9

CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE SURVEY

2.1

INTRODUCTION
The objectives of the present study call for a closer review of the

following fields.
(i)

Automotive drive (propeller) shafts

(ii)

Polymer matrix composite materials in automobile field

(iii)

Design and theoretical analysis of composite drive shafts

(iv)

Design and analysis of adhesively bonded tubular joints

(v)

Design optimization

(vi)

Finite element analysis of cylindrical parts

(vii)

Fabrication and testing of composite material angle-ply

shafts

The literature review is carried out to understand and assess the

current status of the above areas.
2.2

AUTOMOTIVE DRIVE SHAFTS

Robert Bosch (1996), Reimpell, et al. (1996), and Fenton John (1998)

have described and constructed a closed form solution to design and fabrication
of different types of drive shafts which transmit power from the engine to the

10

differential gear of a rear wheel drive vehicle. Hurd (1996) has studied the
torsional performance of drive shafts for vehicle drive line applications.
Schmelz, et al. (1992) have concluded that the torque capability of the drive
shaft for passenger cars should be larger than 3500 Nm and the fundamental
bending natural frequency should be higher than 9200 rpm to avoid whirling
vibration. Donley et al. (1996) demonstrated the use of building block method
for complicated systems such as drive shaft, axle shafts, axle tubes, carrier
differential case, and pinion shafts. Farishidianfar, et al. (1999) have proposed
to consider manufacturing and other practical constraints when selecting the
optimum driveline configurations. Theng (2004) has discussed how accidents
are due to the vehicle approaching resonance resulting in vibrations of large
amplitude and dislocation of spline end of drive shaft.
2.3

POLYMER

MATRIX

COMPOSITE

MATERIALS

IN

AUTOMOBILE FIELD
Chase (1979), Boris et al. (1984), and Theren (1990) have made a
feasibility study of the potential use of composites in structural applications in
automobiles. Yuki Kurihara (1995) has discussed the polmer matrix composite
materials in automobile industries. Beard more and Johnson (1986) have
discussed the potential for composites in structural automotive application from
a structural point of view. John. W. Weeton, et al. (1986) have briefly described
the application possibilities of composite in the field of automotive industry as
rear floor pans, elliptic springs, engine components, bumpers, drive shafts, leaf
springs and truck frame rails. Pollard (1989) has investigated the possible use of
polymer matrix composites in driveline applications. The first high-volume,
true automotive application of aerospace technology was the driveshaft
developed by Spicer U-joint divisions of Dana Corporation. Following an

11

earlier driveshaft introduction on 1985 Ford Econoline van models, the Spicer
product continued to see growth on GM pickup trucks during 1988-1992
(McDermott 1994).
2.4

DESIGN AND THEORETICAL ANALYSIS OF COMPOSITE

DRIVE SHAFTS
The results of an extensive series of tests on the strength in torsion of

thin-walled aluminum tubes were published by Lindquist (1932). Even though

no theoretical analysis was attempted, the tests constituted the bulk of the
experimental evidence in the study of Donnell (1934) who, in 1934, developed
a theoretical solution for the torsion of round thinwalled tube for which the
walls became unstable. The results of thinshell theory were given by a few
simple formulae and curves which covered all cases. As far as anisotropic
materials are concerned, general theories of anisotropic shells were developed
by Ambartsumyan (1964). Cheng and Ho (1963) and Ho and Cheng (1963)
have performed a general analysis on the buckling of non-homogeneous
anisotropic thin-wall cylinders under combined axial, radial, and torsional loads
by considering four boundary conditions. Chehil and Cheng (1968) have
considered the elastic buckling of composite cylindrical shells under torsion
based on largedeflection shell theory. Tennyson (1975) has reviewed the
classical linear buckling theory for both geometrically perfect and imperfect
anisotropic composite circular cylinders for various loading configurations, and
compared with results of experimental data. Gracia and Doblare (1988) have
studied the shape optimization of elastic orthotropic shafts under torsion by
using boundary elements. Agarwal B.D. and Broutman L.J. (1990), Jones R.M.
(1990), Mallick P.K. (1993), and Ronald F. Gibson (1994) have explained the
theoretical details of composite materials and structures in detail. Andrzej

