DESALINATION

ELSEVIER

Desalination 128 (2000) 5746

www.elsevier.com/locate/desal

Synthesis and characterization of low molecular weight cut off

ultrafiltration membranes from cellulose propionate polymer
S. Khan a, A.K. Ghosh b, V. Ramachandhran b, J. Bellare a, M.S. Hanra b*,
M.K. Trivedi a, B.M. Misra b
"DeDartment of Chemical Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology, Mumbai, 400 076,
"Desalination Division, Bhabha Atomic Research Centre, Mumbai, 400 085, India
Fax i 91 22 5560750

Received 25 May 1999; accepted 24 November 1999

Abstract

This paper describes the synthesis and characterization of low molecular weight cut-off ultrafiltration (UF)
membranes from cellulose propionate (CP) polymer using dimethyl acetamide solvent. The casting conditions are
studied with reference to changes in the nature of additive and additive to solvent ratio. The membranes are
characterized in terms of product permeation rate, solute retention for different electrolytes, as a function of feed
concentration and pressure. The retention of different dyes are also included. Molecular weight cut off profiles
using polyethylene glycol solutes of different molecular weights are presented. The separation behaviour of oilwater and milk protein systems are presented in order to highlight the fouling resistance of CP membranes.
Kevwords: Ultrafiltration membranes; Cellulose propionate

1. Introduction
Ultrafiltration (UF) is a membrane filtration
technology widely used in diverse fields such as
water treatment, dairy industry, paint recovery,
pulp and paper industry and biotechnology [1].
The mechanism of separation in ultrafiltration
involves not only the size differences among
various solute and solvent molecules under
consideration, but also adsorption and surface
charge characteristicsofmembranes. Cellulosic
*Corresponding author,

esters, polyamides, polysulfone, polyacrylonitrile

and polyvinylidene difluoride are some of the
polymers used for making ultrafiltration
membranes by the classical wet phase inversion
method [2,3]. The various control parameters
involved in the wet phase inversion technique
affecting the membrane performance is well
understood andextensivelyreported.
The factors which affect the pore size of
polyacrylonitrile membrane are reported by
Congjie [4]. The properties of ultrafiltration
membranes which make them susceptible to

0011-9164/00/$- See front matter 2000 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved

58

S. Khan et al. /Desalination 128 (2000) 57 66

fouling, causing flux decline are discussed by

Fane [5]. Hvid [6] reported that hydrophilic
surfaces are less prone to protein fouling and
suggested methods to make the membrane
surface more hydrophilic. Composite UF membranes from blended polymers have also been
reported by several authors. Polyvinylidene
difluoride and polymethyl methacrylate blended
UF membranes are reported by Suzane and
Klauss [7]. Polyurea/polyurethane UF membranes over macroporous polysulfone substrate
are also reported [6]. Resistance to colloidal
fouling, chlorine tolerance, temperature and pH
stability and the ability to control the molecular
weight cut-off are some of the important aspects
to be considered during the synthesis of UF
membranes. Casting and characterization of
cellulose acetate butyrate UF membranes has
been reported from this laboratory recently [8].
Among the cellulosic esters, cellulose propionate
appears to have not received adequate attention
and studies were initiated on the suitability of
cellulose propionate as a possible material for
making UF membranes. The casting and
characterization of UF membranes from
cellulose propionate are reported in this paper,

2. Materials and methods

2.1. Materials"

Cellulose propionate polymer (average

molecular weight 200,000, degree of substitution
with respect to propionyl group 2.66 and with
respect to acetyl group 0.138) was procured from
M/s Aldrich Chemical Co., USA. Maleic acid
was procured from M/s Lancaster, England.
Other solvents used in this work are locally
procured. N,N-dimethyl acetamide (DMAc) was
distilled under reduced pressure and stored over
molecular sieve ~A. 1,4-Dioxane, acetone,
formamide and methanol were purified by the
usual distillation method,

