P663 (Blasingame) PA (v20130722) PDF

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Petroleum Engineering 663 Formation Evaluation and Analysis of Reservoir Performance

Self-Study Guide (tied to Course Notes) Analysis of Reservoir Performance [Blasingame]
Production Data Analysis

Self-Study Objectives (by Module) Blasingame Notes (Production Data Analysis):
Module 01 Objectives of Production Data Analysis.
Be familiar with Cartesian, Semilog, and Log-Log plotting coordinates ....................................................................... 9-10
Be familiar with the Objectives of Production Data Analysis .......................................................................................... 11
Be familiar with the data requirements (and issues) for production data analysis .................................................. 11,13-14
Be familiar with the issues related to allocated rate data ............................................................................................. 15-16
Be familiar with the issues related to surface pressure data (with regard to PA and PTA) .......................................... 20-22
Be familiar with and be able to apply the "Integration of Results" methods .................................................................... 23
Be familiar with and be able to apply the "Correlation of PA Results" methods ......................................................... 24-29
Be familiar with the most fundamental concepts of "Well Deliverability" ....................................................................... 30
Be familiar with the well/facilities flow system and the critical points in the system ...................................................... 31
Be familiar with the concept of reservoir heterogeneity and how this affects PA and PTA ............................................. 32
Be familiar with the "scales of results" issues that occur when trying to relate PA and PTA results with core data ........ 32
Be familiar with and be able to apply the "Guidelines for Performance-Based Reservoir Characterizations" ................. 34
Be familiar with the use of reservoir simulation to "integrate" the well model(s) and performance data ......................... 35
Module 02 Production Analysis in Perspective.
Be familiar with the topics of Material Balance, Geology, PTA, and Reservoir Simulation as these pertain to PA ........ 39
Be familiar with the basic "accounting" concept of Material Balance ......................................................................... 44-45
Be familiar with the need for reservoir pressure data required to apply Material Balance methods ................................. 46
Be familiar with a "typical" oil Material Balance example............................................................................................... 47
Be familiar with and be able to apply the oil Material Balance relation ........................................................................... 48
Be familiar with and be able to apply the gas Material Balance relations ("dry gas) and "abnormal pressure") .............. 49
Be familiar with the characteristic gas Material Balance plots (p/z vs. Gp) for various cases...................................... 50-52
Be familiar with topics in Geology as these related to PA and applied reservoir engineering.......................................... 53
Be familiar with sandstone depositional systems ......................................................................................................... 55-56
Be familiar with carbonate depositional systems ......................................................................................................... 57-58
Be familiar with various models/plots for "Permeability Characterization/Correlation" ............................................. 59-60
Be familiar with the PTA topics which are relevant to well performance analysis .......................................................... 65
Be familiar with the current library of PTA models ......................................................................................................... 67
Be familiar with the philosophy and objectives of PTA .............................................................................................. 68-72
Be familiar with the "Arun Field" example comparison of (kh)PTA versus (kh)PA ............................................................. 73
Be familiar with the topics/issues related to Reservoir Simulation which are relevant to PA and PTA ........................... 75
Be familiar with the "Reservoir Integration" flowchart presented by Weber.................................................................... 77
Be familiar with the "Reservoir Scales" schematic (by Weber) and the "Scaling-Up Process" schematic (Lasseter) ...... 78
Module 03 History of Production Analysis.

Be familiar with the orientation points provided for PA ................................................................................................... 81
Be familiar with the historical milestones for PA ............................................................................................................. 83
Be familiar with historical PA methods 1920's ............................................................................................................ 83
Early Data Analysis Plots Reserves (EUR) versus Average Flowrate (Cartesian) ................................................ 88
Rate-Time Plots: Cartesian, Semilog (rate), and Log-log plots ............................................................................. 89-90
Arps' (Empirical) Rate Relations Exponential, Hyperbolic, and Harmonic Rate Relations .............................. 93-94
Be familiar with and be able to derive the Arps' Exponential Rate Relation .............................................................. 95
Arps' Example ............................................................................................................................................................. 96
Fetkovich: Empirical methods ("depletion" stem (Arps' empirical rate-time relations)) ............................................ 99
Fetkovich: Analytical methods ("transient" (analytical) "stems) ....................................................................... 100-101
Fetkovich: Composite Type Curve ("transient" (analytical) + "depletion" (Arps' empirical) "stems) ............... 102-104
Fetkovich-Carter: Type Curve for gas flow applications (pwf = constant) ................................................................ 105
Be familiar with historical PA methods 1980's .......................................................................................................... 107
Superposition Van Everdingen and Meyer Method (rigorous superposition) ............................................... 109-110
Pseudosteady-State Flow Relations Rate Normalization and Material Balance Time .................................. 112-118
Palacio/Blasingame Type Curve Fetkovich-style TC, Auxiliary Functions and Material Balance Time ..... 119-120
Be familiar with historical PA methods 2000's .......................................................................................................... 121
Orientation to Modern Production Analysis ............................................................................................................. 123
Loebel Well Example (from SPE 15482) ......................................................................................................... 125-129
Perspectives on the Future of Production Analysis .................................................................................................. 130
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Petroleum Engineering 663 Formation Evaluation and Analysis of Reservoir Performance

Self-Study Guide (tied to Course Notes) Analysis of Reservoir Performance [Blasingame]

Self-Study Objectives (by Module) Blasingame Notes (Production Data Analysis):
Module 04 Basic Concepts.
Be familiar with the basic concepts of Production Analysis (PA) [Orientation Page] .................................................... 133
Reservoir Fluids:
Be familiar with the general aspects of Reservoir Fluids as relevant to PA....................................................... 137-157
Be familiar with the Characteristics of "Solution-Gas Drive" Fluid Systems (pressure-dependent properties) . 148-149
Be familiar with the Characteristics of "Dry Gas" Fluid Systems (pressure-dependent properties) .................. 150-152
Be familiar with the definitions of Fluid and Formation Compressibility ................................................................ 155
Diffusivity Equations:
Be familiar with the "black oil" diffusivity equation ......................................................................................... 161-163
Be familiar with the "solution-gas-drive" diffusivity equations ......................................................................... 164-168
Be familiar with the "dry gas" diffusivity equations .......................................................................................... 169-174
Be familiar with the "multiphase" diffusivity equations ........................................................................................... 175
Material Balance:
Be familiar with the "black oil" material balance equation ................................................................................ 181-183
Be familiar with the "dry gas" material balance equations ................................................................................ 184-188
Pseudosteady-State Flow Behavior:
Be familiar with the concept and physical meaning of "pseudosteady-state flow behavior" .................................... 191
Be familiar with the "black oil" pseudosteady-state equation ............................................................................ 192-193
Be familiar with the "black oil" pseudosteady-state equation ............................................................................ 194-195
Module 05 Basic Analysis Tools.
Be familiar with the Basic Analysis Tools for Production Analysis (PA) [Orientation Page] ........................................ 199
Arps Plot: Semi-Analytical Rate-Time Analysis:
Be familiar with and be able to use a plot of log(rate) versus time to estimate EUR and extrapolate production201-205
Be familiar with and be able to apply the Arps' rate-time relations ................................................................... 203-204
EUR Plot: Semi-Analytical Rate-Cumulative Analysis:
Be familiar with and be able to use a plot of rate versus cumulative production to estimate EUR .................... 207-212
Be familiar with and be able to apply the Arps' rate-cumulative relations................................................................ 209
Fetkovich (Log-Log) Plot: Type Curve Analysis (constant pwf)
Be familiar and be able to use a plot of log(rate) versus log(time) in the "Fetkovich" type curve process ........ 213-217
Buba Approach: Analytical Gas Solution (constant pwf)
Be familiar with and be able to use the "Buba" plot (gas rate versus square of cumulative gas production) ..... 219-226
Be familiar with and be able to apply the "Buba" rate-cumulative relation to estimate EUR ................................... 221
Module 06 Advanced Analysis Concepts.
Be familiar with the Advanced Analysis Concepts for Production Analysis (PA) [Orientation Page] ........................... 229
Exact Superposition Formulation: (Reservoir Model)
Be familiar with and be able to apply the (exact) "superposition" relations for flowrate and pressure..................... 233
Superposition Formulation for Pseudosteady-State:
Be familiar with and be able to apply the "Black Oil" PSS Equations...................................................................... 237
Be familiar with and be able to apply the "Dry Gas" PSS Equations........................................................................ 238
Auxiliary Functions:
Be familiar and be able to apply the "auxiliary" plotting functions for PA type curve sequence ............................. 241
Assumptions, Limitations, and Practical Considerations:
Be familiar with the data requirements for performing a modern PA sequence ....................................................... 245
Be familiar with the limitations for performing a modern PA sequence ............................................................ 247-249
Be familiar and be able to apply the "multiwell" Material Balance Time................................................................. 250
Appendix Library of Decline Type Curves
Be familiar with and be able to use the "Decline Type Curves" included in this library ................................... 251-266
Module 07 Conclusions Guidelines/Pitfalls/Recommendations.
Be familiar with the available PA tools and the issues at present .................................................................................. 269
Be familiar with the practical guidelines for PA ............................................................................................................. 270
Be familiar with the "pitfalls" for PA (pressure and flowrate issues) ............................................................................. 271
Be familiar with the recommendations/caveats for PA (pressure/flowrate data issues, data management, etc.) ..... 272-273
Be familiar with the "reality checks" for PTA/PA (volume averaging, model limitations, etc.) .................................... 274
Module for PETE 663
Thomas A. Blasingame, Ph.D., P.E.

Department of Petroleum Engineering Texas A&M University
College Station, TX 77843-3116 (USA)
+1.979.845.2292
t-blasingame@tamu.edu
T.A. Blasingame (2013.07.22)
Production Analysis PETE 663
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Orientation
Thomas A. Blasingame, Ph.D., P.E.

Department of Petroleum Engineering Texas A&M University
College Station, TX 77843-3116 (USA)
+1.979.845.2292
t-blasingame@tamu.edu
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Course Objectives:
Objectives of Production Data Analysis:
1. Be able to analyze rate-time production data to
estimate reserves. ("decline curve" analysis)
2. Be able to analyze pressure-rate-time production
data to obtain reservoir volume and estimates of
reservoir properties for gas and liquid reservoir
systems. ("model-based" analysis)
3. Be able to make performance forecasts for well/
reservoir systems. (empirical and analytical
models)
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Performance-Based
Reservoir Characterization
Using Production Data Analysis
Module 01: Objectives of

Thomas A. Blasingame, Texas A&M U.
Department of Petroleum Engineering
Texas A&M University
College Station, TX 77843-3116
+1.979.845.2292 t-blasingame@tamu.edu
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Example Semilog Plot

Are you familiar with logarithmic scaling?
y=bsly exp(-mslyx)
(log(y) vs. x, slope (msly), intercept (bsly))
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Example Log-Log Plot

Are you familiar with logarithmic scaling?
y=bpowxmpow (log(y) vs. log(x), slope (mpow), intercept (bpow))
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Objectives: Module Overview

Objectives of Production Data Analysis
Expected Results:
"Conventional" Decline Curve Analysis: (Arps, etc.) empirical

relations used to provide estimates of recovery and forecasts of
future performance.
"Model-Based" Analyses: Using analytical/numerical reservoir
models to perform simultaneous analysis/modelling procedures.
Provides estimates of dynamic formation properties (k, S, xf, dual
porosity properties, etc.)
"Model-Based" Forecasting: A direct extension of model-based
analysis generation of a time-dependent pressure and/or rate
forecast.
Data Requirements/Assessment/Review:
Are production data available?

(BOTH rates and PRESSURES!)
Is the well completion history available?
(review for issues)
PVT and static reservoir properties? (must be assessed/included)
Is the production "analyzable?"
(can major issues be resolved?)
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Objectives: Example Set of Production Data
Flowrate and pressure data (measured on a regular (daily) basis) rate and
pressure behavior must be synchronized and representative.
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Objectives : Static Data Input for Production Analysis

Required Static Data
PVT Properties: (Lab report preferred, correlations acceptable)
Black Oil: Bo, Rs, o, co

(correlations require: T, g,sep, pb, STO)
Dry Gas: z (or Bg), g, cg
(correlations require: T, g,sep)
Volatile Oil: Black oil equivalent or compositional formulation.
Gas Condensate: Dry gas equivalent or compositional formulation.
Water: Bw, Rsw, w, cw
(correlations require: T, g,sep, pbw, salinity)
Reservoir Properties:
Porosity ()
(core and/or well logs)
Net pay thickness (h)
(core and/or well logs)
Wellbore radius (rw)
(well completion history (bit diameter))
Formation Compressibility (cf)
(cf=3x10-6 psia-1 or correlation)
Well Completion History:
Drilling records
(initial pressures, production tests)
Well files
(well logs, core, PVT, recompletion, workover records)
Annotated production records (records of activities very useful)
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Objectives: Common Issues with Production Data

Issues
Allocated Rate Data:
Common in mature producing environments (e.g., Texas).

Common in some offshore operations (manifold rates).
"Allocation" depends on records and consistency checks.
Poor/Incomplete (or Erroneous) Pressure Data:
Virtually all production pressure measurements taken at surface.
Completion changes often not reflected in surface pressures.
Some pressure data are just wrong (poor gauge, poor timing, etc.).
Well Completion Issues:
Equipment changes, poor practices, failed equipment, etc.
UNREPORTED activities (recompletions, workovers, treatments).
Permanent DOWNHOLE Pressure Measurements:
Expense is justified.
Provides continuous evaluation of well performance.
Data volume/sampling is an issue, but not a major problem.
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Objectives: Example of Allocated Rate Data
a. "Cartesian" Plot: qo and Np vs. t Batanes

Well 3541 (Peru). Character-istic signature of
allocation in rate.
(1/2)
b. "Reciprocal Rate" Plot: 1/qo vs. Np/qo

Batanes Well 3541 (Peru). Again we note the
allocation signature.
Data Plots: Batanes Well 3541 (Peru)
Strong signature of rate data allocation (cumulative production is relatively

smooth, but rate profile is necessary for analysis).
"Reciprocal Rate" plot (1/qo vs. Np/qo (Cartesian format)) does appear
hopeless in terms of analysis/interpretation.
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Objectives: Example of Allocated Rate Data
(2/2)
Log-Log Reciprocal Rate Plot: Batanes Well 3541 (Peru)
While considerable "scatter" exists, a dominant trend emerges.

