d wi th
c ert a in rat e s o f t e mperatu r e c han g e
Th e st r u c tu re o f st eel w h at ever i t m ay b e a t air t e m
r
a
is
c
h
ange
d
to
th
e
nes
t
p
o
ssible
crys
t
al
si
z
e
e
t
u
r
e
p
w h en th e in creasing t e m p erat u re reac h es ab out 13 30 F
F ig 2 9
I f th e increase
c o rres po n d ing to th e line M 0
in t e m p erature c ontinu es fr om
th e cryst al si z e gr o ws
st ead ily larger unt il fu si o n begins an d th e si z e thu s reac h e d
i s re t aine d w h at ever th e m e thod o f c oo ling ; i f a ft er
reac h ing
th e t e mp eratu re is all o we d to f all sl o wl y
th e cr y st al si z e inc reases unt il th e t e mp erature o f d i s
app earing re d ness is reac h e d an d th is si z e is re t aine d
in d e p en d ent ly o f th e m e thod of c oo ling I ncrease in
cryst al si z e is un d esirable w h en h ig h sho ck resist anc e i s
req uire d an d th ere fo re w h at ever t h e p urp o se o f h ea t
-

16 5

166

MATE RIALS O F MACHIN E S

t rea tm ent i t s hou l d p r odu ce th e nes t st r u c tur e po ssible

un d er th e circ um st ances in s t eel t h a t is req u ire d t o resis t
s ho ck
Wh en po int s re p resen ting c oo ling st eel p ass sl o wly
th r ou g h th e t erri to ry F ig 29 b o un d e d ab o ve by th e line
KN 0 J 3 an d bel o w by th e line M 0 J 2 th e s t eel c h anges
fr om s o li d 7 ( C ) ( a u st eni t e ) t o e ut ec tic (a + F e3C ) 0 9 c
m i x e d ac c o r d ing to th e carb o n c ont en t wi th ex cess of
ei th er ferri t e (a ir on ) o r ce m en t i t e (F 6 30 ) C are fu l
ob servat i o n an d reas o ning by m any em inent m e t al
lurgist s see m to s ho w th a t d u ring th is c h ange th e s t eel
p asses th r oug h th ree int er m e d iat e st at es wi th varying
p hysical p r op er ties Th e nam es given t o st eel in th ese
s u ccessive st at es are a u st eni t e th e o riginal 7 ( C ) m ar
t en sit e t r oo s ti t e an d s o rbi t e
A u s t en i t e i s s oft an d du c t i le wi th m e d i um s t reng th
a n d hig h s h o ck resis t ance
M art en s it e is in t ensely h ar d s t r o ng u n d er s t ea dy
s t ress b ut wi th l o w s ho ck resis t ance
T ro o s t i t e h as m e d i um h ar d ness an d is s t r o n g du c t ile
an d tou g h
S o rb i t e i s nearly as s o f t as a u s t en i t e an d i s s t r o ng
du c tile an d tou g h
Wi th sl o w c oo ling au st eni t e w oul d c h ange th r ou gh th is
series an d bec om e s o rbi t e an d th e c h ange w oul d be c om
n ge
du
ring
th
is
c
h
ange
a
u
s
t
eni
t
e
do
es
n
ot
c
h
a
u
t
l
B
t
e
e
p
w ho lly into m ar t ensi t e an d th en w ho lly into t r oo st i t e ;
th e c h anges o verlap so th a t be fo re all a u st eni t e h as bec om e
m ar t ensi t e t h e fo r m ati o n of t r oo st i t e o u t o f m ar t ensit e
h as begu n an d all th ree are p resen t in varying amount s
By th e t i m e a u s t eni t e h as d isapp eare d th e fo r m a t i on o f
so rbi t e out O f t r oo s t i t e h as beg u n an d m art ensi t e t r oo s t
i t e an d s o rbit e are p resent in varying amount s ; th en
.

167

H E A T T R E AT M E N T O F S TEE L

m ar t ensi t e an d t r oo s ti t e d isapp ear in o r d er leaving

s o rbi t e al o ne
I f th e c oo ling c oul d he s udd enly c h ec k e d
a t any t e mp eratu re an d h el d th ere to est ablis h eq uilibri um
th e s t eel c ou l d be h el d in th e s t at e c o rrespo n d ing t o th a t
t e mp era tu re an d i t w ou l d h ave ph ysic al p r op er t ies d e
p end ing o n th e p r opo r t i ons of st eel carb on fo r m s p resent
O bj ec t s o f h eat t rea tm en t are as fo ll o ws :
1 To relieve int ernal s t ress du e to c oo ling o r m ec h an
i cal w o rking an d to p r odu c e a s oft s t eel su i t able fo r m a
c h ining ; th is is c alle d ann eal in g
2 To res to re ne grain to s t eel th a t h as been m a d e
c o arse by o ver h eat ing ; th is is als o calle d ann e al in g o r
s om e ti m es r e n in g
3 To p r odu c e a very h ar d s t eel f o r c utt ing e d ges O f
tools o r fo r wearing su r f ac es ; th i s is calle d h ar d ening
4 To re du ce th e h ar d ness p r odu c e d by th e h ar d ening
p r o cess to any d esire d val u e an d a t th e sam e t i m e p ar tially
to resto re du c t ili ty an d re du ce bri tt leness ; th is is calle d
,

t emperin g

To ren d er st ress m em bers o f m ac h ines tou g h an d

s ho ck resist an t fo r severe servic e Th is i s s om et i m es
calle d tou gh eni n g
6 To raise th e elast i c li m i t s o th at in case o f sp r i ngs
th ere m ay be large yiel d ing wi thout p er m anen t set ;
th is i s calle d s prin g t e m perin g
Th e list will n o w be c onsi d ere d in d e t ail

1 A nn e aling
S t resses du e to c oo ling o r to m e
l o w a t e mp eratu re m ay be
c han ic al w o rking a t t o o
relieve d by h eat ing to ab out 900 F a t e mp eratu re j u s t
bel o w inci p ient re dness an d c ooling sl o wly Th e m at erial
bec om es s oft en ou g h at th is t e mp eratu re to yiel d to in
t ernal st resses an d to t ake a new a dj u stm ent in eq u ilib
Als o if th ere is any res ul t o f a p revi ou s h ar d ening
rium
5

1 68

A TE RIALS O F MACHIN E S

p r o cess i t is enti rely re mo ve d be fo re reac h ing 9 00 F

I f very great s oftness is req uire d fo r m ac h ining th e s t eel
Th is o f c ourse
is c oo le d very sl o wly fr om ab out 1 600 F
p r odu c es c o arse grain w h ic h mu s t be ren e d i f necessary
fo r s ho ck resis t ance by m e thod 2 o r 5
2 A n n ealin g o r r e nin g
B ut if th e s t eel h a d been
c oo le d fr om s om e t e mp eratu re ab ove th e line M 0 th e
si z e o f i t s cryst al st r u c ture w oul d h ave been enlarge d
bey o n d th e si z e c o rrespon d ing t o M 0 ; th e h igh er th e
'
t emp eratu re fr om w h ic h th e c oo ling too k p lace t he larger
t h e cryst al si z e Th is si z e of cryst al wi th i t s acc omp any
ing bri tt leness re m ains unc h ange d du ring c oo ling and
during re h eat ing un til M 0 is reac h e d w h en i t is c h ange d
q ui t e sudd enly an d irresistibly to very ne cryst al si z e
Wi th fu r th er increase o f t em p eratu re th e crys t als gr o w
as be fo re I n o r d er to fully resto re th e ne st r u c tu re
fr om th e c o arse st r u c tu re du e t o o ver h eat ing i t is necessary
to raise th e t e mp era tu re to th e li mi t se t by th e line K N 0
*
s o th a t c h ange t o 7 ( C ) s h all be c omp le t e
H ence a
h ig h er t e mp era tu re is necessary to resto re l o w carb o n
o r h ig h -carb o n s t eel th an to res to re s t eel w i th
p er cen t
carb on ; i n f ac t wi th th e e ut ec t ic p r opo rt i o n
p er cen t
carb on i t is only necessary to h eat t o M
Aft er h eat
ing th e s t eel ab ove KN 0 J 3 i f i t is cau se d to c oo l very
sl o wly by p acking in san d o r as h es th e c h ange f r om au s
t en it e to s o rbi t e bec om es c omp le t e an d al thou g h th e
cryst al si z e increases during c oo ling ye t i t is th e nest
st r u c ture th at fully anneale d st eel can h ave Th i s st eel
I t is s ometimes ne c essary to rep eat t h e reh eatin g t o i n sure
c om p lete ren in g
T Th e range o f t h e tem p erat ure O f ch ange d uring h eating is
s omew h at h ig h er t h an d ur in g c oo li ng and h en c e t h e tem p erat ure is
rai sed i n p ra c ti c e from 80 to 90 F h igh er t h an t h at c orres p onding
to th e di agr am and is h eld for abo u t fteen min u tes at t h is tem p era
t ur e t o insur e c om p l ete c h ange t o 7 ( C )

HE A T T R E AT M E N T O F STEE L

1 69

is thu s free fr om int ernal st resses an d i t is s oft an d

du c tile wi th m e di um t ensile st rength
3 H ar d en in g
p er
C o nsi d er th a t s t eel w i th
cent C i s raise d to a t e mp eratu re o f 14 00 F c o rrespo n d ing
to h F ig 2 9 A ft er p assing ab o ve 0 i t c h anges in to 7 ( C )

S upp o se n o w th a t th e s t eel is
q u enc h e d
th at is
i mm erse d in a gi t at e d c o l d wat er Th is s udd en c oo ling
t en d s t o c h eck th e c h ange o f a u st eni t e th r oug h m ar t en
si t e an d t r oo s t i t e t o s o rbi t e Th e o r d inary m e thod s o f
q uenc h ing T cann ot ho l d th e st eel in th e a u st eni t e fo r m
an d in th e q u enc h e d s t eel m ar t ensi t e is u s u ally th e p re
dominat ing fo r m wi th a c o nsi d erable a moun t of t r oo st i t e
an d very sm all a mo unt s o f a u s t eni t e an d s o rbi t e Th e
st eel th ere fo re h as th e q u ali t ies o f th e dominant m ar
t en sit e an d is h ar d en oug h to scrat c h glass an d al thou g h
s t atic ally s t r ong is bri tt le S t eel fu lly h ar d ene d in th is
way is u s u ally t o o h ar d an d bri tt le f o r service and mu s t
be fur th er t reat e d by th e p r o cess of t e mp ering

4 T emperin g
I f th e h ar d ene d s t eel is raise d in
t emp eratu re a fain t yell o w c o l o r a pp ears a t ab out 4 2 5 F
o n any po r t i o n o f i t s s u r f ace th a t h as been po lis h e d an d
at th is t e mp erat ure th e t end ency to c h ange th r ou g h th e
a -m t s i series begins to be ac t ive an d th e a mou n t o f
m ar t ensi t e d ecreases w h ile t r oo st i t e an d s o rbit e increa s e
wi th c o rrespo n d ing s oft ening o f th e s t eel and wi th d ecrease
in br itt leness
A t 4 7 5 F t h e s ur f ace c o l o r o f th e s t eel bec om es fu ll
yell o w
,

Th ou gh n o t wi t h t h e maxi mu m softne ss of abou t 1 600 c oo l

i ng tem p eratu re
T Th e rate of c ooling dep ends not onl y on t h e q u antit y and tem
perat ur e of t h e w ater b u t als o on t h e relat ion o f c ooling su rf a c e to
volume of t h e steel ; h en c e th i ck bars w ou ld c oo l more s low ly than
th in bars
-troo s tite sorbite s er i es
n
u
s
A
tenite
marte
s
i
te
I
0

MA TE RIALS O F MACHIN ES

170

At 5 40

A t 5 60 F

bl ue

At

th e s ur face c o l o r o f th e s t eel bec om es bright

6 00 F

bl u e

th e s ur face c o lo r o f th e s t eel bec om e s p u rp le

t h e s u r face c o l o r of th e st eel bec om es d ark

Wi th th ese increases in t e mp era tu re th ere is ac c omp any

ing increase o f po wer o f th e s t eel to c h ange th r oug h th e
a m t s
series to w ar d s o rbi t e and i f th e st eel is h el d
fo r a f ew m in ut es a t a t e mp eratu re c o rres po nd ing t o any
o n e o f th ese c o l o rs th ere will be a re du c t i o n in h ar d ness
w h ic h c o rrespo n d s to th e t e mp era ture
5 T ou gh e nin g
W h en s t eel is anneale d by h eat ing
to a t e mp era ture slig ht ly ab o ve KN O J 3 an d c oo ling very
sl o wly to air t e mp era tu re th e crys t al si z e increases th r ou g h
o ut th e range do wn to ab o u t 1 000 F
and wi th th is in
crease th ere is l o ss of du c t ili ty an d s ho ck resist anc e L e t
th e t e mp era tu re ab o ve KN
th a t gives full t ran sf o r
m at i on in to 7 ( C ) be calle d W an d th e t e mp erature of
inci pient re dnes s ab out 1000 F be calle d V Th e
increase in crys t al si z e an d in bri tt leness o cc urs be tween
W an d V ; th e c h ange f r om a u st eni t e to s o rbit e wi th r e
sult in g s oft ness an d du c t ili t y m ay o cc u r en t irely bel o w V
Th ere fo re i f st eel is h eat e d to W an d q u enc h e d to V th e
increase in crys t al si z e will be s upp resse d o r at least
great ly d i m inis h e d ; an d i f th e st eel is all o we d to c oo l
sl o wly fr om V to air t e mp erature th e a -m t s series can
be c omp le t e d du ring th e c oo ling B oth th e hol d ing o f ne
grain an d th e c omp le t i o n o f th e a m t s series increase
st reng th wi th nearly c o ns t an t du c t ili t y an d h enc e th is
double p r o cess t ou g h ens th e st eel Th is p r o cess w as
rst c onc eive d by M r J oh n C ofn an d app lie d to car
a xles a t th e C ambria S t eel W o rks at J oh nstown P a
wi th re m arkable resul t s I t is n o w very generally u se d
-