2.2. Preparation of membrane

In an air tight bottle, a specified quantity of

cellulose propionate was mixed with a definite
amount of purified DMAc solvent. The solution
was thoroughly mixed in a mechanical shaker for
24 h at room temperature (25C) till complete
dissolution of the polymer took place. The
additives were subsequently added and the
solution was mechanically mixed for homogenisation for another 24 h at room temperature.
The solution viscosity was measured using a
standard Brookfield viscometer.
The casting solution thus obtained was
manually spread over a smooth glass plate under
controlled temperature and humidity as specified
in the subsequent parts of the text. The thickness
of the membrane was maintained by using side
runner tapes. A single tape has a thickness of
40 p. Desired number of tapes are fixed on edges
to control the casting thickness. The manual
casting speed is around 4 cm/s. No deliberate
solvent evaporation was allowed. The glass plate
was quickly immersed in a demineralised water
bath maintained at 25C temperature. Immediately, phase inversion started and after
sometime, thin membranes separated from the
glass. After 15 min in gelling medium, the
membrane was thoroughly rinsed free of solvent
and additive before use. Then the actual thickness of the membranes were measured by using
a micrometer. The membrane was always wet
stored in 0.25% formaldehyde solution.
2.3. Characterization of membrane

Membranes were characterized in terms of

solute retention data and product permeate flux
for different solute systems at 500 kPa pressure.
A constant recirculation type UF cell was used
wherein feed solution is pumped across a given
membrane specimen (area 14.5 cm 2) at a flow
rate of 3 l/m using a reciprocating pump. The
desired pressure was set using a back pressure
regulating valve. The reject and product streams

S. Khan et al. /Desalination 128 (2000) 57-66

are recycled back to the tank to maintain the feed

concentration. Temperature of the feed was
maintained at 25C. Sodium sulfate and other
electrolytes in feed and permeate samples were
analysed by conductance measurements. The
dyes were analysed spectrophotometrically. The
analytical method for determining PEG is
already reported in our previous paper [8].

3. Results and discussions

3.1. Effect of casting parameters on membrane
performance
3.1.1. Nature of:he additive

The effect of various additives on membrane

performance was studied using methanol, maleic
acid, oxalic acid, acetone, 1,4-dioxane and
formamide. In all these cases the composition,
casting conditions and the membrane test
conditions were maintained identical. The
amount of additive in the casting formulation in
each case was kept identical to the amount of
polymer. The membranes were designated as
CP1 to CP7. The results are given in Table 1.
The casting solution viscosity and total thickness
of the membrane are also included in the same
table. The viscosity of the casting solution is
found to be more when the additive is present. In
the case of acetone and 1,4-dioxane which are
swelling agents for the polymer, the viscosity of
casting solution was observed to be lower as
compared to acidic additives. No significant
variation of thickness is noticed for all the
membranes. Among the additives tested, oxalic
acid, maleic acid and methanol were found to
give higher permeate fluxes and significant
sodium sulfate retention, whereas 1,4-dioxane,
acetone and formamide were found to give lower
permeate fluxes. Among the latter set of additives, acetone was found to give a slightly higher
sodium sulfate separation though the permeate
flux was low. This could be due to the relatively

59

lower boiling point of acetone among the three

swelling additives, resulting in rapid loss of
acetone during the short time interval between
casting and gelling. Maleic acid was observed to
give the highest permeate flux as well as sodium
sulfate retention. The results indicate that the
nature of the additive has a strong effect on the
structure of the casting solution which in turn
affects the membrane performance. It appears
that the acidic nature of the additive probably
solvates the cellulose propionate polymer by
hydrogen bonding with the carbonyl carbon as
well as react with the amide solvent altering the
solvent power [9]. This could lead to an
optimum swelling of the polymer with desirable
distribution of the size of the super molecular
polymer aggregates and the degree of polymer
network within the aggregates. It is significant to
note that the casting solution viscosity is higher
in the case of acidic additives. The n-electrons
associated with the double bond of the maleic
acid may also contribute to the dipole-dipole
interaction between additive and the polymer. It
is also to be noted that when no additive is
present in the casting solution (CPI), the
permeate flux is rather low and is comparable to
what is obtained with neutral or basic additives.
Further experiments were carried out using
maleic acid as the additive.