This plot is the basis for most modern production data analysis.
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Objectives: Example of Well Completion Change (1/3)
a. "Cartesian" Plot: qg and ptf vs. t South-east

Texas gas well. Note changes in rate/pressure
due to completion changes.
b. "Cartesian" Plot: qg and Gp vs. t South-east

Texas gas well. Note that Gp is not significantly
affected (in this case).
Data Plots: Southeast Texas Gas Well
This case is distinctive in that the operator systematically changes the

completion on virtually every well the well is first flowed up casing, then
tubing is installed and the well is flowed up the annulus then later, flow is
diverted through the tubing only.
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Log-Log "Rate-Cumulative-Time" Plot: Southeast TX Gas Well

Early time "well cleanup" effects are evident.
Completion changes remain as significant events in this format.
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Log-Log "Reciprocal Rate" Plot: Southeast TX Gas Well
Superposition rate function (without pressure data) mitigates most of the

influence of the completion changes (... for this case).
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Objectives: Comparison of Surface/Bottomhole Press. (1/3)
a. "Cartesian" Plot: pws vs. t (calculated and

measured pws) East Texas gas well. Note
agreement (production/well test pws).
b. Full Scale "Cartesian" Plot: pw vs. t (calculated

and measured pw) East Texas gas well. Entire
production history.
Pressure Comparison Plots: East Texas Gas Well
Comparison of calculated and measured pws data pws,cal data are taken
from the surface pressure history; pws,meas data are taken from a bottomhole
pressure survey obtained as part of a pressure transient test performed on
this well.
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"Blasingame" Plot: Production Analysis East TX Gas Well
Used surface pressure measurements converted to pwf.

Minor issues with early-time analysis, good match of performance.
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"Log-Log" Plot: Well Test Analysis East TX Gas Well
Used high frequency bottomhole pressure measurements (pws).

Consistent match of bottomhole and "production" pressure data.
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Objectives: Integration of Results

Orientation
Production Data Analysis:
"Results versus time" plots of OOIP/OGIP, k (or kh) versus time.

OOIP/OGIP versus time plots can indicate depletion, k (or kh) versus
time plots used as consistency check (results should vary randomly).
Maps of OOIP/OGIP.
Maps of k (or kh).
Crossplots of EUR with OOIP/OGIP and/or k (or kh).
Pressure Transient Analysis:
Crossplots of k from PA and PTA (assess scale of estimated values).

Comparison maps of kPTA and pavg,PTA (assess depletion).
Petrophysical/Geological Analyses:
Comparison of permeability estimates.
Mapping of PA results with geologic structure.
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Correlation of PA Results: Womack Hill
(1/2)
Wp and Wi Map
Water injection (Wi) and

water production (Wp)
ap-pear to be correlated.
Anomalous water
production in the eastern
portion of the field is
thought to be natural
water drive.
Np, Wi, Structure Map
Good correlation of production "capture" due to

water injection.
Relatively high oil production east of injection
sites may be correlated.
Performance Maps: Womack Hill Field (Alabama)
Mapping data and results may yield substantial value (targeting).

Perhaps a less-than-optimal example, but interesting correlations.
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Correlation of PA Results: Womack Hill
(2/2)
EUR versus kWPA
Utilized these data because of

large population of data samples. Other comparisons may
provide more "resolution,"
how-ever, this crossplot
appears to confirm observed
pressure support due to water
injection.
Note the "strong" and "good"
pressure support trends
correlated from maps of oil
pro-duction, water injection,
and reservoir structure.
EUR Crossplot: Womack Hill Field (Alabama)
Comparison of independent data analyses.

Consistent correlation of behavior not a coincidence.
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Correlation of PA Results: Arun Gas Field (Indonesia) (1/4)
a. "Cartesian" Plot: GWPA vs. t Arun Gas Field

(Indonesia). Note declining reserves per well
with time (interwell depletion).
b. "Cartesian" Plot: (kh)WPA vs. t Arun Gas Field

(Indonesia). Note random behavior of (kh)WPA
(except for horizontal wells).
Comparison Plots: Arun Gas Field (Indonesia)
GWPA vs. t plot indicates depletion with time (i.e., the reserves/well decreases
with time). This is a reasonable expectation (high kh).
(kh)WPA vs. t data are essentially random (with noted exceptions being
horizontal wells (1991+)) validates WPA methodology.
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Production Analysis Comparison: GWPA vs. (kh)WPA (Arun Field)

All results from modelling-based matching procedures.
Comparison confirms depletion and kh-dependency.
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Production Analysis Comparison: EURPI vs. (kh)WPA (Arun Field)
Independent results EURPI from semi-empirical (Arps) analysis, (kh)WPA

results from modelling-based matching procedures.
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(kh)PTA versus (kh)WPA
Comparisons of (kh)PTA (results of well test analysis)

versus (kh)WPA (results of production data analysis) always
seem problematic. The
issues are:
Data Quality: PTA (pressure) data are much better
than typical (surface) presure data used for PA.
Timing/Scaling: PTA util-izes
short time intervals.
Reality: The analysis of
transient production data is
"more art than science."
Permeability-Thickness Crossplot: (kh)PTA versus (kh)WPA
Somewhat inconclusive (other than to note (kh)PTA > (kh)WPA).
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Early Perspectives on Well Deliverability

Well Deliverability:
The first efforts to analyze well
performance were an attempt to
quantify well potential not to
estimate reservoir properties.
The original well deliverability
relation was completely empirical (derived from observations),
and is given as:
q = C( p2 - p2 )n
From: Back-Pressure Data on Natural-
wf
This relationship is rigorous for
low pressure gas reservoirs,
(n=1 for laminar flow).
Gas Wells and Their Application to

Production Practices Rawlins and
Schellhardt (USBM Monograph, 1935).
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Perspectives on the Reservoir/Well/Facilities System
Our focus is the reservoir ...

but, we also need to consider:
The well completion.
The tubulars.
The surface facilities.
The reservoir fluid(s).
Overall flow system (after Fonesca). Blasingame axiom: "if there is a problem
with the analysis/interpretation of well test and/or production data the issue
most likely stems from the well completion."
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Perspectives on Reservoir Heterogeneity

Reservoir Volume-Averaging:
Pressure transient analysis.
Production data analysis.
Reservoir simulation.
Advanced solutions:
Same view of the reservoir just
more "knobs" (i.e., parameters).
Time-pressure-rate data will always
"see" a pressure/volume-averaged
reservoir system.
Prediction of future work in PTA/PA:
From: Simulator Parameter Assignment and
Additional reservoir models.

Full incorporation of PVT character.
Reservoir scaling for PTA/PA.
Handling poor quality data.
Continuously measured pwf data.
Multiple well analysis/integration.
Coupling of analysis/interpretation
with numerical modeling (3D/3P).
the Problem of Scaling in Reservoir

Engineering Halderson (1986).
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Scale(s) of Results
a. Results of production and well test data versus

petrophysical data (note magnitude of deviation
and proportionality of data (factor of 80)).
b. Results of production data analysis versus

well test data analysis (sparse data no
conclusions).
Results Scaling:
Results of production data analysis are generally a factor of 2 to 5 LOWER
than the results of well test analysis (data quality, sample volume, rigor of
analysis).
Weak agreement compared with petrophysical data (this case).
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Guidelines for Performance-Based Reservoir Characterizations

Guidelines: Performance-Based Reservoir Characterizations:
Review all production data for consistency.

Review well history, particularly recompletions/stimulations.
Gather/correlate available petrophysical data (core, logs, etc.).
Perform simplified analysis of production (Arps, EUR, etc.).
Attempt to correlate measured rate/pressures (quality check).

Perform model-based analysis of production (and well test) data.
Integrate results at different scales to establish correlation(s).
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Integration for Modeling Well/Field Performance

Procedure:
Static data:
Reservoir structure.
Porosity.
Permeability (absolute).
Phase behavior (PVT) character.
Dynamic data:
Pressure-dependent rock and fluid
properties.
Historical Data:
Injection/production rates.
Injection/production pressures.
Average reservoir pressure.
Emphasis:
Establish reservoir structure.
Estimation of reservoir properties.
Distribution of reservoir
properties.
Development/calibration of the
numerical model (inversion).
Forecasting (forward modeling).

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Performance-Based
Module 02: Production

Analysis in Perspective
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PA in Perspective Topics
1. Material Balance:
Familiarity with reservoir pressure determination.
Understanding of reservoir drive mechanisms.
2. Geology:
Various geologic models: Clastic and carbonate systems.
Petrophysical data: Porosity, permeability, saturations.
3. Pressure Transient Analysis:
Relation of reservoir model to pressure response.
Determination of reservoir properties: k, S, xf, , , etc.
4. Reservoir Simulation/History Matching:
Issues:
Data availability (requires: , k, geologic structure, PVT, etc.).

Model development (again ... geologic structure, , k, etc.)
Multiphase flow effects (can ignore to start).
History match (calibration).
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PA in Perspective Issues
1. Reservoir Engineering: (Material Balance)
Oil Material Balance (must know all data, also cf(p)).
Gas Material Balance (abnormal pressure, water drive).
2. Geology:
Introduction to geologic structure and petrophysical data.
Comparison of petrophysical data with PA results.
3. Pressure Transient Analysis:
Inventory of analytical reservoir models (wide variety).
Philosophy of transient testing (target specific objectives).
4. Simulation/History Matching:
Need for model calibration ("geocellular" model).
Matching process is tedious (k, kr(Sw), , etc.).
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Reservoir Engineering: Material Balance

"Accounting" Concept of Material Balance:
Require all inflows/outflows/generations.

(Average) reservoir pressure profile is REQUIRED.
Require rock, fluid, and rock-fluid properties (at some scale).
Oil Material Balance:
Less common than gas material balance (pressure required).
Gas Material Balance:
Volumetric dry gas reservoir (p/z versus Gp (straight-line)).
Abnormally-pressured gas reservoirs (various techniques).
Waterdrive/water influx cases (always problematic) (i.e., we
don't know the influx, so we use a model).
Material Balance yields RESERVOIR VOLUME!
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Reservoir Engineering: Concept Diagram

General Concept of Material Balance...
a. Initial reservoir conditions.
From: Petroleum Reservoir Engineering
b. Conditions after producing Np STB of oil,

and Gp SCF of gas, and Wp STB of water.
Amyx, Bass, and Whiting (1960).
Material Balance: Key Issues
Must have accurate production measurements (oil, water, gas).

Estimates of average reservoir pressure (from pressure tests).
Suites of PVT data (oil, gas, water).
Reservoir properties: saturations, formation compressibility, etc.
Slide 45/278
Reservoir Engineering: Average Reservoir Pressure

Average Reservoir Pressure
From: Engineering Features of the Schuler Field and

Unit Operation Kaveler (SPE-AIME, 1944).
Average Reservoir Pressure: Key Issues
Must "average" pressures over volume or area (approximation).

Pressure tests must be representative (pavg extrapolation valid).
Can average using cumulative production (surrogate for volume).
Slide 46/278
(1/2)
to a Partial Waterdrive Reservoir van

Everdingen (SPE, 1953).
From: Application of the Material Balance
Reservoir Engineering: Oil Material Balance
Black Oil Material Balance Case: (Example)
Note that all fluid functions are given: Np, Wp, and GOR (for Gp).
Average reservoir pressure is presumed correct.
Authors cite "partial waterdrive" remains a contentious issue.
Slide 47/278
Reservoir Engineering: Oil Material Balance
(2/2)
Oil Material Balance Relations:

"Black Oil" Material Balance: (p>pb )
1 Bo
p = pi
Np
Nct Boi
"Solution Gas Drive" (Oil) Material Balance: (all p)
Np Bo + ( R p Rs ) Bg + Wp Bw =
N ( Bo Boi ) + ( Rsi Rs ) Bg
Bg
+ mNBoi
1
B
gi
(cw S wi + c f )
+ (1 + m) NBoi
( pi p )
(1 S wi )
+ We Bw
(Withdrawal (RB))
(Oil Expansion (RB))
(Gas Cap Expansion (RB))
(Water Exp./Pore Vol. Comp. (RB))
(Water Influx (RB))
Slide 48/278
Reservoir Engineering: Gas Material Balance
(1/4)
Gas Material Balance Relations:

General Gas Material Balance:
p
[1 ce ( p )( pi p )] =
z
pi pi 1
1
G
G
W
R
5
.
615
(Wp Winj ) Bw We
+
+
p
inj
p sw
zi zi G
Bg
"Dry Gas" Material Balance: (no reservoir liquids )

p pi
=
z zi
1G
1 G p
"Abnormal Pressure" Material Balance: (cf=f(p))

Gp
p pi
1
=
1
z zi [1 ce ( p )( pi p )]
G
VpNNP
1
ce ( p ) =
S wi cw + c f +
(1 S wi )
VpR
VpAQ
+
VpR
(cw + c f

Slide 49/278
(2/4)
"Dry Gas" Material Balance: Normally Pressured Reservoir Example

Volumetric reservoir no external energy (gas expansion only).
p/z versus Gp yields unique straight-line trend.
Linear extrapolation yield gas-in-place (G).
Slide 50/278
(3/4)
"Dry Gas" Material Balance: Abnormally Pressured Reservoir Example
Volumetric reservoir no water influx or leakage.

p/z versus Gp yields unique quadratic trend (from approximated MBE).
Quadratic extrapolation yield gas-in-place (G).
Slide 51/278
a. Gas Material Balance Plot: p/z vs. Gp simulated

performance. Note effect of aquifer permeability on
field performance.
(4/4)
b. Gas Material Balance Plot: p/z vs. Gp simulated

performance. Note effect of displacement
efficiency (Ep).
Gas Material Balance: Water Drive Gas Reservoir
Pressure (hence p/z) is maintained during production via communication with an

unsteady-state aquifer (this study).
From: Unsteady-State Performance of Water Drive Gas Reservoirs, Agarwal (Texas
A&M Ph.D., 1967).
Slide 52/278
Geology: Topics
Geologic Deposition Models:
Clastic (sandstone) reservoirs.

Carbonate reservoirs.
Petrophysical Data:
k and character for selected systems.
k versus crossplots: various, carbonate specific, etc.
Scale-dependent heterogeneities.
Comparative Studies:
Womack Hill Field (Alabama).
Tordillo Field (Argentina).
Santa Barbara Field (Venezuela).
Slide 53/278
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Geology: Sandstone Depositional Systems
(1/2)
a. Various sandstone depositional

sequences note the "transport"
system evolves basinward.
From: Reservoir Sandstones Berg

(1986).
b. These schematics illustrate similarity in

depositional processes and also give
insight into heterogeneity.
Sandstone Reservoirs:
Depositional sequences are well-established/accepted.

Turbidite reservoirs are of most current interest.
Slide 55/278
From: Reservoir Sandstones Berg (1986).
Geology: Sandstone Depositional Sys. Turbidites (2/2)
a. Turbidite reservoir structures. The best

reservoir components exist in the
channels (limited extent).
b. Permeability, porosity, and saturation profiles

for a turbidite reservoir se-quence. Note
inner/outer fan features.
Sandstone Reservoirs: Turbidites
Porosity and permeability are highly variable in turbidite sequences.