17 1

H E AT T R E AT M E N T O F S TEE L

by m an uf ac tu rers fo r st eel th a t is t o be s ubj ec t e d to severe

re p eat e d s ho cks
W h en s t eel is h ea t e d to W an d
6 S prin g t emperin g
q u enc h e d in a m e d i um like o il w h ic h c oo ls i t less rap i d ly
th an wa t er th e a m t s series is mo re nearly c om p let e
beca u se o f l onger ti m e an d th e st eel is less h ar d an d mo re
d u c t ile ; b ut th e m ar t ensi t e is st ill a pot en t f ac to r in
d e t er m ining th e p hysical p r op er t ies O f th e st eel an d i t
not o nly h ar d ens an d re du ces du c tili t y bu t i t als o raises
th e elast ic li mi t an d thu s gives a wi d er range o f yiel d ing
w i th in th e elas t ic li m i t
B y reg ulat i o n o f th e t i m e o f
q uenc h ing an d s om e t i m es by s ubse qu ent t e mp ering i t is
po ssible to c ont r o l th e st eel carb o n st at es s o as to give
th e req uire d elastic range fo r all kin d s O f s p ring servi c e
an d als o to ho l d bri tt leness wi th in necessary li m i t s
H o t w o rk in g o f s t e e l
W h en s t eel is h ea t e d s o th a t
i t s re p resent a t ive po int o n th e eq uilibri um d iagram
F ig 2 9 is in th e t erri to ry ab o ve K N 0 J 3 th e s t r u c tu re
is c o arse th e si z e o f grain being nearly p r opo r ti onal to th e
t e mp era tu re ab o ve M 0 J 2 an d th e grain si z e p ersis t s
during c oo ling to air t e mp erature ; h ence st eel c oo le d
fr om h ig h t e mp era tures is c o arse graine d an d bri ttle
B u t i f st eel a t th ese h ig h t e mp era tu res is m ec h ani cally
w o rke d s o th a t i t s d i m ensi ons are c h ange d as by r o lling
o r h a mm ering th e c o arse crys t als are br o ken up an d th e
grain bec om es ne I f th e m ec h anical w o rking c eases
w h ile th e st eel is still at h ig h t e mp erature th e crys t als
increase again to th e si z e c orrespo n d ing to th e t e mp eratu re
I f ho wever th e m ec h ani cal w o rking c ont in u es un til th e

t e mp eratu re is re du ce d to ab out 9 00 F
black h ea t
th e st eel will h ave a very ne grain with c o rrespon d ing
p hy sical p r op er ties Th e c o arsely cryst alline ingot s fr om
th e cr u cible st eel p r o cess are h eat e d an d h amm ere d in to
c omm ercial
bars an d th e h amm ering c ont inu es t he
an d

1 72

MA TE RIALS O F MACHIN ES

in tensi ty o f bl o w s d ecreas ing wi th t e mperature un t il black

h eat is reac h e d an d th e st eel is thu s given very n e grain
I n c omp le x fo rgings ho wever
A nn ealin g f o rgin g s
i t is impo ssible t o w o rk all p ar t s unifo r m ly fr om fo rging
h eat t o black h eat ; th ere fo re som e p art s o f th e fo r ging
wi ll c oo l fr om h ig h t e mp eratur e wi thout w o rking an d h enc e
wi th c o arse grain w h ile oth er p art s will h ave th e ne
grain du e to c are ful w o rking Th is fo rging c an be given
a unifo r m grain by h eat ing uni fo r m ly to th e t e mp erat u re
W an d c oo ling very sl o w ly Th is uni fo r m grain ho wever
will n ot h ave m ini m um si z e sinc e i t h as h a d oppo r tuni ty
Th e
t o gr o w th r ou g h th e t e mp era tu re range W t o V
i d eal t reatm en t fo r th is fo rging i f i t is t o endu re severe
an d re p eat e d s ho c k is to h ea t uni fo r m ly t o W t o q u enc h
as s udd en ly as po ssible to V an d th en all o w sl o w c oo ling
Th is insu res ne grain an d c omp le
t o air t e mp era tu re
t i on o f th e a m -t s series thu s giving a m axi mum of
tou g hn ess an d sho ck resist ance
S ince s t eel cas t ings c oo l
A n n e alin g s t eel c a s tin gs
f r om a mo l t en s t at e an d sinc e th e c ooling mu st be rela
t iv ely sl o w i t foll ow s th a t th ey m u s t h ave a c o arse grain
M o re over s h rink age s t resses are great er in s t eel cas tings
th an in c ast ir on bec au se of th e h ig h er casting t em p era ture
an d h ence st eel c ast ings s hou l d be anneale d to relieve
s t ress an d to rene grain i f th e bes t resul t s are t o be p r o
E i th er t h e annealing
du c ed in resisting s t ress an d s ho ck
o r t ou g h ening p r o ce ss m ay be u s e d b u t t h e la tter w ill
p r odu ce bet t er resul t s

M any s te el f o r m s req ui re a very

C a s e har d enin g
h ar d s ur face to resist we ar o r i mp ac t an d a tou gh c o re t o
resist frac tu re F o r m s o f l o w carb o n s t eel h aving th e
require d c o re p r op er ties m ay be case-h ar d ene d f o r s u c h
,

C ompl ex forgings may re quire a slo w er c ooling mediu m t h an

water lik e oil
,

or

m o v in g a ir to p re v ent o v er-stress
,

H EAT

17 3

T RE AT M E N T O F STEEL

p ur p o ses Th e fo r m s are p acke d in carb o nace ou s m at e

rial like w ood o r b one c h arc o al in b ox e s fr om w h ic h air
i s ex cl ud e d an d th e t e mp erat ure i s raise d to fu ll re dne ss
an d m aint aine d f o r a s ufcient t i m e t o p r odu ce th e d e
sire d res ul t C arb on m igrat es into t h e s t eel an d go es
into s oli d so l uti on a t th is t e mp erature Th e d e p th o f th e
e f fec t an d th e p ercent age O f carb on d e p en d s o n th e t e m
u
e
r
a
r e an d th e t i m e o f exp o s u re
Th e su r face is thu s
t
p
c o nver t e d into h ig h carb on st eel w h ile th e c o re re m ains
unc h ange d Th e st eel fo r m q u enc h e d fr om th e case
h ar d ening p r o cess h as a h ar d ene d s ur f ac e b ut sinc e th e
c arb oni z ing t e mp eratu re is hig h er th an is nee d e d fo r th e
h ar d ening th e grain will be c o arser th an is d esirable
an d i t w ou l d be be t t er t o c oo l sl o wly re h ea t to W an d
q u enc h thu s g e tting t h e d esire d h ar d ness wi th ne g rain
and t ou gh ness C ase h ar d ene d s t eel p ieces m ay be h ea t
t reat e d e x ac t ly like h ig h carb on st eel ; t h ey m ay be
anneale d h ar d ene d an d t e mp ere d

Th e p r o cess o f H arveyi z ing is really case h ard ening

app lie d to large ar mo r p lat es
M il d st eel is O ft en c onver t e d in to h ig h c arb o n s t eel a t
i t s su r face by i mm ersi on fo r s om e t i m e in a mo l t en bath
o f p ot as si um cyan i d e K C N
w h i c h yi el d s u p i t s carb o n
to th e st eel
H i gh -s pee d to o l s t eel s
Th e ou t put o f a c utt ing
tool of carb on st eel is li mi t e d becau se of th e li mi t t o c u tting
sp ee d Th e w o rk done in re mo ving m e t al a s c h i p s is
p rac tically all t ransfo r m e d into h eat w h ic h raises t h e
t e mp eratu re o f t h e t oo l o f th e c h i p s an d o f th e p i ec e
f r om w h ic h th e c h i p s are c ut Th is h eat is ra d iat e d away
an d w h en eq u ilibri um is est ablis h e d be t ween h eat d evel
o pm en t an d h ea t ra d iat i o n th e c u t t ing too l will h ave a
d eni t e t e mp eratu re I f th e c utt ing sp eed is increase d
th e w o rk
and h ence th e h eat d evel op e d
i s I ncrea s e d
.

1 74

MATE RIALS O F MACHIN E S

p r op o r t i onat ely an d th e t e mp erature o f th e c utting too l

mu s t rise in o r d er th at ra d iati on s h all increase to d is
et c
p o s e of th e increase d h eat d evel op e d Wi th a given m at e
r ial t o c ut an d wi th given c o n d i t i o ns o f f ee d an d d e pth
o f c ut th ere is th ere fo re a d eni t e rela t i o n be t ween th e
c ut ting sp ee d an d th e t e mp era ture of c utting too l ; h ence
th e output o f a c utt ing tool is a func ti on o f th e t e mp era
ture t h at i t can en dure saf ely
I f th e t e mp era tu re o f a h ar d ene d t e mp ere d carb on
s t eel too l is raise d in servic e ab ove th at a t w h ic h i t was
t e mp ere d th e t e mp er will be fu r th er d rawn th e e d ge will
be s oft ene d an d will f ail Th e li m i t s o f t e mp era tu re fo r
M od ern h ig h sp ee d too l s t eels
s u c h too ls i s ab out 4 50 F
hol d an e d ge sat isfac to rily a t re d h eat

Ab out 18 60 7 0 R ober t M u shet o f th e T i t ani c S t eel

C omp any in E nglan d d isc overe d th a t i f st eel c on t aine d
tungst en c h r omi um an d m anganese to geth er wi th h ig h
carb on and th e u su al oth er s ubst anc es th is all oy c oo le d
sl o wly in air was nearly as h ar d as carb on st eel q u enc h e d

in wat er Th is M u shet
st eel o r sel f h ar d ening st eel
as i t was vari ou sly calle d w as
o r air h ar d ening s t eel
u se d fo r m any years bec au se i t increase d th e po ssible
c utting sp ee d
sinc e i t s t e mp er c ou l d n ot be d rawn
M essrs F re d erick W T ayl o r an d M au n sel W h i t e of th e
B eth l e h e m S t eel W o rks c arrie d o ut a m as t erly series o f
investigati ons
w h ic h le d th e m to th e inven ti on o f
mod ern h ig h sp ee d st eels an d wh ic h by increasing th e
c utting e fciency o f too l st eel fr om 100 to 2 00 p er c en t
h as rev o l uti o ni z e d m ac h ine s hop p rac t ice
Th e d evel opm ent o f th ese s t eels can be s ho wn bes t by
re p r odu cing a t able fr om M r T ayl o r s ar ticle Th is
t able gives th e c ompo si ti on an d c utt ing sp ee d of fou r
,

See T ran sac tion s of A m S o c

Th e A rt o f Cu tting M etals b y
.

M
F

Vol XXV III on

W T ay lor p 3 1

ec h
.

l E

ng s,
,

H E AT T R EA T M E N T O F S TEE L

1 75

st eels th at are rep resent at ive as M r T ayl o r says o f

f ou r eras 1n th e d evel opm en t o f m e t al c utt ing tools
Th e rst is Jess op st eel w h ic h m ay rep resen t th e era
th e sec on d is M u shet st eel th e
o f carb o n s t eel too ls ;
rst O f th e sel f h ar d eni ng st eels ; th e th ir d is th e o riginal
T ayl o r W h i t e st eel th e rst o f th e h ig h sp ee d st eels ;
w h ile th e fou r th w as th e bes t mod ern h ig h -sp ee d s t eel in
1 9 06 w h en M r T ayl o r s ar ticle was wr i tt en
.