3.1.2. Additive~solvent ratio

The effect of increase in the maleic acid

content in the casting solution was studied
keeping the total polymer concentration
unaltered. The maleic acid in the dope solutions
were varied from 5% (w/w) to 15% (w/w). The
DMAc content in the casting solution was
progressively reduced from 82.5% (w/w) to
72.5% (w/w) in these cases to maintain the total
polymer concentration. Higher maleic acid
concentration makes the casting solution too
viscous for membrane casting. With an increase

60

s. Khan et a{/Desalination 128 (2000) 57 66

Table 1
Effect of various additives on membrane performance
Membrane

CP1
CP2
CP3
CP4
CP5
CP6
CP7

Additive

Casting solution

Total membrane

Performance

thickness,gm

Flux, L.m-2.h-~

Solute retention

Nil
1,4-Dioxane
Methanol
Oxalic acid
Fomlamide
Acetone
Maleic acid

viscosity, c c n t i
poise
1840
2138
2432
2879
2642
2021
2867

182
173
197
164
179
187
195

3.2
6.5
33.6
51.5
6.94
8.92
68.7

0.292
0.049
0.135
0.192
0.197
0.297
0.394

Casting solution composition (w/w): polymer 12.5%,DMAc = 75%, additive 12.5%;Casting atmosphere: humidity - 72%
R.H., temperature 22C; Testing conditions: pressure = 500 kPa, feed concentration 2000 ppm Na2S()4
Table 2
EffEct ofmaleic acid/DMAc ratio on CP membrane performance
Membrane

Maleic acid/
DMAc ratio

Casting solution
viscosity, ccnti poise

Total membrane
thickness,gm

Perlbrmance
Hux, L.m 2. h-~

Solute retention

CP8
0.06
2145
171
18.6
0.362
CP9
0.13
2539
179
24.2
0.345
CP 10
0.17
2867
164
70.4
0.323
CP 11
0.21
3742
187
90.4
0.3 ! 3
Casting solution composition (w/w): polymer = 12.5%, 87.5% consisting ofmaleic acid and DMAc in the weight ratio given in
table; Casting atmosphere: humidity 72% R.H., temperature 22C:Testing conditons: pressure 500 kPa, teed concentration
2000 ppm Na2SO 4

in the maleic acid content, the water permeation

rate was found to increase. The solute retention
with respect to sodium sulfate marginally
declines. The results are given in Table 2
wherein the performance o f four different
m e m b r a n e s CP8 to C P I I are given along with
the ratio o f maleic acid to N,N-dimethyl
acetamide, the casting solution viscosity and
total m e m b r a n e thickness. It can be seen that the

stage and hence there is no significant change in

final m e m b r a n e thickness with increasing casting
solution viscosity. The results indicate that
higher additive to solvent ratio improves
productivity o f m e m b r a n e s without significant
loss in separation behaviour.

viscosity o f the casting solution gradually

increases with increase in the maleic acid
concentration but the change in total thickness is
not significant. The additive and the solvent are
leached out o f the m e m b r a n e during gelling

The effects o f overall thickness o f the merebranes were studied by increasing the casting
thickness for CP7 m e m b r a n e and the results arc
given in Table 3. It was found that the actual
thickness o f the m e m b r a n e s after it was formed

3.1.3. M e m b r a n e thickness

S. Khan et al./Desalination 128 (2000) 5~66

Table 3
Effect of total membrane thickness on membrane
performance
SI. No. Cast thick- T o t a l
ness, ~tm membrane
thickness,
lam
1
160
82
2
240
114
3
320
176
4
360
198
5
600
352

Perlbrmance
Flux,
E.m-2.h -I

193.2
147.0
85.2
69.2
23.0

Solute
retention
0.312
0.352
0.352
0.377
0.382

Casting solution composition (w/w): polymer = 12.5%,

DIVIAc-75%, additive= 12.5%: Casting atmosphere:
humidity=72% R.H., temperature 22C; Testing conditions: pressure = 500 kPa, feed concentration- 2000 ppm
Na:SO.~

61

Table 4
Separationof various electrolyte by CP7 membrane
S1. No.
1
2
3
4
5
6

Electrolyte
NaC1

Solute retention
0.152

CaC12

K2Cr207

0.094
0.352
0.212
0.272
0.242

K3Fe(CN)6
K4Fe(CN)6

0.572
0.624

Na2SO 4

MgSO4
KzCrO 4

7
8

Casting solution composition (w/w): polymer 12.5%,

DMAc 75%, additive 12.5%; Casting atmosphere:
humidity 72% R.H.. temperature 22C; Testing conditions: pressure = 500 kPa, feed concentration = 2000 pm
Na2SO4