"Channel" sands can be "compartmentalized" (limited extent).
Slide 56/278
(1/2)
Lucia (1999).
From: Carbonate Reservoir Characterization
Geology: Carbonate Depositional Systems
Carbonate Reservoirs:
"Energy" in depositional environment is critical.

Secondary processes (post-depositional diagenesis) control and k.
Slide 57/278
Lucia (1999).
From: Carbonate Reservoir Characterization
Geology: Carbonate Depositional Sys. and k (2/2)
a. Crossplot of permeability versus porosity

(logarithmic scales). In-cludes particle
size as a variable.
b. Permeability-porosity profiles for various

carbonate depositional sequences.
Carbonate Reservoirs: Permeability/Porosity Character
Porosity and permeability often weakly correlated in carbonates.

Permeability most often dependent on diagenetic processes.
Slide 58/278
a. "Cartoon" of kair versus illustrates k=a

exp(b).
Bruce and Welge (1947).
From: API Drilling and Prod. Prac.
Analysis Keelan (1972).
From: The Fundamentals of Core
Geology: Permeability Characterization/Correlation (1/2)
b. "Cartoon" of kair versus Swi illustrates the

influence of pore throat structure.
Permeability Characterization/Correlation:
Permeability = f(, composition, texture, grain size, sorting, etc.).

Simplified correlations for permeability will only be of "local" use.
Slide 59/278
Geology: Permeability Characterization/Correlation (2/2)

Weber Example Core:
Laminated Aeolian sandstone.
Thin beds (<1 cm) common.
Some laminations have zero permeability (influence on vertical flow?).
General Considerations:
Core-scale heterogeneities may or
may not affect overall reservoir performance (depends on continuity).
Attempts to correlate small-scale
heterogeneities are likely to fail,
except for isolated samples.
Issues:
How do such features affect:
Pressure transient behavior
(well test time scale events)?
Pseudosteady-state behavior
(production time scale events)?
Solutions for increasing reservoir
exposure? (hydraulic fracturing?)
Slide 60/278
Geology: Womack Hill Comp. of kWPA and kcore (1/1)

kWPA:
Permeability "contrast"
near the "East-West"
boundary appears to
exist.
Similar to Flow Unit "B."
kcore: (harmonic average)
Sparse data not all

wells had data for all
Flow Units.
General agreement with
Flow Unit "B" trends.
Comment
The "permeability contrast" presumed to exist
as the "East-West" boundary is confirmed but
can not be defined as a
"flow barrier."
Slide 61/278
Geology: Tordillo Field Comp. of h and OOIPWPA (1/2)
a. Map of net pay thickness Tordillo Field

(Argentina). Average thickness 180 ft.
b. Map of OOIP computed from decline type curve

analysis Tordillo Field (Argentina). Reason-able
correlation with net pay thickness.
Tordillo Field: Comparison of h and OOIPWPA
Tordillo Field is a very old development, numerous infill programs, but no

secondary recovery efforts (waterflood) until early 1990s.
Variability of OOIP calculation is noted extreme points may be due to
poor allocation of flowrates.
Slide 62/278
Geology: Tordillo Field Comp. of h and kWPA
a. Map of net pay thickness Tordillo Field

(Argentina). Average thickness 180 ft.
(2/2)
b. Map of kWPA computed from decline type curve

analysis Tordillo Field (Argentina). Some
correlation with net pay thickness.
Tordillo Field: Comparison of h and kWPA
Due to the very erratic production history for most wells in Tordillo Field, we
note that kWPA is considered an approximation (at best).
Secondary recovery (EURsec) appears to be inversely proportional to kWPA,
suggesting drainage did occur in high kWPA areas.
Slide 63/278
Geology: Santa Barbara kWPA, kPTA with klog mean (1/1)

Well TM-1E/Permeability Distribution with Depth
(Upper Naricual)
15400
15500
15500
15600
15600
15700
15700
15800
15800
Depth, ft
Depth, ft
Well TM-1E/Porosity Distribution with Depth

(Upper Naricual)
15400
15900
15900
16000
16000
16100
16100
16200
16200
16300
0.00
0.05
0.10
0.15
0.20
Porosity, fraction
0.25
0.30
16300
-1
10
10
10
10
Permeability, k, md
10
10
Permeability Comparison: Santa Barbara Field (Venezuela)
Major conclusion is that these data due not appear to be correlated.

High permeability values probably "overweigh" klog mean estimate.
kPTA values higher than kWPA, but we have only 3 (three) kPTA values.
Slide 64/278
Pressure Transient Analysis: Topics

Inventory of Analytical Reservoir Models:
Well Models (e.g., Wellbore storage/skin, fractured well, etc.)

Reservoir Models (e.g., Homogeneous, dual porosity, etc.)
Boundary Models (e.g., Infinite-acting, rectangle, circle, etc.)
Comment:
Numerical models now rival analytical models in

speed, and are much more flexible...
Philosophy of Pressure Transient Testing:
Transient tests are controlled events with specific objectives.

Transient test data are "high frequency/high resolution" data.
Production data are typically "low frequency/low resolution."
Example comparison of kWPA and kPTA (Arun Field).
Slide 65/278
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Pressure Transient Analysis: Analytical Models

Well Models:
Wellbore Storage and Skin

Uniform Flux Vertical Fracture
Infinite Conductivity Vertical Fracture
Finite Conductivity Vertical Fracture
Horizontal Well
Limited Entry
Reservoir Models:
Homogeneous
Two-Layer
Radial Composite
Linear Composite
Dual Porosity/Naturally Fractured
a. Vertically Fractured Well: Uniform flux; infinite

or finite fracture conductivity.
Pseudosteady-state Interporosity Flow

Transient Interporosity Flow
(Slab/Sphere)
Boundary Models:
Infinite-Acting
Circle
Rectangle
Faults:
Single Fault
Parallel Faults
Multiple Intersecting Faults
b. Dual Porosity/Naturally Fractured Reservoir:

Fracture system connects matrix to well (various
interporosity flow models).
Slide 67/278
Pressure Transient Analysis: Philosophy/Objectives (1/5)

Objectives of Pressure Transient Testing:
Evaluate reservoir pressure (initial or average pressure).
Evaluate reservoir fluid (fluid samples collected for lab study).
Estimate reservoir properties: k, S, xf, , , etc.
Estimate reservoir volumetrics: fluid-in-place, drainage area.
Input Data:
BOTTOMHOLE pressure data (accurate to < 1 part in 10,000).
SURFACE flowrate data (often poorly measured/recorded).
Fluid properties: FVF, viscosity, compressibility, ...
Reservoir properties: h, , rw, cf, ...
Results of PTA Interpretation:

Productive capacity of the WELL (damage/stimulation).
Productive capacity of the RESERVOIR (transmissibility).
Current average reservoir pressure.
Reservoir limits (for production to pseudosteady-state).
Well interference effects.
Well/Reservoir specific parameters: Cs, xf, , , Lfault, rcomp, kv/kh, ...
Slide 68/278

Workstation
Wellhead
Equipment
Separation
Pumping/Transfer
Software/Hardware:
Data acquisition
Flow control
Analysis/interpretation
Downhole
Equipment
Bottomhole Measurements:
Pressure
Temperature
Flowrates/gradients
Fluid sampling/analysis
"Surface" Measurements:
Pressure
Temperature
Flowrates/gradients
Fluid sampling/analysis
Ideal Testing/Acquisition Facilities:
All measurements are taken at the point of interest (e.g., pressures).

Data acquisition/control system is synchronized.
Slide 69/278

Common Pressure Transient Test Data:
Bottomhole pressures (high frequency/high resolution)
Separator flowrates (on the hour or day (at best))
Common Production Data:
Wellhead pressures (daily)
Separator flowrates (daily)
Surface Measurements: (?)

Pressure
Temperature
Manual
Rate
Control
Downstream: (?)
Pressure
Temperature
Flowrate
Fluid sampling
Bottomhole Measurements: (?)

Pressure
Temperature
Common Testing/Acquisition Facilities:
Measurements are taken where/when convenient.

Data acquisition/control system may not be synchronized.
Slide 70/278
a. "History" Plot: log(qg) and pws vs. t (calculated

and measured pws) East Texas gas well.
b. Full Scale "Cartesian" Plot: pws vs. t (calculated

and measured pws) East Texas gas well. Entire
production history.
Example Well Test/Production History: East Texas Gas Well
Unique opportunity to compare pressure transient test analysis and

production data analysis. Objective was to evaluation stimulation treatment
and validate use of production data analysis.
Very good agreement in measured pwf and converted ptf data.
Slide 71/278
"Log-Log" Plot: Well Test Analysis East TX Gas Well
Used measured pws and converted ptf data note consistency.

Message: Continuous pressure measurement is extremely valuable.
Slide 72/278
Correlation of PA Results: Arun Gas Field (Indonesia)
(kh)PTA versus (kh)WPA
(kh)PTA benefits from controlled

conditions and better pressure
measurements. Some procedures
could be improved (e.g., longer
tests).
(kh)WPA is derived from the early
(transient) portion of the production
data stream which is brief for
Arun wells (<2 months).
Comparison: (kh)PTA versus (kh)WPA
(kh)PTA > (kh)WPA.

Systematic difference suggests flaw in (kh)WPA interpretation/analysis.
Slide 73/278
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Reservoir Simulation: Topics

Orientation:
Reservoir simulation used as reservoir integration tool.

Reservoir simulation has several critical needs (, k, Sw, etc.).
Scale Up:
Reservoir simulation requires that the "geocellular" data be
up-scaled for computational efficiency (major effort).
Results from PA/PTA can serve as "hard" data for simulation.
Issues/Outcomes:
Field-scale reservoir simulation (generally) does not match

individual well performance for each well.
Calibrated, a reservoir simulation model represents a possible/probable set of parameters that matches the field history.
Forecasts (extrapolations) should be limited to 5-10 years.
Slide 75/278
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Recovery Weber (1986).
From: How Heterogeneity Affects Oil
Pressure Reservoir Simulation: Orientation
Reservoir Simulation: Integration Mechanism
Reservoir simulation is the "last link in the chain" for integration.

PA/PTA can support simulation as "ground truth" data.
Slide 77/278
Pressure Reservoir Simulation: Construction Issues
From: How Heterogeneity Affects Oil

Recovery Weber (1986).
From: Reservoir Heterogeneities and

Their Influence on Ultimate Recovery
Lasseter (1986).
Reservoir Simulation: Scale-Up
Not trivial probably the most critical construction effort.

Populating the simulation model (, k, Sw, etc.) is also major effort.
Slide 78/278
Performance-Based
Module 03: History of

Production Analysis
Slide 79/278
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History of Production Analysis: Orientation

1. Graphical Analysis of Data:
Straight-line on a Cartesian data plot of y versus x.
Straight-line on a Semilog data plot of log(y) versus x.
Straight-line on a Log-log data plot of log(y) versus log(x).
2. Liquid Flow Behavior:
Constant pressure case yields exponential rate decline.
Variable rate "superposition" is valid for liquids, must be
adjusted for gas cases (requires estimate of gas-in-place).
3. Calculus:
x
=
I
y
(
x
)
dx
0
Definition of the derivative, dy/dx.
Definition of the integral y is integrated with respect to x.

4. Data Analysis:
Large streams of data using software.
Necessary to perform quality checks and validate analysis.
Slide 81/278
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Slide 82/278
History of Production Analysis: Topics

1. 1920's: Purely Empirical Approaches:
Early work was empirical, used for proration/taxation.
2. 1940's: Empirical Approaches (Arps, etc.)
Introduction of exponential, hyperbolic, harmonic relations.
3. 1960's: Decline Type Curves (Fetkovich, etc.)
Fetkovich: Graphical solution for Hyperbolic decline relation.
Fetkovich: "Analytical" solution for constant pressure case.
4. 1980's: Variable Rates/Pressures (Blasingame, etc.)
Blasingame: "Material balance time" for variable
rate/pressure.
Blasingame: Auxiliary functions (rate integral functions)
5. 2000+: Fully Integrated Production Analysis

Model-based matching/analysis/forecasting (computer-aided).
Slide 83/278
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Slide 84/278
Early Production Analysis: 1920s

Presentation of Early Data Analysis Plots:
Reserves (EUR) versus Average Flowrate (Cartesian).

Rate-Time Plots: Cartesian, semilog (rate), and log-log plots.
Slide 85/278
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Slide 86/278
Origin and Relevance of Production Analysis

Origin of technology
Early 1900's estimate well
deliverability and reserves.
"Reservoir characterization"
did not evolve until 1950's.
Relevance
Pressure transient testing is a
"high frequency/high resolution" data analysis technique.
Production data analysis remains a "crude data" analysis
technique.
Production data quantity/quality issues will always exist.
From: Dealing with the Idiots in Your Life, J. Benton
(1993).
Slide 87/278
Correlation of EUR and qo,1yr
From: Manual for the Oil and Gas Industry Arnold (1919). Production data correlation is
over 80 years old! This plot helped to correlate reserves with production. Theory
assumes pseudosteady-state flow conditions and production at a constant bottomhole
pressure.
Slide 88/278
Correlation of qo and Time

Cartesian Format Plot
Semilog Format Plot
From: Estimation of Underground Oil Reserves by Oil-Well Production Curves Cutler

(1924). Cutler (originally) presented the Cartesian plot (on the left) to illustrate
"remaining" production (based on an economic limit). Figure on right (semilog plot)
presented to provide a "modern" view of the data. Note the exponential and hyperbolic
relations are presented against Cutler's empirical extrapolation (Cutler's "Averaged and
Extrapolated" trend is most likely based on a "French" curve (no detail given)).
Slide 89/278
qo vs. t: Power Law, Exponential, Hyperbolic

Log-log Format Plot
a. The "engineer's solution" (i.e., the log-log

plot) no theory to support this concept,
this plot did not stand the test of time.
Semilog Format Plot
b. The "gee it works" plot I wonder if there

is some theory? Yes, but theory is
limited to constant pwf and black
oil/solution gas drive systems. Only an
approximation for the gas case.
From: Estimation of Underground Oil Reserves by Oil-Well Production Curves Cutler

(1924). Comparison of various empirical plots in use in the early 1900's to 1940's. The
goal of most "production data analysis" was the estimation of reserves for tax purposes.
Slide 90/278
Empirical Production Analysis: 1940s

Arps' (Empirical) Rate Relations:
Exponential decline case (conservative).