Ki n d

of

:
:
g
=8 :
8
2
9

s t eel

Jesso p
M

5s

s
Q

g
o

88

go z
88

:
2
3
8 8
2
2

E:
3

823

S it g
5
8
8
4

gg
les s
sa

16
26

us he t

O rigin al T
o

hit
h ig h
W

ay lo r-

st m d
sp d 1906

Be

1 04 7

car b o n

er n

58 t o 6 1

0 11

ee

0 29

99

Thu s th e c utt ing sp ee d w as increase d o ver sixfo l d

Pr o gress fr om M u shet st eel to bes t mod ern h ig h sp ee d
st eel s ho ws very great increase in tungst en an d c h r om i um
very gr eat d ecrease in carb on m anganese an d silic on an d
th e int r odu c ti on O f th e new ele m ent vana d i um

S tudy o f th e h ig h s p ee d s t eels by th e equ ilibri um d ia

gram is bey on d th e sc op e of th is b oo k b ut th e h eat
t reatm ent necessary fo r best resul t s is as fo ll o ws :
Th e c utt ing en d o f th e too l is rs t raise d sl o wly an d
unifo r m ly to a brig ht c h erry re d ; th en i t is raise d as
rap i d ly as po ssible t o a t e mp eratu re a t w h i c h th e e d ges
o f th e too l begin to fu se ; th e w ho le en d of th e too l mu s t
be raised unifo r m ly to th is t e mp eratu re o f in ci p ien t f u s i o n
.

F rom M r T ay lor s p ap er

M A T ER I ALS

17 6

OF

A CH I N E S

Th e too l is th en p l unge d in to a mo l t en lea d bath a t a t e m

w h ere th e too l t e mp era tu re is very
per at ur e o f 1 1 50 F
rap i d ly re du c e d to o r bel o w 1 550 F
Th e amoun t o f
lea d in th e bath mu s t b e en ou gh s o th a t i t s t e mp eratur e
s h all n ot be sensib ly raise d by th e h ea t given out by th e
c oo ling too l becau se i t is i mpo rt an t th at th e t e mp erature
o f th e too l s h all n ot be raise d a t all a t any ti m e du ring
th is c oo ling p r o cess F r om th e t emp erat u re O f 1550 F
o r l o wer
th e c oo ling to air t e mp eratu re m ay be fast o r
sl o w wi thout h ar mful res ul t Th e p r o cess thu s f ar is

c alle d th e h ig h h eat t reatm en t

Th e too l is th en given l o w h ea t t reatm en t as fo ll o ws :

i t is h eat e d sl o wly a t rst an d th en th r ou g h th e agency
t o a t em
o f a lea d ba th w h ic h is ke pt a t ab ou t 1 1 5 0 F
an d bel o w 1 2 40 F ;
per at u r e th a t mu s t be ab o ve 7 00 F
i t is h el d a t th is t e mp era tur e ab out ve m in iI t es an d th en
c oo le d ei th er in an air blas t o r si mp ly by e xpo s ure to s t ill
air Th e too l is th en rea dy fo r u se an d i t will ho l d i t s
c utt ing e d ge aft er i t h as gr o wn re d hot u n d er th e c ut
I t is i mpo r t an t th at th e t e mp eratu re sh all n ot ex cee d
12 4 0 F du ring th is lo w h eat t rea tm en t beca u se th ere

w oul d resul t grea t re du c t i on o f th e qu ali ty o f red

h ar dness

C H A PT E R X I
N O N FERR O
-

US

A LL O YS

WH E N t w o m e t als are m el t e d t o ge th er o n e u s u ally

t akes th e oth er into li qu i d s o l ut i o n o r p er h ap s th e t w o
m e t als t ake eac h oth er mutu ally into s o l u t i o n w i th wi d e
range of c ompo si t i o n Th e t e mp era ture o f s o li d icati on
o f th e p re po n d era t ing m e t al is s om e t i m es re du ce d by th e
int r odu c ti on o f th e oth er m e t al as w h en an increasing
amount o f z inc is a dd e d to c opp er ; o r th e s o li d icat i o n
t emp eratu re m ay be increase d as w h en th e p r o cess is
rev erse d an d increasing a mou nt s o f c opp er are a dd e d to
z inc W h en th e c oo ling all oy s o li dies th e s o l uti o n m ay
c on tinu e into t h e s oli d st at e ; o r th e all oy c ons t i tu ent s
m ay sep arat e c omp le t ely f r om eac h oth er ; o r c h e mical
c om binat i o n o f po r t i ons o f th e c onst i tu en t s m ay o cc u r ;
o r th ere m ay be c om bina t i o ns o f th ese res u l t s
I n mo s t
o f th e all o ys th a t are u se fu l to th e engineer th e s o li d is
c ompo se d of o n e o r mo re cryst alli z e d s o l ut i ons I n s om e
cases th ere are several d i ff erent p o ssible s o l ut i ons an d
th e o nes th at fo r m d e p en d o n th e p r opo r ti ons of th e c on
st it u en t s p resen t
A ll oys wi th c o pper as c h i e f c o ns t i tu en t are mo s t im
po r t an t in engineering w o rk
o
e
r
Th e c pp z in c all oy s are u s u ally calle d bra ss
I n th e upp er p ar t o f F ig 32 th e brass e q u ilibri um
di agram is s ho wn wi t h th e ent ire range fr om c opp er
,

Th i s di agram is from a p a p er o n t h e C on stit u ti on of t h e C op p er

Z in c A llo ys b y M r E M Sh e ph erd in t h e J o u rn al of Physical C hem
istry Vo l V III p 4 2 1
.

1 77

1 78

MATE RIALS O F MACHIN E S

p er cent to z inc 100 p er cent I n th e l o wer p ar t of

F ig 3 2 are c u rves th a t s ho w s t rength an d du c t i li t y O f t he
100

1980

h
c

n
I

r
a

u
q
S

p
s

u
o

P
d

n
a
s

u
o

T
e

n
o

t
i

U HO

A llo y s R esear c h C

tt

ommi

ee o f

t I ti t t

t h e Bri ish

FIG

32

ns

io n

of

M ec h ani cal E n gin eers

N O N FER R OUS ALLO Y S

179

ll oys of varying c ompo si t i on in th e fo r m s o f cas t ings

wo rke d r od s and anneale d all oy
I n th e eq u ilibri um d iagram th e c u rve o f inci p ient s o li d i
c at io n c o nsist s o f six branc h es an d th ere are si x c o rre
Th e
spo n din g s o li d s o l ut i o ns o r ph ases o f c opp er an d z inc
branc h es an d c o rrespo n d ing ph ases are as fo ll o ws :
Ph s
h
B

a e

r an c

FG

7)

A li q ui d s o l u t i o n of z inc in c opp er re p resent e d b y th e

p o int h o n th e d iagram m ay be fo ll o we d in c oo ling O n
reac hing h th e s o l ut i o n begins to s oli d i fy beginning wi th
th e for m at i o n O f cryst als lo w in z inc an d c ont inu ing w i th
th e fo r m ati o n o f cryst als w i th st ead ily increasing z inc c on
t en t u nt il hz is reac h e d an d s o li d icat i on is c omp let e Wi th
sufcient ly sl o w c ooling d i ffu si o n p r obably w oul d p r odu c e
Th e res ul t
a homo gene ou s s o li d s o l ut i o n o f ( 1 crys t als
w ou l d be th e sam e anyw h ere fr om A an d b2 ( c opp er 1 00
p er cent t o 7 0 p er cent ) e x ce pt th at th e p r opo r t i o n o f z inc
w oul d st ead ily increase an d c o l o r w oul d c h ange gra d
u ally f r om c opp er re d to lig ht yell o w a t ab out 9 0 p er cen t
c opp er an d to d ark yell o w a t b2 wi th c opp er 7 0 p er cen t
R e f erence to th e l o wer c u rves s ho ws th a t a dd i t i o n o f
z inc to c opp er up to 30 p er cent Z n p r od u cing th e a s o li d
s o l ut i on gives i ncrease in st rength an d in du c tili t y an d
h ence in s ho ck resist anc e w h eth er th e res u l ting brass
is in th e fo r m of cast ings anneale d brass o r w o r k e d r od s
Als o any s o l ut i o n be t ween b5 an d b3 ( c o pp er 70 p er cen t
an d 6 4 p er cent ) i n c oo ling even t u ally en t ers th e el d
w h ere a is th e st able s o li d s ol uti o n an d th is range is c h ar
an d h ence
a c t er iz ed by h ig h s t rength an d du c t ili t y
,

MATE RIALS O F MACHIN E S

18 0

h ig h s ho ck resist ance B e tw een b3 an d C 3 ( c opp er 64

p er cent to 4 0 p er cen t) equi libri um c o rrespo n d s t o a
m ixture o f a an d 7 s o li d s o l ut i o ns an d th r ou g h th is range
th ere is rst a st ee p rise in strengt h up t o ab out 5 3 p er
cent c op p er an d a st ee p d r op in du c tili ty t o z er o a t c opp er
ab ou t 50 p er cen t an d th en th e st ren gth f alls very rap i dly
Th is c h ange is p r obably du e rs t to th e inu ence o f in
e
ut
ec
t
ic
an
d
la
t
er
to
increasing
a
mou
n
t
creasing a
7
F r om 5 0 p er cen t c opp er to th e po r e
o f f ree 7 s o l u t i o n
z inc en d o f th e range th e all oys are w o r th less t o th e eu
.

gin eer

opp er z inc wi th in th e range ( c opp er 63 p er c en t t o

5 6 p er cen t ) is s om e t i m es calle d M un tz m e t al ; th is all oy
can be r o lle d o r fo rge d at a re d h eat th at is in th e el d
B C 2 C 1 w h ere i t is in th e fo r m o f B s o l u t i o n ; i t is u se d
fo r s h eath ing an d f ast enings fo r s h ip s Th e l o wer d ia
gram s ho ws th at wi th th is all oy th ere is s om e sac rice of
du c t ili ty to gain st rength
F o r c as t ings th e all oy u s u ally c o nt ains c opp er ab o u t
67 p er c en t w h ile fo r ing ot s to be d rawn in to tubes o r
wire th e c opp er is ab out 7 0 p er cent c o rrespon d ing nearly
to m axi mum du c tili ty
'
n
C o l d w o r ki g b r eaks do wn th e crys t alline st r u c ture o f
brass increasing st r ength an d bri tt leness an d during th e
p r o cesses o f d raw ing t ubes o r wire th e brass mu st be f r e
q u ent ly anneale d to resto re du c t ili ty Th e e ffec t of
c o l d w o rking is obvi ou s on c omp ariso n o f th e t ensile
st rength c u rve o f w o rke d r od s wi th th e c u rve of anneale d
brass in F ig 3 2 Th is increase in s t rength mu st h ave
been ac c omp anie d by re du c t i on of d u c tili ty
Th e annealing is ac c omp lis h e d by h eat ing th e brass to a
t emp eratu re bet w een 1100 F an d 1 2 00 F w h ere r ec ry s
t alliz at io n o cc u rs
Q u enc h ing f r om th is t e mp eratu re
t en d s t o ho l d cryst als sm all w h ereas th ey increase in si z e
C

N O N FER R OUS ALLO Y S

18 1

wi th sl o w c oo l i ng Wi th ei t h er m e t hod o f c oo ling th e
all oy is s o f t
Th e q uali ty o f bra s s is O ft en affec t e d by th e p resence o f
s ubst ances oth er th an c opp er an d z inc ; th ese s ubst ances
m ay ent er as i mpuri ties wi th o n e o f th e c onst i tu en t s o r
th ey m ay be pu r po sely int r odu ce d beca use o f th eir d esir
able inu enc e O f ph ysical p r op er t ies
I n e xp eri m en t s rec o r d e d i n a
A lu min u m in b ra s s

*
b oo k on A ll oys by S exton p age 108 al um in um 0 to
5 p er cen t was a dd e d to brass wi th 6 0 p er cen t c opp er an d
Th e c opp er c ont en t
t o brass wi th 7 0 p er cen t c opp er
was ke pt c onst an t and th e 1 00 p er cent w a s m a d e up by
al umin um an d z inc I n oth er w o r d s al um in um d is p lace d
z inc up to 5 p er cen t I n b oth cases th e res ul t was an
increase in t ensile st rength an d a re d u c ti o n in du c t ili t y
S ince th i s sam e resu l t c oul d be ac c omp lis h e d mo re c heap ly
by increasing th e p r opo r ti on o f z inc th e u se o f al um inum
w oul d see m h ar d ly to be j u s tie d O f c ou rse a sm all
amoun t o f al um in um w ou l d be u se fu l as a ux in m el ting
an d casting re d u cing c opp er oxi d e an d removing gas th a t
w ou l d p r odu ce po r o si t y ; b ut th is al um in u m w ou l d n ot
app ear in th e all oy

M an g an e s e in b ra s s
W h en m anganese 0 to 7 p er
cen t d isp lac es z inc in brass wi th 60 p er c en t c o pper r th e
eff ec t i s slig ht increase in st rength an d slight d ecrease in
du c tili ty A ls o th ere i s th e sam e resu l t w h en m anganese
0 to 10 p er cen t d isp laces z inc in brass w i th 7 0 p er cen t
c opp er Th e resul t h ere as in th e case o f al um inum
Th e
w o ul d n o t see m to j u st i fy th e u se o f m anganese
m anganese like th e al uminum m ay be u se d f o r a ux
Ir o n in b ra s s
I r o n is oft en p resen t in brass in very
sm all a mo u nt d erive d f r om ir o n too ls u se d du rin g m el ting
S c i ent i c Pub lish i ng C om p an y M an ch ester

1
1
Allo
y
b
y
Se
x
ton
p
s
7
1
.