was nearly half o f the casting thickness. This

indicates densification o f the polymer network
during the gelling process with the leaching out
o f the additive and solvent. The pure water
permeability o f the membranes obtained
decreased drastically with increase in actual
thickness o f the membranes. For nearly four fold
increase in membrane thickness, there was nine
fold decrease in pure water flux. This could
indicate two possibilities: one, that there could
be a large number o f blind pores and the other,
the increase in skin thickness which could be
different for different membranes. Solute
separation is however found to remain steady for
membranes with different total thickness,

to NaC1 and that o f NaCI was higher as

compared to CaC12. This shows that these
membranes exhibit better retention behaviour for
electrolytes with multivalent anions. This
behaviour suggests the possible existence o f
negative charges on membrane surface which
excludes multivalent anions from the membrane
pores by Donnan exclusion. The poor separation
ofmultivalent cations could be due to favourable
electrostatic attraction. Similarly, a comparison
o f retention data between Na2SO4 and MgSO4
indicate that the overall solute retention is
dictated by the increasing valancy o f the cations,
with the valancy o f the anions remaining the
same. Retention data o f K2CrO4 and K2Cr207 are
lower than that o f Na2SO4, possibly because o f

3.2. Effect of process parameters on membrane

performance

lower surface charge density o f their respective

anions due to their large size. Comparison o f
retention data o f K4Fe(CN)6 and K3Fe(CN)6 with
K2CrO4 and K2Cr207 again indicate the higher

3.2.1. Performance f o r different electrolyte

systems
The performance o f cellulose propionate
membranes
(CP7) obtained for different
electrolytes were evaluated under identical test
conditions. The results are given in Table 4. It
can be seen that the retention behaviour o f the
membranes for Na2SO4 was higher as compared

retention behaviour for higher valancy anions.

3.2.2. Effect o f solute concentration

The effect o f feed solute concentration with
respect to different electrolytes, namely NaCI,
Na2SO4, K4Fe(CN)6 and K3Fe(CN)6 on the

62

S. Khan et al. /Desalination 128 (2000) 57-66

retention behaviour for CP7 membrane was

studied and the results are given in Fig. 1. It can
be seen that as the feed concentration increases
from 50 ppm to 2000 ppm, the observed solute
retention goes through a maximum for all the
electrolytes. The maximum solute retention is
observed at around 500 ppm. The drop in solute
retention beyond 500 ppm appears less drastic
for NaCI and steeper for higher valancy anions.
The typi cal maxima in solute retention observed
for cellulose propionate membranes is similar to
what is previously reported for sulfonated
polycarbonate [10] and cellulose acetate [11]
membranes. At higher feed concentrations the
solute diffuses through a near neutral membrane
whereas at lower feed concentration (-10 -2 mole/l)
the action of fixed charge of membrane influences the mobility of ions within the
membrane. The residual negative charge of
cellulose propionate could be due to the presence
o f carboxylic group (-COOH) which could have
been formed by the surface oxidation of
hydroxyl groups.
The action of the fixed charges of the
membrane is believed to affect the mobility of
solute ions in the membrane phase. When the
external feed concentration becomes comparable
to the fixed charge of the membrane, a Donnan
equilibrium will exit between the solution and
the membrane phase which excludes coions from
the membrane resulting in high solute retention,
When the external solute concentration is in
excess o f the fixed charge concentration, the
sorption of colon into the membrane phase is
less hindered and could lead to lower solute
retention,
3.2.3. E f f e c t o f o p e r a t i n g p r e s s u r e

The effect of increasing operating pressure on

the membrane performance for CP7 membrane
with respect to Na2SO4 feed solution was studied
and the results are given in Fig. 2. It can be seen
that the permeate flux increases with increase in

~_
~
~
~

10
99807-.
06o60493-_
9201

//,

_-

'

,-s~:/-::::
.....-A.
J~
-" -.

/
,. . . . . . .
\ \ V ~ ...._-_
,
,.
--;
" " ' . K3~~ON~6
i--.
Na2SO4

_. . . . . . . . .
-. . . . "8o
. . 1096
. . 1898
.
88
Feedconcentration ( mg./L )

..oc

20c8

Fig. 1. Dependence of solute retention on feed

concentration for CP7 membrane.
~

'

7C

~
0

-~E ~o~

~_ ~0. --{
~0~;~

35

o~o~
~_
....

0~
~;o
P~e . . . . .