Harmonic decline case (liberal).
Hyperbolic decline case (everything in between).
Derivation of the Arps' Exponential Rate Relation:
Combination of liquid material balance and liquid pseudo-
steady-state flow equation solved for pwf constant.

Useful for deriving auxiliary relations (cumulative production
functions, in particular).
Slide 91/278
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Arps Relations (Summary of Equations)

Flowrate-Time Relations:
Exponential: (b=0)
q = qi exp( Di t )
qi
Hyperbolic: (0<b<1)
q=
Harmonic: (b=1)
qi
q=
(1 + Di t )
(1+ bDi t )1 / b
Cumulative Production-Time Relations:

Exponential: (b=0)
Hyperbolic: (0<b<1)
Harmonic: (b=1)
qi
N p = [1 exp( Di t )]
Di
qi
Np =
[1 (1 + bDi t )11 / b ]
(1 b) Di
q
N p = i ln(1 + Di t )
Di
Slide 93/278
EUR Governing Equations (Arps)

Flowrate- Cumulative Production:
Exponential: (b=0)
q = qi Di N p
Plot of: q versus Np
Hyperbolic: (0<b<1)
1
N p (1b)
qi
q = qi 1
N
N
(1
b
)
D
Plot of:
log(q/qi) versus log[1-(Np/N)]
qi b
or ( N Np ) =
q1b
(1 b) Di
Plot of:
log(N-Np) versus log(q)
Harmonic: (b=1)
D
q = qi exp i N p
qi
Plot of: log(q) versus Np
Slide 94/278
Constant Pressure Solution (Exponential Decline Case)

Derivation of the Exponential Rate Decline Relation:
Oil Material Balance Relation:
1 Bo
p = pi
Np
Nct Boi
Oil Pseudosteady-State Flow Relation:
o Bo 1 4 1 A
p = pwf + bo, pss qo bo, pss = 141.2
ln
+ s
2
kh 2 e C A rw
Steps:
1. Differentiate both relations with respect to time.
2. Assume pwf = constant (eliminates d(pwf)/dt term).
3. Equate results, yields 1st order ordinary differential equation.
4. Integrate.
1
1 Bo
q = qi exp[ Di t ] Di =
5. Exponentiate result.
bo, pss Nct Boi
Slide 95/278
Arps Example Arbuckle Lime Lease (Kansas, USA)

Comment:
"Arps" Decline Analysis:
Introduction of exponential and hyperbolic
families of "decline
curves" (Arps, 1944)
Empirical ... but
seems to work as a
general tool. Is this
observation more
coincidence or
theory?
Issue:
"Arps" decline curve
relations should be
used as empirical
tools particularly
for estimating future
performance and
reserves.
Slide 96/278
PA Using Decline Type Curves: 1960s

Fetkovich: Empirical
Arps' relations plotted as dimensionless functions clever,

but still empirical.
Fetkovich: Analytical
Used van Everdingen and Hurst (radial flow) solutions.

Single well liquid system produced at a constant pressure.
Fetkovich: Composite
An combined type curve format with "transient" (analytical)
and "depletion" (Arps' empirical) "stems."
Extremely popular, but limited to pwf constant.
Carter: "Fetkovich" type solution for gas

Useful, but limited to pwf constant.
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Fetkovich Decline Type Curve: Empirical
Fetkovich "Empirical" Decline Type Curve:

Log-log "type curve" for the Arps "decline curves" (Fetkovich, 1973).
Initially designed as a graphical solution of the Arps' relations.
Slide 99/278
Van Everdingen-Hurst Type Curves: Radial Flow

"Analytical" Rate Decline Curves:
Data from van Everdingen and
From: SPE 04629 Fetkovich (1973).
Hurst (1949), replotted as a rate

decline plot (Fetkovich, 1973).
This looks promising but this
is going to be one really big "type
curve."
What can we do? Try to collapse
all of the trends to a single trend
during boundary-dominated flow
(Fetkovich, 1973).
"Analytical" stems are another

name for transient flow behavior,
which can yield estimates of
reservoir flow properties.
Slide 100/278
Fetkovich Decline Type Curve: Transient
Fetkovich "Analytical" Decline Type Curve: (constant pwf)
Log-log "type curve" for transient flow behavior (Fetkovich, 1973).

First "tie" between pressure transient and production data analysis.
Slide 101/278
Fetkovich Decline Type Curve: Composite
Fetkovich "Composite" Decline Type Curve:

Assumes constant bottomhole pressure production.
Radial flow in a finite radial reservoir system (single well).
Slide 102/278
Fetkovich Decline Type Curves: General
Discussion:
Assumptions:
Constant bottomhole pressure.
"Liquid" flow (not gas).
"Empirical" Decline Type Curve:
"Arps" empirical trends presented in
dimensionless "decline" format for
"boundary-dominated flow behavior"
(Fetkovich, 1973).
"Analytical" Transient Type Curve:
Collapses the transient flow trends
(dimensionless "decline" rates) into
"stems" related to reservoir size and
skin factor (Fetkovich, 1973).
Comments (gas flow behavior):
Fetkovich (and others) have noted
that most gas cases lie on or near the
stems for 0.4<b<0.6.
No physical support for this...
Slide 103/278
Fetkovich Decline Type Curve: b>1
Fetkovich "Composite" Decline Type Curve: b>1 Cases

b=1 is the constant rate case no theory to support b>1 cases.
Rule: Transient flow q concave UP, PSS flow q concave DOWN.
Slide 104/278
Reconstruction of Fetkovich-Carter Type Curves
Reconstruction of Fetkovich (SPE 04629

1973) and Carter (SPE 12917 1985) type
curves for the gas case (various pwf/pi).
Type Curves for Gas Wells:

Gas cases cannot be fully represented
using Arps' (hyperbolic) relations.
However, the Arps' relations are often an
acceptable approximation.
(Zoom View) Reconstruction of Fetkovich
Constant pwf gas cases are dependent
(SPE 04629 1973) and Carter (SPE
on the pwf/pi ratio (path-dependent non12917 1985) type curves for the gas
linearity) and cannot be extended to
case (various pwf/pi).
variable-rate, variable pressure drop.
Slide 105/278
Notes:
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Slide 106/278
PA Methods for Variable Rates/Pressures: 1980s

Introduction of Superposition:
Van Everdingen and Meyer method.

Superposition impossible for Athichanagorn, et al. problem.
Pseudosteady-State Flow Relations:
Used to define rate normalization and material balance time.
Example applications (oil and gas, with measured pressures).
Palacio/Blasingame Type Curve: (Radial Flow)
"Time" format similar to Fetkovich, with auxiliary functions.
"Material Balance Time" format "Converts" general
variable-rate problem into an equivalent constant rate
problem.
Slide 107/278
Notes:
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Slide 108/278
Exact Superposition Formulas

DEFINITIONS for SUPERPOSITION FORMULAS:
Variable-rate case:
B n
p = pi 141.2
( q j q j 1 ) psD,cr (t D t D, j 1 )
kh j =1
Variable pressure drop case:
1 kh n
q=
( pi pwf , j ) q D,cp (t D t D, j 1 )
141.2 B j =1
These relations are rigorous i.e., for exact inputs, we will
obtain exact results. These relations may have to be modified
for the gas case or, the gas case can be generated numerically.
Slide 109/278
Van Everdingen-Meyer Method: Full Superposition

Raw Production Data
Cartesian Solution Plot

(Van Everdingen-Meyer solution plot)
a. Raw production data for Loebel Well (SPE

15482).
b. Van Everdingen-Meyer solution plot for

Loebel Well (SPE 15482).
Van Everdingen-Meyer Method:

"Analysis by simulation" analytical solution used to define x-axis function.
Approach considers all of the data requires a complete model to generate an
appropriate analysis/interpretation.
Pro: Theoretically simple and practical (can use field data).
Con: Limited by solution model/data quality also, hard to visualize match.
Slide 110/278
Analysis of a Large Volume of Well Test Data

Discussion:
Consider a well test example:
Impossible to analyze all of the

data...
Use "windows" to analyze segments of the data.
The results are not the same from
window to window but the
results are related (histograms).
Issues:
Good news: The statistics are
From: SPE 56419 Athichanagorn,

Horne, and Kikani (1999).
relevant, so the results should be

representative of the system.
Bad news: This process is not as
consistent as we would like...
Solution: (?) Integrated analysis
and modeling will require "full
system" analysis (i.e., simultaneous analysis of all data).
Slide 111/278
Pseudosteady-State Flow Relations: Gas and Oil Cases

PSS/Boundary Dominated Flow Relations:
Pressure Drop Form: (Oil)
p
= bo, pss + mo, psst
qo
Flowrate Form: (Oil)

qo
1
=
p bo, pss + mo, psst
o Bo 1
4 1 A
bo, pss = 141.2
ln
+ s
kh 2 e C A rw2
1 Bo
mo, pss =
Nct Boi
Pressure Drop Form: (Gas)

p p
= bg , pss + mg , pssta
qg
mg , pss =
pp =
1
Gct
gi zi p
pi
bg , pss = 141.2
t=
Np
qo
Flowrate Form: (Gas)

qg
1
=
p p bg , pss + mg , pssta
gi Bgi 1
kh
4 1 A
+ s
ln
2
C
2
e
A rw
pbase g z dp
p
Slide 112/278
Oil Pseudosteady-State Flow Relations

PSS/Boundary Dominated Flow Relations: (Oil)
Pressure Drop Form:
p
qo
Flowrate Form:
qo
1
=
p bo, pss + mo, psst
1 Bo
mo, pss =
Nct Boi
(slope)
o Bo 1
4 1 A
bo, pss = 141.2
ln
+ s
2
kh 2 e C A rw
t=
Np
(intercept)
(material balance time)
qo
Slide 113/278
Pseudosteady-State Flow Relations: Oil Example
a. qo and pwf vs. t:

Exploration Oil Well
Southeast Asia.
b. po/qo vs. Np/qo (Cartesian):

Southeast Asia.
c. po/qo vs. Np/qo (Log-log):

Southeast Asia.
Oil Case:
Very simple model for
d. qo/po vs. Np/qo (Cartesian):

Southeast Asia.
e. qo/po vs. Np/qo (Log-log):

Southeast Asia.
pseudo-steady-state oil
flow behavior.
Very strong correlation
of model with field data.
qo and pwf data are wellbehaved, good correlation is not surprising.
Slide 114/278
Oil Equations: Example Application

p
qo
a. qo and pwf vs. t: Exploration Oil Well

Southeast Asia.
t=
Np
qo
b. p/qo vs. Np/qo (Cartesian): Explora-tion Oil

Well Southeast Asia.
This case illustrates the applicability of the pss oil equation we note that the
continuous rate and pressure variations are effectively "converted" using
material balance time (Np/qo). This observation serves to validate the approach
for the analysis and interpretation of variable-rate production data.
Slide 115/278
Gas Pseudosteady-State Flow Relations

PSS/Boundary Dominated Flow Relations: (Gas)
Pressure Drop Form:
Flowrate Form:
p p
qg
1
=
qg
p p bg , pss + mg , pssta
1
mg , pss =
(slope)
Gct
gi Bgi 1 4 1 A
(intercept)
bg , pss = 141.2
ln
+ s
2
kh 2 e C A rw
gi zi p
p
(pseudopressure)
dp
pp =
pbase g z
pi
q g (t )
gicti t
dt (material balance pseudotime)
ta =
q g (t ) 0 g ( p )ct ( p )
Slide 116/278
Pseudosteady-State Flow Relations: Gas Example
a. qo and pwf vs. t: Barnett Field

Well SR1.
b. pp/qg vs. ta,mb (Cartesian):

Barnett Field Well SR1.
c. pp/qg vs . ta,mb (Log-log):

Gas Case:
d. qg/pp vs . ta,mb (Cartesian):

e. qg/pp vs . ta,mb (Log-log):

Extraordinary correlation of
the pp/qg and qg/pp data
functions.
qg and pwf data have
considerable variation due
to wellbore effects (liquid
(water) loading). Despite
these variations, the
pseudosteady-state data
functions correlate very
well.
Slide 117/278
Gas Equations: Example Application

p p
qg
a. qo and pwf vs. t: Barnett Field Well SR1.
pp =
gi zi p
pi
pbase g z dp
p
ta =
gi cti t
q g (t )
dt
q g (t ) 0 g ( p )ct ( p )
b. pp/qg vs. ta,mb (Cartesian): Barnett Field

Well SR1.
In this case we present a highly variable rate and pressure history for the case
of a gas well in a low pressure/low permeability formation. We note that the
pseudosteady-state gas flow equation does address the variable rate/pressure
history when gas material balance time is used to correlate the rate and
pressure responses.
Slide 118/278
Palacio/Blasingame Format Type Curve
"Fetkovich-McCray" Time Format: (Palacio/Blasingame)
Rate "integral" function is smoother than rate.

Rate "integral-derivative" function gives a unique signature, which helps to
distinguish transient and post-transient flow.
Slide 119/278
Palacio/Blasingame Format Type Curve: Mat. Balance Time
"Fetkovich-McCray" Material Balance Time Format: (Doublet/Blasingame)

All solutions converge to common stem when "material balance time" is used
VERY strong confirmation of boundary-dominated flow.
This concept serves as the basis for modern production data analysis.
Slide 120/278
Fully Integrated Production Analysis: 2000+
Introduction to modern computer-aided analysis:
Use the most rigorous tool(s) available.

Check your work with simple tools (e.g., Arps' relations).
Use a conservative model for analysis the "best" answer is
the simplest one (considering the quality of the data).
Example: Loebel Well (SPE 15482)
Continuously measured rates and pressures.

Early time data are difficult to resolve (typical).
"Log-Log" plot (PTA analog) shows good match.
"Blasingame" plot (DTC analog) also shows good match.
"Summary" plot shows good match of all data and we note
PA methods tend to "lock" onto the boundary-dominated flow

data, and are less affected by the early (transient) data.
Slide 121/278
Notes:
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Slide 122/278
Modern Production Data Analysis: Orientation

Rigorous Analysis:
"Blasingame" approach uses material balance time to account
for variable-rate/pressure effects.
Use BOTH p/q plot ("log-log" plot) and q/p plot ("Blasingame"
plot) versus tmb as well as p/q and q/p auxiliary functions.
Must use a reservoir model in the
analysis/interpretation/forecast.
Reserves Extrapolation:
Arps' Analysis: Rate-time, rate-cumulative, cumulative-time.
Estimated Ultimate Recovery (EUR): Rate versus cumulative.
Semi-rigorous methods (e.g., normalized cumulative production).
Computer-based modeling/matching/forecasting:
Software has evolved to "on-the-fly" modelling/analysis.
Reservoir/Well model must be identified using data analysis.
Match of production history occurs simultaneously with analysis.
Forecasting based on a reservoir model (be conservative).
All analysis/modelling/matching/forecasting tasks are interactive.
Slide 123/278
Notes:
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Slide 124/278
Loebel Well (SPE 15482): qg, Gp, pwf Functions
a. qg and Gp vs. t: Loebel Well (SPE 15482).