MATE RIALS O F MACHIN ES

182

an d c oo ling I r o n is als o int r odu ce d in to brass up t o a

li tt le mo re th an 1 p er cent giving a t ernary all oy c alle d

d elt a m e t al
w hic h is sa i d t o h ave a d van t ages of
s t reng th an d du c t ili ty Th e ir o n i s rst all oye d wi th th e
z inc an d th is all oy is th en m elt e d wi th c o pp er
A r s en i c an d an ti m on y i n very s m all q u an t i t i es are
oft en p resent in brass being br oug ht as i mpu ri ties in th e
c op p er ; b oth are very un d esi rable m aking th e bras s h ar d
an d bri ttle A nti mony is esp ecially ba d in brass th at is

to be r o lle d o r d raw n since i t p r odu ces c o l d s ho r tness

i t s hou l d n ot e x cee d
p er cent Th e ill -e ff ec t of
arseni c i s less b ut i t s houl d n ot e x cee d
p er cent
Th e c opp er c o ns ti tu en t o f brass
O xyg en in b ra s s
oxi d i z es very rea d ily du ring m el ting an d c asting an d
c opp er oxi d e f o r m e d m akes th e brass weak an d br i ttle
A s s t a t e d ab ove th e c op p er oxi d e can be re du ce d by u se
of al umin um o r m anganese u se d as a ux ; p ho s pho ru s als o
is oft en u se d very e ff ec t ively fo r th is pu rpo se
r
O
F ig 33 g i ve s t h e
B ro n z e s o
c pper tin al l oy s
eq uilibri um d iagram
fo r th e c opp er t in all oys wi th
th e t ensile s t ren gth an d du c tili ty d iagra m i n th e sam e
relati on as f o r c opp er-z inc in F ig 3 2 Th e s t reng th an d
du c tili ty c u rves sho w th a t u seful all oys fo r s tress m embers
are c onne d to th e range c o p p er 1 00 p er cent to c opp er
ab out 8 5 p er cent
Th e e qu ilibri um d iagra m s ho ws th at several s oli d
s o l uti ons and one c h e m ical c omp oun d are fo r m e d in th e
series ; th e a s o l uti o n see m s t o p o ssess f air s trength an d
du c t ili ty an d h ence s ho ck resist ance ; th e B s o l ut i on
obvi ou sly is n ot s t able a t air t emp era tu re an d th e p resence
Wi th o r d inary
o f th e f ree 5 s o l ut i o n is f a t al to du c t ili t y
.

F rom a p ap er

Th e C on stit u tion o f t h e C o pp er T in A llo ys

b y E S Sh eph erd and E B lough J o u rn al of P hysica l C hemis try
V o l X p 630
.

N O N FERROUS ALLO Y S
-

18 3

c oo ling B crys t als in s m all a moun t are re t aine d

c opp er u nd er 9 1 p er cen t and a larger a moun t m ay
h el d by q u enc h ing
Th e c opp er t in all oy th a t gi ves th e best c ombinati on
st rength and du c t ili ty an d h ence of s ho ck resis t ance
c op p er 90 t in 10 an d th i s all oy is mo s t c ommo nly u se d
m ac h ines
of

u
q
a
r
e

p
, o

u
u

so Si)

u
u

30

u
n
u
s

20

3
:

O
l
l

F IG

33

1 84

MA TE RIALS O F

ACHIN E S

tr eatm en t o f b ronz e s
S h e ph er d an d U p to n
m a d e a care fu l series o f t est s of th e physical q u ali t ies of
*
th e c opp er t in all oys
Th e st rength an d du c t ili ty
c urves o f F ig 33 are t aken fr om th eir repo r t Th eir
w o rk als o incl u d e d a s tud y o f h eat t reatm en t o f th ese
all o ys Th e h eat t rea tm en t m e thod s were as fo ll o ws :
H

eat

H eat e d

el d

to

on e

lo w -re d ,

week a t

wat er q u enc h e d

wat er q u enc h e d

1 000 F

T es t e d as cast
H el d o n e week a t

7 52 F

fu rnac e c oo le d

Th e lett ere d cu rves of F ig 3 4 s ho w th e effec t o f th ese

m e thod s o f h eat t reatm ent upon th e u l ti m at e st rength
o f br o n z es f r om c opp er 1 00 p er cen t to c op p er 6 5 p er cen t
I n F ig 3 5 th e c u rves s ho w th e c o rrespo n d ing eff ec t s u pon
du c t ili ty M ethod s B an d D are O f scient ic int erest
b ut o nly m e thod s A and C can be p rac ti c ally app lie d
C u rves A an d C F ig 34 s ho w th a t h eat ing cas t ings to
re d ne ss an d q u enc h ing h as li ttle e ffec t o n st rength th r ou g h
th e range c opp er 1 00 p er cent to 8 7 p er c en t ; bu t th at
fr om c o p p er 8 7 p er cen t to 7 8 p er cen t th e h eat t reatm en t
cau ses a d ist inc t increase in st rength R e f erring to th e
eq uilibri um d iagra m F ig 33 S ho ws th at all oys in th e a
el d are unaff ec t e d by q u enc hing w h ereas raising th e
all oys in to th e a
B el d an d q u enc h ing th r ou g h th e
Th is resu l t is p r o bably
a
5 el d increases s t rength
du e to c ont r o l of p r opo r t i ons o f a B an d 6
F ig 3 5 s ho ws th a t q u enc h ing increases du c t ili t y th r ou g h
o u t th e en t ire range c opp er 1 00 p er cen t to 7 7 p er cen t
Th is res ul t is p r obably du e to th e ho l d ing o f ne grain
by q u ick c oo ling
.

S ee J ou rnal

Ju ne , 1905

P hysic al C hem is try,

V ol IX N o
.

6,

4 41 ,

18 5

N O N F ERROUS ALLO Y S
-

e t C o ppe
F IG 34

P er

3
$
P er

e t C apper

F IG

A
.

Heated to lo w red
Held o n e w eek at
-

Held

o ne

w ee

k at

35

ater qu en ch ed
1000 F
w ater q u en ch ed
w

75 2 F

fu rna c e c ooled

MATE RIALS O F MACHIN E S

18 6

Gu illet

c oncl u si ons
fr om h is exp eri m ent s o n
h ea t t reatm ent O f br on z es are as fo ll o w s :
1 I n th e case o f all o ys c ont aining o ver 9 2 p er cent of
c op p er th e t enaci ty is slig ht ly increase d by q uenc h ing
be t ween 7 52 F an d 1 1 12 F an d th e el ongat i o n 1s si m
ilar ly a ff ec t e d
2 I n th e case o f all o ys c o nt aining less th an 9 2 p er cen t
of c opp er th e t enaci ty an d th e el ongat i o n increase d e
c id e d ly as s oo n as th e q u enc h ing t e mp era ture e x cee d s
M

9 32

axi mum st rength is reac h e d w h at ever th e c om

po si t i on o f th e all o y at a q u enc h ing t e mp erat u re o f ab out
3

1 1 12

ax i m u m el ongat i o n is reac h e d b y q u enc h ing fr om

t emp eratu res w h ic h vary w i th th e c ompo si t i on of th e all oy
Wi th 9 1 p er cent c opp er m axi m u m el ongat i o n c o rre
14 7 2 F
w h ile
sp o n ds to a q u enc h ing t e mp era tu re of
wi th 7 9 p er c ent th e m axi mum el ongati o n c o rrespond s
to a q u enc h ing t e mp eratu re O f 1 112 F
5 Th e d i f ferenc e be t w een th e t enaci t y of th e cas t
all o y an d th at O f th e m e t al q u enc h e d a t th e mo st d esirable
t e mp erature is th e great er th e less th e p erc ent age of
c opp er
-a l u m in um
o
pp
A very care fu l invest iga
r
all oy s
e
C
t i on o f c opp er al um inu m all oys was m a d e by th e A ll oys
R esearc h C omm i tt ee of th e B ri tis h I nst i tut i o n of M ec h an
ical E ngineers re po rt e d in th e P roc eedin gs 19 07 I n th e
s u mm ary o f c o ncl u si ons i t is s t at e d th at th e li mi t o f
in d u st rially serviceable all oys mu s t be p lac e d at 1 1 p er
cent of al um inu m
F ig 3 6 gives an eq u ilibri um d iagram T o f c opp er
4

See Alloys b y A H Sex ton p 13 6

T See Th e C on stit u tion of t h e Al u min u m B ron z e s b y B E
C urry J ou rn al of P hysi c al C hem is try V o l X I p 4 2 5

N O N FERR OUS ALL O Y S

18 7

al um in um an d c o rresp o n ding s tren gth an d du c t ili t y

c u rve s fr om th e A R C re p o r t Th e al umin um li m i t in
th e d iagram s is 15 p er c en t
I n th e l o wer d iagra m :
.

F u ll line

A gives st rength o f san d cas t ings ;

F u ll line B gives s t ren gth of c h ill cas t ings ;
F u ll line C gives s t rength of r o lle d bars ;
B r o ken line A gives el ongat i o n in 2 inc h es

san d

of

B r o ken

line B gives el o ngat i o n in 2 inc h es o f

c h ill cast ings ;
B r o ken line C gives el ongat i on in 2 inc h es o f r o lle d
bars
.

Th e very h ig h val u es o f el ongati o n m ay be acc o u nt e d f o r

in p ar t by th e f ac t th at th e o riginal length o f t est e d
po r t i o n was 2 inc h es Th e u se ful range m ay be d ivi d e d
into t w o p ar t s :al um in um 0 p er c ent to 8 p er cent an d
al u m in um 8 to 1 1 p er cent I n th e rs t d ivisi on increase
in al um in um c ont ent cau ses st ea d y increase in t ensile
1
s trength an d up to ab ou t 7 2 p er cent al um in um st ea dy
increase in du c t ili ty I n th e sec o n d d ivisi on th e st reng th
rises mo re st ee p ly w h ile th e du c t ili ty f alls s t ee p ly to a
val u e c o rrespon d ing to great bri tt leness a t 1 1 p er cen t
al um in um
Th e rst d ivisi o n gives st r o ng very du c t ile s ho ck
resist an t all oys
Th e sec on d d ivisi on gives mo re d esirable all oys w h ere
du c t ility s hou l d be sacric e d to gain great er s t rength
C omp aris o n o f fu ll an d br o ken c u rves A an d B s ho ws
th at c h ill casting do es n ot give any s t reng th o r du c t ili t y
a d vant age o ver san d casting up to 8 p er cen t al um in um
b ut th a t be t ween 8 an d 1 1 p er cen t al um in um c h i ll cas t
ing increases b oth st rength an d du c tili t y
C u rve s C
.

MATE RIALS O F MACHIN E S

188

s ho w t h at r o lling increases b oth s t rength an d du c t ili ty in

th e rst d ivisi on b ut th at in th e sec o n d di vi si o n r o lling
gives ab out th e sam e resu l t s as c h ill cast ing
T wo kin d s of h eat t rea tm en t w ere app lie d to th e san d
,

1832

1652
2

1472

100

:
1

3
so

g 2 60

1 a
:

5
.