12

Tylikowski (1996) has discussed the dynamic stability of rotating composite

shafts. Shams-Ahmadi and Chou (1997) have derived a complex variable
boundary element method for torsion of composite shafts. Al tabiei (1997) has
dealt with the development of the kinematic, equilibrium and buckling
equations, and related boundary conditions for laminated, cylindrical,
moderately thick shells, including the effect of transverse shear. Xiao QZ, et al.
(1999) have developed an improved hybridstress element approach to torsion
of shafts. Kim, et al (1999) have described the buckling of thick orthotropic
cylindrical shells under Torsion. Mao and Lu (1999) have studied the buckling
analysis of a laminated cylindrical shell under torsion subjected to mixed
boundary conditions. Ferrero et al. (2001) have investigated torsion of thinwalled composite beams with mid plane symmetry. Karihaloo, et al. (2001)
have developed homogenization-based multivariable element method for pure
torsion of composite shafts. Hoon Cheol Park et al. (2001) have studied
torsional buckling analysis of composite cylinders.
Oliver A. Bauchau (1983) has studied the optimal configuration of a
high speed rotating shaft and modeled using beam formulation including shear
deformation and rotary inertia. Faust H, et al. (1984) have developed a
composite rotor shaft for the chinook. Different configurations were studied for
various numbers of plies and orientation angles to increase the bending
frequency. An important problem in the design of a high speed rotating shaft of
significant span is the lateral stability. With light weight Graphite/Epoxy
materials it is relatively easy to meet the torsional stiffness and strength
requirements using a thin walled tube, but this might lead to a shaft which is
sensitive to lateral buckling. Lim and Darlow (1986) have conducted studies on
composite shafts with potential application as drive shafts for helicopter tail
rotors. The optimized shafts were manufactured using a braiding technique and

13

were tested for rotor dynamic performances under no load condition. Dos Reis
(1987) has presented shell theory based critical speed analysis of drive shafts.
Bauchau (1988) has presented theoretical model of the torsional buckling
behavior of circular cylindrical shells made of laminated composites and to
validate this model by comparing its predictions with experimental results.
Patricia L.Hetherington (1990) studied the dynamic behavior of supercritical
composite drive shafts for helicopter applications. Singh and Gupta (1994) have
studied the free damped flexural vibration analysis of composite cylindrical
tubes using beam and shell. Ganapathi et al. (1994) have extensively studied the
nonlinear free flexural vibrations of laminated circular cylindrical shells. Lam
(1995) has investigated the method of analysis involving Loves first
approximation theory and Ritzs procedure is used to study the influence of
boundary conditions and fiber orientation on the natural frequencies of thin
orthotropic laminated cylindrical shells. Lee (1995) has presented the first order
theory to determine the natural frequencies of an orthotropic shell.
Chandrasekaran (1977) has presented the torsional vibrations of some layered
shells of revolution. Greenberg and Stavsky (1998) have examined the
vibrations and buckling of composite orthotropic cylindrical shells with nonuniform axial loads. Scott and Kim (2001) have performed harmonic wave
propagation in an infinite composite Timoshenko shaft.
2.5

DESIGN AND ANALYSIS OF ADHESIVELY BONDED

TUBULAR JOINTS
Alwar and Nagaraja (1976) have used the finite element method to

obtain the stress of a tubular single lap joint subjected to torsion. The time
dependent properties of the adhesive were taken into account in the finite
element method. Norwood and Brown (1981) have analyzed three different

14

types of end fitting joint to obtain the strains of the joint by the finite element
method. Hart-Smith (1981) has analyzed several adhesively bonded joints such
as the single lap, the double lap, the scarf and the stepped lap joints and made
computer software for the joints. Many researchers have investigated composite
shafts and joining methods of the composite shafts to the yokes of universal
joints (Adams, et al. 1977, Graves, et al. 1981). Chon (1982) has employed a
closed form approximate solution for the stress distribution in the adhesive
layer of the single lap joint under torsional load when the adherends were
laminated composite tube. Hipol (1984) has performed a study on the analysis
and optimization of a tubular lap joint subjected to torsional load. Cho, et al.
(1998) have investigated the effects of residual thermal stresses at the interface
of aluminum-carbon/epoxy composite of a co-cured aluminum-composite shaft
and developed a new manufacturing method to eliminate the axial residual
thermal stresses by imposing a compressive preload to the aluminum tube
during co-curing operation. Choi, et al. (1997) have investigated the torque
capacity of co-cured tubular lap joints with respect to fiber volume fraction and
thickness of carbon/epoxy composite adherend. Lee, et al. (1997) have
investigated the static and dynamic torque characteristics of composite co-cured
single lap joints with respect to bonding length, surface roughness and stacking
angle. Harrison and Harrison (1972) have developed a simple method for
calculating the stresses near the ends of a parallel-sided adhesive layer and
investigated stress concentration induced by the residual thermal stress. Lee,
et al. (1991) have experimentally investigated the effects of the adhesive
thickness and the roughness of the adherend on the torsional fatigue strength of
tubular single lap adhesively bonded joint. Kim and Lee (1998) have proposed
a failure model for tubular single lap steel-steel adhesively bonded joints with
nonlinear mechanical properties and fabrication residual thermal stresses. The