Note excellent agreement.
b. pwf vs. t: Loebel Well (SPE 15482). Good

agreement in pwf functions.
Rate and Pressure History Plots: Loebel Well (SPE 15482)
Excellent agreement in rate and cumulative production functions.

Good agreement in pressure functions.
Base model: Circular reservoir, permeability and skin factor.
Slide 125/278
Loebel Well (SPE 15482): Analysis Plots
a. "Log-Log" Plot: pDdi functions vs. tDd

Loebel Well (SPE 15482). Note very good
agreement (except at early times).
b. "Blasingame" Plot: qDd functions vs. tDd

Loebel Well (SPE 15482). Very good
correlation (except a early times).
Analysis Plots: Loebel Well (SPE 15482)
Very good agreement between all model and data functions.

Early-time data require editing to improve analysis match.
Analysis performed simultaneously with history match (previous plots)
this integrated analysis is a very powerful approach.
Slide 126/278
Loebel Well (SPE 15482): "Log-Log" Plot
"Log-Log" Plot (Normalized Prod. Index): Loebel Well (SPE 15482)

Analogous to well test analysis (i.e., pressure drop analysis).
Uses material balance time function to account for rate variations.
Slide 127/278
Loebel Well (SPE 15482): "Blasingame" Plot
"Blasingame" Plot: Loebel Well (SPE 15482)
Analogous to "Fetkovich" type curve analysis (uses material balance time).

Robust data functions should use both "log-log" and "Blasingame" plots.
Slide 128/278
Loebel Well (SPE 15482): "Summary" Plot
"Summary" Plot: Loebel Well (SPE 15482)
log(qg) vs. t: Very good agreement, model response low at latest time.
pwf vs. t: pwf model excessive, except at late times (productivity decrease?).
Slide 129/278
Perspectives on the Future of Production Analysis

Future Data
Analysis/Interpretation
From: School is Hell, M. Groening, (1987).
Comment
The purpose of analysis is to provide a basis for modeling and,
in turn, modeling provides a basis
for optimization and flow control.
The future of production data
analysis is acquisition, analysis/
interpretation, flow control, and
flow optimization.
Improved data acquisition systems, particularly permanent

bottomhole pressure measurement.
Integration of analytical/numerical
tools numerical models may
govern the future of production
data analysis.
"Event" analysis will fade and
"continuous" data analysis will
dominate.
Perspectives
Good news: The tools (analytical
and numerical) will continue to
evolve.
Bad news: The data burden will be
tremendous. Data quality
(particularly pressure) remains an
issue.
Slide 130/278
Performance-Based
Module 04:
Basic Concepts
Slide 131/278
Notes:
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Slide 132/278
Basic Concepts
1. Reservoir Fluids:
"Black Oil" (p>pb): Bo, o, co are ASSUMED constant
"Solution-Gas Drive" (all p): Bo, o, co = f(p)
"Dry Gas" (p>pd): Bg, g, cg = f(p)
2. Diffusivity Equations:
"Black Oil" case.
"Solution-Gas Drive" case.
"Dry Gas" case.
3. Material Balance:
Balance of mass in the reservoir average reservoir
pressure and in-place fluid volumes.
4. Pseudosteady-State Flow Behavior:

Relationship between average reservoir pressure and
wellbore pressure and flowrate.
Slide 133/278
Notes:
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Slide 134/278
Basic Concepts: Topics

Reservoir Fluids: Black Oil, Solution-Gas Drive, Dry Gas
Diffusivity Equations: Governing relations for gas, liquid, and
multiphase flow in porous media.
1. Material Balance Relations:
Base Oil Case: Black oil (p>pb).
General Solution-Drive Oil Case: Recovery issues.
Base Gas Case: Dry gas (no liquid in reservoir).
Abnormally-Pressured Gas Reservoir Case: cf=f (p).
Gas Condensate Case: Requires compositional approach.
2. Pseudosteady-State Performance Relations:
All boundaries influence pressure/rate behavior in the reservoir.
Nomenclature for Specific Cases:
Constant Rate: "Pseudosteady-State"
Constant Wellbore Pressure: "Boundary-Dominated"
Variable-Rate/Variable Pressure: "Boundary-Dominated"
Slide 135/278
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Slide 136/278
Reservoir Fluids: Topics

Reservoir Fluids:
Schematic Phase Diagrams
Generic (single and multi-component cases)

Black Oil
Solution-Gas Drive
Dry Gas
"Black Oil" (p>pb)
Properties: Bo, o, co (ASSUMED constant)
"Solution-Gas Drive" (all p)
Properties: Bo, o, co
"Dry Gas" (p>pd)
Properties: Bg, g, cg
Summary of Fluid Properties and Sources
Slide 137/278
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Slide 138/278
Fluids Bursik (1957).
From: Properties of Petroleum Reservoir
Schematic Diagram for a Single Component System
Schematic p-T Diagram: Single Component System
Note the "Liquid+Vapor" line.

Single component systems not of interest, other than for illustration.
Slide 139/278
Engineering Calhoun (1953).
From: Fundamentals of Reservoir
Generic Schematic Diagram for a Multi-Comp. Sys.
Schematic p-T Diagram: Multi-Component (Hydrocarbon) System

Note the "Bubble Point" and "Dew Point" lines.
Location of critical point determines fluid type.
Slide 140/278
ing Calhoun (1953). (modified to reflect

various reservoir fluid cases)
From: Fundamentals of Reservoir Engineer-
Generic Schematic Diagram for Hydrocarbon Res. Fluids
Schematic p-T Diagram: Hydrocarbon Reservoir Fluids
Names represent conventional nomenclature.

Locations of names represent relative locations of these fluid types.
Slide 141/278
McCain (1990).
From: Properties of Petroleum Fluids
Black Oil: p-T Diagram
Schematic p-T Diagram: Black Oil
Fluid is typically dark black, brown, or dark green.

o>40o API, (GOR)i < 2000 scf/STB, Boi < 2.0 RB/STB, C7+ > 20 %.
Slide 142/278
McCain (1990).
Volatile Oil: p-T Diagram
Schematic p-T Diagram: Volatile Oil
Fluid is typically dark brown, orange or green.

o<45o API, 2000 < (GOR)i < 3300 scf/STB, Boi > 2.0 RB/STB, 12.5 < C7+ < 20 %.
Slide 143/278
McCain (1990).
Retrograde Gas: p-T Diagram
Schematic p-T Diagram: Retrograde Gas
Fluid is typically light brown, orange, green, or water-white.

45<o<60o API, 3300 < (GOR)i < 150,000 scf/STB, C7+ < 12.5 %.
Slide 144/278
McCain (1990).
Wet Gas: p-T Diagram
Schematic p-T Diagram: Wet Gas
Fluid is typically very light water-white.

(GOR)i > 50,000 scf/STB.
Slide 145/278
McCain (1990).
Dry Gas: p-T Diagram
Schematic p-T Diagram: Dry Gas
No fluid is produced at surface or in the reservoir.
Slide 146/278
"Black Oil" Fluid Properties: Various
"Black Oil" PVT Properties: (general behavior, pb=5000 psia)
Note the dramatic influence in properties at the bubblepoint pressure.

The oil compressibility is the most affected variable (keep this in mind).
Slide 147/278
"Solution-Gas Drive" Properties: 1/(oBo) for p<pb
"Solution-Gas Drive" PVT Properties: (1/(oBo), p<pb, pb=5000 psia)

Attempt to illustrate that 1/(oBo) constant for p<pb.
This would allow us to approximate behavior using "liquid" equations.
Slide 148/278
"Solution-Gas Drive" Properties: oco for p<pb
"Solution-Gas Drive" PVT Properties: (oco, p<pb, pb=5000 psia)
Attempt to illustrate that oco is NEVER constant.

CAN NOT approximate behavior using "liquid" equations (or so it seems).
Slide 149/278
"Dry Gas": gz vs. p
"Dry Gas" PVT Properties: (gz vs. p)
Basis for the "pressure-squared" approximation (i.e., use of p2 variable).

Concept: (gz) = constant, valid only for p<2000 psia.
Slide 150/278
"Dry Gas": p/(gz) vs. p
"Dry Gas" PVT Properties: (p/(gz) vs. p)
Basis for the "pressure" approximation (i.e., use of p variable).

Concept: (p/gz) = constant (never valid).
Slide 151/278
"Dry Gas": gcg vs. p
"Dry Gas" PVT Properties: (gcg vs. p)
Concept: If gcg constant, pseudotime NOT required.

Readily observe that gcg is NEVER constant, pseudotime required.
Slide 152/278
Summary: Formation Volume Factor

Formation Volume Factor: Bo,g,w
Fluid volume at reservoir conditions
Bo,g,w =
Fluid volume at standard conditions
Bo,g,w is defined as a volume conversion for oil, gas, or

water and is defined on a mass (or density) basis.
The Formation Volume Factor "converts" surface

volumes to downhole conditions.
Typical values:
Oil: 1.2
to
Gas: 0.003 to
2.4 RB/STB
0.01 rcf/scf
Slide 153/278
Summary: Fluid Viscosity

Viscosity: o,g,w
Is a measure of a fluid's internal resistance to flow
... the proportionality of shear rate to shear stress,
a sort of internal friction.
Fluid viscosity depends on pressure, temperature,
and fluid composition.
Typical values: Oil:
0.2 to 30 cp
Gas: 0.01 to 0.05 cp
Water: 0.5 to 1.05 cp
Slide 154/278
Summary: Fluid Compressibility

Fluid Compressibility: co,g,w
1 dBo Bg dRso
co =
+
Bo dp Bo dp
Typical values:
Oil:
5
30
Gas:
50
Water:
3
to
to
to
to
1 dBg
cg =
Bg dp
1 dBw Bg dRsw
cw =
+
Bw dp Bw dp
20 x10-6 psi-1 (p>pb)

200 x10-6 psi-1 (p<pb)
1000x10-6 psi-1
5
x10-6 psi-1
Formation Compressibility: cf
cf =
1 d
dp
Typical values:
Normal:
2 to 10 x10-6 psi-1
Abnormal: 10 to 100 x10-6 psi-1
Slide 155/278
Summary: Oil PVT Correlations

Typical Oil PVT Correlations
Rs/pb
Bo
Standing
Lasater
Vasquez and Beggs
Glaso
Lasater- Standing
Petrosky and Farshad
Beggs and Robinson
Beal
co
( generally used as default)
Slide 156/278
Summary: Gas PVT Correlations

Typical Gas PVT Correlations
z-factor
Dranchuk, et al.
Beggs and Brill
Hall and Yarborough
Lee, et al.
Carr, et al.
( generally used as default)
Gas compressibility (cg) is computed from the z-factor using:

1 dBg 1 1 dz
cg =
=
Bg dp
p z dp
Slide 157/278
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Diffusivity Equations: Pertinent Cases

Diffusivity Equations:
"Black Oil" (p>pb)

"Solution-Gas Drive" (valid for all p, referenced for p<pb)
"Dry Gas" (p>pd)
Multiphase Flow
Slide 159/278
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Black Oil: p>pb

Diffusivity Equations for a Black Oil:
Slightly Compressible Liquid: (General Form)
ct p
2
2
c(p ) + p =
k t
Slightly Compressible Liquid: (Small p and c form)
ct p
2
p=
k t
Slide 161/278
Black Oil: o and Bo vs. p
Behavior of the o and Bo variables as functions of pressure for an

example black oil case. Note behavior for p>pb both variables should
be considered to be "approximately constant" for the sake of
developing flow relations. Such an assumption (i.e., o and Bo
constant) is not an absolute requirement, but this assumption is
fundamental for the development of "liquid" flow solutions in reservoir
engineering.
Slide 162/278
Black Oil: co vs. p
Behavior of the co variable as a function of pressure example black

oil case. Note the "jump" at p=pb, this behavior is due to the gas
expansion at the bubblepoint.
Slide 163/278
Solution-Gas Drive: p<pb

Diffusivity Equations for Solution-Gas Drive: (p<pb)
Oil Pseudopressure Form: (Accounts for o and Bo)
2
ppo =
ct ppo
t
Oil Pseudopressure Definition: (pn is any reference pressure)
ppo = [o Bo ] p
p
1
dp
pbase o Bo
Slide 164/278
Solution-Gas Drive: 1/(oBo) vs. p (pb=5000 psia, T=175 Deg F)

ppo = [o Bo ] p
p
1
dp
pbase o Bo
"Solution-Gas Drive" Pseudopressure Condition: (1/(oBo) vs. p)
Concept: IF 1/(oBo) constant, THEN oil pseudopressure NOT required.

1/(oBo) is NEVER "constant" but does not vary significantly with p.
Oil pseudopressure calculation straightforward, but probably not necessary.
Slide 165/278
Solution-Gas Drive: oco vs. p (pb=5000 psia, T=175 Deg F)

1
ta ,o = [o ct ]n t
dt
0 o ( p )ct ( p )
"Solution-Gas Drive" Pseudopressure Condition: ((oco) vs. p)
Concept: IF (oco) constant, THEN oil pseudotime NOT required.

(oco) is NEVER "constant" BUT, oil pseudotime would be very difficult.
Other evidence suggests that ignoring (oco) variance is acceptable.
Slide 166/278
Dominated Flow in Solution-Gas-Drive Reservoirs,"

SPERE (November 1989) 503-512.
Camacho-V., R.G. and Raghavan, R.: "Boundary-
Solution-Gas Drive: Mobility/Compressibility (Camacho)
"Solution-Gas Drive" Behavior: ((ct/t) vs. time)
Observation: (ct/t) constant for p>pb and later, for p<pb.

pwf = constant but probably valid for any production/pressure scenario.
Slide 167/278
Historical Note: Evinger-Muskat Concept (1942)

Why not use liquid pseudopressure?
Evinger and Muskat (1942) note that:

The indefinite integral may be evaluated, as was done for
the two-phase system, and the pressure distribution may
be determined. However, it will be sufficient for the
calculation of the productivity factor to consider only the
limiting form ... (i.e., the constant property liquid relation).
Slide 168/278
Dry Gas Relations: Base Relations

Diffusivity Equations for a "Dry Gas":
General Form for Gas:
g z
p ] =
ct p p
k z t
Diffusivity Relations:
Pseudopressure/Time:
pp =
g ct pp
pp
p p = ( g ct ) pn
ta
k
2
Pseudopressure/Pseudotime:
Definitions:
Pseudopressure:
Pseudotime:
g z
p
p
dp
ppg =
p
p pn base g z
1
t
t a = g ct
dt
n
0 g ( p )ct ( p )
Slide 169/278
Dry Gas Pseudotime Condition: gcg vs. p, T=200 Deg F
1
t
t a = g ct
dt
n
0 g ( p )ct ( p )
"Dry Gas" Pseudotime Condition: (gcg vs. p)
Concept: IF gcg constant, THEN pseudotime NOT required.

gcg is NEVER constant pseudotime is always required (for liquid eq.).
However, can generate numerical solution for gas cases (no pseudotime).
Slide 170/278
Dry Gas: p2 Relations

Diffusivity Equations for a "Dry Gas": p2 Relations
p2 Form Full Formulation:
2
(p )
[ln( g z )]( p ) =
2
2 2
g ct
k
( p2 )
p2 Form Approximation:
2
(p ) =
g ct
k
( p2 )
Slide 171/278
Dry Gas p2 Condition: gz vs. p, T=200 Deg F

g z
p
p
dp
ppg =
p
p pn base g z
"Dry Gas" PVT Properties: (gz vs. p)
Concept: IF (gz) = constant, THEN p2-variable valid.