,5

:
1

F IG

36

castings th e c h ill c ast ings an d th e r o lle d bars ; th ey were

h eat e d to ab out 14 7 2 F an d c oo le d sl o wly ; th ey were
h eat e d to ab out 14 7 2 F an d q u enc h e d in wa t er
N ei th er sl o w c oo ling no r q u enc h ing f r om 14 7 2 F s ee m s
,

NO N FERROUS ALL OY S

189

pr odu ce very great c h ang e in st ren gt h o r du c ti li ty o f

sand cast ings
I n case O f c h ille d castings sl o w c oo ling f r om 1 4 7 2 F
h as li tt le eff ec t up t o 8 p er cent all o ys b ut fr om 8 p er c en t
a l um in um to 11 p er cen t b o t h s t rength an d du c t ili t y see m
to be s om ew h at re du ce d Q u enc h ing fr om 1 4 7 2 F see m s
t o h ave p rac t i cally n o e ffec t upo n s t reng th an d du c t ili t y
R o lle d bars c oo le d sl o wly f r om 14 7 2 F S ho w increasing
d ecrease in st rength th r ou g hout th e entire range an d
increase in du c tili ty unt il near th e 1 1 p er cen t li m i t Th e
e ffec t o f q u enc h ing r o lle d bars fr om 14 7 2 F see m s t o be
t o d ecrease st rength an d increase du c t ili ty up to 8 p er cen t
al um in um an d fr om 8 to 1 1 p er cent al um inum to i ncrease
st ren gth an d t o d ecrease du c tili ty
A c omp arat ive s tud y of F igs 32 3 3 an d 3 6 s ho ws th a t
th ere is great si milarity among th e c opp er z inc th e c opp er
t in an d th e c opp er al um in um all oys I n eac h case th ere
are t w o u se fu l ranges ; o n e of m e di u m st reng th an d h ig h
d u c t ili ty an d h ence o f h ig h s ho ck resist anc e an oth er of
rap i d ly increasing st rength an d rap i d ly d ecreasing du c
to

t ilit y

Th e rs t range in eac h ca s e c o rrespo n d s nearly to th e

el d o f a s o l ut i on o f th e e qu ilibri u m d iagra m w h ile th e
sec on d range c o rresp o n d s to th e int r odu c t i o n o f s om e
oth er s o l ut i o n of th e c onst i tu ent s w h ic h in increasing p r o
p o r t i o n rap i d ly re du ces t h e all oys to bri tt leness an d
u selessness
D r Thu rs t o n m a d e a very fu ll series o f
Kalc hoid s
e xp eri m ent s o n th e t ernary all oys of c opp er t in an d z inc
w h ic h h e calle d kalc ho ids H e re p resen t e d th e w ho le el d
o f po ssible c om bina t i o ns o f th e th ree m e t als by an e q u i
lat eral t riang ular area M any po int s a t eq u al d ist ances
f rom eac h oth er were l o cat e d in th is area an d eac h re p
resent e d an all o y wi t h cer t ain p r o p o r ti o ns o f t h e t h ree
,

MATE RIALS O F MACHIN E S

1 90

c onst i tu ent s A ll oys were m ad e c o rrespon d ing t o eac h

po int an d t est e d At ea c h po int was erec t e d a piece o f
wi re w ho se h eig h t re p resent e d th e s t rength o f th e all o y
re p resent e d by th e po in t Plasti c m at erial was th en lle d
in be t ween th e wires an d i t s s ur f ac e was mo l d e d so th a t
th e po int s of th e wir e j u s t s ho we d th r ou g h Th 1s su r face
re p resent e d topo graph ic ally th e varying s t rength o f all
po ssible mi xtu res of c opp er tin an d z inc an d th e all o y
of m axi mum st ren gth was th ereby l o cat e d (S ee Th u rs

ton s
T extb oo k o f th e M at erials of C o ns t r u c ti on
p age 4 6 6 )
P h o s ph o r b r o n z e
W h en any all o y c o n t aining a
h ig h p ercent age of c opp er is m el t e d in c ont ac t wi th th e
air th ere is a st r ong t en d ency to fo r m c opp er o xi d e th e
a fni ty O f c opp er fo r oxygen being e x cee d ingly s t r ong
I f th e c oo le d all oy c o nt ains c opp er oxi d e i t is w eak an d
bri tt le j u st as ir o n c ont aining ir on oxi d e is w eak an d
bri tt le C opp er all oys are u s u ally m el t e d wi th c h arc o al
upon th e s u r f ace to p reven t oxi d ati o n bu t th e p revent i o n
is n ot c omp le t e I f pho spho ru s is a dd e d to th e all oy
j u st be fo re pouring th e c opp er o xi d e is re du ce d an d pho s
r
h
aci
d
is
fo
r
m
e
d
th
e
all
o
y
is
pu
rie
d
by
th
e
o
i
c
i
e
p
uxin g ac t i on of th e pho s pho r u s
Th is increases b oth th e
st ren gth an d du c t ili ty O f th e all o y I f an e x c ess o f p ho s
h
f
w
is
a
dd
e
d
p
ar
t
i
t
m
ay
c
om
bine
i th th e all oy
o
r
u
s
O
p
an d increase i t s s t rengt h an d d u c t ili ty b ut th e p r opo r t i on
p er cent o r bri tt le
o f pho spho r u s s hou l d n ot e x c ee d
ness res u l t s ; i t is p r obable th at th e c h ie f val u e o f i t s
p resence is to p reven t th e fo r m a t i on o f o xi d e o f c opp er
during re m el ting
M an gan e s e b r o n z e is m a d e ei th er by fu sing to ge th er
a
c
opp
er
an
d
black
ox
i
d
e
of
m
anganese
o
r
b
c
opp
er
)
(
( )
I n th e rs t case th e
o r br o n z e an d f err om anganese
p r odu c t is an all oy of c opp er m anganese an d ir o n an d
.

N O N FERR OUS ALL OY S

19 1

in t h e sec on d an all o y o f C opp er t in m anganese an d ir o n

S om e o f th e m anganese is e ff ec t ive in re moving o r p re
venting th e fo r m at i o n of oxi d e of c opp er w h ile th e r e
m ain der c om bines wi th th e c op p er o r br o n z e to give i t
very great ly increase d s t reng th du c t ili ty an d tou g h ness
A m anganese br on z e c opp er
p er cen t m anganese
p er c ent ir o n
p er c en t h as a s t rength an d
d u c t ili ty e q u al to th at o f op en h ear th s t eel wi th
p er
cent carb o n I t is mu c h u se d f o r m arine p r o p eller
w h eels becau se i t do es n ot c o rr od e easily
A ll o f th e u se fu l c opp er all o ys are mo re o r less fo rgeable

c opp er 60 z inc 4 0 is r o lle d at a re d h eat

M un tz m et al
into p lat es fo r s h eath ing s h i p s an d into fo r m s fo r b o l t s
an d oth er f ast enings I t is s t r onger c h eap er an d mo re
du rable th an pu re c opp er Th e w o rking o f M untz m e t al
*
a t re d h eat is po ssible becau se i t is in th e B eld a t th at
t e mp eratu re an d th e B s o l ut i on is du c t ile O n c oo ling
however i t ent ers th e a
Th e
7 el d l o sing du c t ili t y
e ff ec t o f c o l d w o rking upo n th e c opp er all oys is si m ilar
to th at upon ir on an d st eel ; vi z th e s t reng th an d h ar d
ness are increase d an d th e du c t ili ty is d ecrease d ; h ence
th e m at erial is mo re bri tt le Th is will be clear on c om
p aring h ar d d rawn brass wire wi th t h e sam e wire a ft er
annealing
B rass an d br o n z e o f d i ff eren t c ompo si t i o n are u se d fo r
j ou rnal b ox es bu t mod ern p rac t ice f av o rs a b ox o f cas t
ir on brass o r br on z e wi th a lining of s oft er m e t al u su ally
a w h i t e all oy
O n e gr ou p of th ese w h i t e all oys is m a d e up o f t in wi th
s m all p r opo r ti ons o f c opp er o r ant i mo ny o r b o t h to pro
du ce st rength an d h ar d ness

Thu s B abbi tt m et al c onsis t s o f t in ab out 89 p er

cen t c op p er 2 t o 4 p er cen t an d antim o ny ab out
to
See F ig 3 2
,

MA TE RIALS O F MACHIN E S

192

p er cent Th is is an e x cellent bearing all oy b ut

e xp ensive
A noth er group c o nsist s of lea d h ard ene d wi th ant imo ny
Th e ant i mony varies fr om 1 0 p er cent to 2 0 p er cent an d
s om et i m es a sm all amount of t in is a dd e d Th is all oy
is c om p arat i vely in exp ens iv e

C H A PTE R X I I
S E LE C T I O N

OF

M A T E R I A LS

FOR

M A C HIN E S

Th e mo re i mpo r t ant m at erials u se d in m ac h ine c o n

st r u c ti on m ay be br ou g ht to ge th er as fo ll o ws :
st eel
2 H ig h carb o n st eel
3 M il d s t eel p r odu ce d by t h e B esse m er o r o p en
h ear th p r o cess
4 S p ecial st r u c tu ral s t eel
5 Wr ou g ht ir o n
6 C ast ir o n
7 M alleablei z e d cas t i r o n
8 S t eel cast ings
9 B rass o r br on z e
Th is nam e i ncl ud es all o f t h e w h i t e
1 0 W h i t e m e t al
all oys u se d fo r lining j ou rnal b ox es e t c
1

H ig h -sp ee d

st eel is val u able becau se of i t s h ar d ness

an d tou g h ness w h ic h t i t f o r c utt ing too ls fo r m e t als
an d esp ecially becau se i t ret ain s th ese q u ali t ies w h en
raise d to re d h eat Th is m akes very hig h c u tt ing s p ee d
po ssible wi th c o rrespo nd ing increase in outp u t o f m e t al
c utt ing m ac h ines Th is st eel is very e xp ensive becau se
i t s m anufac tu re an d i t s h eat t reat
o f i t s c o ns t i tu en t s
m ent b u t th e exp ense is amp ly j u s tie d by th e resul t s
2 H ig h carb o n s t eel is st ill u se d fo r a w i d e range of
c utt ing too ls an d i t is val u able becau se o f i t s q u ali t y of
h ar d ening an d t e mp ering I t is als o u se fu l fo r st res s
m e mbers w h ere great s trengt h c ombine d wi th m e d i um
1

H ig h - sp ee d

19 3

194

MA TERIALS O F MACHIN ES

du c t ili ty is o f p ri m e i mpo r t ance ; als o fo r sp rings becau se

o f i t s wi d e na t ural o r ar t icial elas t i c range
3 M il d st eel by reas o n of i t s m e di um s t ren gth h i g h
du c ti li ty an d l o w p rice is u se d in s tr u c tures an d m ac h ines
f o r all ex ce p t sp ecial service
4 S p ecial s t r u c tu ral s t eels c on t aining nickel c h r om i um
vanad i um e t c are u se fu l becau se th eir h ig h st rength du c
t ilit y an d s ho ck resist ance t th e m fo r lig ht s ho ck en
du ring s t r u c tu res like moto r cars an d aer op lanes as well
as f o r great s ho ck resis t ance in p r o j ec tiles an d ar mo r
p lat es
5 Wr ou g ht ir o n h as th e a d van t age o ver m il d s t eel
th at i t fo rges mu c h mo re easily p r obably becau se of i t s
slag c ont ent an d h enc e i t is u se d q ui t e ext ensively fo r
h and fo rging I t i s als o clai m e d th at i t is less su bj ec t t o
d est r u c t i o n by c o rr o si o n an d h ence i t st ill c omp e t es with
st eel f o r p i p es b o iler tubes an d si mi lar servi ce
6 C as t ir o n is al mo s t u niversa lly u se d fo r fo r m s t h a t
mu st be s h ap e d by c ast ing esp ecially w h ere great weig ht is
un obj ec t i o nable o r w h ere great weig ht i s d esirable as in
y
w h eels m ac h ine be d s o r f ram es Wh en cast fo r m s
requ ire b oth st ren gth an d lig htness c ast i r o n gives p lac e
to oth er m at erial
cas
t
f
o
r
m
s
th
a
t
re
q
u
ire
7 M alleable ir o n i s u se d '
fo r
great S ho ck resist anc e
fo r pu r p o ses fo r w h i c h bri tt le
cast ir o n is unsaf e
8 S t eel cast ings m ee t th e sam e nee d as m alleable
cast ir on b ut th e p r o cess fo r p r odu c t i on an d th e natu re
o f th e m at erial a d apt s th e m to mu c h larger m ac h ine
m e mbers
9 Th e c opp er all oys h ave n o a d van t age o ver m i l d
st eel in st rength du c tili ty an d s ho ck resist ance an d
h ence since th e c o st is very mu c h great er th ere mu st be
s om e oth er a d van t age t o lead t o th eir selec t i o n f o r m ac h ine
.

SE LE CT I O N O F MATE RIAL S

19 5

p ar t s Th ese all oys are mu c h saf er agains t oxi d at i o n

th an st eel an d h ence ar e u se d fo r c o n d enser tubes oft en
fo r fee d p i p es fo r valves of m any kin d s an d fo r m any
p art s of m ec h anis m s s ubj ec t to c o rr o s i o n M o re o ver th ese
all oys h ave g ood anti fric ti o n q u ali ties an d are u s ed fo r
wearing su r f aces
10 Th e w h i t e all o ys are c h ie y u sef u l f o r weari ng
s u rf aces Th e su r fac es of m ac h ine p ar t s th a t mo ve o ver
eac h oth er un d er p ress ure are n o r m ally se p arat e d by a
l m o f l ubricating m at erial B ut un d er e x c epti o nal c on
dit io ns th e m e t alli c s u r f aces th e m selves m ay c om e in t o
c ont ac t ; w h en th is o cc u rs th e d anger of r ou g h ening o r
d estr oyi ng th e su r faces d ep en d s s om ew h a t upon th e ex cel
lence o f th e s u r f ace an d kin d of m at erial
A m at er i al m ay be well a d apt e d fo r wearing s ur f aces
becau s e o f (a) h ar d ness (b) sli pp eriness (c) homo gene ou s
ness o r (d) beca u se it i s p ar t ly c ompo se d o f l ubricating
m at erial
Thu s (a) h ar d ene d too l-st eel is d i fc u l t to r ou gh en
becau se o f i t s h ar dness ; (b) w h i t e m e t al thou g h s oft is
d i fc ul t to r ou g h en becau se th e r ou g h eni ng agen t sli d es
o ver th e sli pp ery s u r f ac e ; (0) m il d st eel w ou l d h ave less
t en d ency to r ou g h en an engaging s u r face th an wr ou g ht
i r on becau se th e fo r m er h as a homo gene ou s s u r face
w h ile th e latt er carries st reaks of gri tt y cin d er ; (d) cast
ir on t en d s to wear s mooth rath er th an r ou g h becau se i t
c ont ains graph i t ic carb on a l ubricat ing m at erial
Th e i d eal fo r r ot at ing s u r f aces w ou l d be a h ar d ene d
accu rat ely gr oun d cr u cible st eel j ournal wi th i t s bearing
line d wi th h ig h gra d e w h i t e m e t al B u t h ere th e q u est i o n
o f c o s t en t ers fo r th e c o s t of th e j ou rnal s p ecie d incl ud es
h ig h rs t c o s t fo r th e cr u cible st eel th e c o st fo r h ar d
en in g an d a c o s t inci d en t upo n th e l o ss of exp ensive
p ar t s th r oug h cracking in th e p r o cess of h ar d ening I n
.