L,
(kPa)

&

Fig. 2. Variation of flux and solute retention with pressure

for CP7 membrane.
the

operating

pressure

though

not

proportionately. The solute retention increases

with increase in pressure and declines at higher
pressures. It is seen that the permeate flux
through these membranes declines initially at
any given operating pressure, even with dilute
electrolyte solutions and stabilises subsequently.
The time required to attain a stable flux at a
given pressure is recorded and all the reported
data are taken after the flux has stabilised. The
less than expected increase in the flux with
proportionate increase in the pressure indicate
some morphological changes occurring in the
membrane and use of high pressure does not seem
to give any of the expected process advantage.

63

S. Khan et al. /Desalination 128 (2000) 57 66

~ 0 ~

09

'

'

'

'

'

'

1 0

09

'

'

'

'

'

08-

07-

c~
~

0 6

05

/
,

06
i

500

1000

1500

2000

'

2500

Molecular

300C

3500

( DaLtons

weight

'

4000

'

500

1000

'

1500

'

'

2000

2500

Molecular

Fig. 3. Molecularweight Cut-offprofileof CP8 membrane.

10

4500

3300
( Dalton

weight

'

3500

i
4000

4500

Fig. 4. Molecularweight cut-offprofileof CP9 membrane.

lo

09

00

'

'

'

,/

g
~

~J

0 7-

'

'

"

o6j

'

05

06-

500

1000

'

1500
Molecular

2000
weight

'

'

2500
( DaLton

3000

'

3500

'

4000

'

4500

500

1000

'

"500
Molecular

'

2000

2500
weight

( Dalton

'

3000

3500

4000

4500

Fig. 5. Molecularweight cut-offprofileof CPl0 membrane.

Fig. 6. Molecularweight cut-offprofileofCP1 l membrane.

The drop in solute retention at higher pressures is

typical of what is already reported [11] for
porous membranes from our laboratory,
It is possibly due to higher permeate
withdrawal through the membrane at high
pressures resulting in the build-up of solute
concentration at the boundary layer adjacent to
the membrane at a rate faster than the effective
mass transfer coefficient of solute on the high
pressure side.

samples, namely, CP8, CP9, CP10 and CP1 I are

given in Figs. 3 to 6. All the membrane samples
give a MWCO of around 1000 Daltons. The
profiles obtained for all the four membranes with
different permeate flux but with comparable
retention characteristics are similar to each other.
The profiles also do not appear to be sharp,
probably because the size differences of
polyethylene glycol solutes in the dissolved state
do not vary proportionately with molecular
weight in low molecular weight region.

3.2.4. Molecular weight cut-oil (MWCO)

profile

The molecular weight cut-off (MWCO)

profiles for four cellulose propionate membrane

3.2.5. Separation o f dyes

Membrane performance for four different

dyes for CP7 membrane is given in Table 5. It can

S. Khan et al./Desalination 128 (2000) 57 66

64

Table 5
Separation behaviour of CP7 membrane for difl'erent dyes
SI. No.

1
2
3
4

Dye

methyl red
methylene blue
rhodamine B
bromophenol blue

Molecular
weight,
Daltons
269.31
373.90
479.02
669.98

Solute
retention

~0-

65~7 6c~ ~
~ 5C
~ 45

|.

1 oo

093
0B6
c70

~E

0.623
0.392
0.452
0.794

"

"

be seen that the retention o f dyes does not

increase with the increase in the molecular
weight and the retention depends more on the
molecular structure and the ionic nature o f the
dyes. The separation o f methyl red with
molecular weight o f 269.31 and bromophenol
blue with the molecular weight o f 669.98 are
higher, whereas the retention o f methylene blue
with molecular weight 373.9 and rhodamine B
with molecular weight o f 479.02 are lower. The
retention o f lower molecular weight methyl red
is higher than the retention o f higher molecular
weight rhodamine B dye. The higher retention o f
methyl red and bromophenol blue could be due
to the anionic nature o f the dye, whereas the
lower retention o f the other two could be due to
the cationic nature o f the dye.