(gz) constant for p<2000 psia.
Even with numerical solutions, p2 formulation would not be appropriate.
Slide 172/278
Dry Gas: p Relations

Diffusivity Equations for a "Dry Gas": p Relations
p Form Full Formulation:
g z
2 g ct p
p ln
(p ) =
k t
p p
2
p Form Approximation:
2
p=
g ct p
Slide 173/278
Dry Gas p Condition: p/(gz) vs. p, T=200 Deg F

g z
p
p
dp
ppg =
p
p pn base g z
"Dry Gas" PVT Properties: (p/(gz) vs. p)
Concept: IF p/(gz) = constant, THEN p-variable is valid.

p/(gz) is NEVER constant pseudopressure required (for liquid eq.).
p formulation is never appropriate (even if generated numerically).
Slide 174/278
Multiphase Case: p-Form Relations (Perrine-Martin)

Gas Equation:
k g
ko
kw S g
So
Sw
+ Rso
+ Rsw

+ Rso
+ Rsw
p =
B
B
B
t
B
B
B
o o
w w
o
w
g
g g
Oil Equation:
Compressibility Terms:
k
S
o p = o
o Bo
t Bo
Water Equation:
1 dBo Bg dRso
co =
+
Bo dp Bo dp
k
S
w p = w
w Bw
t Bw
1 dBw Bg dRsw
cw =
+
Bw dp Bw dp
Multiphase Equation:
ct p
ko k g k w
t =
+
+
p =
t t
o
g w
2
1 dBg
cg =
Bg dp
ct = co So + cw S w + c g S g + c f
Slide 175/278
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Material Balance Relations: Pertinent Cases

Material Balance Relations:
Base Oil Case: Black oil (p>pb).

General Solution-Drive Oil Case: Recovery issues.
Base Gas Case: Dry gas (no liquid in reservoir).
Abnormally-Pressured Gas Reservoir Case: cf=f (p).
Gas Condensate Case: Requires compositional approach.
Slide 177/278
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Material Balance Relations: Orientation

Material Balance Relations: Inventory
Base Oil Case: Black oil (p>pb)

General Solution-Drive Oil Case: Recovery issues
Base Gas Case: Dry gas (no liquid in reservoir)
Abnormally-Pressured Gas Reservoir Case: cf=f (p)
Gas Condensate Case: Requires compositional approach
Issues: Reservoir Performance Analysis

"Black oil" case (p>pb) is basis for the analysis of oil produc-
tion data oil/total compressibility is a major issue.

"Dry gas" case (no reservoir liquids) is the basis for the
analysis of gas production data in general, gas-in-place
estimate is very representative.
Solution gas drive and gas condensate cases are often wellanalyzed/interpreted using the "black oil" and "dry gas"
basis functions (respectively). However, numerical modeling
is evolving (rapidly) to address these cases.
Slide 179/278
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Summary: Oil Material Balance Relations

1 Bo
p = pi
Np
Nct Boi
Np Bo + ( R p Rs ) Bg + Wp Bw =
N ( Bo Boi ) + ( Rsi Rs ) Bg
Bg
+ mNBoi
1
Bgi
(cw S wi + c f )
+ (1 + m) NBoi
( pi p )
(1 S wi )
+ We Bw
(Withdrawal (RB))
(Oil Expansion (RB))
(Gas Cap Expansion (RB))
(Water Exp./Pore Vol. Comp. (RB))
(Water Influx (RB))
Slide 181/278
Oil Material Balance Relations: Recovery Factors

Np
B
( p 0) = oi ct ( pi ( p 0))
N
Bo

Np
N
( p 0) =
[(B
1
( Bo + ( R p Rs ) Bg )
Boi ) + ( Rsi Rs ) Bg
(Oil Expansion)
Bg
+ mBoi
1
(Gas Cap Expansion)
B
gi
(cw S wi + c f )
+ (1 + m) Boi
( pi ( p 0)) (Water Expansion/Pore Vol. Comp.)
(1 S wi )
+
1
(We W p ) Bw
N
(Water Influx/Production (Recovery=f(N))
Slide 182/278
"Black Oil" Material Balance: Recovery Factors

Example: Black Oil Recovery (p>pb)
Np
Boi
1 Bo
p = pi
Np or
=
( pi p )ct
N
Bo
Nct Boi
Black Oil Recovery: ( p 0)
Boi/Bo=0.95
Np
N
Np
N
pi=5000 psia
ct=10x10-6 psi-1
= (0.95)((5000 psia) (0 psia ))(10x10 6 psi 1 )

= 0.0475 or 4.75 percent recovery!
Slide 183/278
Summary: Gas Material Balance Relations

General Gas Material Balance:
p
[1 ce ( p )( pi p )] =
z
pi pi 1
1
(Wp Winj ) Bw We
Gp Ginj + Wp Rsw + 5.615

zi zi G
Bg
"Dry Gas" Material Balance: (no reservoir liquids)

p pi 1
G
=
1
p
z zi G
"Abnormal Pressure" Material Balance: (cf=f(p))

Gp
1
p pi
1
=
z zi [1 ce ( p )( pi p )]
G
VpNNP
1
ce ( p ) =
S wi cw + c f +
(1 S wi )
VpR
VpAQ
+
VpR
(cw + c f

Slide 184/278
"Normally Pressured" Gas Reservoir
"Dry Gas" Material Balance: Normally Pressured Reservoir Example

Volumetric reservoir no external energy (gas expansion only).
p/z versus Gp yields unique straight-line trend.
Linear extrapolation yield gas-in-place (G).
Slide 185/278
Abnormally Pressured Gas Reservoir: cf=f(p)
"Dry Gas" Material Balance: Abnormally Pressured Reservoir Example
Volumetric reservoir no water influx or leakage.

p/z versus Gp yields unique quadratic trend (from approximated MBE).
Quadratic extrapolation yield gas-in-place (G).
Slide 186/278
Reservoirs, Agarwal (Texas A&M Ph.D., 1967).
Unsteady-State Performance of Water Drive Gas
Gas Reservoir with Water Influx: Schematic
"Dry Gas" Material Balance: Water Influx (Simulated Example)
Note pressure maintenance influence of water influx (aquifer support).

p/z versus Gp yields "fish hook" profile due to water influx.
Extrapolation not possible, reservoir "waters out."
Slide 187/278
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Pseudosteady-State Flow: Concepts/Relations

Pseudosteady-State Performance Relations:
ALL boundaries influence pressure/rate behavior in the

reservoir.
Nomenclature for Specific Cases:
Constant Rate: "Pseudosteady-State"
Constant Wellbore Pressure: "Boundary-Dominated"
Variable-Rate/Variable Pressure: "Boundary-Dominated"
Slide 189/278
Notes:
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Concept and Reservoir Pressure Schematic

Concept: (pressure changes at the same rate at all
points in the reservoir)
dp = constant
dr
r
Reservoir Pressure Schematic:
Slide 191/278
"Black Oil" Flow Equations

PSS/Boundary Dominated Flow Relations: (oil)
Pressure Drop Form:
p
= bo, pss + mo, pss t
qo
Flowrate Form:
qo
1
=
p bo, pss + mo, pss t
1 Bo
mo, pss =
Nct Boi
(slope)
o Bo 1
4 1 A
bo, pss = 141.2
ln
+ s
2
kh 2 e C A rw
t=
Np
(intercept)
(material balance time)
qo
Slide 192/278
"Black Oil" Flow Equations: Example Application

p
= bo , pss + mo , pss
qo
Np
qo
This case illustrates the applicability of the pss oil equation note that
the continuous rate and pressure variations are effectively "converted"
using material balance time (Np/qo), which serves to validate this
approach for the analysis and interpretation of variable-rate production
data.
Slide 193/278
"Dry Gas" Flow Equations

PSS/Boundary Dominated Flow Relations: (gas)
Pressure Drop Form:
Flowrate Form:
p p
qg
1
= bg , pss + mg , pss ta
=
qg
p p bg , pss + mg , pss ta
1
mg , pss =
(slope)
Gct
gi Bgi 1 4 1 A
(intercept)
bg , pss = 141.2
ln
+ s
2
kh 2 e C A rw
gi zi p
p
(pseudopressure)
dp
pp =
pbase g z
pi
gi cti t
q g (t )
dt (material balance pseudotime)
ta =
q g (t ) 0 g ( p )ct ( p )
Slide 194/278
"Dry Gas" Flow Equations: Example Application

pp =
gi zi p
pi
pbase g z dp
p
ta =
gi cti t
q g (t )
q g (t ) 0 g ( p )ct ( p )
dt
p p
qg
A highly variable rate and pressure history is presented for the case of
a gas well in a low pressure/low permeability formation. Note that the
pss gas equation does address the variable-rate/ pressure history when
gas material balance time is used to correlate the rate and pressure
responses.
Slide 195/278
Notes:
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Slide 196/278
Performance-Based
Module 05:
Basic Analysis Tools
Slide 197/278
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Slide 198/278
Basic Analysis Tools: Plots

1. Arps Plot: Semi-analytical rate-time analysis
Base concept: Plot of log(rate) versus time.
Application: Use straight line extrapolation of log(rate) versus time
to a technical or economic "limit" (i.e., a minimum rate based on
technical or economic criteria). (constant pwf)
2. EUR Plot: Semi-analytical rate-cumulative analysis

Base concept: Plot of rate versus cumulative production.
Application: Extrapolation of rate versus cumulative production to
some rate limit yields reserves estimate directly. (constant pwf)
3. Fetkovich (Log-Log) Plot: Type curve analysis (constant pwf)

Base concept: Plot of log(rate) versus log(time).
Application: Comparison of data plot to "type curve" solution.
4. Buba Approach: Constant pressure gas solution
Base concept: Gas rate versus square of cumulative gas production.
Application: Dynamic (integrated) multiplot analysis sequence.
Slide 199/278
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Slide 200/278
Arps Relations
Arps Plot: Semi-analytical rate-time analysis
Base concept: Plot of log(rate) versus time.

Application: Use straight line extrapolation of log(rate) versus time
to a technical or economic "limit" (i.e., a minimum rate based on
technical or economic criteria). (constant pwf)
Slide 201/278
Notes:
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Slide 202/278
Arps Relations: Rate and Cumulative Production Eqs.

Flowrate:
Exponential: (b=0)
q = qi exp( Di t )
Hyperbolic: (0<b<1)
q=
Harmonic: (b=1)
q=
Cumulative Production:
Exponential: (b=0)
qi
(1+ bDi t )1 / b
qi
(1 + Di t )
q
N p = i [1 exp( Di t )]
Di
qi
[1 (1 + bDi t )11 / b ]
(1 b) Di
Hyperbolic: (0<b<1)
Np =
Harmonic: (b=1)
q
N p = i ln(1 + Di t )
Di
Slide 203/278
Summary of Equations and Arps Commentary

Arps Relations:
Case
Exponential: (b=0)
Hyperbolic: (0<b<1)
Harmonic: (b=1)
Rate Relation
q = qi exp( Di t )
qi
q=
(1+ bDi t )1 / b
qi
q=
(1 + Di t )
Cumulative Relation
q
N p = i [1 exp( Di t )]
Di
qi
[1 (1 + bDi t )11 / b ]
Np =
(1 b) Di
q
N p = i ln(1 + Di t )
Di
Arps' observations for the "decline curve exponent" (b) (solution gas-drive reservoirs):
b=0
Reservoir is highly undersaturated (p>pb).
b=0
Dominant producing mechanism is due to gravity drainage and no free surface.
b=0.5 Gravity drainage with free surface.
b=0.667 Solution gas-drive reservoir, when average reservoir pressure, p ,versus cumulative oil, Np, is linear.
2
b=0.333 Solution gas-drive reservoir when average reservoir pressure squared,p , versus
cumulative oil, Np, is linear.
Arps' Relations for Decline Curve Analysis: (1944)
Empirical, but even in 1944, Arps tried to relate to theory.

Many products use these relations, must use regression.
Slide 204/278
Example: Arps Relations Fitted to a Gas Case
Example: Arps Relations Fitted to Simulated Gas Production Performance

Note deviation of the hyperbolic trends (Gp and qg match).
Hyperbolic relations are "rough approximation" for gas case.
While not rigorous, hyperbolic relations can be used for gas rate forecasting.
Slide 205/278
Notes:
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Slide 206/278
EUR Plot
EUR Plot: Semi-analytical rate-cumulative analysis
Base concept: Plot of rate versus cumulative production.