19 6

A TE RIALS O F MACHIN ES

a dd i t i o n to th is an exp ensive p lan t is req uire d f o r th e

h ar d ening o f large j ou rnals
I n st an d ar d p rac tice mi l d st eel j ournals are u se d wi th
bearings line d wi th w h i t e m e t al ; b ut th ere are oft en c o n
dit io n s th at lea d to th e u se O f oth er m at erials
S li d ing s u r f aces in m a
c h ines are oft en fo r m e d u po n
cast ir o n m e m bers an d th e engaging su r f ac e is als o o f
cast ir on Th e fric ti onal l o ss m ay be re du ce d by giving
o n e su r f ace a w h i t e -m e t al c o vering
To ill u st rat e th e selec t i o n o f m at erials fo r m ac h ine
p ar t s a f ew typ ical ex amp les will be d isc u sse d
o
d
c
li
n
e
f
Th e y
r
a s t e am e n gin e , wi th i t s po r t s an d
i t s c onnec t e d st eam c h est is o f s u c h c ompli cat e d fo r m
th at i t is al mo st i mpo ssible to s h ap e i t by fo rging ; o r
i f th e fo r ging w ere po ssible i t w oul d be too e xp ensive
Th e po ssible m at erials w h ic h m ay be u se d fo r su c h a
cylin d er are th ere fo re only tho se w h ic h are s h ap e d by
casting B rass an d br o n z e w ou l d h ave n o a d vant age
over cast ir on an d w ou l d c o st ab out t en t i m es as mu c h
Th ey are th ere fo re o u t of th e q u est i on S t eel cast ing
mig ht be u se d b ut th e rst c o st o f th e m at erial w oul d be
s om ew h at great er an d th e c o st of w o rking in th e m ac h ine
s hop w oul d be very mu c h great er A dd i ti onal s t rength
an d resilienc e w oul d be gaine d b ut th is is unnecessary as
cylin d ers even fo r very h ig h p ressu res can be m a d e of
cast ir o n a mp ly st r ong an d resilient an d ye t n ot o bj ec
t io n ab ly th ick
M o re o ver c ast ir o n is one of th e very
best p o ssible m at eri al s f o r th e wearing su r f aces o f th e
cylin d er an d valve sea t C ylin d ers subj ec t e d to exc es
as 3 00 to 700 p ou nd s p er sq u are
siv ely h ig h p ress u re
inc h s hou l d p er h ap s be m ad e o f s teel c as tings as fo r
inst ance th e cylin d ers o f p ump s fo r p i p e lines o r fo r
supplying h y d rau li c m ac h inery
Th e pist on-ro d o f a s team -engin e i s o f m il d s te el
,

19 7

S E LE CT I O N O F MA TE RIALS

Th e entire f o rc e o f th e s t eam ac t in g o n t h e p ist o n mu s t

be t ransm i tt e d to th e cr o ss h ea d th r ou g h t h e p iston r od ;
als o since th e eff ec tive ar ea of t h e p isto n o n th e crank
si d e eq u als th e tot al area o f t h e p is to n le s s t h e area o f
th e r od an d since th e effec ti ve area nee ds t o be as large
as po ssible th e r od s hou l d be as s m all a s po ssible Th ere
is always t h e liabili ty to s ho cks an d th ere fo re sinc e t h e
r od mu st be s m all an d at th e sam e t i m e st r o ng an d mu s t
als o be cap able of resist ing s ho cks a m at erial o f h ig h uni t
s t rength an d O f h ig h resilienc e is req uire d S oft st eel
i s t h e m at erial w h ic h c ombines th ese q u ali ties
A s team-en gin e c r o s s h ead pin is always m a d e mu c h
larger th an is necessary to safely resist s h earing o r sp ring
ing by exu r e to ins u re th e m aint enance of l ubricat i o n ;
cas t ir o n mig ht serve th en as f ar as st reng th an d st i ffness
are c oncerne d an d in f ac t is s om e t i m es u se d B u t th ere
is an oth er i m p o r t ant c onsi d erat i on :becau se o f th e vibra
to ry moti o n O f th e c o nnec t ing r od o n th e p in th ere is a
t en d ency t o wear t he p in o val an d w h en th e b ox es are

keye d up th ey will bin d w h en th e r od is in i t s po si ti on

o f grea t es t ang u lari t y i f i t is p r op erly a d j u s t e d w h en th e
r od is on th e cent er line o f th e engine B ecau se of th is i t
is d esirable to re du ce th e wear to a m ini mum an d th is
p o int s to th e selec t i on of a h ar d m at erial H ar d ene d too l
s t eel m ig ht be u se d b ut i t is mo re e xp ensive th an s oft
st eel o r wr oug ht ir on an d t h ere is th e d anger O f h i dd en
cracks resu l t ing f r om t h e h ar d ening w h ic h m ay cau se
acci d ent I f s oft s t eel is case h ar d ene d i t w i ll c ombine
a h ar d s ur face to resis t wear wi th a s oft resilien t c o re
free fr om th e d anger of cracks Wr ou g ht ir o n case
h ar d ene d mig ht be u se d b ut wr ou g h t ir o n beca u se o f th e
m e t hod o f m anufac tu re h as st reaks o f c in d er in i t s su r
face an d lacks th e homo geneit y O f th e st eel an d i s th ere
fo re h ar d er t o m ak e an d to keep t r uly cyl in d r i cal I t
-

MATE RIALS O F MACHINE S

19 8

th ere fo re s hou l d n ot be u se d w h ere p er f ec t i on o f bear i ng

an d acc u racy o f mo ve m en t are essent ial
Th e c o n n ec tin g ro d o f a s t eam en gin e i s s u bj e c te d t o
t h e al t ernat e t ensi on an d c omp ressi o n resul ting fr om t h e
p ressu re o n t h e p is to n an d als o t o a exure s t ress du e t o
i t s vibrat o ry moti on Th e s e st resses ar e very s evere
an d th ere is als o liabil ity t o s ho c k Th e m at erial o f th e
r od s houl d be s t r ong an d resilien t an d s oft st eel w oul d
natu rally be selec t e d since i t is a fo rgeable m at erial
B ut th ere is an oth er impo r t an t c onsi d erat i o n ; th e ro d i s
to be nis h e d an d wr oug h t ir o n is mu c h mo re c h eap ly
w o rke d in th e m ac h in e s ho p th an s oft st eel an d th e
e xp ense of fo rging is als o mu c h less Th e lack O f hom o
gen eit y is o f n o i mpo r t ance as n o p ar t O f th e r o d is a
bearing s ur f ace M any c onnec t ing r od s are m ad e o f
s t eel cast ing an d nis h e d by p aint ing Th is m ak e s a
c h eap er r o d b ut th ere is always th e d ang er o f h i dd en
d e fec t s like crac k s du e t o t h e ex cessive s h rinkag e o r
bl o w ho le s w h ic h m ay weak en t h e r od en ou g h t o cau se
acci d ent
Th e cro s s h ead of a s t eam-en gine is c ompo se d o f
t w o p ar t s : (a) th a t w h ic h serves t o t ransmi t th e p ressu re
f r om t h e p i s ton r od to t h e cr o ss h ead p in an d (b) th a t
w h ic h engages wi th th e gu i d e to p r odu ce rec t ilinear mo
ti on Th e st resses o n (a) are severe an d th ere is lia
b ilit y t o severe s ho c k ; h enc e i t mu s t be o f s t r on g resilien t
m at er i al ; t h e st resses o n (b) ho wever are les s b ut i t
mu st be o f m at erial w h i c h w ill r un well wi th t h e gu i d e
w h ic h is u su ally o f cast ir on be in g a p art o f t h e engine
be d Th e cr o ss h ea d m ay be m ad e o f m at er i al s as fo ll o ws :
a
( ) m ay be m ad e o f fo rge d wr ou g ht i r on o r s oft s t eel
an d ( b) m ay be o f cas t ir o n b o l t e d to (a)
o r th e w ho le
cr o ss h ead m ay be m ad e of cast ir on th e p ar t ( a) being
m ad e en ou g h larger th an be f o re t o be sumc ien t ly s t r ong ;
.

S E LE CT I ON O F MA TE RIALS

19 9

th e cr o s s h ea d m ay be m ad e a ca sting o f s t eel an d a

s ho e o r gib o f cas t ir o n o r brass m ay be a dd e d t o

p r ovi d e a p r op er s u r face to r un in c ont ac t wi th th e g ui d e
Th e c rank pin o f a s t eam en gin e i s s u bj e c t e d to th e
sam e s t ress as th e cr o ss
h e ad p in an d th e vel o ci ty o f
r ubbing s ur f ac e is very mu c h great er h ence th e t en

d eney to wear is great er B ut th e t en d ency to wear ou t

is less an d th ere fo re th ere is less int er ference
o f r ou n d
wi th th e c o rrec t a d j u s tm ent o f th e b ox es ; h ence th ere i s
less reas on fo r kee p ing th e w ear a m ini mum ; a g ood
j ou
rnal su r face is necessary an d s oft s t eel is u se d wit hou t
case h ar d ening
Th e m ain s haft o f a s t eam en gin e nee d s t o b e s t r o n g
an d rigi d to resist a c om bina ti o n o f severe st resses i e
t h e to rsi o nal an d t ransverse st ress fr om th e c onnec ting
r od an d th e t ransverse s t ress du e to th e weight o f th e
w
h
eel
an
d
th
e
bel
t
t
ensi
o
n
I
t
mu
s
t
als
o
a
f
fo
r
d
a
l
fy
g ood j ournal s u r f ac e an d f o r th e s e reas o ns i t is m a d e o f
s oft st eel
'
Th e func t i o n o f th e y
wh e el o f a s t ea m engine i s t o
a d apt a varying effo r t to a c onst an t resist ance an d i t
do es th is by abs o rbing an d gi v ing o u t energy p eri od ically
by vir tu e o f i t s inert ia w h ic h is p r opo r t i o nal to i t s weig ht ;
it th ere fo re nee d s ab ove all th ings to be h eavy ; i t als o
nee d s to be able to resist th e b u rsting t en d ency o f th e
cent ri fu gal fo rce du e to i t s r ot at i o n Th e mo s t su i t able
m at erial th ere fo re is th at w h ic h gi ves t h e great est weight
in th e req uire d fo r m wi th th e requ ire d st rength fo r th e
least money ; an d cast ir o n bes t fullls th ese re q uire
m ent s
A n en gin e b e d o r f ram e w h en i t is in o n e p iece i s o f
cast ir on an d th e reas ons are o bvi ou s : i t s fo r m is c om
p lex an d c ou l d only be p r odu c e d by cast ing ; weig h t is
obj ec ti onable b ut rat h er an a d van t age si nc e it
not
-

or

2 00

MATE RIALS O F MACHIN E S

ab so rb s vibra ti ons ; cas t i r o n is am p ly st r ong an d aff o r ds

g ood wearing s ur faces f o r th e cr o ss h ea d gui d es Wr ou g ht
i r o n i s u se d f o r en gi ne be d s w h ere vibrat i ons are less
im p o r t ant as i n th e l o c omot ive an d w h ere lig ht ness an d
c om p ac tness are very d esirable as in s om e m arine en
gi ne s Th e be d s o f s om e large r o ll t rain an d bl o wing
engi nes are b uil t up o f wr ou g ht an d cas t ir o n
-b
o
u
r
a
Th e j
n l earin g s , o r b ox es f o r th e cr o ss h ea d p in
th e crank p in an d th e j ournals o f th e m ain s h aft are
n o w u s u ally m ad e o f cas t ir o n o r brass wi th a babbi tt
m e t al lining becau se g ood babbi tt m e t al (t in 8 0 c opp er
10 an ti mo ny 1 0) is foun d to be a be tt er bearing m e t al
th an brass i e i t r uns wi th less t en d ency to h eat ; an d
in th e c as e O f th e c utt ing out o f th e s u r f ac e th e babbi tt
line d b ox is f ar mo re qui c kly an d c h eap ly renewe d th an
th e s o li d brass b ox
Th e ec c entr i c an d i t s s trap are al mo s t invariab l y
m ad e of cas t ir on bec a us e th ey are fo r m s w h ic h ar e
fo rge d wi th d i fc ul t y an d th e c ast ir o n affo r d s amp le
s t rength an d ex c ellent w earing s u r faces Th e ec c en
tri c ro d , o n th e oth er h an d w o u l d be c u mbers om e an d
u gly in app earanc e i f i t w ere m a d e o f cast ir on an d given
s ufcient s t rength I t is a fo r m w h ic h m ay be easily
ei th er fo rge d o r cast an d is m ad e of fo rge d w r ou g ht ir on
o r of cas t s t eel
o r o f m alleablei z e d cas t ir o n
o r s t eel
R o c k er-arm s , als o w h en th ey are u se d req u ire to be of a
resilient m at erial an d w h en o f si mp le fo r m m ay be fo rge d
o f wr ou g ht ir o n o r s t eel an d w h en of mo re c omp le x fo r m
m ay be of m alleablei z e d c ast ir o n o r st eel cast ing Th e
valve is u s u ally o f s om e w h a t c omp le x fo r m an d nee d s to
wear well with th e cast ir o n valve seat an d is al mo st
invar i ably of cast ir on
C o nsi d erat i o ns si m ilar t o tho se ab ove a pp ly to th e
s elec ti o n of p r op er m at er i al fo r t h e p ar t s of m achi n e
,