15

nonlinear tensile stress-strain relationship of the adhesive was modeled by a

two-parameter exponential equation that was presented by the initial tensile
modulus and ultimate tensile strength of the adhesive. Lee, et al. (1999) have
investigated the effects of adhesive fillers on the strength of tubular single lap
adhesive joints and thermal characteristics of adhesive joints.
2.6

DESIGN OPTIMIZATION
The general optimization procedures are formulated in many

literatures (Vanderplaats 1984, Arora 1989, Rao S.S. 1995). Genetic

Algorithms (GAs) are computerized search procedures based on the mechanics
of natural genetics and natural selection that can be used to obtain global and
robust solutions to optimization problems. Raol and Abhijit (1996) have
explained the fundamentals of genetic algorithm. Kalyanmoy Deb (1996) has
described the computer algorithm of GA. Goldberg (1989) has summarized
how genetic algorithms differ from conventional optimization and search
procedures in several fundamental ways:
1.

GAs work with a solution set and not the solution itself.

2.

GAs search from a population of solutions and not from a single

solution.

3.

GAs use pay off (objective function) information and not

derivatives or other auxiliary knowledge.

4.

GAs use probabilistic transition rules and not deterministic rules.

Mota, et al. (1984) have elaborately described the optimization of the

geometry of shafts using boundary element method. Gracia and Doblare (1988)
have studied the shape optimization of elastic orthotropic shafts under torsion

16

by using boundary element method. Eric sandgre and Eric Jense (1992) have
demonstrated a new approach for the topological design and optimization of
structural components. The admissible design space is discretized with each
element assigned a design variable, which determines how it modifies the
design topology. A generic optimization algorithm is applied to turn each
element either on or off and penalty function is employed to handle design
constraints such as stress and maximum deflection. Examples are also presented
for the inner panel of an automotive deck lid and for an automotive bumper
beam. Rajeev and krishnamoorthy (1992) have discussed a simple genetic
algorithm for optimizing structural systems with discrete design variables and, a
penalty based transformation method is used to transform the constrained
problem into an unconstrained problem. The concept of optimization using
generic algorithm is also presented in detail using three-bar truss problem.
Raphael T.Haftka and Joanne L.Walsh (1992, 1993) have performed stackingsequence optimization for buckling of laminated plates by integer programming
and genetic algorithm. Kalyanmoy Deb (1996) has used GA to optimize welded
beam structure consisting of a highly nonlinear objective function with five
nonlinear constraints. Lee Riche and Haftka (1995) have explored the use of
genetic algorithm for the minimum thickness design of composite laminated
plates. Constraints are accounted by combining fixed and progressively penalty
functions. Burns and Cherkaev (1997) have investigated optimal distribution of
multimaterial composites for torsional beams. Salvador Botello, et al. (1999)
have studied the performance of two stochastic search methods: genetic
algorithms and simulated annealing applied to the optimization of pin-jointed
steel bar structures. They showed that it is possible to embed these two schemes
in to a single parametric family of algorithms and that optimal performance (in
a parallel machine) is obtained by a hybrid scheme. Mark and Douglas (1995)

17

have presented the application of genetic algorithms to the performance

optimization of asynchronous automatic assembly systems. The performance of
the genetic algorithm is measured through comparison with the results of
stochastic quasi-gradient methods to the same automatic assembly systems.
Duda and jakiela (1997) have described how a specifying genetic algorithm is
used to distribute subsets of the evolving population of solutions over the
design space. Results demonstrated the creation of different good designs of
characteristically different topology and shape. Jesiel Cunha, et al. (1999) have
used the genetic algorithms as a complementary technique allowing a first
estimation of the elastic co-efficient. The refinement of solutions can be made
by classical updating method such as the sensitivity method. The procedure
allows the simultaneous estimation of several properties from a single test. Park,
et al. (2001) have demonstrated stacking sequence design of composite
laminates for maximum strength using genetic algorithms. Vijayarangan and
Rajendran (1999, 2001) have optimized the design constraints of steel and
composite mono-leaf spring using genetic algorithms. Raphael T.Haftka et al.
(1992, 1993) have developed the stacking sequence optimization for buckling
of laminated plates by integer programming and buckling load maximization by
genetic algorithm. Park, et al. (2001) established the stacking sequence design
of composite laminates for maximum strength using genetic algorithms.
2.7

FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS OF CYLINDRICAL PARTS

Hughes and Liu (1981) have analysed nonlinear finite element

analysis of shells. Bathe (1996) has described the general procedures of finite
element techniques. Eliahu Zahavi (1992) has applied the finite element
procedures for the analysis of machine elements using ANSYS software. He
has considered only two-dimensional problems. Timothy Liang, et al. (1990)

18

have discussed the points to be considered for the analysis of composites with
finite element analysis. Seshadri and Varadarajan (1991) have studied the
behavior of bus frame under different loads using finite element analysis. Also,
they analysed the link arm, which connects the antiroll bar of a double decker
bus rear axle to the frame. The analysis showed that weld area is critical.
Reinforcement brackets are suggested to reduce the stress level in this area.
Ramamurthy (1996) has studied the response of vehicles owing to road
undulations and compared the acceleration and stress at various points of the
bus by finite element and experimental methods. Tanov R. and Tabiei A (2000)
have formulated a simple correction to the first order shear deformation shell
finite element formulations. Ala Tabiei and Romil Tanov (2000) have presented
the finite element formulation of a higher order shear deformation shell element
for nonlinear dynamic analysis. Jeng-Shian Chang and Yub-pao Huang (1991)
have presented the finite element analysis of geometrically static and transiently
dynamic behavior of laminated plates. Nguyen (1992) has developed an
accurate finite element formulation for linear elastic torsion calculation.
Vijayarangan and Ganesan (1994) have studied the behavior of composite spur
bevel gear from a static load point of view using three dimensional finite
element methods. The performance of composite material gears is compared
with carbon and steel gear. Also, they made an attempt to study the contact
stress of a pair mating gear teeth under static conditions. Rakesh Chandra, et al.
(1998) have attempted to evaluate the damping of fiber reinforced composite
using micro mechanical FEM modeling with plane strain elements. Muc and
Gurba (2001) have investigated the applicability of genetic algorithms in
conjunction with the finite element computation of objective functions.

19

2.8

FABRICATION

AND

TESTING

OF

COMPOSITE

MATERIAL ANGLE-PLY SHAFTS

Jeusette, et al. (1987) have analysed composite revolution structures
wound by wide plies using finite element analysis. John and George (1988)
have developed a general procedure of electro thermal curing of filament
wound composite cylinders. Hjellming and Walker (1989) have investigated
thermal curing cycles for composite cylinders with thick walls and thermoset
resins. Martin (1990) has proposed a general approach to filament wound
composite

pressure

vessels

using

computer

aided

optimization

and

manufacturing. Soo-Yong Lee and George (1990), Vita (1990), and Emilio
(1990) have made out standing contributions to process model and validation
on fabrication of composite cylindrical structures using filament winding
technique. Cai and Gutowki (1992) have performed a study on winding and
consolidation analysis for cylindrical composite structures. Simoes, et al. (1993)
have studied the simulation of the geodesic and non-geodesic trajectories of the
filament winding. Lossie (1994) has formulated the design principles in
filament winding. Michelle M. Gauthier (1995) has published a handbook on
engineering materials used for filament winding process technique. Lye and
Boey (1995) have developed a low-cost prototype filament-winding system for
composite components.Ikonomopoulos (1998) has developed a theoretical
approach and numerical simulation of the winding and curing cycles in filament
winding manufacturing. Liyang Zhao, et al. (2001) have explored a general
approach to finite element modeling of the filament winding process. John
E.Green (2002) has demonstrated the history of filament winding. The standard
experimental procedures for composite shafts for combined and torsion have
been dealt in literature (Herakovich and Johnson 1981). Moal, et al. (1986)
have developed a finite element model for simulation of the torsion test for

20

composite structures. Ferent and Vautrin (1990) have developed a general

approach for computer aided torsion test. Adam cetera and Wojciech (2002)
have investigated fractal characteristics of composite pipes defects in torsion
testing.