Application: Extrapolation of rate versus cumulative production to
some rate limit yields reserves estimate directly. (constant pwf)
Slide 207/278
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Slide 208/278
Summary of Rate-Cumulative Production Equations

Flowrate- Cumulative Production:
Exponential: (b=0)
q = qi Di N p
Plot of: q versus Np
Hyperbolic: (0<b<1)
1
N p (1b)
q = qi 1
qi
(1 b) Di
qi b
or ( N Np ) =
q1b
(1 b) Di
Plot of:
log(q/qi) versus log[1-(Np/N)]
Plot of:
log(N-Np) versus log(q)
Harmonic: (b=1)
Di
q = qi exp
Np
q
i
Plot of: log(q) versus Np
Slide 209/278
Example: EUR Relations Fitted to Various Gas Cases
a. qg and pwf vs. t: East Texas

Gas Well 1.
c. qg and pwf vs. t: East Texas

Gas Well 2.
e. qg and pwf vs. t: Barnett

Field Well SR1.
b. pp/qg vs. Gp: East Texas

Gas Well 1.
d. pp/qg vs. Gp: East Texas

Gas Well 2.
f. pp/qg vs. Gp: Barnett Field

Well SR1.
Slide 210/278
Example: EUR for Gas Case 1 (MS Excel)

SPE 84287 East TX Gas Well 1 (Low Permeability Gas)
Gas Flowrate
Exponential Rate Model
Hyperbolic Rate Model
Wellbore Pressure
2750
2500
2250
2000
1.E+04
1750
1500
1250
1.E+03
1000
750
500
Flowing Tubing Pressure, psig
Gas Production Rate, MSCFD
Plot a:
3000
1.E+05
Plot b:
250
1.E+02
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
0
350
q g = q gi exp( Dit )
q gi
qg =
(1 + bDit )1 / b
Plot c:
(Hyperbolic)
q g = q gi DiGp
1
Gp (1b)
q g = q gi 1
Producing Time, days
a. Semilog "Rate-Time" Plot:

SPE 84287 East Texas Gas Well 1.
(Exponential)
(G Gp ) =
q gi b
(1 b) Di
(Exponential)
q gi
(1 b) Di
q g1b
(Hyperbolic)
(Hyperbolic)
1.E+07
(G-Gp) Data Function

Exponential Model
Hyperbolic Model
9000
Cumulative Gas Production
8000
Exponential Model
7000
Hyperbolic Model
1.E+06
(G-Gp), MSCF
10000
6000
5000
4000
3000
1.E+05
2000
1000
0
Method is designed for hyperbolic decline case
250,000
500,000
750,000
1,000,000 1,250,000 1,500,000

1.E+04
1.E+01
Cumulative Gas Production, MSCF
1.E+02
1.E+03
1.E+04
b. Cartesian "Rate-Cumulative" Plot: SPE

84287 East Texas Gas Well 1.
c. Log-Log "(G-Gp)-Rate" Plot: SPE 84287

East Texas Gas Well 1.
Slide 211/278
Example: EUR for Gas Case 2 (MS Excel)

Plot a:
Sewell Ranch Well No. 1 Barnett Field (NorthTexas)
2000
Gas Flowrate
Exp_Fit
Hyp_Fit
Wellbore Pressure
1.E+03
1800
1600
1400
1200
1.E+02
1000
800
600
1.E+01
400
200
1.E+00
0
Flowing Tubing Pressure,

psig
Gas Production Rate,

MSCFD
1.E+04
Plot b:
0
500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000
Producing Time, days
Plot c:
q g = q gi exp( Dit )
q gi
qg =
(1 + bDit )1 / b
(Hyperbolic)
q g = q gi DiGp
1
Gp (1b)
q g = q gi 1
(G Gp ) =
q gi b
(1 b) Di
a. Semilog "Rate-Time" Plot: Barnett Gas Field.
(Exponential)
q gi
(1 b) Di
q g1b
(Hyperbolic)
(Hyperbolic)
1.E+07
(G-Gp) Data Function

Exp_Fit
1400
Cumulative Gas Production

Exp_Fit
1200
Hyp_Fit
Hyp_Fit
1000
(G-Gp), MSCF
(Exponential)
800
600
400
1.E+06
1.E+05
200
0
Method is designed for hyperbolic decline case
250000
500000
750000
1000000 1250000 1500000
Cumulative Gas Production, MSCF
1.E+04
1.E+01
1.E+02
1.E+03
1.E+04
b. Cartesian "Rate-Cumulative" Plot: Barnett Gas

Field (North Texas).
c. Log-Log "(G-Gp)-Rate" Plot: Barnett Gas Field

(North Texas).
Slide 212/278
Fetkovich Type Curve Analysis
Fetkovich Plot: Type curve analysis (constant pwf)
Base concept: Plot of log(rate) versus log(time).

Application: Comparison of data plot to "type curve" solution.
Slide 213/278
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Origins: Arps Relations, van Everdingen-Hurst, etc.)
From: SPE-Transactions Arps (1944).
Slide 215/278
"Composite: Analytical/Empirical Fetkovich Decline
Fetkovich "Composite" Decline Type Curve:

Assumes constant bottomhole pressure production.
Radial flow in a finite radial reservoir system (single well).
Slide 216/278
Fetkovich Example Analysis: Decline Type Curve
Fetkovich Example Match: SPE 04629 (Fetkovich)
Lack of early time data is an omen of things to come.

Late time data follow an exponential trend (constant pwf).
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Buba Method (Gas Reserves Estimation Approach)
Buba Approach: Constant pressure gas solution
Base concept: Gas rate versus square of cumulative gas production.

Application: Dynamic (integrated) multiplot analysis sequence.
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Gas Flow Model: qg versus (Gp)2

Simplified relation for moderate pressure gas flow:
q g = q gi
2qgi
p /z
1 wf wf
pi / zi
Gp +
qgi
p /z
1 wf wf
pi / zi
Gp
(valid for pi < 6000 psia)

The relation given above is the basis for the "rate-cumulative production" analysis proposed for the gas reservoir
case. The abbreviated result for this case is given as:
1 Di
qg = qgi Di G p +
Gp 2
2G
where: Di =
2qgi
p /z
1 wf wf
pi / zi
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Example Analysis: Rate-Time Data
a. West Virginia Well A: log(qg) versus log(t) (pi=

4175 psia, pwf=710 psia, Gquad=3.29 BSCF).
c. West Virginia Well A: log(Gp) versus log(t)

(pi= 4175 psia, pwf=710 psia, Gquad=3.29 BSCF).
qg vs. t and Gp vs. t:

Good data matches (a. and c.)
b. West Virginia Well A: log(qg) versus t (pi= 4175

psia, pwf=710 psia, Gquad=3.29 BSCF).
data quality provides clear trends.

"High" and "low" qi cases are +/- 10
percent assist in orienting
analysis in the spreadsheet.
Note that production performance
(i.e., rate data) is very consistent
(semilog rate-time plot).
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Example Analysis: Rate-Cumulative Data

qg vs. Gp:
Good data trend (as noted earlier)
a. qg vs. Gp: West Virginia Well A (pi= 4175 psia,

pwf=710 psia, Gquad=3.29 BSCF).
model fits data quite well.

The location of the minimum of
the qg vs. Gp trend is the gas-inplace (G). This analysis should
not be performed using regression regression will favor statistics, rather than the physical
problem.
qgi,Gp vs. Gp:
Similar to the qq vs. Gp plot
b. qgi,Gp vs. Gp: West Virginia Well A (pi= 4175 psia,

smoother than qq data. This

function serves to validate/confirm the qg vs. Gp behavior.
The comparison is very clear in
this perspective (useful in the
dis-tinction of the model trends).
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Example Analysis: Specialized Plots
a. (qgi-qg)/Gp vs. Gp: West Virginia Well A (pi=

c. (qgi,Gp-q)/Gp vs. Gp: West Virginia Well A (pi=

Comments:
(qgi-qg)/Gp vs. Gp: Extrapolates to
b. (qgi,Gp-qgi)/Gp vs. Gp: West Virginia Well A (pi=

2G good straight-line trend.

(qgi,Gp-qgi)/Gp vs. Gp: "Smoother"
than the rate function. Extrapolates to 3G note the clarity of
"late-time" portion of the trend.
(qgi,Gp-qg)/Gp vs. Gp: Reasonably
good linear trend extrapolates
to 3/2G.
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Example Analysis: qg-Gp Type Curve Analysis
a. "Quadratic" rate-cumulative production decline

type curve. West Virginia Well A (pi= 4175 psia,
b. "Hyperbolic" rate-cumulative production decline

type curve. West Virginia Well A (pi= 4175 psia,
pwf=710 psia, GArps=2.14 BSCF).
Rate-Cumulative Decline Type Curve Analysis:
Note excellent agreement of data/quadratic model trends for this example.

"Hyperbolic" analysis appears plausible (as an empirical approach) upon close
inspection, the data appear to cross two (2) decline curve stems.
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Example Analysis: MS Excel Spreadsheet
Analysis Module (MS Excel Spreadsheet):
Specialized plots and "type curves."

Analyses are linked to common parameters (quadratic and hyperbolic models).
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Performance-Based
Module 06: Advanced

Analysis Concepts
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Advanced Analysis Concepts

1. Exact Superposition Formulation: (Reservoir Model)
Concept: Prescribed reservoir model.
Application: Full analytical modeling
2. Superposition Formulation for Pseudosteady-State:
Concept: Approximate formulation (but very effective).
Application: "Log-log" or "Blasingame" production analysis.
3. Auxiliary Functions:
Concept: Use auxiliary functions to give better resolution to
pressure and rate data functions.
4. Assumptions, Limitations, Practical Considerations:

Assumptions: Superposition for (most) liquid problems is
exact, gas and multiphase problems must be transformed
using pseudopressure and pseudotime functions.
Limitations: Pressure-dependent properties (as above), use
of pss superposition for transient flow analysis is
approximate.
Practical Limitations: Rate and pressure data quality.
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Exact Superposition Formulation
Exact Superposition Formulation: (Reservoir Model)

Variable-rate superposition (calculation of pressures).
Variable-pressure superposition (calculation of rates).
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Definitions
DEFINITIONS of SUPERPOSITION Relations:
Variable-rate case:
B n
pr ,t = pi 141.2
( q D, j q D, j 1 ) psD,cr (t D t D, j 1 )
kh j =1
Variable pressure drop case:
1 kh n
q=
( pi pwf , j ) q D,cp (t D t D, j 1 )
141.2 B j =1
These relations are rigorous i.e., for exact inputs, we will
obtain exact results. These relations may have to be modified
for the gas case or, the gas case can be generated numerically.
Slide 233/278
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Pseudosteady-State Superposition
Superposition Formulation for Pseudosteady-State:

"Black Oil" Relations.
"Dry Gas" Relations.
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"Black Oil" PSS Equations

"Black Oil" PSS Equations: The well performance equations
for the oil case are obtained by combining the material
balance equation for a slightly compressible liquid and the
pseudosteady-state flow equation.
Pressure Drop Form:
Flowrate Form:
p
= bo, pss + mo, pss t
qo
qo
1
=
p bo, pss + mo, pss t
Where:
1 Bo
mo, pss =
Nct Boi
t=
Np
qo
o Bo 1
4 1 A
bo, pss = 141.2
ln
+ s
2
kh 2 e C A rw
Slide 237/278
"Dry Gas" PSS Equations

"Dry Gas" PSS Equations: The gas well performance equations
are obtained by combining the gas material balance equation
and the pseudosteady-state flow equation for gas.
Pressure Drop
Form:
p p
qg
Flowrate Form:
qg
= bg , pss + mg , pss ta
1
=
p p bg , pss + mg , pss ta
Where:
ta =
gi cti t
q g (t )
dt
q g (t ) 0 g ( p )ct ( p )
1
mg , pss =
Gct
bg , pss = 141.2
pp =
gi zi p
pi
pbase g z dp
p
gi Bgi 1
kh
4 1 A
ln
+ s
2
2 e C A rw
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Auxiliary (Plotting) Functions
Auxiliary Functions:
Concept: Use auxiliary functions to give better resolution to
pressure and rate data functions.

Slide 239/278
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Auxiliary (Plotting) Functions: Decline Analysis

The normalized rate function (qo/p) (or (qg/pp) for gas) results from the superposition formula. The auxiliary functions
((qo/p)i (or (qg/pp)i) and (qo/p)id (or (qg/pp)id)) are used to
provide "smoothness" and obtain "character" from the data.
Rate Function:
(qo /p ) (or (q g /pp ) for gas)
Rate Integral Function:

(qo / p ) i =
1 t
1 ta (q / p ) d t
q
p
d
t
q
p
(
/
)
or
(
/
)
o
g
p
i
p
a
ta 0 g
t 0
Rate Integral-Derivative Function:

(qo / p )id = t
d
d
| (qo / p )i | or (q g / p p )id = t a
| (q g / p p )i |
dta
dt
Slide 241/278
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Assumptions, Limitations, Practical Considerations
Assumptions, Limitations, Practical Considerations:

Data Analysis Requirements.
Single-Phase Liquid and Gas Cases.
Single-Phase Liquid (Black Oil) (ct/t) vs. Time.
Multiwell Analysis Governing Relation.
Slide 243/278
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Data Analysis Requirements
Data Requirements:
PVT Properties: Preference a fluid report where the fluid

sample was taken early in the life of the reservoir. Otherwise, PVT correlations can be used:
Black oil:
Dry gas:
T, g,sep, pb, STO

T, g,sep
Reservoir Properties:
Porosity.
Net pay.
Wellbore radius.
Formation compressibility.
Well Completion History: Particularly useful for resolving
production anomalies.
Time-Pressure-Rate Data: These data are the key to any
production data analysis methodology. Random errors are
"tolerable" gaps or other systematic errors in the rate
history are generally NOT acceptable.
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Single-Phase Liquid and Gas Cases
Liquid (Oil) Case:
Only major issue/limitation is that of the appropriate
value of total compressibility (ct). This value is used to

estimate original oil-in-place (N), and we must recognize
that ct changes as the reservoir depletes. In particular,
the effect of reservoir pressure trending below the
bubblepoint pressure is a major issue.
Gas (i.e., Dry Gas) Case:
Requires an estimate of initial gas-in-place, G.

Generally yields good estimates of volumetric and flow
properties.
No major issues water/liquid loading has been seen to
cause problems in the pressure data. Well cleanup also
occasionally an issue (low permeability reservoir systems).
Slide 247/278
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Dominated Flow in Solution-Gas-Drive Reservoirs,"

SPERE (November 1989) 503-512.
Camacho-V., R.G. and Raghavan, R.: "Boundary-
Single-Phase Liquid (Black Oil): (ct/t) vs. Time
"Solution-Gas Drive" Behavior: ((ct/t) vs. time)
Observation: (ct/t) constant for p>pb and later, for p<pb.

pwf = constant but probably valid for any production/pressure scenario.
Slide 249/278
Multiwell Analysis: Governing Relation

qk (t )
1
=
( pi pwf )
t nwell
1 1
qi (t )dt + c(t )
Nct qk (t ) 0 i =1
Production Data
(Pressure & Rate)
Total Material
Balance Time
t tot =
c(t) becomes constant at

long times
N p, field
qwell
Governing Relation Multiwell Analysis:

A general formulation of the "Arps' Exponential Decline" case.
CONCLUSION: A single well decline type curve can be used to analyze the
performance of a single well in a multiwell system.