201

S E LE CT I O N O F MATE RIALS

Thu s in th e case o f a lath e th e be d leg s h ea d

an d t ail sto ck c one gears e t c are o f cas t ir o n becau se
th ey are all fo r m s w h ic h are mo s t c h eap ly an d sat isf ac
t o r ily p r odu ce d by c as t ing an d th e cas t ir o n aff o r d s th e
re q uire d st rengt h an d s t i ffness an d sat isf ac to ry wearing
s ur face w h ere th ey are re q u ire d S u c h p ar t s as lea d
s crews f ee d r od s an d oth er p ar t s w h ic h are s ubj ec t e d to
c onsi d erable st ress an d ha ve grea t length rela t ively to
th eir lat eral d i m ensi ons are m ad e necessarily o f wr ou g ht
ir on o r st eel M any O f th ese p ar t s m ay be nis h e d in th e
m ac h ine
s hop d irec t ly fr om m erc h ant bar s t o ck thu s
saving e xp ense fo r fo rging
Th e m at erial fo r th e p ar t s o f p laning m i ll ing an d
d rilling m ac h ines are d e t er m ine d fr om exac tl y s i milar
c onsi d erat i ons
ho wever re q uire s p ecial a tt en ti o n I n
S pin d l e s
lath es m illing an d grin d ing m ac h ines th e acc u racy o f
th e w o rk p r odu ce d d ep en d s largely u p o n th e acc u racy
o f th e s p in d le
Th e vit al poin t th ere fo re is to m ain t ain t h is acc u racy
I t w o u l d see m
i e to p reven t wear as f ar as p o ssible
th en th a t h ar d ene d t oo l s t eel w oul d be th e bes t m at erial
B ut since only a very s m all amoun t o f s t o ck can be r e
mo ve d by th e grin d ing m ac h ine aft er th e p iec e is h ar d
ene d th e s p in d le m u s t be r ou g h e d out very nearly t o si z e
be fo re i t is h ar d ene d ; th is inv o lves a very c onsi d erable
e xp ense an d th ere is d anger th at i t m ay crack in h ar d en
ing o r sp ring s o as n ot to ho l d up t o ni s h in w h ic h case
th e l o ss is great an d i t is foun d th at th e ris k canno t be
t aken Th e next bes t th ing is to sp ec i fy m ac h inery st eel
h ig h in carb o n ( say
p er cent) an d to u se t h is h ar d er
m at erial fo r th e sp in d le w ithout h ar d ening I n mi lling
m ac h ines an d in s om e lath es th e m ain sp in d le
b ox i s s o li d
o f too l s t eel h ar d ene d an d gr ou n d (th e ri s k o f l o ss b ein g

t ools

MATE RIALS O F MACHIN E S

2 02

less in th is c ase ) an d th e s p in d le as be fo re is O f
p er cent
carb o n m ac h inery s t eel Th e wear is thu s great ly r e
du c ed an d th e po ssibili t y of wear aft er l o ng u se is p r o vi d e d
a gains t by m aking th e bearing t a p er an d p r o vi d ing en d
a d j u stm en t Th e s pin d les O f very large lath es are s om e
t imes m ad e of cas t ir on becau se fo rge d m at erial w oul d be
t oo e xp ensive Th e wear is re du ce d b y m aking th e j our
n als very large
I n th e s t ea m o r h y d ra u lic ri veter th e m ain f ra m e
w h ic h s uppo r t s th e cylin d er an d carries th e g ui d e fo r th e
mo ving d ie m ay be of any reas onable si z e an d th erefo re
can be m a d e st r o ng en o u g h to resis t even th e very grea t
f o rces app lie d to i t i f th e m at erial u se d is cas t ir on

B ut th e s t ake th e m e mber w h ic h carries th e s t a t i ona ry

d ie mu s t resis t ex ac t ly th e sam e fo rces as th e m ain f ram e
an d m u s t als o be s m all en o u g h s o th at s m all b o iler s h ells
an d even u es can be l o were d o ver i t to be rive t e d Th e

st ake
is th ere fo re of fo rge d wr oug ht ir on o r s t eel
o r else a s t eel cast ing
S uppo se th a t in a m ac h ine th ere is nee d of a g e ar an d
i
n
n
1
i
o
w
ho
se
vel
o
ci
t
y
ra
t
i
o
is
to
an
d
th
a
t
th
e
fo
rce
8
p
t ransm i tt e d is large A tooth of th e p ini o n c om es into
ac ti o n eig ht t i m es as oft en as a tooth o f th e gear an d
th erefo re w oul d wear o ut in o n e eig hth o f th e t i m e if
b oth were o f th e sam e m at erial ; th en too th e fo r m o f th e
p ini on-tooth in mo st sys t e m s o f gearing is s u c h th at i t is
mu c h weake r th an th e gear tooth Th e m at erial fo r t he
p ini o n nee d s th ere fo re n ot o nly to be s t r onger b ut als o
be tt er able to resis t wear Th e gear is m ad e of c as t ir o n ;
i f th e t ee th are c ut th e p ini o n m ay be m a d e o f fo rge d

s t eel ; i f th e t ee th are cas t an d u se d wi thout too ling

th e p ini o n m ay be m a d e a s t eel c ast ing
M at eri al f o r S prin g s
S p rings are u se fu l as m ac h ine
p art s becaus e o f th eir c ap aci ty f o r yiel d ing wi thout t aking
,

S E LE C T I O N O F MA TE RIALS

2 03

p er m anent se t Th e yiel d ing th ere fo re , mu s t o cc u r wi th

C learly
st resses th a t do n ot e x cee d th e elas t ic li m i t
th en th e m aterial wi th large elastic range i e wi t h h ig h
elast ic li m i t is t h e bes t m at er i al f o r s p ring m ac h ine
m e mbers
C r u cible s t eel h as th e h i g h es t n o r m al elas t ic li mi t an d
th is li mi t is raise d by h ar d ening an d t e mp ering Th is is
th e mo st c ommonly u se d m at erial U n t reat e d m il d s t eel
m ay als o be u se d bu t wi th given st ress th e sp ring mu s t
h ave great er weig ht th an i f h ig h er carb o n st eel were u se d
Th e s t eel m ay h ave i t s n o r m al elas t i c li m i t ar t icially
raise d by c o l d w o rking ( c o l d r o lling o r wi re d rawing)
an d th is i mp r o ves i t as a s p ring m a t erial B ras s br o n z e
an d oth er all oys are u se d fo r sp rings b u t u s u ally in th e
fo rm of h ard-drawn wire wit h an arti c i al e l asti c limit
.

I N DE X

PA

GE

30
.

A l c o h ol

a solu tion of t h e fu t u re fu el p roblem

Al c o h ol not an im p ortant indu strial fu el

19

as

18

1 2 , 88

Alu min u m and c o pp er e qu ilibri u m diagram of

18 8

13
18 1

Annealing

6 9 , 1 5 8, 1 6 7

179

Annealing forgings
Annealing restores strengt h and elasti c it y in steel
Annealing s teel c astings
Ant hra c ite c oal
ch emi c al ch anges w h ile in p ro c ess of for
mation
Antimon y and arseni c in bra ss
A r c f urna c e
Ars eni c and antimon y in bra ss
Arseni c and c o pp er p res en c e o f in stee l
Ar t i c ial fu els
Arti c ial gas p ro c esses for p rod u c tion of
Arti c ial mod ul us o f elas ti c ity
Austenite
.

172
16 1
172

B abbitt metal
B asi c a cid or ne utral lining for f urna c e s
B asi c B essemer p ro c es s
B asi c B essemer p ro c ess gra phi c al re p resentation o f
B asi c B essemer p ro c ess sili c on an u ndesirable element in
B aus c hin ger s e x p eriment s on re p eated s tresses

26

182

15 1

2, 1 5
20

103
1 66

30
61

65

1 82

19 1

14

62
1 59
34

B elgian pro c ess f o r s m elt m g z in c

B essemer c on verter lining O f
,

205

87

61

206

IN D EX

B essemer p ro c ess
B i tum inou s c oal c om p osition of
B las t furna c e ch emi c al ch arges in
B last fu rna c e fu n c tion o f
B last fu rna c e sta ck c ontinu ous o w O f gas from
B las t furna c es ch ar c oal as f u el for
B li ster c o pp er
B rass
B rass annealing
B rass antimon y and ars eni c in
B ra ss eff e c t of c old w or king on
B ra ss iron in
B rass man ganes e in
B rass o x y gen in
B riti sh t h ermal uni t
B rittle material
B rittleness and p oro sit y ho w to a v oid
B ron z es Gu ill et s c on c lusion s o n h eat treatment
B ron z es h eat treatment for
B ron z es o r c o pp er tin allo ys

B urnt s cra p iron

,

45

80

17 9

1 80

,
,

18 1

18 1

,
,

18 2

109

of

18 6
18 4

18 2

1 42

C alamine
C al c ining o re
C

alo ri c

a lo r i c

86

38

p o w er of c arbon mono xide

p o w er of c omb us tible

2, 3

C arbon
C arbon and iron e qu ilibriu m diagram of
C arbon betw een t h e s tates of c ementite and gra ph ite

34
1 1 0, 1 1 2

p ortan c e of c ontrol of
C arbon ch ief fa c tor c ontrolling physi c a l p ro p erties o f steel
C arbon c ombined in c as t iron
C arbon gra ph ite an allotro p i c form of
C arbon gra phi te in c as t iron
C arbon introdu c tion o f into t h e Iron sp onge
C arbon limit o f in solid sol u tion in iron
C arbon mono xide c alori c p o w er o f
C arbon mono xide gas temp eratu re p rodu c ed b y bur ni ng
C arbon remo val o f in p u ddling p ro c ess
C as e h ardening
C as t iro n and s teel ch emi cal diff eren c e bet ween
,

im
12 3
.

14 9
12 1

1 22
12 1
43

1 15

55
17 2

1 44

2 07

I NDE X

PA

GE

75
12 5

12 1

C as t iron
C as t iron
C ast iron
C as t iron
C as t iron
C as t iron
C as t iron
C as t iron
C as t iron
C ast i ron

,
,
,
,

,
,
,

den sities of diff erent grades o f

gra ph ite c arbon in
introdu c tion o f su l phu r in to
malleable c om p osition o f
manganes e in
ph osph oru s in
rate of c ooling
s ili c on i n
s tress e l ongation diagram
s tr u c t ural s teel and tool s tee l ch emi c al c om p ari son
.