3.2. 6. Fouling susceptibility studies

The susceptibility o f cellulose propionate
m e m b r a n e s for adso@tive fouling is studied. The
observed
charged
characteristics
of
the
m e m b r a n e s are expected to confer some degree
o f resistance for adsorptive fouling. The
permeate flux and retention behaviour o f cellulose propionate m e m b r a n e (CP7) were studied
for cutting o i l - w a t e r system as well as for milk
proteins as a function o f pressure and the results
are given in Figs. 7 and 8. It can be seen that the

0 71 R
054

40

35 - --

Casting solution composition (w/w): polymer = 12.5%,

DMAc = 75%. additive = 12.5%; Casting atmosphere:
humidity = 72% R.H., temperature = 22C; Testing conditions: pressure = 500 kPa, feed concentration = 50 mg/L

"

"J
F ........

~mL

o~,~olo~ DM. . . . .

0 57

0 50

2C0

30O

4O0

500

600

7O0

~. . . . . . . ~p,
Fig. 7. Separation behaviour of CP7 membrane lbr cutting
oil water system as a functkm of pressure.

~0~
~- ~o
~ ~.~_
~ 5C
eE 45

,l,--,00
, ....
o0~
0~0~

....

~
.

07!

: 64

"-I

40 -

..............................

/ .......

~,. . . . .
'3 5~'

p
200

J
.

i
.

00

60 .

F
.

C50

............ '
l:ig. 8. Separation behaviour of CP7 membrane lbr milk
protein as a function of pressure.

membranes give a high retention for cutting oil

and milk proteins. The permeate flux is found to
increase with increase in pressure for both the
systems and levels o f f at higher pressures
indicating the formation o f gel layer on
membrane surface. The limiting flux is more or
less identical for both the systems and occurs at
nearly the same operating pressure. After the
testing, the m e m b r a n e sample was washed
thoroughly with running water and the pure
water permeation rates were measured. The
fouling
susceptibility
was
measured
by
comparing the pure water permeation rate o f the
m e m b r a n e sample before (PWP ) and after the

S. Khan et al. ,,'Desalination 128 (2000) 5 ~ 6 6

membrane is used under severe fouling

conditions (PWPF). The results are given in
Table 6. It can be seen that the pure water permeation rates after testing were lower than the
untested membranes. For sake of comparison,
polysulfone and aromatic polyamide ultrafiltration membranes (prepared in our laboratory)
were also tested under similar conditions. It can
be seen that the drop in pure water permeation
rates with respect to cellulose propionate is
lo~'er and comparable to that ofpolysulfone than
aromatic polyamide membranes,

Table 6
Comparative lbuling susceptibilityof CP7 membranes
Cutting oil-water feed Milkprotein feed
Membrane pWp0,
pwp v,
pwp ,
pwp F,
l"m-2h-I Lm-2h-1 l"mZ'h-I L ' m - 2 h - I
Cellulose
72.4
64.3
71.7
65.1
propionate
(cp7)
Polysulfone 122
105
120.4
109.2
Aromatic
84
62.1
87.2
67.4
polyamide
Casting solution composition (w/~.): polymer= 12.5%,
DMAc = 75%, additive= 12.5%: Casting atmosphere:
humidity=72% R.tt.. temperature=22C; Testing c o n ditions: pressure = 500 kPa, time of operation: 0
zero
time, F finaltime

65

improves the water permeation rate with no

drastic effect on solute retention.
3. The water permeation rate was found to
decrease drastically with an increase in the
total thickness of membranes under identical
casting conditions.
4. Cellulose propionate membranes prepared,
exhibit
improved
selectivity
towards
multivalent anions and the retention
behaviour of membranes show a typical
maxima as previously reported. More
detailed studies need to be caried out.
5. The retention behaviour o f cellulose
propionate membranes improves marginally
with applied pressure but declines at higher
pressures. The permeation rates through
membranes do not increase proportionately
with increase in pressures indicating some
morphological changes with increase in
pressures.
6. The membrane samples give satisfactory
retention behaviour for anionic dyes
whereas cationic dyes are rejected to a
comparatively lower extent. This suggests
existence of fixed anionic groups.
7. The fouling resistance of the membrane for
oil and milk proteins appear to be
satisfactory.

References
4. Conclusions
1.

2.

Ultrafiltration membranes with a MWCO of

-1000
were prepared from cellulose
propionate polymer with N,N-dimethyl
acetamide as the solvent.
The effect of different additives in the
casting dope on the membrane performance
was studied. Among the additives studied
maleic acid was found to be the most
suitable. Increase in maleic acid to N,Ndimethyl acetamide ratio in the casting dope

[1]
[2]
[3]

[4]
[5]
[6]
[7]

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