Slide 250/278
Performance-Based
Module 06: Advanced
Analysis Concepts
Appendix Library of
Decline Type Curves
Slide 251/278
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Library of Decline Type Curves:
Fetkovich Type Curves Radial Flow:

Original Fetkovich Decline Type Curve
"Rate Derivative" Decline Type Curve
Fetkovich-McCray Type Curves Radial Flow:

Fetkovich-McCray Type Curve
Fetkovich-Carter-McCray Type Curve (Gas)
Boundary Flux (do not use...)
Fetkovich-McCray Curves Fractured Wells:

Infinite Conductivity Vertical Fracture
Finite Conductivity Vertical Fracture
Fetkovich-McCray Curves Horizontal Wells

Agarwal, et al. Methodology:
Radial Flow Case
Vertically Fractured Well Cases
Crafton, et al. Methodology:

Rate normalization only...
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Fetkovich Radial Flow Type Curves
This image cannot currently be displayed.
a. Palacio, et al (1993): "Fetkovich-McCray Original"

(radial flow) auxiliary functions. (tDd format)
b. Doublet, et al (1994): "Fetkovich Derivative" (radial

flow) not practical for analysis. (tDd format)
Radial Flow Decline TC:
"Fetkovich-McCray Original"
"Fetkovich Derivative"
"Fetkovich-McCray Material
c. Doublet, et al (1994): "Fetkovich-McCray M.B. Time"

(radial flow) w/aux. functions. (tDd,bar)
Balance Time" Uses material

balance to rigorously incorporate variations in rate and pressure over time. This technique
substantially improves the
analysis of variable-rate data.
Slide 255/278
Radial Flow Case: Palacio/Blasingame Type Curve
Palacio/Blasingame Type Curve: (constant pwf case)
Auxiliary functions (rate integral and integral derivative) enhance features.

Need to use material balance time to account for variable rate.
Slide 256/278
Radial Flow Case: Doublet/Blasingame Type Curve
Doublet/Blasingame Type Curve: (constant qo equivalent)
Note "convergence" of late stems to unique trends (material balance time).

Type curve is valid for variable-rate/variable pressure drop cases.
Slide 257/278
Vertically Fractured Wells
This image cannot currently be displayed.
a. Doublet, et al (1996): "Fetkovich-McCray" format

INFINITE conductivity vertical fracture (FcD=).
b. Pratikno (2002): "Fetkovich-McCray" format

FINITE conductivity vertical fracture (FcD=10).
Decline Type Curves: Fractured Wells

Infinite fracture conductivity:
Less complex solution, but
somewhat ideal for use in practice.
Finite fracture conductivity:

FcD=10: Moderate to high fracture
c. Pratikno (2002): "Fetkovich-McCray" format

FINITE conductivity vertical fracture (FcD=0.5).
conductivity case.
FcD=0.5: Low fracture conductivity
case.
Slide 258/278
Fractured Wells: Doublet/Blasingame Type Curve
Doublet/Blasingame Type Curve: (infinite conductivity fracture)

Note the transient flow behavior of the auxiliary functions (linear flow).
Use of material balance time provides unique late time behavior.
Slide 259/278
Fractured Wells: Pratikno/Blasingame Type Curve
Pratikno/Blasingame Type Curve: (finite conductivity fracture)

Note the transient flow behavior of the auxiliary functions (bilinear flow).
Individual type curves generated for each FcD-value.
Slide 260/278
Horizontal Wells
Horizontal Well Cases:
"Infinite-conductivity" horizontal well case(s).

Dimensionless reservoir model
requires several parameters.
From: SPE 29572 Shih, et al (1995).
Slide 261/278
Boundary Flux Cases

Decline Type Curve Analysis:
"Break-glass-in-case-of-fire"
cases
Do not use (unless absolutely
necessary) and it should never
be necessary.
From: SPE 30774 Doublet, et al (1995).
From: Unpublished Marhaendrajana

(2002) (multiwell analysis do not use).
From: SPE 30774 Doublet, et al (1995).
Slide 262/278
Multiwell Analysis
Multiwell Analysis:
Multiwell case can be "recast" into

single well case using cumulative
production for entire field.
Homogeneous reservoir example
shows that all cases (9 wells) align
same behavior observed for
heterogeneous reservoir cases.
From: SPE 71517 Marhaendrajana (2001).
Slide 263/278
Agarwal, et al Methodology
Agarwal, et al Methodology:
Basically the same as
Blasingame, et al work.
More like pressure transient
test analysis/interpretation.
From: SPE 57916 Agarwal, et al (1998).
Slide 264/278
Crafton, et al Methodology
Crafton, et al Methodology:
Rate normalized pressure drop

versus production time (p/q vs. t).
Also analogous to pressure transient
test analysis/interpretation.
Very serious limitations production time is not sufficient for
general case of rate variation.
From: SPE 37409 Crafton, et al. (1997) (Fig. 2).
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Performance-Based
Module 07: Conclusions

Guidelines/Pitfalls/
Recommendations
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Production Analysis Tools and Issues

Production Analysis Tools
"Simple" decline curve analysis.
"Rigorous" decline type curves.
Analysis-by-modelling (Topaze).
What's Next
More robust numerical models.
More "analysis"/integration tools.
Integrated data acquisition,
analysis, and flow control.
Issues
What properties do we want?
Reservoir flow properties/volume.
Well interference.
What tools do we really need?

Multiwell analysis.
(Full) numerical modeling.
Data acquisition.
Pressure data quality is an issue

(need bottomhole pressures).
From: Love is Hell, M. Groening, (1984).
Slide 269/278
Guidelines
Guidelines (for PA)
Pressure data are critical!
Consistent rate measurement
practices.
Review the well history.
Data Acquisition/Management
Data VOLUME is unprecedented as many as 1x108 data!
Data QUALITY review must be
a priority.
Analysis/Modelling/Forecasting
Force the data to provide an
analysis/interpretation do
not impose an analysis.
Keep the reservoir/well model
as simple as possible. For
PA, the simplest model is the
most appropriate.
Slide 270/278
Pitfalls
Pitfalls
Pressure: With the possible
exception of pressure data
acquired from high precision
bottomhole pressure gauges,
all pressure data should be
viewed as suspect scrutinize ALL pressure data.
Flowrate: Despite the perception that rates (hence, income) are accurate and wellmeasured/recorded, this is
often not the case. Review
procedures, and be very careful with "allocated" rate data.
No pressure data given for

this case.
Slide 271/278
Recommendations
Pressure: As opposed to pressure transient analysis, in pro-
(1/2)
duction data analysis, the pressure data are the "enemy."
Bad pressure data are the RULE.

Poor measurements, poor acquisition practices, inadequate
equipment, and the well completion all compete to provide

problems the analyst must be vigilant.
Focus on the overall trend/magnitude of the pressure data "stair
steps" should be given as much suspicion as any systematic (i.e.,
non-random) variations in the pressure data.
Rates: If you do not have confidence in the rate history ... STOP.
Allocated rate data (more common than you think...).
"Missing data" do not "interpolate" unless absolutely necessary
(and it is rare that it would be "necessary").
Gas rates are generally more accurate than oil rates.
General Comment:
The well completion is the source of most misery study the
completion history as well as the wellbore equipment ... DO NOT

PRESUME THAT THE RESEVOIR IS THE CULPRIT.
Slide 272/278
Recommendations
Data Acquisition/Data Management is the Priority:
(2/2)
The data volume is less important than the quality of the data
however, using modern filters, it is possible to extract relevant data

from extremely large data streams (1x108 data ... and larger).
Simultaneous measurement of rate and pressure data is preferred,
trying to couple to independent data streams is a source of error
(and frustration).
When data quality (or quantity) is inadequate analysis should be
as simplistic as possible. Do not "overanalyze" a poor data case.
Analysis/Modelling/Forecasting:
Analysis: Be systematic, identify the reservoir model, then proceed

with analysis/interpretation. Save "what if" activities for later, after
the reservoir system is confirmed.
Modeling: Solve the approximate (data defined) problem as accurately as possible, there is no reason to simplify the modeling
except in cases of suspect input data (again, pressures).
Forecasting: Make reasonable projections, use the forecast task to
optimize performance.
Slide 273/278
Reality Check
Reservoir Volume-Averaging
Pressure transient analysis.
Production data analysis.
Reservoir simulation.
Advanced Solutions
Same view of the reservoir just
more "knobs" (i.e., parameters).
Time-pressure-rate data will always
"see" a pressure/volume-averaged
reservoir system.
Prediction of Future Work in PTA/PA

Additional reservoir models.
Full incorporation of PVT character.
Reservoir scaling for PTA/PA.
Handling poor quality data.
Continuously measured pwf data.
Multiple well analysis/integration.
Coupling of analysis/interpretation
with numerical modeling (3D/3P).

Slide 274/278
Performance-Based
References:
Slide 275/278
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References: Production Data Analysis

Historical Methods Production Data Analysis:
1. Arps, J.J: "Analysis of Decline Curves," Trans., AIME (1945) 160, 228-247.
2. Fetkovich, M.J.: "Decline Curve Analysis Using Type Curves," JPT (June 1980) 1065-1077.
3. Gringarten, A.C.: "Reservoir Limits Testing for Fractured Wells," paper SPE 7452 presented at the 1978 SPE Annual Technical
Conference and Exhibition, Houston, TX., 1-3 October 1978.
4. Carter, R.D.: "Type Curves for Finite Radial and linear Gas Flow Systems: Constant Terminal Pressure Case," SPEJ (October 1985)
719-728.
Decline Type Curve Analysis:
1. Fraim, M.L., Lee, W.J., and Gatens, J.M., III: "Advanced Decline Curve Analysis Using Normalized-Time and Type Curves for
Vertically Fractured Wells," paper SPE 15524 presented at the 1986 SPE Annual Technical Conference and Exhibition, New Orleans,
LA, 5-8 October 1986.
2. McCray, T.L.: Reservoir Analysis Using Production Decline Data and Adjusted Time, M.S. Thesis, Texas A&M U., College Station, TX
(1990).
3. Palacio, J.C. and Blasingame, T.A.: "Decline Curve Analysis Using Type Curves Analysis of Gas Well Production Data," paper
SPE 25909 presented at the 1993 Joint Rocky Mountain Regional/Low Permeability Reservoirs Symposium, Denver, CO, 26-28 April
1993.
4. Doublet, L.E., Pande, P.K., McCollum, T.J., and Blasingame, T.A.: "Decline Curve Analysis Using Type Curves Analysis of Oil Well
Production Data Using Material Balance Time: Application to Field Cases," paper SPE 28688 presented at the 1994 Petroleum
Conference and Exhibition of Mexico held in Veracruz, Mexico, 10-13 October 1994.
5. Shih, M.-Y. and Blasingame, T.A.: "Decline Curve Analysis Using Type Curves: Horizontal Wells," paper SPE 29572 presented at the
1995 Joint Rocky Mountain Regional/Low Permeability Reservoirs Symposium, Denver, CO, 20-22 March, 1995.
6. Doublet, L.E. and Blasingame, T.A.: "Evaluation of Injection Well Performance Using Decline Type Curves," paper SPE 35205
presented at the 1996 SPE Permian Basin Oil and Gas Recovery Conference, Midland, TX, 27-29 March 1996.
7. Crafton, J. W.: "Oil and Gas Well Evaluation Using the Reciprocal Productivity Index Method," paper SPE 37409 presented at the
1997 SPE Production Operations Symposium, held in Oklahoma City, Oklahoma, 9-11 March 1997.
8. Agarwal, R.G., Gardner, D.C., Kleinsteiber, S.W., and Fussell, D.D.: "Analyzing Well Production Data Using Combined Type Curve
and Decline Curve Analysis Concepts," paper SPE 49222 prepared for presentation at the 1998 SPE ATCE, New Orleans, LA, 27-30
September 1998.
9. Marhaendrajana, T. and Blasingame, T.A.: "Decline Curve Analysis Using Type Curves Evaluation of Well Performance Behavior
in a Multiwell Reservoir System," paper SPE 71514 presented at the 2001 Annual SPE Technical Conference and Exhibition, New
Orleans, 30 September-03 October 2001.
10. Pratikno, H., Rushing, J.A., and Blasingame, T.A.: "Decline Curve Analysis Using Type Curves: Fractured Wells," paper SPE 84287
presented at the 2003 Annual SPE Technical Conference and Exhibition, Denver, CO., 05-08 October 2003.
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(Page 1 of 2)

Petroleum Engineering 663 Formation Evaluation and Analysis of Reservoir Performance

Production Data Analysis

Module 02 Production Analysis in Perspective.

Module 03 History of Production Analysis.

Petroleum Engineering 663 Formation Evaluation and Analysis of Reservoir Performance

Production Data Analysis

Production Data Analysis

Module for PETE 663

Thomas A. Blasingame, Ph.D., P.E.

Production Analysis PETE 663

Production Analysis PETE 663

Production Data Analysis

Thomas A. Blasingame, Ph.D., P.E.

Production Analysis PETE 663

Production Analysis PETE 663

T.A. Blasingame (2013.07.22)

Production Analysis PETE 663

Production Analysis PETE 663

Module 01: Objectives of

Production Analysis PETE 663

Production Analysis PETE 663

Example Semilog Plot

T.A. Blasingame (2013.07.22)

(log(y) vs. x, slope (msly), intercept (bsly))

Production Analysis PETE 663

Example Log-Log Plot

y=bpowxmpow (log(y) vs. log(x), slope (mpow), intercept (bpow))

T.A. Blasingame (2013.07.22)

Production Analysis PETE 663

Objectives: Module Overview

"Conventional" Decline Curve Analysis: (Arps, etc.) empirical

Are production data available?

T.A. Blasingame (2013.07.22)

Production Analysis PETE 663

Objectives: Example Set of Production Data

Production Analysis PETE 663

Objectives : Static Data Input for Production Analysis

Black Oil: Bo, Rs, o, co

T.A. Blasingame (2013.07.22)

Production Analysis PETE 663

Objectives: Common Issues with Production Data

Common in mature producing environments (e.g., Texas).

T.A. Blasingame (2013.07.22)

Production Analysis PETE 663

Objectives: Example of Allocated Rate Data

a. "Cartesian" Plot: qo and Np vs. t Batanes

b. "Reciprocal Rate" Plot: 1/qo vs. Np/qo

Data Plots: Batanes Well 3541 (Peru)

Strong signature of rate data allocation (cumulative production is relatively

T.A. Blasingame (2013.07.22)

Production Analysis PETE 663

Objectives: Example of Allocated Rate Data

Log-Log Reciprocal Rate Plot: Batanes Well 3541 (Peru)

While considerable "scatter" exists, a dominant trend emerges.

T.A. Blasingame (2013.07.22)

Production Analysis PETE 663

Objectives: Example of Well Completion Change (1/3)

a. "Cartesian" Plot: qg and ptf vs. t South-east

b. "Cartesian" Plot: qg and Gp vs. t South-east

Data Plots: Southeast Texas Gas Well

This case is distinctive in that the operator systematically changes the