139
12 1

43
13 3
12 7
13 1
12 5
128

10 1

1 44

C ast iron sul ph ur i n

C as t iron t w o forms of c arbon in
C as t iron w h ite
C ell ulose and s tar ch
C ementation p ro c ess for mak ing tool steel
C ementite i n u en c e o f o n c ast iron
C h ar c oal
C h ar c oal as a fu el f o b las t furna c es
C h emi c al ch anges in t h e blas t f urna c e
C h emi cal c om p arison of s tr u c tural s teel too l s teel and c as t
,

12 7

12 1

iron
C h emi c al diff eren c e betw een stee l and c as t iron
C hilling c as t iron
C h rome s teel
C hrom i te
C hromiu m
C oke
C o k e des c ent o f in blast f urna c e
C old rolling eff e c t of on iron Thurston s e xp eriments
C old w orking o f s teel eff e c t o f
C omb inati on i ndu c ti v e and resistan c e f urna c e
C ombined c arbon in c ast iron
C omb ustible c alori c p o w er o f
C omb ustion c ompl ete
C omb u stion h eat ch anges du ring
C omb us tion p rod u c ts nature o f

1 44

1 22
18

57
12 1
15
48
42

144
12 5

153
33
1 52
15
44
1 58

1 56
29
12 1

b
1

0
0

2 08

I NDE X

C omb ust i on tem p erat ures res ul t ing from

C om p ression
C om p ressi v e s tress
C onne c ting rod o f steam engine mater ial f or
C onv erter B essemer
C ooling c as t iron rate of
C o pp er al u minu m allo ys
C o pp er and al u minu m e qu ilibri um diagram O f
C opp er and tin e qu ilibriu m diagram o f
C opp er and in c e qu ilibri um di agram o f
C o pp er o xides c arbonates and s ili c ates o f
C o pp er so ur c es of
C o pp er su l ph ide ores
C o pp er tin allo y best c om p osition f o r s trengt h and du c ti li t y
C o pp er tin alloy s S h eph erd U p ton tests of physi c al qu alities
,

183

78

79
18 3

of
C o pp er z i n c all o y tensil e strengt h and d uc ti li t y o f
C o pp er z in c allo ys
C o pp er z in c c o pp er t in and c op p er alu m in um all o ys si m il ar i t y
Of
C ran k p in of s team engine material for
C ro ss h ead p in for steam engine material s for
C ro ss h ead of s team engine material for
C r u c ible p ro c ess for mak ing tool s teel
Cr u c ible steel elasti c limits of
C r u de p etrole um
C u p ola f urna c e melting pI g Iron i n
C ylinder of steam engine materi al s for
-

1 78

17 7

18 2

18 9
1 99
19 7

19 8

203
17

D ef ormation and stress si mul taneo us v alu es o f

D eformation pro p ortional to stress w i t h in el ast i c li mi t
D elta metal
D iagram of c ast iron stress el ongation
D iagram of D iederi ch s blast furna c e
D iagram of mild s teel s tress deformat i on
D iederi ch s blas t furna c e di agram
D iffusion
D il u tion redu c tion b y
D r y bla st
D r y air blas t Gayley s pl ant for f urni shi ng
D ry pu ddling
,

19 6

93
94
182

10 1
46

98
46

'

1 14
68

48
49

54

I N DE X

2 09
PA

GE

69
1 09

100

68

95 , 9 9
94

E las ti c limit arti c ia l

E lasti c range
E las ti c resilien c e
E lasti c it y
E lasti c it y denition o f
E le c tri c f urna c es
E ngineering and metallur gi c al p ro c esses tem p erat ure s in
E qu ilibr u m diagram of c o pp er and al u minu m
E qu ilibri u m diagra m of c o pp er and tin
E qu ilibri u m diagram of c o pp er and in c
E qu ilibriu m diagram of iron and c arbon
E xp eriments on h ardening e ff e c t of remelting i ron

10 2

10 2

99

10 0

94

26

10

1 88

18 3
178

1 10 3 1 1 2

14 1

Fa c tors of safet y of brittle material s

Fa c tors o f safet y of s teel

164

F erro ch rome

152

1 63

F errosili c on use of in t h e fo u ndr y c up ola

Ferro vanadi u m
,

129
15 3

32

Flaws re p eated stress i n creases s i e

z

F ly-w h eel

of

of steam engine material for

Forged material internal s tresses in
F ou ndry cu p ola u se o f ferro sili c on in
Frame of s team engine material for
Franklinite
Fu el e c onom y o f du e to h ot blast
Fu el s p reliminar y c onsideration of
-

1 62
19 9

15 4

129

19 9
86

Galena o r e
Galena roasting
Galena s melting
,

81
.

81

82

I N DE X

2 10

Galena soften ing

Galena treatment of
Gas f u el ad vantages o v er s olid fu e ls
Gay ley s p lant f o r f urnish ing dr y air b l a s t
Gear and p inion material for
Gra ph ite an allotro p i c form o f c arbon
Gra ph ite c arbon in c a st iron
Guillet s c on c l usi on s o n h eat treatment o f bron z es
,

19

Ha ll s p atent for meta lli c a lumi n um

Hardening s teel
Har v e yi z ed s tee l
Heat a v ailable to ra ise tem p erat ure of p rodu c ts of c omb ustion
Heat treatment for bron z es
Heat treatment for tool s teel
Heat treatment of bron z es Gu illet s c on c lu sions on
Heat treatment of h igh sp eed s teel s des cri p tion o f
Heat treatment o f steel
High c arbon steel
High sp eed tool steel
Homogeneou sness o f materials eff e c t o f la ck o f on s tress
deformation diagram
H y drogen rea son s for p rodu c ing low er tem p erature t h an ot h er
fu el s
H y drogen tem p eratu re p rodu c ed b y c omb u stion o f

1 69

18 6
17 5
1 65

152
1 73

I llu minati ng gas p ro c ess

I ndu c ti on ele c tri c f urna c e
I ron allotro p i c forms O f
I ron and c arbon e qu ilibr i um di agram o f
I ron cr ystal stru c tu re O f
I ron earl y meth ods of p rodu c t i on
I ron eff e c t o f remelting
I ron in brass
I ron i n u en c e of c arbon u p on
I ron li mit o f c arbon i n solid s ol uti on i n
I ron l i qu id
I ron ores c om p o sition of
I ron so u r c es o f
I ron sp onge
I ron t wo f orms o f shri n k age of
-

OR
C

20
28

1 10

,
,

1 11

39
14 1
18 1
1 12

1 15
1 12
39
38
42
135

2 11
PA GE

189

32
16 1

77
81

35
42

61
30
17
15 2

M a ch ine p arts materials f or

M a ch ine stress members c au ses of f ailur e of
M a chi ne tool p arts material f o r

19 3

163

200

35

18 1

M anganes e in c ast iron

M anganese introdu c tion o f into iron
M ain sh aft o f steam engine materi al for
M alleable c astings
M alleable c astings anal ysis of
M alleable c astings tes ts of
M alleable c as t ir on c omp osi ti on o f
M anganese bron z e

12 7
43

19 9

69

72

71

133

19 0

1 50
16 6
95

M etal cutting tools f our eras in dev el op ment O f

M etalli c al u min u m
M etalli c al u m in u m Hall s p atent f o r
M etall urgy o f c o pp er l ead tin z i n c and alu mi nu m ou t lin e o f
M eta ll urg y o f iron and steel
M ild s teel s tress deformation d iagram
M odu l us of elasti c ity
M od ul us of elasti c it y arti ci al
M olds for steel c astings
M unt z metal
180

17 5

88

88

77

37
98

10 2

10 3

75

ushet s s

e lf h ardening stee l
-

19 1

17 4

2 12

I NDE X

N ativ e c o pp er
N i ck el introd u c tion f i nto tee l
N eu tral ba i c o a c i d lining for furna c es
N eutral ame
.

N on ferro us alloy s
-

O p en h earth furna c es
O p en h earth p ro c ess es
O xi di z ing ame
O xy gen in brass
-

P att

inson p ro c e for l ead

84

ss

di stortion and brea k age

P h o sph or bron z e
Ph o sph or u s eff e c t of on c ooling s teel
P h o sph or u s in c as t iron
Ph o sph or us introd u c tion o f into c a s t iron
Ph o sph oru s remo v al of in p u ddling p ro c e ss
Physi c al p ro p erties of s teel c arbon ch ief fa c tor c ontrolling
Pig iron c om p o sition of
Pig iron c om p o sition o f for bas i c B e ss emer p ro c e ss
Pig iron gra y er from bla s t f u rna c e u s ing h ot blas t
Pig iron melting in c u p ola f urna c e
Pig ir on u s es o f
P i s ton rod of s team eng i ne materia l for
Planing mill ing and drilling ma c hi nes mater i al f o r
Plant ti ss u e
P las ti c dolomite f o r da u bing and p at chi ng
Poro sit y and brittlene ss h o w to a v oid
Pro c ess es for ma k ing tool s teel from w ro u g h t-iron
P rod u c ts o f c omb u stion h eat a v ailable to ra is e tem p eratur e o f
Prod u c er gas p ro c ess
P u ddling p ro c ess
P u ddling p ro c e ss remo v al of c arbon in
P u ddling re v erberator y f urna c e for
P ul v eri z ed c oa l
P ermanent

91
1 90

13 1

44

55

14 9

63

47

50

50

19 6

20 1

13

36

56

22

51
55
53

f uels
R edu c ing ame

R aw

13
53
54

I N DE X

2 13
PA

materi als
R egenerati v e furna c e S i emen s

R e fra c t or y

30

GE

66

158
160
10 4
27

53

R i v eter frame material f o r

,

20 2

38

R o ck er arm s o f engi ne material f or

2 00

132

S h earing stress
S h eph erd Up to n tests o f physi c al q u alitie s o f c o pp er tin a ll o ys
S hrin k age of iron t wo form s of
S hrin k age of iron West s e x p er i ment
Siemen s M artin p ro c ess
Siemen s p ro c ess
Siemen s regenerati v e furna c e
Sil ic a
Sili c on
Sili c on an u ndesirab l e element i n t h e bas i c B e ssemer p ro c ess

93

182
1 35
1 36

67

67

66

33
12
62

12 8

Sili c on introd u c tion

Solid f u el s
Sorb i te
S p i egel ei sen

of,

into c as t iron

43
13

166
1 50

20 1

S pr in g tem p ering
S p rings material for
S qu eez er f o r remo v ing slag
Star ch and c ell ulo se
Steel and c ast ir on ch emi c a l d iff eren c e bet w een
Steel and c as t iron t em p eratures o f solidi c ation
Stee l c astings
Steel c astings du c tili t y of
Stee l c astings molds for
Stee l c astings S h o ck resistan c e o f
Steel c as tings s trengt h O f
Steel eff e c t o f c old w or king of
Steel eff e c t o f temp erat ure o n

1 67 , 1 7 1

20 2

55
18

14 4

,
,

of

75

73
76

75
76
76

156

1 63

I N DE X

2 14

Steel f o r c as ti ngs
Steel h ot w or king o f
S t eel ingo t s re h eating and wor ki ng
Steel i ntrod u c tion of ni ck el into
Steel s tru c ture ch anges w it h in c reas ing tem p erature
Stiff ness o f material
102
S t o ught o h c on v erter
Strength at elas ti c l imi t
Strength o f c a stings effe c t of internal strength o n
Stress and deformation s im ul tan eo us v al u es O f
Stress and deformation w h ere p rop ortionality o f c eas es

ss
Stre d eformation diagram
Stress w ithin elas ti c limit deformation p ro p ortional t o
Stru c tur al s teel tool stee l and c as t iron ch emi c al c om p ar ison o f
S ul phur eff ec t o f in s teel ma kin g
S ul phur in c ast ir on
S ul phur in trodu c tion o f into iron
S ulphur remo v al of in p u ddlin g p ro c ess

75
17 1

1 65

T ar as a b in ding material
T aylor W hite s h igh sp eed s teel s
T em p eratu re c ontrol of in B ess emer c on v erter
T em p erature limits of f o r h igh sp eed too l s teel
T em p eratu re p rodu c ed b y c omb u stion of hy drogen
T em p erature s i n engineering and metall urgi c al p ro c ess es
T emp eratures resul ting from c omb us tion
T em p erature s of solidi c ati on o f s teel and c ast iro n
T em p er gra phi te
T emp er in g steel
1 67
T en sile stress
T esti ng material s
Thur ston s exp eriments on ternar y allo ys o f c o pp er tin and z in c
T in
T in and c opp er e q u ilibriu m diagram of
T ool steel and wr o u gh t ir on diff eren c e betw een
Tool steel c as t iron and stru c tural s tee l ch emi c al c om p arison o f
T ool steel c ementation p ro c ess for ma king
T ool s teel c ru c ible p ro c ess for mak ing
T ool s teel sul phu r and ph o sph oru s u ndesirable in
T ool s teels c om p osition and c u tting S p eed o f
-

93
97

97

94
14 4
1 50

12 7
43

56

7
10

139

174

99

63

73

174

1 06

36

75
69
,

169
92
91
1 89
84
1 83

56
1 44

57

57

15 1

1 75

173

I NDE X

2 15
PA

GE

86

T otal s tress
T ou gh ening steel
Troo s tite

92

1 66

15 2

95

92

1 53
1 54

1 54

Vanadiu m steel c om p osition O f

1 53

21

Wet p u ddl ing

54

12 2

Wohler s e xp eriments on rep eated s tress

Wood c om p osition O f
Wrou gh t iron and tool steel differen c e bet w een

159
14

56
97
86

and c o pp er e qu ilibriu m diagram

Z in c B elgian p ro c ess for s melting
Z in c

of

178

87
86

Z in c

c arbonate ore roasting to remo v e mo ist ure

,